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 A Historical Overview of Rome
E><PAN,)ION of &ME"
I;],E.(' TO A .~. "7

...... . 'I

Ancient Rome was located on the Tiber River in Italy, exactly where
Rome, Italy, now stands today. It was a city, but at the height of the
Roman Empire, it also controlled the countries of England, Spain,
France, Germany, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Greece, Israel, Egypt, and parts of
Africa and Asia.

The Alps Mountains to the north, the Appenine Mountains to the

east, as well as the Mediterranean Sea to the west protected Rome from
invaders. The people living along the Tiber River were the Latins, who
were conquered around 600 B.C. by the Etruscans. In 509 B.C. the
Romans drove out the Etruscans and claimed the land as their own.

Ancient Roman history can be divided into two main time periods:
the Romr Republic, dating from 509 B.C. to 44 B.C.; and the Roman
Empire{~_ating from 44 B.C. to A.D. 455. During the Republic, Romans
set up a system of government where two consuls served a one-year
term and were advised by the members of the Senate, a powerful

T.S. Denison & Co., Inc. 5 Ancient Civilizations-Rome

\
 decision-making body made up exclusively of wealthy patricians. All
male citizens serving in the army were members of the Assembly. The
rest of the Roman population were either poor plebeians or slaves. Only
10 percent of the population in Rome were patricians, while the plebe-
ians and slaves comprised the other 90 percent. The plebeians revolted
against the powerful patricians, and civil war broke out for nearly one
hundred years. A general named Julius Caesar took control of the
government in 49 B.C. Caesar brought stability to Rome, but his enemies
feared he would make himself king, so they killed him in 44 B.C. This led
to more fighting over the control of Rome, and the Republic ended.

In 27 B.C., Julius Caesar's

great-nephew, Augustus, be-
came the first ruler of the Ro-
man Empire. This was the be-
ginning of the Pax Romana, or
Roman peace. Augustus
added many provinces to the
Empire at this time. Roads,
buildings, bridges, and aque-
ducts were built to connect
the lands conquered by Rome.
The Empire became too large
to control, and in A.D. 352 it
was divided into the Eastern
and Western Empires. Invad-
ers were constantly breaking
down Rome's empire, which
ended in A.D. 455 when Van-
dals from the north raided
Rome.

AUGUSTUS

T.S. Denison &: Co., Inc. 6 Ancient Civilizations-Rome

 Geography '

Italy is a boot-shaped country and forms a peninsula

into the Mediterranean Sea. Ancient Rome was a city
surrounded by seven hills, located along the Tiber River
in central Italy. The Tiber River provided a waterway to
the Mediterranean Sea.

Natural barriers helped protect Rome from its enemies

for many years. The Alps Mountains to the north and the
Apennine Mountains to the east, running the length of
Italy, provided protection. Rome was located inland about
fifteen miles and controlled the Tiber River, so it could not
be easily attacked by sea. The seven steep hills that ringed
around the city made it difficult for enemies to spring a
surprise raid on Rome. (However, during the Punic Wars,
fought between Rome and Carthage between 264 and 146
B.C., a brilliant Carthaginian general named Hannibal
attacked Rome by crossing the Alps on elephants.)

The northwest and central sections of Italy are rough

and mountainous. The southern part is more level and
fertile and was used for farming.

The eastern coastline of Italy has few good harbors.

Most of the harbors used by ancient Romans to trade
goods with other parts of the Roman Empire lay on the
western coast of the country.

Italy's mild climate was attractive to ancient settlers.

Temperatures rarely dip below 60 F (15 C) or above 85
F (29 C). Rainfall amounts to about thirty inches (76 cm)
per year.

T.S. Denison & Co., Inc. 7 Ancient Civilizaticms-Rome

 The Ro~an Republic

The earliest rulers of Rome were the Etruscans, a fierce tribe who
controlled the Latins for about one hundred years. After the Etruscan
rule ended, the Romans set up a form of government called a republic.
In this system the people elect their own leaders.

The government in Rome was headed by two consuls who explained

and carried out the laws. They were chosen for a one-year term by the
Assembly of Centuries. All male citizens who had served in the army
were members of the Assembly, and they elected the government
officials. The most powerful group in government was the Senate. This
group was made up of former consuls and anyone else the consuls
chose. All senators were patricians, or upper-class Romans.

In time, the plebeians, or lower-class workers, gained more power in

the government. Around 494 B.C., they elected tribunes to speak up for
them in the Senate and protect their interests. The plebeians also wanted
the laws of Rome written down so that everyone would know their
rights. In 450 B.C., the laws were carved on bronze tablets, known as the
Twelve Tables, and were placed in the Forum.

A struggle for power in Rome between the Senate and the plebeians
led to almost one hundred years of civil war. The fighting ended when
Julius Caesar became dictator, but after his death in 44 B.C. the Roman
Republic ended.

T.S. Denison & Co., Inc. 10 Ancient Civilizations-Rome

 Julius Caes~r

One of the greatest rulers of Rome

was Julius Caesar, who was born
into' a patrician f~rnily around 100
B.C. As a boy, Gaius Julius Caesar
studied Latin and Greek grammar,
literature, math, music, and as-
tronomy. When he was fourteen,
Caesar studied rhetoric, which is
the ability to speak in public and
persuade listeners to your way of
thinking.

In 58 B.C., Caesar led an army

that conquered Gaul, now known as France. In 49 B.C., the Senate in
Rome b~c.ame afraid of Caesar's power and popularity with the com-
mon people. The Senate ,ordered him to return to Rome without his
army. Instead, Caesar marched his army into Rome and seized control
of the government himself. The people made him "Dictator for Life."

As Rome's ruler, Caesar made many improvements. He put honest

men in government positions. He made taxes fairer and gave land to the
poor. He also improved the calendar into what was named the Julian
Calendar-a calendar used throughout the world for over fifteen hun-
dred years.

Many senators felt Caesar was disrespectful toward them and that he
was wrong to take the title of dictator. They feared he wanted to make
himself king. On March 15,44 B.C., Julius Caesar was stabbed to death
in the Forum by his friend Brutus, who had been conspiring with twenty
senators.

T.S. Denison &: Co., Inc. 12 Ancient Civilizations-Rome

 The Caesar Cipher
,i
,!
H
Did you know that Julius Caesar invented a famous code? When he
I! was a general, he needed to send coded messages to his men in battle.
~
I
~! He used many complex codes in case one ofhis messages fell into enemy
iI hands, but his most famous cipher is eaSy to read-o~ce you know the
trick! It's called a shift code, and it works like this:

1. Write all the letters of the alphabet in order.

2. Underneath it, shift the beginning letter Aover however many places
you want. Caesar shifted three letters, so A became D, B became E, and
so on to the end of the alphabet.
1JI
Regular
ABCDEFGHIJKL~NOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Cipher , .
DEFGH I,J KLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABC
Decipher the following messages.

FDQ BRX UHDG WKLV fR.GH ?

L WKLQN BRX FJ)Q !

Write your own message in code and see if a friend can decipher it.

T.S. Denison '&: Co., Inc. 14 Ancient Civilizations-Rome

 The Roman Empire

After Julius Caesar's death in 44 B.C., many men vied for control of
Rome. The winner was Julius Caesar's great-nephew and adopted son,
Octavian. The Senate gave him the title 'of Augustus, ~nd he became the
sole leader of Rome.

Augustus governed Rome fo'r more than forty years, from 27 B.C. to
A.D. 14. He used his power to stabilize the government of Rome, add
many new provinces to the Empire, and rebuild the city of Rome after
one hundred years of civil war.

The time between 27 B.C. and A.D. 200 is called the Pax Romana, or
Roman peace. For almost two hundred years Rome did not fight any
major wars. The Romans concentrated their efforts on building roads
and aqueducts and reconstructing the buildings in the Forum. To keep
the peop!e amused, the ~omans built huge amphitheaters, such as the
Colosseuin, where gladiators would fight each other in hand-to-hand
combat. Sometimes the floor of the Colosseum was flooded so that mock
naval battles could be presented. Romans also enjoyed watching chariot
races in the Circus Maxirnus.

The Roman Empire came to an end because it was too large to control.
InA.D. 395, it was split into the Western Empire (based in Rome) and the
Eastern Empire (based in Constantinople, Turkey). In A.D. 455, barbar-
ians destroyed Rome, and the Roman Empire ended.

T.S. DenillOn &t Co., Inc. 15 Ancient Civilizations-Rome

 Roman Empire Crossword

-I
J:

iiI
In

I1Y II

til
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IJIr

ACROSS:
ill A huge open-air arena in which contests were held.
Y River which flows through Rome.
Y! Two-wheeled cart pulled by horses.

,
]X A man forced to fight other men in hand-to-hand combat.
I :x Gave Octavian the title of Augustus.
.:xI Ruler of an empire.
E Center of Rome which contained buildings, temples, and shops.
DOWN:
I Invaders who destroyed Rome in A.D. 455.
1I Arena where chariot races were held.
rl Boot-shaped; Rome is located in it.
3ZII First emperor of the Roman Empire.
~ Most famous amphitheater where gladiator fights occurred.
'" . '-..

T.S. Denison & Co., Inc. 17 Ancient Civilizaticms-Rome-,

 I'

i
I,I,
1....--...
I
1

Daily Life of Plebeians

,
t Ninety percent of the people living in ancient Rome did not belong to
the wealthy patrician class. These were the plebeians, or working class
of Rome, as well as soldiers and slaves:

Plebeians were workers, farmers, and shopkeepers. They could not

hold important government offices or marry into the patrician class.
Since they did not own land, they were not citizens and could not vote
in the Senate until tribunes were elected to represent them in 494 B.C.
rl~,.",li Life for plebeians was not easy. Up at dawn, the entire family ate a
nI meager breakfast of bread and water and then went to work in the shop
or fields. Only the wealthy could afford to educate their children, so
till plebeian boys learned 'a trade from their fathers and girls learned
household skills from their mothers. They worked until mid-afternoon
Ii'
i~, ~ and went )lome to a simple meal of wheat porridge with vegetables or
ill
. I
fruits. .

,I Plebeians lived in crowded tenements, or apartments, above shops in

I
i'l : the city. Entire families were forced to live in one room, with no privacy
or running water. Fire was a constant danger because so many people
;1 11 :
lived and cooked their foods in such crowded quarters.
~tj ' ;
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:I
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T.s. Denison & Co., Inc. 18 Ancient Civilizations-Rome

 A Day in the Life of a Plebeian Family
Young Paulo and his sister, Penelope, are plebeians in ancient Rome.
They live in a tenement apartment house in the city along with many other
families who also had to give up their farms and find work closer to Rome.
1. Here is a typical day for Paulo and his family, but the sentences are out of
I! order. Number the sentences correctly and find out what a day in the life
of a plebeian family was like.

I In the middle of the afternoon, Paulo and his father headed for
home.
r When Paulo and his father left for work, Penelope cleared the
table.

In the evening, the family relaxed together while Father told

stories about the Roman gods and goddesses.

After she had cleared the table,

Penelope helped her mother shop PAULO &. PSNELOPE
for food in the Forum.

Paulo woke up at dawn.

,
II
,
I
As soon as Paulo and his father
arrived, Mother served wheat por-
!
I.

Ii
"

ridge and turnips for supper.

1/1 ;1
"

II
The entire family ate a bread and
water breakfast.

At noon, Paulo took a break from

hoeing and ate a crust of bread.

After breakfast, Paulo and his fa-

ther worked in the fields of Rome.

T.S. Denison &: Co., Inc. 20 Ancient Civilizations-Rome

 Daily Life of Patricians

The patricians were the upper class of ancient Rome. They made up
only 10 percent of the population, but they were the most powerful
people in Rome. Patricians owned much land and bel~:mged to the oldest
families of the city.

Rome was a male-dominated society. The father was the head of the
family and was called the pater familias. A typical day for a male patrician
would involve business in the morning; the public baths in the late
morning for exercise, a massage, and the latest news; and home to his
luxurious villa for the main meal of the day, which started between two
and three in the afternoon and lasted for four hours.

A patrician woman was expected to be efficient and dignified. She

usually had little schooling and was in charge of the servants. Her days
were spent with servants dressing her and arranging her elaborate
hairstyle; preparing the day's menu and shopping list for the slaves;
overseeing the children; and performing as a gracious hostess for the
evening meal.

Both patrician boys and girls were sent to school to learn to read and
write Latin from ages five to twelve. After that, girls were taught at home
to run a household, and boys were taught literature, history, math,
geometry, and astronomy.

T.S. Denison &t Co., Inc. 21 Ancient CivilizAtions-Rome

 ROMAN LIFE - FOOD (3)
he Romans did not have tea or coffee. They learned how
T to grow vines and make wine from the Greeks. They drank
wine frequently, for their water supplies were often impure. Grapes
for wine were grown in the Republic but also imported from France,
Spain, Portugal and other regions of the Empire. The wine was
usually transported in amphorae-large pottery jars. Sometimes
these jars were partly buried in the ground to keep the wine cool.
!Sa
The rich enjoyed entertaining guests by presenting acrobats, poets
and jugglers at household feasts. Sometimes, talented slaves were
nk, used to entertain the diners, who lounged on comfortable couches
as they ate. Any food scraps were thrown onto the floor for slaves to
the clean up. The Romans ate with their fingers. Forks were unknown
and knives and spoons were usually used only in the kitchen, The Romans crushed grapes by treading them or using a grape press.
lrts
though spoons were used with soups and other liquid dishes. Slaves served the food and washed the fingers of the guests
ven
between courses. The main meal of the day was in the evening after the visit to the public baths. It included meat, seafood,
vegetables, honey cakes and fruit.
1ts,
llso
An Activity Box
md Color the diagrams of foods eaten in wealthy households. Then write them in alphabetical order in
the second set of boxes.
ish

~
A

fI fiP
-? -~- of, "

',1~ /) ~(1,\ ~~.-,-:

"d plI - J)-'
- II

nly
> ~,
\ '<
Grapes Dates Mushrooms Porridge

~ ~
::'.-
i al , ....../

Pork
.. ~ . ".

~' ~'. :' ~: ..

" Bread
'::-:-~ ..
if Nuts
,', ",:,'\
Vegetables
(\---
t:~'

---
B------
~ Venison
~
Honey
--
G Olives
~\, .. -...........
-'---~ ,
':: ....."">...~~~

Chicken

t!:~
CO ~ C3
@)';\)~
~~
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~~
---.
J\ '

Eggs Prawns Fish Cheese

;s-
 FARMING
n early Roman times, the land was owned by the State and by private owners. The land had been surveyed and
I divided up into small farms and large estates owned by wealthy landowners. The small farms were worked by the
farmer and his sons, for women didn't usually work in the fields .
After the wars against Carthage ended around 200 B.C., Rome regained control of Italy, but many farmers serving in the
Roman army had died in battle and their farms had been destroyed. When the State sold the land, only the rich could
afford the price and the labor required to repair the damage, so huge farming estates with large villas developed over
~rs .
the years. These estates were worked by slaves and though some estate owners looked after their workers, most slaves
worked very long hours in all weather conditions. Some were eventually set free when they were too old to work.
ng
. of Most Romans made their living through agriculture, and Marcus Cato, a famous soldier-politician, remarked that the
most profitable farming was growing vines for wines and olives for olive oil.
Raising sheep and cattle and growing grain were other important farm activities. Sheep were bred mainly for wool and
lds
around the Mediterranean, were used to produce milk and cheese.
The farmers irrigated their land and fertilized it with animal manure. They kept cattle, sheep, goats and pigs and
noticed that the soil was more fertile where animals grazed on the land. Crops like wheat, barley, beans, turnips and
cabbage were rotated, with some fields also left fallow to recover. Awide range of vegetables was grown throughout the
Empire, along with fruit like peaches, plums, grapes and cherries and nuts, which included almonds, walnuts, hazelnuts
and chestnuts.

1. Who didn't work in the fields on farms?

5. How would you have treated your slaves had

you been a rich landowner?
2. Which two activities did Cato say gave farmers
most profit?

3. Which animals were used to make milk and

cheese?
6. Color in the picture of slave farm workers in
the vineyard of a rich man's estate with the
villa in the background.
~
-r-:/--
 ROMAN SLAVES (1)
t would be difficult to imagine life in Ancient Rome
I without slaves, for they were used in every area of daily life in the city of Rome
and throughout the Empire. As their empire and the number of nations they
conquered increased, the Romans had an enormous supply of cheap slave labor.
Julius Caesar alone brought back over 1,000,000 captive men, women and children
after the conquest of Gaul (France). Apart from prisoners of war, many criminals
became slaves and were just another piece of property to be bought or sold in slave Aslave tag (or possibly a dog tag)
markets by their wealthy masters or by the State. Romans were often judged by the unearthed by archaeolOgiSts. The
number of slaves they possessed and some rich families owned hundreds! Slaves translation says:
"Hold me lest I flee and return me to my
could be given away as gifts or left to someone else when the owner died and if a master Viventius on the estate of
emale slave had children the babies were born into slavery. Callistus."

lve Slaves worked in households

be as cooks and cleaners, did the
{
hard work on farm estates and
worked even harder in
factories making woolen cloth
or in quarries and mines
around the Empire . The
officials who ran Roman cities
used slaves as builders '
laborers, road sweepers and
rubbish collectors. Strong
men were often used as
oarsmen on Roman warships,
as charioteers in races to
entertain the people, or were
trained to be gladiators, as
their lives were cheap. When
they were too old to fight, the
gladiator slaves were often
thrown to the lions unless they
had pleased their masters by their victories in the arena. Even in households many slaves were brutally treated,
though in some homes they were treated as part of the family.

Activity Box

Write a couple of sentences about each of the following. Tell how you would feel if you were a slave
and your master told you that:
(a) You were going to be trained as a gladiator to fight wild beasts in the arena.
(b) You were going to be sold to a new master who was known to be cruel.
(c) You were going to be granted your freedom as you had given excellent service.

ress~
 ROMAN LIFE - ENTERTAIN ENT (1)
ublic entertainment in the amphitheaters,
P circuses and theaters was an important part of
life in Rome. Juvenal, a Roman writer who often
criticized Roman society, wrote that ordinary citizens
were only interested in "bread and circuses." Ruling
magistrates and emperors used the games in the
amphitheaters as a means of gaining votes during
nes elections and also to keep the Roman population
lied under control. The spectacular games cost enormous
{ere sums of money but admission was free.
{ere Abestiarius
(fought animals)
Amphitheaters
the
um Different kinds of shows were presented in these huge structures with rows of
lere seats overlooking an arena. Rome's Colosseum is believed to have held
ea over 50,000 spectators, who watched bloodshed for amusement as gladiators
tc or groups of slaves fought to the death. Many gladiators were trained in
:eils gladiatorial schools and included slaves, criminals condemned to death
and prisoners of war. Sometimes, trained women slaves fought in the arena
lnC
and unarmed Christians were forced to face wild animals. Alosing gladiator
was judged by the spectators. If he had fought well he received the "thumbs up" sign, but a "thumbs down" sign meant
~uld death. Successful gladiators were crowd favorites and could become rich or win freedom from slavery. The gladiators fought
all wild animals on foot or occasionally from horseback. At first, fights with wild beasts took place in the mornings and public
executions at noon, while fights between gladiators were held in the afternoons. Over the years, these arrangements changed.

7. Give your own definition of "freedom. "

1. Who criticized the Roman citizens?

8. The area where gladiators fought was the

2. Why did emperors pay for the games?

9. Which gladiator used a three-pronged spear?

3. Which gladiators could become rich?

10. Who faced animals without weapons?

4. When were public executions?

11. List three things you don't like about the

5. What did a bestiarius fight? Roman forms of public entertainment.
(a) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

(b) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
6. Where were gladiators trained?
 ROMAN LIFE - EDUCATION
n the early years of the Republic, boys were taught to read. write and how to
I\vith
. handle weapons by their fathers. educational system developed from the third century B.C.
An
educated Greek slaves (pedagogues) or freedmen as teachers. Girls did not attend schools for
many\vere legally married at 12. Their mothers trained them at home to read and write and how
to run a household, though girL., in some rich families were taught by pedagogues. Girls began to
attend schools in the later years of the Republic. After the reign of the emperor Augustus, the
position of women in Rome's societY improved and some became teachers. The sons of wealthy
Stylus used
families were taught in schools or by private tutors. Many poor children, who could also be slaves, on wax.
'Us
had little chance of an education, for they worked long hours.
is
by Chlldren first attended primary school from the age of siX or seven. The lessons were basic, with an emphasis on writing,
reading and leaming to count on an abacus. The alphabet was learned letter by letter and sometimes S\I,'eets were shaped
into letters, perhaps as a reward when a letter was learned!
At the age of 12, students were taught by a grammatic us, a man with a wider knowledge than
previous teachers. Students now studied poetry, history, geography and grammar. At 16, promising
students from good families studied public speaking with rhetol'S. Such studies were essential if
a yOWlg man aspired to an important pOSition jn Roman society. They were also sent to famolls
educational centers like Athens, where they were taught by great philosophers such as Socrates
and Aristotle. 'Ine Romans admired Greek culture so the Greek language was studied by older
student~, who could then read books by great Greek writers like Homer.

Wax tablets held togeti1E'r with leather Schools started early, often before sunrise, and finished in the early afternoon to avoid the fierce
!honging to fonn a type of book heat of the day. The cane was commonly used for disobedience, but also for students who did not
Which could have several pages. learn tlleir work quickly.

1. Why do you think fathers taught their sons how to handle weapons? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _

2. Which instrument was used for counting/ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __.

3. Why did schools start and finish early? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __
4. If a young man wanted an important position, what did he need to study? _ _ _ _ __

5. Do you think girls should have been able to attend school in the early Republic? _ _ _ __
Why/\V'hy not? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Activity Box
Follow the steps in this procedure to make a wax writing tablet used by Roman school students.
1. Find a shallow lid from a small box.
2. Use soft modeling clay or melted candle wax to fill up the lid.
3. Use the point of a compass to carve out a simple message to a partner.
4. Then, as the Roman writer, Ovid, advised, "Whenever you write, make sure all previous letters
have been erased from tablet. "
 ROMAN LIFE - LANGUAGE
s the Empire spread throughout the known world, different
A languages were spoken within its borders. However, the official
language was Latin, which helped to unite the various regions. Wealthy
Romans also learned Greek at school or from tutors. Areasonable number
of ordinary citizens, especially those in cities, could read and write Latin,
as revealed in workmen's accounts, simple letters and even graffiti on
Inscription from Pompeii showing the walls. In fact, over 3,500 examples of graffiti have been found on the
differentia and accents marking long vowels.
walls of Pompeii.
The Romans introduced writing to northern Europe and most modem European languages are based on the Latin alphabet.
The alphabet had only 22 letters; there was no "W" or "Y" and both "I" and "J" were written as "I," and "V" and "U" written
as "v." Punctuation and spacing between words were rarely used and there were no initial capital letters in sentences.
Differentia (stops) usually divided words on inscriptions but were often put in the wrong place. These stops could be decorative,
ill the shape of ivy leaves, for example.

Many of our words are derived from Latin, a language still taught in some educational institutions.
Use your dictionary to find the English derivations from the Roman words.
Roman Word Meani~of Meaning of E~lish
(Latin) Latin ord English word ord
1. Bestiarius animal fighter an animal
tenth month on
2. Decem ten Roman calendar
related to war or
3. Mars God of war soldiers
4. Vigila wake up! alert, prepared

5. Pedes feet a foot lever

6. Gladius sword plant with

swordlike leaves
7. Navis a ship a fleet of ships

8. Domus a house relating to a home

warm room In
9. Tepidarium a public baths lukewarm

10. Volumen papyrus sheets a book

glued together
11. Vale goodbye a farewell speech

12. Salarium mon&: paid to Roman wages

sol iers to buy salt
someone with
13. Praefectus Roman official authority
14. Aquila the eagle on a Roman like an eagle
standard
15. Princeps a chief the head of an
institution
relati~g to
16. Maritus husband marnage
 ROMAN LEGIONS
WEAPONS
The ideas for some weapons were copied from Greek
technology and then the Romans made improvements. A
Greek writer called Polybius wrote, "As soon as they saw
Greek weapons, the Romans began to copy them. This is
one of their strong points."
The Onager
This was a giant catapult used to hurl boulders or burning materials. Large boulders, as much as 50 kg in
weight, could be thrown up to 500 meters. It is believed that the onager, a wild donkey, gave its name to the
catapult because they both had the same rapid kicking action.
The Ballista
This was also a siege weapon which could fire arrows or metal bolts. In the first century A.D. , a type of ballista
was invented which would fire a succession of arrows, a similar idea to repeating weapons used in modern
warfare. The ballista, in effect, was a large stationary crossbow which could fire arrows 300 meters. Aweapon
like the ballista can be seen on Traj an's column in Rome. It was often mounted on a cart to make it more
mobile.
Siege Tower
The Siege tower was built taller than the walls of the city under siege. It could be constructed out of the reach of
enemy weapons and then wheeled forward, where it was very effective in breaching defensive walls.
Battering Ram (an Aries)
The wooden roof of the ram was covered with leather to protect the attackers from missiles. This weapon was
used successfully by the Assyrians and Alexander the Great. It was still being used in the 1400s, when it was
replaced by the siege cannon, which was more effective at breaking down walls and gates.
I I

The Trireme
The vessel was a common warship in Mediterranean countries. The trireme had three banks of oars and was
faster than the quinquereme. It was about 35 meters long and 5.5 meters wide. Ametal-tipped ram at the bow
pierced enemy ships at the waterline. The trireme carried crew, archers, soldiers, officers and, most of all,
oarsmen. Some used grappling irons to pull ships alongside so soldiers could lower a bridge and board the
enemy vessel. The trireme was also used as a trading ship to carry goods to Rome from around the Empire.

-26- Ancient Rome www.worldteacherspress.com World Teachers Press~

 ROMAN LEGIONS -WEAPONS
Aplatform could be lowered onto a
Roman Battering Ram defensive wall to enable Roman
Cover to protect soldiers from soldiers to attack the defenders.
Roman Siege
stones, spears, arrows, ~et:c''!:~
~:~rf~r1"l~:t~~~~~ Tower

Logs for moving ram forward.

Wheels were also used to propel
- - - - - - siege towerslbattering rams.

The Onager- Armed soldiers entered

A Giant Catapult from rear and climbed
Log swung to and fro to break
down defensive barriers
Arm is winched
The Ballista back.
ta
Arrow or iron bolt shoots out here
\
1

Slot for
arrow or
lof iron bolt shoots forward as ropes The tower was rolled forward on logs. As
untwist at speed the back log was exposed it was carried
\
Winch pulls back the
around to the front.
The canvas sail was taken down and the mast
bowstring
:=r1F==7/~~~4~10:w;er:ed:w:h:e:
n engaging enemy ships in battle.

Tower for

An "aplustre"
Hook embeds itself made of curved
w in enemy deck planks to
resemble the tail
of a sea monster

Eye to drive away spirits

Hull made of light fir wood The Trireme

Press"
 Please Pass the Wild Boar!

You are an artist in ancient Rome. You have received a very strange
request. You were summoned to the villa of Marcus Portlius this evening,
not to draw his portrait, but to draw the foods on his table before his
guests arrive! Marcus Portlius is heavily into food (th~ man is huge) and
he wants to remember this evening by the foods that were served. Since
Marcus is a big tipper, you don't want to forget the platters of wild boar
and peacock, the platter of fruits, the bowl of figs, the baskets of breads,
the plate of cheeses, the wine jug, and anything else you see.

,i
I
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-- :::: - ~I
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T.S. Denison &: Co., Inc. 23 Ancient Civilizations-RomL
 Gods and Goddesses

The ancient Romans believed there were many gods and goddesses
who had power over all aspects of life. As time went on, the Greek gods
appealed to the Romans, and several Greek deities vyere given Roman
names and temples of worship.

The government controlled the religion in ancient Rome. Priests were

elected or appointed by government officials. Religious leaders per-
I
,i formed public ceremonies to please the gods and goddesses. A few
temples were tended by priestesses, such as the Temple of Vesta. Women
called Vestal Virgins guarded the holy flame of the goddess, Vestal, and
were highly respected in Rome.

t: Jupiter was the supreme god who gov-

erned the sky and the weather. Juno, Jupiter's
I
, : wife, was a special goddess for women.
Mars was the god of farmers and war. Vulcan
was the fire-god, Saturn was the wine-god,
and Mercury was the messenger of the gods.

When an emperor died, the Romans be-

lieved he became a god. This was important
because they thought only gods could have
eternal life. The Romans believed that the
i, rest of the dead went to live in the under-
:
I
1
world.
! i
I

I;,

T.S. Denison & Co., Inc. 24 Ancient Civilizations-Rome

 Name that Temple
You have been selected to name and design the newest temple in the
Forum. You may choose to look in books at other temples for design
ideas. In the space below:

1. Write the name of the new temple at the top.

2. Draw what the temple looks like from the outsid~.
3. Write at least two sentences about the temple, such as for whom it
was built and why.

28 Ancient Civilizations-Rome
T.S. Denison & Co., Inc.
 Achievements

The ancient Romans were famous for their construction abilities.

Bridges, arches, roads, buildings, aqueducts~the Romans built them
all! Once the Romans invented concrete by n\'ixing gravet sand, and
crushed limestone, they just kept on building. Soldiers and merchants
needed roads to travel throughout the vast, Roman Empire safely and
quickly. As soon as Roman soldiers conquered another country, the
soldiers built more roads. The Appian Way, a famous road built by the
Roman soldiers, is still in use today. To travel over water, Romans built
bridges. To carry water to all parts of the Empire, they built aqueducts.
To honor the Roman gods in the newly conquered lands, they built
temples of marble and created arches over the doorways.

The Romans also invented the Latin language. Some people say that
Latin is a dead language, but you speak Latin words every day because
the Eng,~~h language came from Latin!

We use Roman numerals today in clock faces, outlines, beginning

pages in books, and copyright dates. We borrowed these numbers, as
well as our present calendar, from the Romans.

Many great writers were ancient Romans. People today study the
writings of Julius Caesar, Cicero, and Livi, to name a few.

~
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j ImVIVVIVlVIIlX

T.S. Denison &: Co., Inc. 29 Ancient Civilizations-Rome

 Roman Achievements Word Search

s S A U B I A S N U .y K L R V F H W
F Y H A U Y N I KD A T U Z V N H E
C 0 N Q u ER P 0 W T
Q M N 0 L D A
Q J K U T FD Q v x s U I H P I N S
H Q M E P 0 K C I L C 0 N C R E T E
N F 0 D Q x T A T G F R U X W T X C
p Q R U 0 R M E Q K F A M D C H S K
T L U C 0 L 0 S S E U M E F C A Q K
Y I U T I N Z A C z J p R H Q H M W
I V S S B S L R P M C H A R I 0 T M
C I C E R 0 A D S B U I L D I N G S
E A P P I A N X C H P T S K M V V P
W K Z X D U K Y A R C H E S R H J z
I P I X G L S 0 L D I E R S N K H V
V B t T E M P L E S L A L R D M G Q
0 B X V -S x M R N L F T C B C C L B
L I W P 0 X L Q D B A E E Z M Z T G
R C X S H R I F A F 0 R U M I P P G
M U S Y V G A F R 0 G Z D D D S 0 F

Can you find these words?

AMPHITHEATER COLOSSEUM AQUEDUCTS

BUILDINGS SOLDIERS CALENDAR
NUMERALS CONCRETE CONQUER
CHARIOT TEMPLES BRIDGES
APPIAN CICERO CAESAR
ARCHES FORUM LATIN
ROADS LIVI

T.S. Denison & Co., Inc. 31 Ancient Civilizations-Rome

 Timeline of Ancient Roman History
J L :I

1 J 753 B.C. Legend says Rome was founded by

1 T
Romulus. _.

680 B.C. Latins were living along Tiber River.

600 B.C. Latins were conquered by Etruscans.

509 B.C.-44 B.C. Roman Republic

Romans throw out Etruscan kings
and rule themselves; Carthage Wars
264-146 B.C.; Julius Caesar conquers
Gaul and invades Britain 59-49 B.C.;
Caesar becomes Dictator for Life and
is murdered 44 B.C.

31 B.C.-29 B.C. Octavian and Marc Antony battle for

control of Rome; Octavian defeats
Antony, who commits suicide with
Cleopatra; Octavian declares peace.

27 B.C.-A.D. 455 Roman Empire

Octavian is crowned Augustus Cae-
sar; the Pax Romana, during which
many provinces were added to Rome
27 B.C.-A.D. 200; invaders attack the
~
t outer provinces of Rome A.D. 200-
350; Roman Empire split into the East-
ern and Western Empires A.D. 352;
Vandals raid Rome A.D. 455.
LJ 1 1 J 1

T.S. Denison &: Co., Inc. 32 Ancient Civilizations-Rome