PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY

PROJECT

By-Ayush Dowerah

[SEMICONDUCTORS]
Class-12 A

This project aims to throw a light on subject of

semiconductor and their uses in our life and its
N.P.S International School
working principles.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all I am thankful to my teacher Mr. Rajesh
Kapoor for giving me the opportunity to do this
wonderful project on Semiconductors and also
guiding and helping me to complete this project.
I would also like to thank my school for allowing
us the opportunity to undertake such projects
and also providing us with the requisite facilities
for the same.
Lastly i would like to thank my parents and all my
friends who have helped and have been there
with me and supported me to complete this
project within the given time frame.

INDEX
Sl.No
.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Topic

Introduction
Semiconductor-Definition and
Theory
Types of Semiconductors
Electrical Resistivity of
Semiconductors

Page
No.
1
2
4
8

INTRODUCTION
Mostofthesolidscanbeplacedinoneofthetwoclasses:
Metals and insulators. Metals are those through which
electric charge can easily flow, while insulators are those
through which electric charge is difficult to flow. This
distinction between the metals and the insulators can be
explained on the basis of the number of free electrons in
them.Metalshavealargenumberoffreeelectronswhichact
aschargecarriers,whileinsulatorshavepracticallynofree
electrons.

There are however, certain solids whose electrical

conductivity is intermediate
between metals and
insulators. They are called
Semiconductors. Carbon,
silicon and germanium are
examplesofsemiconductors.
In semiconductors the outer
mostelectronsareneitherso
rigidlyboundwiththeatomas
inaninsulator,norsoloosely
boundasinmetal.
Atabsolutezeroasemiconductorbecomesanidealinsulator

SEMICONDUCTORS-THEORY
AND DEFINITION

Semiconductors are the materials whose electrical

conductivityliesinbetweenmetalsandinsulator.Theenergy
band structure of the semiconductors is similar to the
insulatorsbutintheircase,thesizeoftheforbiddenenergy
gapismuchsmallerthanthatoftheinsulator.Inthisclassof
crystals,theforbiddengapisoftheorderofabout1ev,and
the two energy bands are distinctly separate with no
overlapping. Atabsolute0temperature,noelectronhas
any energy even to jump the forbidden gap and reach the
conduction band. Therefore the substance is an insulator.
Butwhenweheatthecrystalandthusprovidesomeenergyto
theatomsandtheirelectrons,itbecomesaneasymatterfor
someelectronstojumpthesmall(1ev)energygapandgo
toconductionband.Thusathighertemperatures,thecrystal
becomesaconductors. Thisisthespecificpropertyofthe
crystalwhichisknownasasemiconductor.

Image showing the energy band structures

in different materials

Effect of temperature on conductivity of

Semiconductor
At0K,allsemiconductorsareinsulators.Thevalenceband
at absolute zero is completely filled and there are no free
electrons in conduction band. At room temperature the
electrons jump to the conduction band due to the thermal
energy. Whenthetemperatureincreases,alargenumberof
electronscrossovertheforbiddengapandjumpfromvalence
to conduction band. Hence conductivity of semiconductor
increaseswithtemperature.

TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors. In a pure semiconductor, each atom behaves as
if there are 8 electrons in its valence shell and therefore the
entire material behaves as an insulator at low temperatures.
A semiconductor atom needs energy of the order of 1.1ev to
shake off the valence electron. This energy becomes available
to it even at room temperature. Due to thermal agitation of
crystal structure, electrons from a few covalent bonds come
out. The bond from which electron is freed, a vacancy is
created there. The vacancy in the covalent bond is called a
hole.
This hole can be filled by some other electron in a covalent
bond. As an electron from covalent bond moves to fill the
hole, the hole is created in the covalent bond from which the
electron has moved. Since the direction of movement of the

hole is opposite to that of the negative electron, a hole

behaves as a positive charge carrier. Thus, at room
temperature, a pure semiconductor will have electrons and
holes wandering in random directions. These electrons and
holes are called intrinsic carriers.

As the crystal is neutral, the number of free electrons will be

equal to the number of holes. In an intrinsic semiconductor, if
ne denotes the electron number density in conduction band,
nh the hole number density in valence band and n i the number
density or concentration of charge carriers, then
ne=nh=ni

extrinsic semiconductors
Astheconductivityofintrinsicsemiconductorsispoor,so
intrinsicsemiconductorsareoflittlepracticalimportance.
The conductivity of pure semiconductor can, however be
enormouslyincreasedbyadditionofsomepentavalentora
trivalent impurity in a very small amount (about 1 to
106partsofthesemiconductor). Theprocessofaddingan
impurity to a pure semiconductor so as to improve its
conductivity is called doping. Such semiconductors are
called extrinsic semiconductors. Extrinsic semiconductors
areoftwotypes:
i)ntypesemiconductor
ii)ptypesemiconductor

N-type semiconductor
WhenanimpurityatombelongingtogroupVoftheperiodic
tablelikeArsenicisaddedtothepuresemiconductor,then
four of the five impurity electrons form covalent bonds by
sharing one electron with each of the four nearest silicon
atoms,andfifthelectronfromeachimpurityatomisalmost
free to conduct electricity. As the pentavalent impurity
increases the number of free electrons, it is called donor
impurity. Theelectronssosetfreeinthesiliconcrystalare
calledextrinsiccarriersandthentypeSicrystaliscalledn
typeextrinsicsemiconductor.ThereforentypeSicrystalwill
havealargenumberoffreeelectrons(majoritycarriers)and
haveasmallnumberofholes(minoritycarriers).
Intermsofvalenceandconductionbandonecanthinkthat
allsuchelectronscreateadonorenergyleveljustbelowthe
conduction band as shown in figure. As the energy gap
betweendonorenergylevelandtheconductionbandisvery
small,theelectronscaneasilyraisethemselvestoconduction
bandevenatroomtemperature.Hence,theconductivityofn
typeextrinsicsemiconductorismarkedlyincreased.
Inadopedorextrinsicsemiconductor,thenumberdensityof
theconductionband(ne)andthenumberdensityofholesin
the valence band (nh) differ from that in a pure
semiconductor. If niis the number density of electrons is
conductionband,thenitisprovedthat
nenh=ni2

P-type semiconductor
If a trivalent impurity like indium is added in pure semi
conductor,theimpurityatomcanprovideonlythreevalence
electronsforcovalentbondformation. Thusagapisleftin
oneofthecovalentbonds.Thegapactsasaholethattends
toacceptelectrons. Asthetrivalentimpurityatomsaccept
electrons from the silicon crystal, it is called acceptor
impurity.Theholessocreatedareextrinsiccarriersandthe
ptype Sicrystal so obtained is called ptype extrinsic
semiconductor.Again,asthepureSicrystalalsopossessesa
fewelectronsandholes,therefore,theptypesicrystalwill
havealargenumberofholes(majoritycarriers)andasmall
numberofelectrons(minoritycarriers).
Ittermsofvalenceandconductionbandonecanthinkthatall
suchholescreateanaccepterenergyleveljustabovethetop
ofthevalancebandasshowninfigure. Theelectronsfrom
valence band can raise themselves to the accepter energy
levelbyabsorbingthermalenergyatroomtemperatureand
inturncreateholesinthevalenceband.
Number density of valence band holes (nh) in ptype
semiconductorisapproximatelyequaltothatoftheacceptor
atoms (Na) and is very large as compared to the number
densityofconductionbandelectrons(ne).Thus,
nhNa>>ne

ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF
SEMICONDUCTORS
Considerablockofsemiconductoroflengthl1areaofcross
sectionAandhavingnumberdensityofelectronsandholes
as neand nhrespectively. Suppose that on applying a
potentialdifference,sayV,acurrentIflowsthroughitas
shown in figure. The electron current (Ic) and the hole
current(Ih)constitutethecurrentIflowingthroughthesemi
conductori.e.
I
Ih

=
(i)

Ie +

It neis the number density of conduction band

electrons in the semiconductor and ve, the drift velocity of
electronsthen

Ie=eneAve
Similarly,theholecurrent,Ih=enhAvh
From(i)I=eneAve+enhAvh
I=eA(neve+nhvh)(ii)

 Ifistheresistivityofthematerialofthe

semiconductor, then the resistance offered by the

semiconductortotheflowofcurrentisgivenby:

R=l/A(iii)
SinceV=RI,fromequation(ii)and(iii)wehave
V=RI=l/AeA(neve+nhvh)
V=le(neve+nhvh)(iv)

IfEistheelectricfieldsetupacrossthesemiconductor,then:

E = V/l
(v)
Fromequation(iv)and(v),wehave
E=e(neve+nhvh)

1/=e(neve/E+nhvh/E)

Onapplyingelectricfield,thedriftvelocityacquiredbythe
electrons(orholes)perunitstrengthofelectricfieldiscalled
mobility of electrons (or holes). Therefore, mobility of
electronsandholesisgivenby:

e=ve/Eand h=vh/E
1/=e(ne e+nh h)(vi)

Also,=1/is called conductivity of the material of

semiconductor

=e(ne e+nh h)(vii)

The relation (vi) and (vii) show that the conductivity and
resistivityofasemiconductordependupontheelectronand
hole number densities and their mobilities. As neand
nhincreaseswithriseintemperature,therefore,conductivity
of semiconductor increases with rise in temperature and
resistivitydecreaseswithriseintemperature.

P-N JUNCTION
A pn junction is a boundary or
interface
between
two
types
of
semiconductor
material, p-type and ntype,
inside
a
single
crystal
of semiconductor. The "p" (positive) side
contains an excess of holes, while the
"n" (negative) side contains an excess
of electrons. The p-n junction is created
by doping,
for
example
by ion
implantation, diffusion of dopants,
or
by epitaxy (growing a layer of crystal
doped with one type of dopant on top of
a layer of crystal doped with another
type of dopant).

A pn

junction circuit symbol is

shown: the triangle corresponds
to the p side.

If an external potential is applied to the

terminals of PN junction, it will alter the
potential between the P and N-regions.
This potential difference can alter the
flow of majority carriers, so that the PN
junction can be used as an opportunity
for the diffusion of electrons and holes.
If the voltage applied decreases the
width of the depletion layer, then the
diode is assumed to be in forward bias
and if the applied voltage increases the
depletion layer width then the diode is
assumed to be in reverse bias. If the
width of depletion layer do not alters
then it is in the zero bias state.

 Forward Bias: External voltage

decreases the built-in potential
barrier.
Reverse Bias: External voltage
increases the built-in potential
barrier.
Zero/No Bias: No external voltage is
applied.

PN Junction Diode When No

External Voltage is applied
In zero bias or thermal equilibrium state junction potential provides higher
potential energy to the holes on the P-side than the N-side. If the terminals
of junction diode are shorted, few majority charge carriers (holes) in the P
side with sufficient energy to surmount the potential barrier travel across
the depletion region.
Therefore, with the help of holes, current starts to flow in the diode and it is
referred to as forward current. In the similar manner, holes in the N side
move across the depletion region in reverse direction and the current
generated in this fashion is referred to as reverse current.
Potential barrier opposes the migration of electrons and holes across the
junction and allow the minority charge carriers to drift across the PN
junction. As a result of it, a state of equilibrium is established when the
majority charge carriers are equal in concentration on either side of the
junction and when minority charge carriers are moving in opposite
directions.

A net zero current flows in the circuit and the junction is said to be in
dynamic equilibrium. By increasing the temperature of semiconductors,
minority charge carriers have been continuously generated and thereby
leakage current starts to rise. In general no conduction of electric current
takes place because no external source is connected to the PN junction.

Forward Biased Diode

With the externally applied voltage, a potential difference is altered
between the P and N regions.When positive terminal of the source is
connected to the P side and the negative terminal is connected to N side
then the junction diode is said to be connected in forward bias condition.
Forward bias lowers the potential across the PN junction.
The majority charge carriers in N and P regions are attracted towards the
PN junction and the width of the depletion layer decreases with diffusion of
the majority charge carriers. The external biasing causes a departure from
the state of equilibrium and a misalignment of Fermi levels in the P and N
regions, and also in the depletion layer.
So an electric field is induced in a direction converse to that of the
incorporated field. The presence of two different Fermi levels in the
depletion layer represents a state of quasi-equilibrium. The amount of
charge Q stored in the diode is proportional to the current I flowing in the
diode.

With the increase in forward bias greater than the built in potential, at a
particular value the depletion region becomes very much thinner so that a
large number of majority charge carriers can cross the PN junction and
conducts an electric current. The current flowing up to built in potential is
called as ZERO current or KNEE current.

Forward Biased Diode

Characteristics
With the increase in applied external forward bias, the width of the
depletion layer becomes thin and forward current in a PN junction diode
starts to increase abruptly after the KNEE point of forward I-V characteristic
curve.
Firstly, a small amount of current called as reverse saturation current exists
due to the presence of the contact potential and the related electric field.
While the electrons and holes are freely crossing the junction and causes
diffusion current that flows in the opposite direction to the reverse
saturation current.
The net result of applying forward bias is to reduce the height of the
potential barrier by an amount of eV. The majority carrier current in the PN
junction diode increases by an exponential factor of eV/kT. As result the
total amount of current becomes I = Is * exp(eV/kT), where Is is constant.
The excess free majority charge carrier holes and electrons that enter the
N and P regions respectively, acts as a minority carriers and recombine
with the local majority carriers in N and P regions. This concentration
consequently decreases with the distance from the PN junction and this
process is named as minority carrier injection.

The forward characteristic of a PN junction diode is non linear, i.e., not a

straight line. This type of forward characteristic shows that resistance is not
constant during the operation of the PN junction. The slope of the forward
characteristic of a PN junction diode will become very steep quickly.
This shows that resistance is very low in forward bias of the junction diode.
The value of forward current is directly proportional to the external power
supply and inversely proportional to the internal resistance of the junction
diode.
Applying forward bias to the PN junction diode causes a low impedance
path for the junction diode, allows for conducting a large amount of current
known as infinite current. This large amount current starts to flow above the
KNEE point in the forward characteristic with the application of a small
amount of external potential.
The potential difference across the junction or at the two N and P regions is
maintained constant by the action of depletion layer. The maximum amount
of current to be conducted is kept limited by the load resistor, because
when the diode conducts more current than the usual specifications of the
diode, the excess current results in the dissipation of heat and also leads to
severe damage of the device.

Reverse Biased Diode

When positive terminal of the source is connected to the N side and the
negative terminal is connected to P side, then the junction diode is said to
be connected in reverse bias condition. In this type of connection majority
charge carriers are attracted away from the depletion layer by their
respective battery terminals connected to PN junction.
The Fermi level on N side is lower than the Fermi level on P side. Positive
terminal attracts the electrons away from the junction in N side and
negative terminal attracts the holes away from the junction in P side. As a
result of it, the width of the potential barrier increases that impedes the flow
of majority carriers in N side and P side.
The width of the free space charge layer increases, thereby electric field at
the PN junction increases and the PN junction diode acts as a resistor. But
the time of diode acting as a resistor is very low. There will be no
recombination of majority carriers taken place at the PN junction; thus, no
conduction of electric current.
The current that flows in a PN junction diode is the small leakage current,
due to minority carriers generated at the depletion layer or minority carriers
which drift across the PN junction. Finally, the result is that the growth in
the width of the depletion layer presents a high impedance path which acts
as an insulator.

In reverse bias condition, no current flows through the PN junction diode

with increase in the amount of applied external voltage. However, leakage
current due to minority charge carriers flows in the PN junction diode that
can be measured in micro amperes.
As the reverse bias potential to the PN junction diode increases ultimately
leads to PN junction reverse voltage breakdown and the diode current is
controlled by external circuit. Reverse breakdown depends on the doping
levels of the P and N regions.
With the increase in reverse bias further, PN junction diode become short
circuited due to overheat in the circuit and maximum circuit current flows in
the PN junction diode.

Reverse Biased Diode Characteristics:

V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

In the currentvoltage characteristics of junction diode, from the first

quadrant in the figure current in the forward bias is incredibly low if the
input voltage applied to the diode is lower than the threshold voltage (Vr).
The threshold voltage is additionally referred to as cut-in voltage.

Once the forward bias input voltage surpasses the cut-in voltage (0.3 V for
germanium diode, 0.6-0.7 V for silicon diode), the current spectacularly
increases, as a result the diode functions as short-circuit.
The reverse bias characteristic curve of diode is shown in the fourth
quadrant of the figure above. The current in the reverse bias is low till
breakdown is reached and therefore the diode looks like as open circuit.
When the reverse bias input voltage has reached the breakdown voltage,
reverse current increases spectacularly.
PN Diode Ideal and Real Characteristics

For ideal characteristics, the total current in the PN junction diode is

constant throughout the entire junction diode. The individual electron and
hole currents are continuous functions and are constant throughout the
junction diode.
The real characteristics of PN Junction diode varies with the applied
external potential to the junction that changes the properties of junction
diode. The junction diode acts as short circuit in forward bias and acts as
open circuit in reverse bias.