FAO Forage Profile - China

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles
CHINA
by
Prof. Hu Zizhi and Dr Zhang Degang
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FAO 2006
3
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 5
2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY 8

Topography 8
Soils 9
Vegetation 12
Wildlife groups 13
3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES 17

Climate 17
Features of agricultural zones 17
Character and developing trends of nine first class agriculture zones 17
4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 20

Farm size 20
Livestock species and breeds 21
Animal units 24
Feeding systems 24
Integration of livestock into farming systems 25
Socio-economic conditions 25
5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE 26

Area and distribution of grassland 26
Grassland classification 26
Grassland types and area 28
Grassland productivity 29
Animal product unit index 31
Grassland protection 32
Grassland rodents 32
Insect pests 34
Diseases 34
Toxic and harmful plants of grassland 34
Grassland nature reserves 35
Zonation of flora 36
Species of unique forage plants 36
Wild species of cultivated forages 39
Dominant plants of the main zones 40
6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF FODDER RESOURCES 41

Grassland use 41
Grassland deterioration and control strategies 42
Grassland improvement 42
Forage grasses and artificial grassland 43
Major forage grasses and forage crops 44
4 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
Classification of Artificial Grassland (Hu Zizhi, 1997) 49

Grass cultivars and seed production 50
Good forage grass cultivars 51
Seed production 52
Zonation of grassland for sustainable ecological and economic development 53
Principle of division of economic zones of grassland agro-ecosystems 53
Grassland zones 53
Current grassland situation and proposed strategy for each zone 54
7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL 58
8. REFERENCES 61
9. CONTACTS 63
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 5
1. INTRODUCTION
The Peoples Republic of China (see Figure 1) in eastern Asia, on the west coast of the Pacific Ocean,
has a land area of around 9600000km2; the area of its territorial waters is 4730000km2. It has land
borders with fourteen countries: Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, Russian Federation, Mongolia,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Lao
Peoples Democratic Republic and Viet Nam; it has sea borders with P.O. Korea, Japan, Philippines,
Malaysia and Brunei. It is the most populous country, 1295000000 with 22% of the worlds population.
According to the World Factbook the July 2006 population was 1313973713 with a growth rate of
0.59%. There are 56 ethnic groups but Han account for 94%; Chinese is spoken all over the country.
Beijing, with a population of 12570000, is the capital and the hub of politics, culture and economy.
Population distribution is shown in Figure 2.
There are 34 provinces (or municipality, autonomous region and special administrative region) and
668 cities. Based on economic development and geography, China is divided into three parts: west,
central and east. The east includes Liaoning, Tianjin, Hebei, Shandong, Jiangsu, Shanghai, Zhejiang,
Fujian, Guangdong, Hainan, Taiwan, Hongkong and Macao. The centre includes Heilongjiang, Jilin,
Shanxi, Henan, Anhui, Hubei, Jiangxi and Hunan. The west includes Guangxi, Sichuan, Chongqing,
Guizhou, Yunnan, Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia, Qinghai, Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia and Tibet (see Figure 3).
Agricultural Land Use Agricultural land includes Table 1. Agricultural land use characteristics
cultivated land, forests, inland water, grassland and Land use Area (1000 ha) % of total
others (see Figure 4). Cultivated land and forests are Cultivated land 120 040 13.53
mainly in the east and centre, and grassland in the Forest 158 940 16.56
west (see Figure 5). The east is dominated by farming Inland water 17 470 1.82
and the west by grassland husbandry. Inner Mongolia, Grassland 400 000 41.67
Xinjiang, Tibet, Qinghai, Sichuan and Gansu are the Useable grassland 313330 32.64
six main pastoral areas. Others 253 550 26.41
Source: National Bureau of Statistics (2000a)
Plant and Animal Resources. China has abundant
plant and animal resources: there are more than 30000 plant species, which puts it in third place after
Brazil and Colombia and accounts for 13.1% of the world total; it has many species of cultivated plants,
domesticated livestock and their wild relatives. Its agricultural history dates back for 7000 years. It is
Figure 1. Map of Peoples Republic of China

Figure 2. Distribution of human population
Figure 3. East, Central and West Parts of China
the main area and centre of diversity of many fruits and the birthplace of soybean; the number of local
crop cultivars exceeds 20000 (National Biodiversity Situation Research Report, 1998).
Economic Development. The national economy has improved greatly since the founding of the Peoples
Republic. Since the beginning of the Reform and Opening in 1978, the average annual growth rate of
Figure 4. Map of land use
Figure 5. Distribution of arable land in China
the gross domestic product (GDP) is 9.8% at fixed prices, and the goal of quadrupling GDP over 1980
was achieved in 1995, five years ahead of the plan. Chinas economic gross product is now the seventh
largest in the world.
National agricultural gross output value in 1999 was 2451.91billion RMB Yuan (USD1 was worth
8.2 in 1999), of which, agriculture was 1410.62, forestry 88.63, animal husbandry 699.76 (28.53%
of the total), and fisheries 252.90. The number of domestic herbivores in China was 429506000 head
(at December 1999), of which, cattle, buffalo and yak were 126983000, horses 8914000, donkeys
9348000, mules 4673000, camels 330000, sheep 131095000, and goats 148163000. FAOSTAT
(2005) figures for 2004 give: cattle, buffalo and yak 134.8M, horses 7.9M, donkeys 8.2M, mules 4.0M,
camels 265000; sheep 157.3M and goats 183.4M.
In 1999, 5 054 000 tonnes of beef, 2 513 000 tonnes of mutton, 8 069 000 tonnes of milk (cow
milk 7176000tonnes), 283152tonnes of sheep wool (fine wool 11410tonnes and semi-fine wool
73 700 tonnes), 31 849 tonnes of goat wool and 10 180 tonnes of cashmere were produced. 2004
production data were: beef and veal 6.5M mt (20056.8M); mutton and lamb 2.2M mt (20052.4M);
total milk 27.0M mt (of which cow milk was 22.9M mt) (200528.7M and cow milk 24.5M); total
wool 373902mt (2005400000mt) and goat meat 1.8M mt (20051.9M). It should be noted that milk
production more than doubled between 2000 and 2004. In 1997, 65700 beef cattle, 4585 sheep, and
9882 goats were exported; 479 beef cattle, 84 sheep, 1543 goats, 244 horses were imported. Imported
stock was for breeding. In 2004 some 59009 cattle, 8637 goats and 145269 sheep were exported (as
well as 2.0M pigs). Imports included 132446 cattle, 2950 sheep, 0.5M mt of meat and 3.2M mt of
milk equivalents.
2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY
Topography
Chinas topography is characterized by high land in the west, lower land in the east, and hilly, varied
terrain (see Figure 6):
the first terrace is the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, with an average altitude over 4000m;
the second terrace starts from the north and east edges of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and ends in
Daxinanlin Mountain, Taihang Mountain, Wushan Mountain, Xuefengshan Mountain; its landform
is highland with basins at altitudes between 1000 to 2000m.
the third terrace is east of the above area and extends to the eastern continental shelf, its landform
is mainly plains and hills.
Figure 6. Three terraces of China [Sun He, 1994]

Figure 7. Topography of China
The natural conditions and agriculture of the three Table 2. Land characteristics of China
terraces are very different. This topography (see Figure 7) Item Area %of
(1000 total
makes most water systems run from west to east and drain km2)
to the Pacific Ocean; except for those rising on the southern Total land area 9 600 100.00
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau which run from north to south and By topographic feature
drain into either the Pacific Ocean or the Indian Ocean Mountains 3 200 33.33
from the barrier of the Hengduanshan Mountains.
Plateaux 2 500 26.04
China is hilly, it is one of the countries with the highest
Basins 1 800 18.75
mean altitude; 33% is mountainous and only 12% plains.
Plains 1 150 11.98
The area below 500m almost equals that above 3000m,
Hills 950 9.90
both of them around a quarter of the total (Table 2).
By altitude
Under 500 m 2 417 25.18
Soils
Based on the complex influence of climate, topography, 500 to 1000 m 1 625 16.93
1000 to 2000 m 2,399 24.99
vegetation and human development, Chinas soil types are
complex (see Figure 8). A simplified map of soil-vegetation 2000 to 3000 m 677 7.04
distribution in China is shown in Figure 9.The zonal soil Above 3000 m 2 483 25.86
types in the East Monsoon Zone are latosol, lateritic red National Bureau of Statistics, 2000
soil, red soil and yellow soil, yellow-brown soil, burozem
and drab soil, dark brown forest soil, podzolic soil from south to north. The zonal soil types from
northeast to northwest are chernozem, chestnut soil, brown soil, sierozem, grey brown desert soil, brown
desert soil. On the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, the soil types from east to west are alpine meadow soil, alpine
steppe soil, alpine desert soil and alpine frozen soil. Because there are plenty of mountains, the vertical
zonal pedigree of soil type appears widely. There are different soil pedigrees on the different mountains.
Influenced by the long history of cultivation, agricultural soil types are also many, such as paddy soil,
oasis soil and lou soil (stratified old manurial loessial soil).
Soil degradation is the most important constraint for Chinas ecological conservation and economic
development. The area of desertified (i.e. soil degradation in the arid, semi-arid and non-humid areas)
soil accounts for 27.32% of the land area (see Figure 10 and Table 3). Of this, 61.3% was caused by wind,
Figure 8. Soil distribution

Key to Figure 8
1 Latosol 12 Stratified old 23 Gray desert soil 34 Salinized chao soil 45 Alpine meadow soil
manural loessial
soil (Lou soil)
2 Lateritic red soil 13 Gray-drab forest 24 Gray brown soil 35 Sajong black soil 46 Alpine meadow-
soil steppe soil
3 Red soil 14 Dark loessial soil 25 Brown desert soil 36 Warp soil 47 Alpine steppe soil
4 Yellow soil 15 Black soil 26 Purplish soil 37 Bog soil 48 Alpine desert-steppe
soil
5 Dry red soil 16 Planosol 27 Limestone soil 38 Paddy soil 49 Alpine desert soil
6 Yellow-brown soil 17 Chernozem 28 Phospho-calcic soil 39 Solonchak 50 Alpine frozen soil
7 Burozem 18 Dark chestnut soil 29 Yellow mein soil 40 Solonetz 51 Desert
8 Dark red soil 19 Chestnut soil 30 Aeolian sandy soil 41 Moutain scrubby 52 Gobi
steppe soil
9 Podsolic soil 20 Light chestnut soil 31 Meadow soil 42 Subalpine meadow 53 Salt crust
soil
10 Gray forest soil 21 Brown soil 32 Scrubby meadow soil 43 Subalpine steppe soil 54 Glacier and snow
11 Drab soil 22 Sierozem 33 Cultivated fluviogenic 44 Subalpine desert soil
soil (Chao soil)
1. Latosol-Tropical Forest
2. Lateritic red soil-Monsoon evergreen forest
3. Red or yellow soil-evergreen forest
4. Yellow-brown soil-evergreen forest or Aestisilve
5. Burozem-Aestisilve
6. Drab soil-Xerophytic Aestisilve
7. Dark loessial soil-Steppe
8. Sierozem-Desert Steppe
9. Gobi or Solonchak-Desert
10. Dark brown forest soil or Planosol-Theropencedrymion
11. Black soil or Chernozem-Forest-steppe
12. Chestnut soil-Steppe
13. Brown soil-Desert Steppe
14. Brown desert soil-Desert
15. Podzolic soil-Needle Forest
16. Alpine meadow soil or Subalpine meadow soil-Alpine Meadow
17. Alpine steppe soil or Subalpine steppe soil-Alpine Steppe
18. Alpine desert soil-Alpine Desert
Figure 9. Soil - vegetation distribution

Key: Factors of desertification

Water erosion Wind erosion Other factors
1 Light 9 Light 17 Light
2 Medium 10 Medium 18 Medium
3 Heavy 11 Heavy 19 Heavy
Freeze thawing Salination
4 Light 12 Light 20 Non-desertificated land
5 Medium 13 Medium 21 Extreme dry area
6 Heavy 14 Heavy 22 Wet area
7 Water 15 National boundary 23 Unfixed national boundary
8 Province boundary 16 24 City
Figure 10. Distribution of desertified land in Northern China
7.80% by water, 8.89% by salinization, 13.85% by frost and 8.16% Table 3. Desertification in
by other factors. The area of degraded grassland is 1052300ha, Northern China by cause
and it is increasing at an annual rate of two%. At the same time, the Factor %
area of degraded arable land in the arid, semi-arid and non-humid Over cultivated grassland 23.3
regions is 7744900ha, or 40.6% of total arable land. Overgrazing 29.4
Excessive deforestation 32.4
Vegetation Improper water use 8.6
China has one of the widest ranges of vegetation types in the Communication construction 0.8
world. According to the classification system used in Vegetation Sand dune drift driven by wind 5.5
of China (Wu Zhengyi, 1980), there are ten vegetation type groups
Cai Yunlong, 2000
covering 29 types and 560 formations (see Figure 11: 1) Coniferous
forest, 2) Broad-leaf forest, 3) Shrubs and shrub-meadow, 4) Steppe and savanna, 5) Desert, 6) Tundra
7) Alpine sparse vegetation 8) Meadow, 9)Marshes 10) Aquatic vegetation.
With obvious latitudinal zonal distribution, the vegetation types in the East Monsoon Zone from
south to north are as follows: tropical rain forest and monsoon forest, subtropical evergreen broad-leaf
forest, warm-temperate deciduous broad-leaf forest, temperate broad-leaf and coniferous mixed forest,
sub-temperate coniferous forest.
With obvious longitude zonal distribution, the vegetation types in northern China from east to west
are as follows: forest, steppe and desert.
On the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, vegetation type distribution is characterized by both horizontal and
vertical zonal features. With increasing altitude and decreasing rainfall from southeast to northwest,
vegetation types are: mountain forest, alpine shrub, alpine meadow, alpine steppe and alpine desert.
Vegetation distribution in China can be summarized as: 1) all types (whatever forest or steppe and
desert) are present; 2) subtropical evergreen broad-leaf forest widely distributed through the impact of
monsoon; 3) a complete and unique vertical distribution spectrum of alpine vegetation on the Qinghai-
Tibet Plateau. For a general idea of the main vegetation types see Figure 9.
Wildlife groups
Based on the distribution of dominant and common species and their related natural eco-geographic
conditions, there are nine eco-graphic wildlife groups (Hu Zizhi, 1997):
1) Tropical forest, shrub, grassland-cropland group: the components in this group are complex, includ-
ing many families, genera and species. The main hoofed animals are Cervus unicolor, Cervus eldi,
Elaphodus cephalophus, Muntiacus reevsii, Muntiacus manta, Capricornis sumatraensis, and Sus
scrofa.
2) Subtropical forest, shrub, grassland-cropland group: Main hoofed animals are Muntiacus reevisi,
Elaphodus cephalophus, Hydropotes inermis, Moschus chysogaster, and Sus scrofa. Lepus sinensis
and Lepus capensis are common in shrub and grassland.
3) Warm-temperate broad-leaf forest, forest-steppe, cropland wildlife group: Main hoofed animals are
Capreolus capreolus, Moschus moschiferus, Cervus nippon, Cervus elaphus, Naemorhedus goral,
and Elaphurus davidianus.
4) Temperate steppe: rodents dominate here and ungulates take second place: Microtus brandti and
Microtus gregariuis take the first place in population and Cittellu dauricus, Myospalax aspalax,
Marmota bobac, and Ochotona daurica take second place in the east. Hoofed animals: Procapra
gutturosa is the representative in this group, its distribution ambit is consonant with steppe. The
population is low at present, but once there were flocks of more than a thousand. Gazella subgut-
turosa is representative of the desert-steppe.
5) Temperate desert wildlife is the same as in the temperate steppe group, hoofed animal and rodents
dominate. Hoofed animals: Gazella subgutturosa is dominant with groups of 3 or 5 head on desert
or gobi. Camelus bactrianus is a special species, but now quite rare. Equus hemionus also exists.
Rodents: Meriones unguiculatus, Meriones meridianus, Meriones libycus, Rhombomys opimus,
Dipus sagitta, and Allactaga sibirica.
6) Sub-temperate coniferous forest wildlife group: Hoofed animals: Alces alces, with large body size,
browsing the leaf of broad-leaf trees in-group, is the representative in this group and called forest
giant. Moschus moschiferous, Capreolus capreolus, Cervus elaphus, Sus scrofa are also in this
group.
7) Alpine forest-shrub wildlife group: This group is distributed in the southeast of Qinghai-Tibet
Plateau with altitude between 3 500 to 5 000 m. Since three vegetation types (mountain forest,
alpine shrub and alpine meadow) are interlaced, the animals are distributed accordingly and the
dominant ones are those living on alpine shrubs. Hoofed animals: Cervus albirostris, Cervus ela-
phus, Moschus sifanicus and Capricornis sumatrensis. Rodents: Same as alpine meadow and alpine
steppe.
8) Alpine shrub-meadow group: This group is in the middle of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau at an altitude
between 3800 to 4500m and the hypsography is smooth. Shrubs are on the north-facing slopes
and meadow is on the plain and south-facing slope. Hoofed animals: Cervus albirostris, Cervus
14
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
Figure 11. Vegetation distribution of China

(Wu Zhengyi, 1980)
Key to Figure 11
Native vegetation 19. Evergreen Quercus, deciduous broad-leaf, Tsuga chinensis mixed
forest
I. Coniferous Forest
a. Cyclobalunopsis glauca, Fagus sylvatica, Tsuga chinensis
(1) Subtemperate zone, temperate zone mountain deciduous
coniferous forest b. High mountain Quercus, Acer, Betula, Tsuga chinensis
1. Larix forest (13) Subtropical evergreen broad-leaf forest
a. Larix 20. Castanopsis, Cyclobalabopsis forest
b. Larix sibirica a. Castanopsis glauca, Castanopsis eyrei
(2) Subtemperate zone, temperate zone mountain evergreen b. Castanopsis glaucoides, Castanopsis delavari
coniferous forest
21. Castanopsis, Cinnamomum, Schima forest
2. Picea, Abies forest, Pinus forest
a. Castanopsis hystrix, C. tordii, Schima superba
a. Picea, Abies
b. Castanopsis hystrix, C. indica, Schima noranhac
b. Picea
(14) Tropical evergreen broad-leaf forest like rain forest
c. Pinus sylvestris var. mongolia
22. Castanopsis bornnensis, Lauracea, Teaceae forest contain
(3) Temperate zone sand steppe evergreen coniferous open forest Podocarpaceae
3. Pinus sylvestris var. mongolia open forest (15) Subtropical sclerophyllous evergreen broad-leaf forest
(4) Temperate zone evergreen coniferous forest 23. High mountain Quercus forest
4. Pinus forest Pinus tabulaeformis; Pinus densiflora (16) Tropical semi-evergreen broad-leaf seasonal rain forest
(5) Subtropical, tropical evergreen coniferous forest 24. Lime seasonal rain forest and shrubs
5. Pinus armandii forest 25. Lotosol seasonal rain forest
6. Pinus massoniana forest (17) Tropical evergreen broad-leaf rain forest
a. contain Quercus serrate, Symplocos paniculata 26. Rain forest
b. contain Cuninghamia lanceolata, Eurya japonica (18) Tropical littoral sclerphyllous evergreen broad-leaf shrubs,
brake
7. Pinus yunnanensis and P. khasya forest
27. Mangrove
a. Pinus yunnanensis
III. Shrubs and Coppice
b. Pinus khasya
(19) Temperate deciduous shrubs
c. Pinus grrifithi
28. Mountain Ostryopsis davidiana, Spiraea shrubs
8. Cuningghamia lanceolata forest and Phyllostachys pubescens forest
29. Steppe sand Caragana, Salix, Artemisia shrubs
(6) Subtropical,tropical mountain evergreen coniferous forest
30. Hilly Vitex negunda var. heterophylla, Zizyphus jujube shrubs
9. Abies, Picea,Tsuga forest
combine Bothrichloa ischaemum, Themeda triandra var.japonica
II. Broad-leaf Forest community
(7) Temperate zone deciduous broad-leaf, evergreen coniferous (20) Subtropical, tropical evergreen, deciduous broad- leaf shrubs
mixed forest combine farmland
10. Deciduous broad-leaf, Pinus koraiensis mixed forest 31. Rhododendron decorum, Vaccinium fragile, Tesrstrocmia
gymnanthera, Myrsine africana shrubs combine Pinus yunnanensis
(8) Temperate zone (subtropical) deciduous broad-leaf forest open forest
11. Deciduous Quercus forest 32. Melastoma candidum, Aporosa chinensis shrubs
a. Quercus mongolicus a. Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, Bacckea frutescens, Melastoma candidum,
b. Quercus liaotungensis, Q.dentata, Q.aliena Aporosa chinensis shrubs combine Pinus massoniana forest
c. Quercus variabilis, Q.acutissima, Q.serrata b. Melastoma normale, Wendlandia uvaariifolia subsp. chinensis shrubs
combine Pinus khasya forest
12. Acer, Tilia, Fraxinus, Ulmus, Betula miscellaneous forest
(21) Tropical coral island succulent evergreen broadleaf shrubs,
13. Lime Ulmacea, Pistacia chinensis, miscellaneous forest combine coppice
Platycladus orentalis
33. Scaevola sericea shrubs, coppice
a. contain deciduous bush layer
(22) Subtropical alpine, subtropical evergreen leathery shrubs
b. contain evergreen bush layer
34. Rhododendron shrubs
(9) Temperate zone mountain deciduous micro-leaf forest
(23) Temperate zone, subtropical subalpine deciduous shrubs
14. Betula, Populus forest
35. Salix cupularis, Dasiphora fruticosa, Caragana jubata shrubs
(10) Temperate zone deciduous micro-leal open forest
(24) Temperate zone alpine short-bush tundra
15. Steppe sand Ulmus open forest
36. Salix rotundifolia, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, moss tundra
16. Desert bank,sandland Populus euphratica (diversifolia) open forest
mixed forest (25) Alpine cashion short semibush, herbaceous vegetation and
sparse vegetation
(11) Tropical lime deciduous and evergreen broad-leaf forest
37. Arenaria, Androsae cushion vegetation
17. Ulmaceae, Platycarya strobilicea, Castanopsis mixed forest and
lianes thorny shrubs IV. Desert
a. combine Cupressus open forest (26) Temperate zone short semibush desert
b. combine Sabina open forest 38. Sympegma regelii rock desert
(12) Subtropical,tropical mountain acid yellow-brown soil evergreen 39. Anabasis gobi
and deciduous broad-leaf mixed forest 40. Reaumuria soogorica
18. Castanopsis, Fagus sylvatica miscellaneous forest 41. Artemisia, ephemental herbaceous clay desert
(27) Temperate zone succulent saline short semibush desert a. Aeluropus littoralis, Suaeda spp.
42. Kalidium saline desert b. Achnanthrum splendens, Suaeda physophora
(28) Temperate zone bush, semibush desert c. Phragmetis communis,Trachomitum lancifolium,Alhagi sparsifolia
meadow combine Tamarix chinenese shrub
43. Ephedra przewalskii, Zygophyllum xanthoxylon, Calligonum
mongolicum gobi (37) Temperate, subtropical alpine meadow
44. Caragana tibetica, Ceratoides lateens sand-rock desert 68. Kobresia meadow
45. Potaninia mongolica, Ammopiptantus mongolicus, Tetraena 69. Carex, Kobresia, forbs meadow
mongolica, sand-rock desert
70. Saline grass, forbs, Kobresia meadow
46. Artemisia arenaria, A.spaerocephala sand desert
(38) Temperate marsh
47. Calligonum sand desert
71. Grass, Carex marsh
48. Tamarix sand desert
(39) Temperate alpine marsh
(29) Temperate semi-tree desert
72.Carex, Kobresia marsh
49. Haloxylon desert
a. Haloxylon persicum, H.ammodendron
Agricultural vegetation
b. H. ammodendron
I. One crop per annual grain, hardy economic crop
50. Haloxylon ammodendron, Reaumuria soongorica clay desert
73. Spring wheat, soybean, corn, sorghum, sugar beet, flax
51. Haloxylon ammodendron, Ephedra przewalskii gravel desert
74. Spring wheat, millet, potato, sugar beet, flax
(30) Temperate zone alpine creeping short semi-bush desert
75. Barley, wheat, pea, potato, rapa
52. Ceratoides compacta, Ajania tibetica sand-gravel desert
II.Two crop per annual or three crop per biennial continuous cropping.
V. Steppe and Bush Savanna Deciduous fruit orchard
(31) Temperate grass, forbs steppe 76. Winter wheat, soybean, corn, sweet potato, peanut, tobacco, apple,
pear, grape
53. Leymus chinense steppe
77. Winter wheat, corn, millet, sorghum, sweet potato, cotton, peanut,
a. contain rich forbs
apple, pear, Chinese date, Chinese fig, grape, Chinese chestnut,
b. contain Stipa baicalensis walnut
54. Filifolium sibiricum steppe 78. Wheat, corn, sorghum, cotton, grape, Hami melon, pear, apricot
55. Bothriochloa ischaemum, Themeda triandra var. japonica steppe III.Irrigation-rain fed two crops per annual continuous cropping (local
double cropping rice). Evergreen, deciduous fruit orchard and
(32) Temperate bunch-grass steppe economic forest
56. Stipa grandis, S.krylovii steppe 79. Rice, winter wheat, rape, cotton, peanut, pomegranate, tea, peach,
a. contain Leymus chinense, forbs pear, loquat
b. contain Artemisia frigida, Thymus mongolicus 80. Rice, winter wheat, corn, potato, rape, tobacco, tea, red bayberry,
chestnut, apple, pear
57. Stipa bungeana, S.breviflora steppe
IV. Double (single) rice continuous cropping cold season crop.
58. Mountain bunch-grass steppe Subtropical evergreen fruit orchard and economic forest
a. Festuca sulcata, Stipa capilata 81. Rice, winter wheat, rape, cotton, mulberry, China grass, orange
b. Stipa krylovii 82. Rice, winter wheat, sweet potato, coarse grain, tea, rape, China
grass, jute, red bayberry, orange
(33) Temperate short bunch-grass, short semi-bush steppe
83. Rice, winter wheat, sweet potato, China grass, coarse grain, sugar
59. Stipa gobica stepe
cane, peanut, orange, tung oil tree, hemp palm, mulberry
a. contain Artemisia frigida
V. Double cropping rice continuous warm season crop or three cropping
b. contain Stipa glareosa, Artemisia xerophytica rice. Tropical evergreen fruit orchard and economic forest
60. Stipa brevifolia, Ajania achilleoides steppe 84. Double cropping rice continuous winter sweet potato. Double
cropping corn, sweet potato, cassava, jute, litchi, longan, banana,
61. Mountain Stipa glareosa, short semi-bush steppe pineapple
(34) Temperate zone, subtropical alpine steppe 85.T hree cropping rice, winter peanut, sugar cane, lemongrass, sisal
62. Grass, forbs steppe hemp, rubber tree, coconut, cafe, oil palm
a. Stipa Non-vegetation area
b. Poa, Festuca Saline incrustation
63. Stipa purpurea steppe Sand desert
a. contain Stipa subsessiliflora var.basiplumosa Gobi
b. contain Festuca Alpine top gravel
64. Stipa subsessiliflora var. basiplumosa, Ceratoides compacta steppe Glacier and snow cover
(35) Subtropical, tropical bush savanna combine succulent thorny

shrub
65. Heteropogon contortus,Themeda hookeri savanna
a. contain Zyzyphus mauritiana, Acacia farnesiana
b. contain Flacourtia indica, Pandanus tectorius
VI. Meadow and marsh
(36) Temperate meadow
66. Forbs, Carex, grass meadow
67. Grass, forbs saline meadow
elaphus, Procapra picticaudata, and Pantholopus hodgsonii. Rodents: Marmota himalayana,

Ochotona tibetica, Ochotona gloverii, Myospalax fontanieri, and Lepus oiostolus.
9) Alpine steppe and alpine desert group: This group is in the western cold and dry area of the Qing-
hai-Tibet Plateau, centred around Qiangtang, at altitudes between 4000 to 5000m. Animals in this
area live under natural conditions since there are no people in most of the area. Hoofed animals:
Equus hemonius, Bos grunniens, Pantholops hodgsonii, and Procapra picticaudata are dominant
on alpine steppe and alpine desert. Ovis ammon and Pseudois nayaur live in hilly areas. Rodents:
same as alpine shrub-meadow.
3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Climate
With its vast territory and the effects of topography and surrounding atmosphere, China has three
climatic zones: East Monsoon Zone, Northwest Arid and Semi-arid Zone and the Qinghai-Tibet Alpine
Zone (Sun, He, 1994).
The East Monsoon Zone occupies 45% of the land, with prevailing wind directions: northwest, north
and northwest winds are common in winter and southeast, south and southwest winds in summer.
Rainfall varies seasonally according to wind and coincides with high solar radiation, which gives good
conditions for plant growth. Drought, waterlogging, wind disaster and cold snaps are frequent in the east
because of the protean monsoon, typhoon and cold wave.
Eastern China can be divided into three climate zones from south to north:
Tropical Zone
Subtropical Zone and
Temperate Zone.
Temperature differences between zones are quite large in winter, but small in summer. Winter
temperatures are lower than other areas at the same latitude, but higher in summer. The major vegetation
in the east monsoon area is different types of forest.
The Northwest arid and semiarid area is in inner Eurasia and is controlled by a continental climate
all year round. Precipitation decreases gradually from east to west from 400mm to less than 100 mm.
Steppe and desert dominate the landscape. Vertical variation of climate on the Qinghai-Tibet alpine
area is very significant, which is characterized by low temperature, strong solar radiation, wind, and
uneven rainfall. Precipitation declines from southeast to northwest on the plain of the plateau and
the natural landscape varies accordingly from forest, alpine shrub and alpine steppe to alpine desert.
Temperature and rainfall details for various cities are given in Tables 4 and 5.
Features of agricultural zones

The most important difference of agricultural zonation is between the east and west. This is due to
geography and ecological environment, in which water is the prominent factor. Based on the zonal
and azonal differences, China may be divided into three natural zones (similar to the areas shown in
Figure6), i.e., the monsoon zone in the east, which accounts for 45% of all land; the arid inland zone in
the northwest, 30% of total land; Qinghai-Tibet Plateau inland zone in the southwest, 25% of total land.
There are intrinsic differences in agricultural features between the zones. The eastern monsoon zone is
an agricultural area, the northwest and southwest are pastoral areas.
Character and developing trends of nine first class agriculture zones

China can be devided into nine main agricultural zones (see Figure 12):
The Northeast As a vast plain, this zone has fertile land for agriculture and forest and plenty of water,
but relatively low solar radiation. Industry and communications are developed, the population engaged
Table 4. Temperature of main cities (1961 to 1990) Table 5. Rainfall of main cities (1961 to 1990)
Average temperature (C) Frost-free Maximum
Annual Maximum
City period snow
Coldest Hottest Annual City rainfall daily rainfall
(days) thickness
month month average (mm) (mm) (cm)
Beijing -4.3 25.9 11.8 179 Beijing 577.0 212.2 24
Tianjin -3.6 26.4 12.5 194 Tianjin 559.5 158.1 20
Shijiazhaung -2.7 26.6 13.0 198 Shijiazhaung 527.6 200.2 19
Taiyuan -6.0 23.3 9.6 161 Taiyuan 456.8 183.5 16
Huhhot -12.5 22.2 6.2 117 Huhhot 401.6 127.2 30
Shenyang -11.5 24.5 8.1 150 Shenyang 684.4 215.5 28
Changchun -15.9 22.8 5.2 135 Changchun 576.3 130.4 22
Haerbin -19.1 22.6 3.8 136 Haerbin 519.6 94.8 21
Shanghai 3.7 27.8 15.8 236 Shanghai 1 110.9 204.4 14
Nanjing 2.1 27.9 15.3 223 Nanjing 1 034.1 179.3 36
Hangzhou 4.0 28.5 16.2 248 Hangzhou 1 374.7 189.3 29
Hefei 2.4 28.1 15.7 235 Hefei 975.2 238.4 44
Fuzhou 10.6 28.8 19.7 312 Fuzhou 1 348.3 167.6 -
Nanchang 5.1 29.5 17.5 277 Nanchang 1 521.2 289.0 24
Jinan -1.0 27.4 14.4 202 Jinan 674.1 298.4 19
Zhengzhou -0.1 27.1 14.2 214 Zhengzhou 645.2 189.4 23
Wuhan 3.3 28.6 16.3 253 Wuhan 1 222.5 298.5 25
Changsha 4.8 29.1 17.2 271 Changsha 1 376.6 192.5 20
Guangzhou 13.3 28.5 21.8 350 Guangzhou 1 681.9 253.6 -
Nanning 12.7 28.4 21.6 340 Nanning 1 320.6 198.6 -
Haikou 17.2 28.4 23.8 305 Haikou 1 625.0 283.0 -
Chengdu 5.5 25.2 16.0 293 Chengdu 921.1 201.3 5
Chongqing 7.2 28.0 17.7 335 Chongqing 1 138.6 195.3 5
Guiyang 5.1 24.0 15.3 274 Guiyang 1 107.8 113.5 16
Kunming 7.6 19.7 14.6 245 Kunming 1 006.6 165.4 36
Lhasa -2.1 15.3 7.5 135 Lhasa 426.1 41.6 12
Xian -0.5 26.3 13.4 208 Xian 573.0 97.0 14
Lanzhou -6.1 22.1 9.3 159 Lanzhou 316.0 96.8 10
Xining -7.7 17.2 5.9 128 Xining 367.5 62.2 14
Yinchuan -8.4 23.3 8.7 152 Yinchuan 193.8 66.8 11
Urumchi -12.7 23.7 6.6 161 Urumchi 276.1 57.7 44
in agriculture is low and the agriculture is quite large-scale. It is the most important production base for
cereals, soybean and sugar beet. Forestry is also developed and it has the largest natural wood production.
The development of animal husbandry is slow; it is dominated by stall feeding and grazing is subordinate.
Inner Mongolia and Along the Great Wall With a temperate climate, low precipitation and shortage of
water, there is less arable and forest, but vast grasslands. The agricultural environment is very vulnerable
because of frequent drought, windy weather and increasing desertification. The main agricultural sector
is livestock: crop and animal husbandry are mixed. Animal production is still traditional nomadic or
semi-nomadic (herders live in fixed houses in winter and early spring but travel at other seasons), but its
commercial economy is undeveloped.
Yellow River, Huai River and Hai River The climate is temperate monsoon with simultaneous rainfall
and solar radiation. Water is relatively scarce. With vast plains, well-equipped agricultural machinery,
good communications, a long history of cultivation and a high proportion of arable land, it is an
important base for wheat, cotton, maize, groundnuts and fruit. The development of animal husbandry
and aquaculture is relatively high.
Figure 12. Ecological zonation of agriculture

(Sun He, 1994)
Loess Plateau The topography is characterized by plateaux and hills covered by loess; soil erosion is
very severe. Solar radiation is plentiful, but water scarce. Agricultural structure is unitary with rainfed
grain production. The commodity economy is weakly developed, however the potential for developing
grassland farming and fruit culture is high.
Middle and Lower Reaches of Yangtse River Water and solar radiation are abundant. Solar radiation,
temperatures and water are all favourable. The arable area is large and fertile. City density is quite high
and industry is well developed. Agriculture is highly developed with a high total yield of agricultural
products and a high commodity rate. It is the main integrated agricultural production area and the base
for rice, cotton, oil crop, tea, silk, pigs and fish.
The Southwest The climate is warm and humid. The terrain is dominated by hills, with little flat land.
There is plenty of biodiversity and rare species. Agriculture is poor with extensive systems and low
productivity. Grain production is for subsistence. It is the production base for tobacco, rape seed, silk,
tea and fruit. The dominance of commercial pig production is remarkable. There are many forest and
speciality products.
South China The topography is characterized by hills, scarce arable land and a long coastline. Most
of the area is subtropical with plenty of precipitation; it is the only area suitable for tropical crops. The
land is superior and favours export-oriented industries. The rural economy is well developed. The staple
agricultural products are vegetables, fish, pigs and poultry. Grain production exceeds local needs. The
difference in development between coastal and hill areas is very obvious.
Gansu and Xinjiang Land resources are typified by vast areas and low quality; there is much natural
grassland but little forest and arable. Solar radiation and thermal resources are abundant, but water is
very scarce. Desertification and salinization are very severe and the agricultural environment is very
fragile. Energy and mineral resources are abundant. Communications are poor. Scattered oases are the
main agricultural production mode. Grain and oil resources per capita are high. The yield of cotton, sugar
beet, fruit and melon is high. Grassland husbandry is well developed. There is animal production in both
crop and pastoral areas, but its output is quite low.
Qinghai-Tibet This zone is characterized by rarefied air, high altitude, strong solar radiation and low
temperatures. The area of natural grassland takes first place and forest takes second. Arable land is very
rare and distributed in patches. Water is plentiful but unevenly distributed. It is a sparsely populated
vast land in a remarkable landscape. Communications are very difficult. Agriculture, forestry and
animal husbandry have features common to all alpine areas. Animals, crops and trees are adapted to low
temperature and low oxygen concentration, and their potential for productivity is quite high. Livestock
herding on natural pasture is the major agricultural sector. Grain production per capita is only half of
the national average. The management of agriculture and animal production is extensive and production
levels low. The commodity economy is undeveloped and backward.
4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Since 1949, animal husbandry has developed rapidly. The livestock population reached 833.7 M by
the end of 1999 (and 954M by 2004). Pigs take first place with 422.6M and account for nearly 50%
of the total. Among the herbivores, around 70% of sheep, all camels, 25% of cattle and goats, 44% of
horses and 39% of donkeys are raised in six provinces or regions where the pastoral industry of China is
concentrated (see Table 6). Of the total livestock, 2461300 are kept by state owned farms - 3.67% of the
total (2.54% of pigs). Meanwhile, the yields of meat and milk increased greatly (see Table 7) especially
in the period 20002004 when for example the production of cow milk more than doubled. Average
annual growth rates of meat and dairy output from 1980 to 1998 are 8.7% and 9.9% respectively.
National total yields of meat and sheep wool took first place and second place in the world in 1999. Meat
availability per capita is 47.3kg, which exceeds the average world level. But the availability per capita of
milk and wool is still quite low. The proportion of animal product value in total agricultural production
has increased from 12.4% in 1949 to 28.5% in 1999.
There were 56575 technical extension posts servicing livestock production and veterinary medicine
with around 400000 staff in 1999. There are 1852 breeding farms (83 are national key farms), of which,
104 are for cattle, 187 for sheep, 23 for rabbits, 585 for pigs and 491 are integrated breeding farms. The
coverage of high quality breeds of cattle, sheep and pigs are 35%, 55% and 90% respectively (Source:
National Bureau of Statistics, 2000a).
The degree of commercial livestock production used to be very low and the supply of animal products
insufficient. Now, the proportion of animal products consumed domestically is very small and their
commercialisation has increased greatly. Animal husbandry has moved from the subsistence to the
commercial economy.
Farm size (National Bureau of Statistics, 2000a)

There are two types of holdings: private family farms and state-owned farms. The pasture of family farms
still belongs to the state and families pay according to a Long-term Grassland Use Contract with the
government, but the livestock belong to the family. State-owned farms are mainly for breeding and their
size varies greatly. Those in crop growing areas, for pigs and poultry, are usually small. Those in pastoral
areas are normally larger with 30000 to 50000ha of pasture and 20000 to 30000 head of animals (in
sheep units). The largest state-owned farm covers 150000ha These farms are mainly for breeding sheep and
cattle, a very few for horses and goats. The state-owned ranches of ancient China were for providing war-
horses for the army. In the late 1970s, most military ranches switched to sheep, cattle or integrated farming.
In pastoral areas, a family farm usually has 5 to 6 people, 40 to 80ha of pasture and 100 to 150 sheep
units of livestock.
In the eastern agricultural areas animal production at family level is quite small due to land scarcity.
According to the sample survey on rural households in 1999, a family had only 1.48 pigs, 0.47 sheep
and 0.05 cattle on average and the output of beef, milk and wool was 0.40kg, 12.74 kg and 0.73kg
respectively. Some family farms specialize in pig raising, sheep raising or cattle raising and their scale
is much larger than common family farms. Some of them could sell more than 100 fat beef cattle.
Table. 6 Livestock population (in thousand head)

Pigs Goats Sheep
Cattle (NBS (NBS (NBS
Year/Region and Horses Donkeys Mules Camels data Year data year data year
buffalo end) end) end)
1996 110 318 8 715 9 444 4 780 349 362 836 123 158 114 125
1997 121 757 8 912 9 528 4 806 350 400 348 134 801 120 956
1998 124 419 8 981 9 558 4 739 335 422 563 141 683 127 352
1999 126 983 8 914 9 348 4 673 330 430 198 148 163 131 095
2000* 127 149 8 916 9 348 4 673 330 437 541 148 401 131 095
2004* 134 824 7 902 8 207 3 957 265 472 895 183 363 157 330
2005* 137 975 7 641 7 919 3 740 262 488 810 195 759 170 882
Six pastoral provinces and
29 608 3 907 3 637 1 502 329 63 952 38 032 91 454
regions (1999)
Proportion of pastoral
23.32 43.83 38.91 32.14 99.70 14.87 25.67 69.76
provinces in total (%, 1999)
Note: the pastoral provinces and regions include Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Xinjiang Uigur Autonomous Region, Tibet
Autonomous Region, Qinghai Province, Sichuan Province and Gansu Province. Source: National Bureau of Statistics [NBS] (2000a)
*2000/2004/2005 data from FAOSTAT, 2006
Table 7. Output of livestock products of China

Milk (1000
Meat (1000 tonnes) Sheep wool (tonne)
tonnes) Goat Cash-
Year/Region Wool mere
Sheep Cow & Semi-
Cow Fine (tonne) (tonne)
Pork Beef & goat sheep Total fine
Milk Wool
meat milk Wool
1996 31 580 3 557 1 810 7 358 6 294 298 102 121 020 74 099 35 255 9 585
1997 35 963 4 009 2 128 6 811 6 011 255 059 116 054 55 683 25 865 8 626
1998 38 837 4 799 2 346 7 454 6 629 277 545 115 752 68 775 31 417 9 799
1999 38 907 5 054 2 513 8 069 7 176 283 152 114 103 73 700 31 849 10 180
2000* 41 406 4 991 2 754 9 479 8 632 292 502 n.r. n.r. n.r. n.r.
2004* 47 210 6 803 3 951 19 550 18 500 325 000 n.r. n.r. n.r. n.r.
2005* 50 095 6 800 4 349 25 650 24 530 400 000 n.r. n.r. n.r. n.r.
Six pastoral provinces and
5 476 814 959 2 228 2 084 172 336 71 694 33 629 9 914 5 971
regions (1999)
Proportion of pastoral
13.67 16.11 38.16 27.61 29.04 60.86 62.83 45.63 31.13 58.65
provinces in total (%, 1999)
Note: the pastoral provinces and regions include Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Xinjiang Uigur Autonomous Region, Tibet
Autonomous Region, Qinghai Province, Sichuan Province and Gansu Province. Source: National Bureau of Statistics (2000a)
*2000/2004/2005 data from FAOSTAT, 2006
n.r.= no record
Livestock species and breeds

Based on origin and distribution, livestock in China may be classified into four lineages. They are
Mongolia lineage (horse, cattle, sheep and goat) in the north, Kazakh lineage (horse, cattle, sheep and
goat) in the west, Tibetan lineage in the western Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and Central Plains lineage in the
central and southeast.
China has a great range of livestock breed resources; its breeds are famous for their prolificity, flavour
and adaptation to extensive management, cold tolerance, load tolerance and adaptation to specific
regions. There are special excellent breeds in each typical grassland type.
Cattle (Bos taurus) (Editorial Board of Cattle Breeds of China, 1998)

Cattle is the general name for Bos taurus and Bos indicus which are called Huang Niu (Yellow
Cattle) in Chinese. Cattle are found in all areas below 3 000 m. There are 55 breeds. Based on their
adaptation to ecological conditions, cattle may be sorted into three ecological-geographic groups:
Northern Cattle, Central Plains Cattle and South China Cattle.
The representative breed of Northern Cattle are the Mongolian Cattle which are adapted to
grazing in the Temperate Zone Steppe and Temperate Zone Meadow. Excellent native breeds
are Wuzhumuqin Cattle, Kazakh Cattle and Sanhe Cattle, all of them are meat and milk dual
breeds.
Central Plains Cattle are mainly in the flat agricultural tracts of the Temperate Zone Deciduous
Broad-leaf Forest and are mainly stall fed with some grazing. There are many excellent native
breeds such as Qinchuan Cattle, Nanyang Cattle, Luxi Cattle, Bohai Black Cattle etc. These native
breeds are famous draught animals and their raising depends, historically, on lucerne cultivation.
South China Cattle are in the hilly tropical subtropical zones, such as Hainan Cattle, Guangxi
Cattle and Yunnan Cattle, etc.
Yak (Bos grunniens)

Yak, regarded as the ship of the plateau, lives on anoxic plateaux at 3 000 to 5 000 m and are
mainly kept on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. There are 15 000 000 yaks in China (Qinghai, Tibet,
Sichuan, Gansu, Xinjiang and Yunnan), around 90% of the world total. It is believed that they
were domesticated from the wild Bos grunniens mutus, which is still found in remote mountains of
Tibet (Zhang Rongchang, 1989). The habitat of yak is limited to the mountains and plateaux of the
Asian highlands, inter-connected chain areas of the Himalayas, Pamir, Kunlun, Tianshan and Altai
Mountains and parts of Mongolia.
Yak are raised for draught and meat; milk, hide and hair are also important products (Hu Zizhi, 1997).
As green food (from less polluted plateaux), yak meat is very popular in cities. Nomadism is the
main raising style for yak and nomads have been herding yak them on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau for
probably 4000 years. Herders drive their yak from low valley (cold season pasture) to high mountains
(warm season pasture).
Yaks in China can be classified into two groups; Plateau Type and Valley type and seven native strains
or types.
Yaks of the Plateau Type are mainly found in the centre of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau which
covers most of Qinghai Province, the Tibet Autonomous Region and parts of Sichuan and
Gansu Provinces. The habitat of the Plateau Type is mountainous and difficult of access. There
are many marshes, semi-marshes and hilly grasslands with broad valleys, open topography and
gentle slopes. So yaks of the Plateau Type have a wide range of geographical types, hair-coat,
high proportion of polled animals, and different horn shapes. The weather is cold, the annual
average temperature is below 0 0C and annual precipitation less than 600 mm. The growing
period is about 120 to 150 days. Because of differences of microclimate and level of feeding and
grazing, the different breeds and populations of yaks show various body sizes. Milk and meat of
yak are the staple food of local herdsmen. Generally, yaks of the Plateau Type are good milkers
with high fat content milk.
Yaks of the Valley Type are mainly found in the alpine region of the Hengduan Mountain range
of the south-eastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, including the eastern part of Tibet, the southern part
of Qinghai, the south-western part of Sichuan and north-eastern Yunnan. The altitude is 4000
to 5000m. Annual precipitation is more than 600mm and the climate is frigid and sub-humid.
Grassland in this region is mainly alpine shrub meadow and the growing period is about 150 to
180 days. Yak of this type have big body size, good tolerance, strong constitution, high meat
productivity and high yield of hair and undercoat. Both sexes have wide and rough horns. The
seven native strains are Jiulong Yak (big body size with male liveweight of 470kg), Maiwa Yak
(413kg of male liveweight, good at loading), Tianzhu White Yak (distributed in Gansu and small
body size with male liveweight of 260kg, its white hair is valuable for stage property and its tail
is also important for religious uses), Qinghai Alpine Yak (the most numerous, male liveweight
is 440kg), Tibetan Mountain Yak (found in Tibet and the male liveweight is 290kg), Xinjiang
Bazhou Yak (found in Xinjiang and the male liveweight is 360kg) and Zhongdian Yak (found
in Yunnan with male liveweight of 230kg).
Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)

Buffalos are of the swamp type and kept in the humid tropical and subtropical areas. There are three
types and 18 subtypes. Buffalo are stall-fed and mainly kept for draught and meat. The milk and hide
are also important products (Editorial Board of Cattle Breeds of China, 1998).
Sheep (Ovis aries) (Editorial Board of Sheep Breeds of China, 1989)

Sheep, the major grazing livestock in China, are kept in temperate areas within N 30 to 50 and E 75
to 135. There are four lineages (Mongolia, Kazakh, Tibetan and Central) with many excellent breeds.
Inner Mongolia Fine Wool Sheep, Aohan Fine Wool Sheep and Northeast Fine Wool Sheep are excellent
breeds bred with the Mongolian Sheep as female parent.
Kazakh Sheep is an ancient coarse wool breed in the desert areas of Xinjiang, it was used as the female
parent of Xinjiang Fine Wool Sheep. Xinjiang Fine Wool Sheep has strong adaptability and has been
successfully introduced into many places.
Tibetan Sheep is an ancient breed which can adapt to extreme alpine climates, but can not adapt to
warm areas. Gansu Alpine Fine Wool Sheep and Qinghai Fine Wool Sheep are excellent breeds bred
with Tibet Sheep as female parent.
Central Plains Sheep are kept in warm temperate and subtropical areas under semi stall feeding; they
have some special features. For example, Hu Sheep can live under subtropical humid conditions and is the
southernmost sheep breed. Xiaoweihanyang Sheep and Hu Sheep are very prolific, each lambing could
give 2 to 6 young (artificial feeding always needed). Daweihanyang Sheep have an exceptionally fat tail.
Tan Sheep famous for their fur with long curled hair, are raised in desert and semi-desert areas.
Goat (Capra hircus)

Goats are the most widely distributed livestock in China, since they can adapt to many climates and
pastures. There are 35 breeds. The most special breed is Zhongwei Goat; its fur is like the famous Tan
Sheep. The Tibetan Turi Goat is famous for its cashmere. Since 1999, the Government has requested
farmers to switch goat management pattern from grazing to stall feeding. This is for recovering the
ecological condition of grassland.
Horse (Equus caballus)

Horses are the ancient draught animals of China in areas below 4 000 m. There are four major
ecological-geographic groups (North Grassland Horse, Xinjiang Mountain Grassland Horse, Qinghai-
Tibet Plateau Horse and Southwest Mountain Horse) and 70 breeds. In pastoral areas, horses are used for
riding and grazed on natural grassland. Herders in Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang also drink mares milk.
In agricultural areas horse are pack and draught animals, mainly for ploughing, and are kept in stables or
even the farmers yard. Normally Chinese do not eat horsemeat. The special breeds are Haomeng Horse
(natural ambler), Chinese Mini Debao Pony, Erlunchun Forest Horse, anoxic tolerant Tibetan Horse and
Yunnan Horse (adapted to stony mountain terrain).
Camel (Camelus bactrianus)

Camels are important in temperate deserts. There are some single humped camels in south Xinjiang but
the great majority are two-humped Bactrian camels. There are three breeds in China, Xinjiang Camel,
Alashan Camel and Sunite Camel, the latter lives in the steppe and its body size is the largest since the
forage is better. The major purpose of camel raising is as pack animals and for wool. Camel are raised
on natural grassland with supplementation in winter.
Pigs (Sus scrofa domestica)

There are breeds of 60 pigs in China, most are stall-fed. The Tibetan Pig is a grazing breed, usually
grazing on natural grassland as a mixed flock of 60 to 80 heads (adult and young, male and female are
all mixed). It grows slowly because of poor forage; its adult liveweight is around 35kg. However, its
meat is very lean and is superior material for preserved pork and roast suckling pig. Xinjiang Yili White
Pig is another grazing breed, but its numbers are quite small. It grazes on grassland along rivers or in
woodland, but is kept in sheds during winter with supplementation.
Animal units
For convenience of management, an Animal Unit is defined, based on the grazing pressure on grassland
or grass consumption of certain specific animal, as the standard so other animals can be converted into
Animal Units by comparing the same items. The Animal Unit is also called Animal Equivalent or
Animal Index. Sheep is used as the standard unit in China; a Sheep Unit is defined as a ewe of 40-kg
liveweight and its nursing lamb(s) and the daily forage consumption is 5 to 7.5 kg. The conversion
coefficients of Sheep Unit to other grazing animals are given in Table 8.
Feeding systems
Extensive Grazing System: Feeding systems in the north and west differ because of the ecological
conditions. Steppe is the dominant grassland type of Inner Mongolia where the pasture is flat and the
environment is simple. Land can be grazed at any season so long as water is available; there are no seasonal
restrictions to grazing. Animals are moved rotationally following a predetermined range and routine.
In Xinjiang desert areas, there are two seasonal grazing belts: basins and mountains. Animals graze
in the basins in winter, move in transhumance to the mountains in spring and to the high mountains in
summer, returning to the basins in late autumn. It is a strict seasonal grazing system and animals spend 1
to 2 months travelling from winter to summer pasture. This system is adopted commonly in Central Asia.
In the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, although animals graze where the elevation is above 3000m, grassland
is still divided into two grazing seasonal belts: lower cold season pasture and higher warm season
pasture. Summer pasture can be used for only 1 to 2 months. This system composed of frigid alpine
grassland and resistance to anoxia makes Tibetan livestock unique. Now, this system has switched to one
in which animals are supplemented in winter.
Tethered System: Animals are tethered so they are strictly controlled and the grass can be completely
utilized. It is used for saddle horses and high yielding milk cows in pastoral areas and for small pieces
of grassland in crop areas.
Uncontrolled Grazing: Pasture use is not planned Table 8 Stock units

and animals are herded from place to place over a Species Description Stock unit
large area. This system existed when the grazing Sheep Breeding ewe and its nursing lamb 1
rights were not defined and the grassland was Adult ram 1
sufficient. After the Long-term Grassland Use One-year old lamb hogg 0.5
Contract System was completed, this system has Goat Breeding doe and its nursing kid 0.9
Adult buck 0.9
been gradually replaced by rotational grazing
One-year old goat hogg 0.4
and only exists in remote summer pastures Pigs Mixed herd on average 0.8
or open pasture. However, some researchers Adult cow 5
consider that the fact that nomads still follow this Cattle Draught bull, medium working strength 5
system is proof of the rationality and efficacy of Fattened beef cattle 5
many aspects of traditional pastoral production 6 to 12 month old cattle 2.5
12 to 18 month old cattle 3.5
as a means to convert forage from cold, arid
18 to 24 month old cattle 4.5
rangelands into valuable animal products in Yak Mixed herd on average 3
an environment where cultivated agriculture is Breeding yak cow and its nursing calf 4
not possible. The survival of pastoral nomads Horse or Adult horse or mule, medium strength 5
mule
indicates that many of the strategies of animal
Breeding mare and its nursing foal 5
husbandry and grassland management developed
1 year old horse or mule 2.5
centuries ago are well-adapted responses to the 2 year old horse or mule 3.5
spectrum of environment conditions (Miller and 3 year old horse or mule 4.5
Craig, 1996). Camel: Adult camel 7
Integration of livestock into farming systems

In the two past decades, developing animal husbandry through integrating livestock into farming
systems has been successfully introduced with the development of science and technology, improvement
of production and management levels and increasing shortage of natural grassland. The approach for
integrating livestock into the farming system is as follows. Since agricultural holdings are small grazed
sown pasture is not practicable so stall feeding with cut and carry is usual for ruminants combining crop
residues, wild herbage and cultivated fodder.
Growing Grass and Fodder for Livestock: Since 1983, the central government has encouraged farmers
to grow fodder and raise livestock. Agricultural experts and extension services are extending the three
components growing model (cereals, cash crops and forage crops grown in rotation). Both farming
structure and production efficiency were improved under this model. Practices vary according to region.
1. In pastoral areas, government encourages and assists farmers to establish some artificial grassland
for hay.
2. In northern warm temperate agricultural areas, farmers are encouraged to use some of, or even all,
arable land to grow high quality forages such as lucerne, or to grow Vicia sativa after wheat harvest
for high quality hay and then to raise pigs and poultry.
3. In southern subtropical paddy areas, farmers use the fallow paddy field to grow Lolium multiflorum
for pigs, dairy cows and rabbits. This is a rotation of rice and ryegrass. Annual ryegrass is sown in
November and cut once every 10 days from November to next March (in total 8 to 10 times). The
yield of fresh grass is 60 to 70tonnes per ha and its content of crude protein is 20 to 26%. This
farming system is called Rice-Annual Ryegrass System and is greatly supported by government.
It has been extended to more than 2000000ha in southern subtropical paddy areas
Develop Beef Production with Maize Silage: In the Central Plains (including Henan, Hebei, Shandong
and Anhui Provinces), maize stover was used as fuel or thrown away. Since the mid nineteen-eighties,
maize silage technology has been the subject of an extension campaign. With help from the Livestock
Technique Extension Service, farmers can easily get beef cattle through artificial insemination using
imported frozen semen. Farmers feed beef cattle with maize silage supplemented with some concentrates.
This is a high profile initiative. The central government, starting in 1992, established demonstration
counties at national level for cattle fattening using maize stover; their number was increased to 268
and the number of local demonstration counties became 187 (including counties for sheep raising with
ammoniated straw). At present, there are many large-scale beef cattle farms in this area. The Central
Plains is now the most important beef production base and produces around 50% of national beef output.
This trend is advancing rapidly for cereals are relatively abundant and the demand for beef is rising.
Sheep Production with Ammoniated Straw: In northern agricultural areas, wheat straw was used as
fodder for draught animals. However, more and more farmers use machines instead of draught animals
and a huge amount of straw was not used. Farmers burnt it in the field which threatened the environment.
In the last decade, ammoniated straw technology was extended to increase the nitrogen content in
straw, improve palatability and feeding value. Animal production in this area was greatly improved.
This technology can also reduce environmental pollution. From 1995 the central government started
to establish demonstration counties at national level and it strongly promotes roughage utilization and
animal production. Sheep are given ammoniated wheat straw and supplemented with concentrates so
that the wheat straw is fully used.
Socio-economic conditions
Legislation: Since the open door and reform policy in 1979, law creation in the animal husbandry sector
has made great strides. It began with the Byelaw of Livestock and Poultry Epidemic Prevention in
1985 and 13 laws relating to grassland and animal production have been passed up to now, including the
Law of Grassland, Law of Animal Epidemic Prevention, Byelaw of Animal Remedy Management,
Byelaw of Breeding Animal and Poultry, Law of Quarantine Inspection of Imported and Exported
Plants and Animals and Byelaw of Fodder and Fodder Additive Management. At the same time,
over 100 detailed rules and regulations have been made and local government made local regulations
accordingly. Usually the local Grassland Station or Animal Production Station is the law enforcer.
Social Services: As mentioned above, China has a complete animal husbandry technical extension
network (including grassland technical services). The network has four levels: National, Provincial,
Prefecture and County. There are more than 50000 services in the country and more than 400000 staff
are employed. Additionally, around 500 000 village extension workers are involved in this network.
Some extension workers at grass roots level were lost around 1990 since the fund was reduced. In
1998, 46249 Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine Stations (or Grassland Stations) at township
level were determined as government-sponsored institutions, and out of them, 30 989 stations are
totally sponsored, occupying 67% of the total. 295407 staff are employed by these institutions (China
Agricultural Yearbook Editorial Committee, 2000). This network provides strong backing for animal
production.
Market Constraints: Animal products had a sellers market before the 1990s and supply was insufficient.
Thereafter, animal production was dramatically promoted and farmers have to face furious competition
in a buyers market. So as to make market mechanisms more active and favour animal production,
government strengthens the information exchange between producers and consumers. Government
also set-up the Milk Plan for Students and Breakfast Revolution to enhance milk consumption.
To improve fine wool production, a Society of Fine Wool Producers has been set-up in Xinjiang Uigur
Autonomous Region. Meanwhile, show, sale and auction of breeding sheep and wool was held in Inner
Mongolia Autonomous Region. These two regions produce most of the sheep wool in China.
5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE
Grassland is defined, in China, as land mainly covered by herbaceous vegetation, or with sparse shrubs
or trees concurrently present in the community. It can provide food for livestock and wildlife; it is also
a kind of land-organism resource that can provide a graceful environment, organic products and other
functions for the human population (Hu Zizhi, 1997). Land sown to grazeable forages is defined as
artificial grassland.
Area and distribution of grassland

China is one of the countries with the most plentiful grassland resources in the world. The total area (see
Table 9) is 392832633ha (1994), which accounts for 11.82% of the worlds grassland - and takes third
place after Australia and Russia. The area of usable grassland is 330995458ha (excluding Hongkong,
Macao and Taiwan); 34.49% of the national land area. Most of Chinas grassland is in the northern arid
and cold areas. For grassland area and number of livestock the six major pastoral areas are, Tibet, Inner
Mongolia, Xinjiang, Qinghai, Sichuan and Gansu. The grassland of these regions accounts for 74.68%
of the national total and the grazing herbivorous livestock accounts for around 70% (see Table 10).
[References: Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine Division of Agriculture Ministry of China,
1994, 1996; China Resource Information Editorial Committee, 2000)
Grassland classification
Because of the huge territory, complex terrain, diverse climate and long history of grassland utilization,
there are many grassland types in China and this led to in-depth research on grassland classification.
Currently, there are two systems of grassland classification with more than 40 years research behind them.
The Vegetation-habitat Classification System This was created by Prof. Liao Guofan, Prof. Su Daxue,
Prof. Xu Peng, Prof. Liu Qi, and Prof. Zhang Zutong. It is a compendious and non-numerical system
based on the subjective judgement of the surveyor. It was used for the national survey of grassland
resources from 1980 to 1990 (Rangeland Table 9. Grassland area in China

Resources of China, 1996). Most of the Total grassland area Usable grassland area
data cited in this document are from that Province % of Per
Area (ha) total Area (ha) % capita
investigation. The system has four grades. land (ha)
First grade: Class, grassland is clas- Beijing 394 846 24.07 336 310 0.10 0.03
Tianjin 146 604 12.97 135 402 0.04 0.02
sified into 9 Classes based on ther-
Hebei 4 712 140 25.06 4 085 324 1.23 0.06
mal and vegetation features (see Shanxi 4 552 000 29.03 4 552 000 1.38 0.15
Table 13). Inner
78 804 480 68.81 63 592 092 19.21 2.84
Second grade: Subclass, is the fur- Mongolia
ther division after Class based on Liaoning 3 388 848 23.23 3 239 293 0.98 0.08
Jilin 5 842 182 30.60 4 378 993 1.32 0.17
the features of climate or vegetation.
Heilongjiang 7 531 767 16.57 6 081 653 1.96 0.17
Some Classes, such as marshes, are Shanghai 73 333 11.64 37 333 0.0002 0.0029
not further divided (see Table 13). Jiangsu 412 700 4.08 325 673 0.10 0.0049
Third grade: Group, is divided Zhejiang 3 169 853 30.57 2 075 176 0.63 0.05
according to the economic groups Anhui 1 663 179 11.89 1 485 176 0.45 0.02
of grasses based on the grassland Fujian 2 047 957 16.54 1 957 060 0.59 0.06
Jiangxi 4 442 334 26.58 3 847 562 1.16 0.09
Type, for example, Tall Herbaceous
Shandong 1 637 974 10.45 1 329 157 0.04 0.02
Group, Medium Herbaceous Group, Henan 4 433 788 26.76 4 043 253 1.22 0.04
Short Herbaceous Group. Hubei 6 352 215 34.23 5 071 537 1.53 0.09
Fourth grade: Type, it is the basic Hunan 6 372 668 30.07 5 666 309 1.71 0.09
unit and divided according to the Guangdong 3 266 241 18.34 2 677 239 0.81 0.04
Guangxi 8 698 342 36.75 6 500 346 1.84 0.14
features of the dominant species in
Hainan 949 773 27.93 843 273 0.25 0.12
community and habitat. Types are
Sichuan 20 964 932 42.16 18 230 281 5.51 0.22
named with the name of the domi- Chongqing 1 537 844 24.07 1 390 021 0.41 0.05
nant species. Grassland in China is Guizhou 4 287 257 24.40 3 759 735 1.14 0.11
divided into 276 Types. Yunnan 15 308 433 40.11 11 925 587 3.61 0.31
Xizang
82 051 942 68.10 70 846 781 21.41 30.1
(Tibet)
The Comprehensive and Sequential Shaanxi 5 206 183 25.32 4 349 218 1.31 0.13
Classification System (see Figure 13) Gansu 17 904 206 42.07 16 071 608 4.86 0.67
This was created by Prof. Ren Jizhou, Qinghai 36 369 746 51.36 31 530 670 9.53 6.91
Prof. Hu Zizhi, Prof. Zhang Degang, Ningxia 3 014 067 58.19 2 625 556 0.80 0.51
Prof. Long Ruijun and Dr. Gao Caixia, Xinjiang 57 258 767 34.68 48 006 840 14.51 2.93
China 392 832 633* 41.41** 330 995 458 100.00 0.28
etc. Its features are:
* Hongkong and Taiwan are not included. **%age of grassland to total inland
the basic unit, Class, is divided area. Source: China Resource Information Editorial Committee (2000)
through humidity grade and thermal
grade. This method enables quanti- Table 10. Grassland area in different economic zones (ha)
Grassland
tative classification and computer Zone area % Provinces covered
retrieval; Inner Mongolia, Jilin, Heilongjiang,
the Classification index chart can Pastoral 193 158 693 49.17 Xinjiang, Sichuan, Xizang (Tibet),
Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia
visually indicate the different Hebei, Shanxi, Inner Mongolia,
classes, sort order of classes, the Agro- 58 525 674 14.90
Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang,
pastoral Sichuan, Xizang (Tibet), Gansu,
grassland development relation and Qinghai, Yunnan, Xinjiang
zonal features among classes; Agricultural 141 148 266 35.93 All provinces
it can be used for grassland classi- Total 392 832 633 100.00
fication all over the world within a Source: Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine Division of Agriculture
Ministry of China, 1994
unified system.
There are four grades in this system.
First grade: Class Group, after the Class is determined the Classes can be merged into Class
Groups according to cumulative temperature or humidity.
Second grade: Class, is divided in terms of thermal and moisture conditions. Thermal grade is
determined with >0 C accumulative temperature (see Table 11). Humidity grade is determined
with humidity (see Table 12). Class is named with thermal grade, humidity grade and representative
zonal vegetation climax consecutively.
Figure 13. Index Chart of Class of

Comprehensive and Sequential
Classification System
Third grade: Subclass, is divided accord- Table 11. Thermal grades and their thermal zones
Accumulated
ing to land condition, including soil and Thermal grade temperature>0 C Thermal zone
terrain. Soil type is used in flat area and Frigid < 1 300 C (Alpine) Frigid Zone
terrain type in hilly area. Subclass is Cold Temperate 1 300 to 2 300 C Cold Temperate Zone
named with the name of soil or terrain. Cool Temperate 2 300 to 3 700 C Cool Temperate Zone
Fourth grade: Type, is divided and named Warm Temperate 3 700 to 5 300 C Warm Temperate Zone
Warm 5 300 to 6 200 C North Subtropics
with the dominant species in the plant
Subtropical 6 200 to 8 000 C South Subtropics
community. Tropical > 8 000 C Tropics
Table 12. Precipitation grades and their associated

Grassland types and area
natural landscapes
According to the Vegetation-habitat Classi- Humidity grade K value Suitable natural landscape
fication System, grassland in China can be Hyper arid <0.3 Desert
divided into nine classes and 276 types. The Semi desert (Desert steppe,
Arid 0.3 to 0.9
names of classes and subclasses and their areas Steppe desert)
Typical Steppe, Xerophytic
are shown in Table 13. There are 69 types in Semi-arid 0.9 to 1.2
Forest, Savanna
Temperate Steppe Class, 39 types in Temperate Forest, Forest Steppe, Meadow
Subhumid 1.2 to 1.5
Desert Class, 25 types in Warm Shrubby Tussock Steppe, Savanna, Meadow
Humid 1.5 to 2.0 Forest, Tundra, Meadow
Class, 39 types in Tropical Shrubby Tussock
Per-humid >2.0 Forest, Tundra, Meadow
Class, 51 types in Temperate Meadow Class,
Note: K= r/(0.1 sum theta) where K is humidity, r is annual rainfall
24 types in Alpine Meadow Class, 17 types in (mm), sum theta is >0 C annual accumulative temperature.
Table 13. Area of different grassland classes

Total grassland area Usable grassland area
Grassland class and subclass Rank*
Area (ha) % Area (ha) %
Temperate Steppe Class 74 537 509 18.98 66 247 465 20.01 1
Temperate Meadow-steppe 14 519 331 3.7 12 827 411 [8]
Temperate Typical Steppe 41 096 571 10.46 36 367 633 [1]
Temperate Desert-steppe 18 921 607 4.82 1 705 421 [5]
Temperate Desert Class 55 734 229 14.19 39 745 057 12.00 4
Temperate Typical Desert 45 060 811 11.47 30 604 131 [3]
Temperate Desert Steppe 10 673 418 2.72 9 140 926 [11]
Warm Shrubby Tussock Class 18 273 058 4.65 15 627 185 4.72 7
Warm Tussock 6 657 148 1.69 5 853 667 [14]
Warm Typical Tussock 11 615 910 2.96 9 773 518 [10]
Tropical Shrubby Tussock Class 32 651 615 8.31 25 506 997 7.71 6
Tropical Tussock 14 237 196 3.62 1 141 999 [9]
Tropical Typical Shrub Tussock 17 551 276 4.47 13 447 569 [7]
Tropical Savanna 863 144 0.22 639 429 [15]
Temperate Meadow Class 41 900 414 10.68 35 942 515 10.87 5
Lowland Meadow 25 219 621 6.42 21 038 409 [4]
Mountain Meadow 16 718 926 4.26 14 923 439 [6]
Alpine Meadow Class 63 720 549 16.22 58 834 182 17.75 2
Alpine Steppe Class 58 054 911 14.77 149 202 826 14.87 3
Alpine Meadow-steppe 6 865 734 1.75 6 011 528 [13]
Alpine Typical Steppe 41 623 171 10.59 35 439 220 [2]
Alpine Desert Steppe 9 566 006 2.43 7 752 078 [12]
Alpine Desert Class 7 527 763 1.92 5 592 765 1.69 8
Marsh Class 2 873 812 0.73 2 253 714 0.68 9
Total 392 832 633 100.00 330 995 458 100.00
* Numbers in brackets mean rank of subclass
Source: China Resource Information Editorial Committee (2000)
Figure 14. Grassland distribution and classes
Alpine Steppe Class, 4 types in Alpine Desert Class and 8 types in the Marshes Class. See Figure 14 for
broad grassland distribution and Figure 15 for photographs of some grassland types.
Grassland productivity
Because grassland is used for livestock production, its productivity may be measured by three indexes:
15a) Alpine steppe type, Tibet 15b) Alpine desert type, Tibet
15c) Temperate steppe type, Inner Mongolia 15d) Alpine meadow steppe type, Quinghai
15e) Temperate meadow steppe type, Inner 15f) Temperate desert steppe type, Quinghai
Mongolia
Figure 15. Landscape (photographs) of different grassland classes
1. dry herbage yield, indicates the Table 14. Dry herbage yield of different grassland classes
essential productivity of grassland; Grassland class Yield Rank Total yield % of total
(kg/ha) (kg)
2. carrying capacity, indicates the inter-
Temperate Steppe Class 888.9 5 5 888x107 19.55
mediate productivity of grassland; Alpine Steppe Class 272.5 8 1 006x107 4.45
3. animal product units, indicates the Temperate Desert Class 360.3 7 1 432x107 4.75
end productivity of grassland. Alpine Desert Class 117.0 9 65x107 0.22
Warm Shrubby Tussock
1 740 3 2 718x107 9.02
Class
Index of Grass Yield Herbage yield Tropical Shrubby Tussock
2 544 1 6 490x107 21.56
varies greatly among different classes Class
and types since most grassland is in arid Temperate Meadow
1 697 4 6 090x107 20.26
Class
and alpine areas with low productivity. Alpine Meadow Class 882 6 5 189x107 17.24
The dry grass yield is 911 kg/ha on Marshes Class 2 183 2 492x107 1.63
average, the highest is 2544kg/ha from National Average 911 3 009x107 100.00
Tropical Shrubby Tussock Class and the Source: China Resource Information Editorial Committee (2000)
lowest is 117 kg/ha from Alpine Desert Table 15. Carrying capacity of natural grassland in
Class (see Table 14). different regions
Carrying Theoretical %age
capacity carrying of total
Province Rank
Carrying Capacity Index Carrying (ha/sheep capacity carrying
unit/year) (sheep unit) capacity
capacity is the number of animals and Beijing 0.66 510 304 0.11 28
the time of grazing that a specified Tianjin 0.28 489 657 0.11 29
class can support per unit, it can be Hebei 0.35 11 738 689 2.61 13
expressed in animal units, time units or Shanxi 0.41 10 991 092 2.45 17
grassland units. The theoretical carrying Inner
1.44 44 201 516 9.85 2
Mongolia
capacity of the national total grassland Liaoning 0.61 5 324 729 1.19 24
is 448 920 000 sheep units (the sheep Jilin 0.39 11 106 669 2.47 15
unit is defined as one 40-kg ewe with Heilongjiang 0.32 19 263 730 4.29 9
lamb, the daily intake is 5 to 7.5 kg of Shanghai 0.29 130 945 0.03 30
fresh grass); a sheep unit needs 0.93ha Jiangsu 0.35 918 290 0.20 27
Zhejiang 0.26 7 937 405 1.77 23
of grassland. The carrying capacity of
Anhui 0.18 8 172 337 1.82 21
Tropical Shrubby Tussock Class is the Fujian 0.23 8 520 105 1.90 20
highest with 0.33 ha per sheep unit per Jiangxi 0.32 11 972 715 2.67 12
year and Alpine Desert Class is the Shandong 0.50 2 639 334 0.59 26
lowest with 9.27ha, which is around 10 Henan 0.45 8 976 660 2.00 19
times the average (see Tables 15 and 16). Hubei 0.28 18 061 219 4.02 10
Hunan 0.24 23 233 666 5.18 8
Guangdong 0.15 18 066 020 4.02 11
Animal product unit index Guangxi 0.25 25 719 535 5.73 7
An animal product unit (APU) is defined Hainan 0.22 3 901 690 0.87 25
as the output of standard animal product Sichuan 0.39 46 351 755 10.33 1
unit per unit grassland area in a specified Chongqing 0.19 7 999 175 1.78 22
time. All animal products from grassland Guizhou 0.32 11 734 636 2.61 14
Yunnan 0.38 31 080 500 6.92 4
should be converted into standard animal
Xizang
product units (Ren Jizhou et al., 1985 (Tibet)
2.63 27 082 473 6.03 6
and Hu Zizhi, 1979). Shaanxi 0.48 9 029 582 2.01 18

One APU equals 1kg of liveweight of Gansu 1.46 11 040 546 2.46 16
Qinghai 1.09 29 003 611 6.46 5
grazing beef cattle with medium nutrition
Ningxia 1.78 1 471 186 0.33 27
condition; it contains approximately Xinjiang 1.49 32 248 600 7.18 3
26.5MJ of digestible energy or 22.5MJ China 0.74 448 915 416 100.00
of metabolisable energy or 13.9 MJ Source: Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine Division
of net energy for liveweight gain. The of Agriculture Ministry of China (1994)
following rules should be followed when

Table 16 Carrying capacity of different grassland classes
converting animal products into APU:
Theoretical
1. liveweight is carcass of cattle and Carrying carrying
capacity (ha/ % of
Grassland class capacity Rank
sheep with medium fatness; sheep unit/ (million sheep total
year)
2. milk is standard milk with 4% fat unit)
and 8.9% solid-not-fat matter; Temperate Steppe 1.42 46.734 14.6 4
Alpine Steppe 3.73 13.259 4.1 6
3. wool is scoured wool;
Temperate Desert 3.67 10.016 3.3 7
4. draught animal is an adult of medi- Alpine Desert 9.27 0.603 0.3 9
um body weight; Warm Shrubby
0.45 34.682 10.8 5
5. work output of draught animal is Tussock
Tropical Shrubby
low-grade; Tussock
0.33 77.401 24.2 1
6. hides should meet common pro- Temperate
0.51 70.350 22.0 2
cessing requirements; Meadow
7. lamb-wool should meet common Alpine Meadow 0.98 60.132 18.8 3
Marsh Class 0.39 5.730 1.8 8
requirements.
Total 0.93 318.907* 100.0
The norms used for converting * 13000000 sheep units on fragmentary grassland are not included.
animal products into APU are based Source: Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine Division of Agriculture
on comparing energy requirement with Ministry of China (1994)
Figure 16. Carrying capacity pattern chart of different grassland classes
APU. For convenience, the conversion rates for Table 17. Proportion of parts of cattle or sheep of at
different animal products are shown in Table least medium fatness
18. These rates are determined according to Cattle Sheep
the proportion of different parts of slaughtered Number 79 105
beef cattle or mutton sheep of at least medium Average liveweight 276 50
Carcase % 50 45
size (Table 17).
Head and feet % 7 8
This can truly show the amount of animal
Intestines % 13 15
products which a unit of grassland could Blood % 4 4
provide for humans in a specified period when Hide % 7 9
APU is used to evaluate grassland productivity. Gut contents % 10 19
Moreover, it avoids the inaccuracy caused by
carrying capacity and it is convenient to compare grassland productivity among different regions or
countries. According to the statistics, the average grassland productivity of China is 7.02APUs per ha,
which is 7.02kg carcass or 0.45kg net wool or 70.2kg milk if converted into sole animal product. This
productivity is very low compared with developed countries.
Grassland protection
There are many factors which can ruin grass growth and grassland ecology. Apart from over-grazing,
these include grassland rodents, pests, diseases, toxic plants, harmful plants and fire. Of these rodents
and pests are most important. The area of grassland destroyed by rodents ranges from 1 700 000 to
2 000 000 ha (see Table 19) and pests damage 6 500 000 to 7 500 000 annually. The economic loss
caused by rodents and pests is 1300000 to 1400000 RMB Yuan (equivalent to 160 to 170million
US dollars). In some areas, farmers have to move to other places or even become ecological refugees
because the grassland has been totally destroyed by rodents and no forage remains.
China has set up a remote sensing grassland disaster monitoring system for grassland (mainly for fire
and snow). This system can estimate the area of snow-covered grassland and depth of snow.
Grassland rodents
Species of harmful grassland rodents. There are more than 80 species distributed in different grassland
types.
Temperate Steppe: Microtus arvajis, M. Table 18. APU Conversion rates for different animal
brandtii, M. gregalis, Myospalax aspalax, products
M. fontanieri, M. psiluris, Allactaga sibirica, Animal products Conversion rate (APU)
Lepus capensis, L. mandschurica, Ochotona 1 kg liveweight of beef cattle 1.0
daurica, Citellus daurica, Marmota sibirica, 1 carcass of a 50 kg sheep 22.5 (45% dressing%)
1 carcass of a 280 kg cattle 140.0 (50% dressing%)
Cricelulus barobensis, Meriones unguiculatus,
1 kg edible intestines 1.0
and M. meridiaus 1 kg standard milk 0.1
1 kg net wool 13.0
Temperate Desert: Lepus yarkandensis, 1 three year old draught horse 500.0
Ochotona pallasi, Citellus dauricus, Citellus 1 three year old draught cattle 400.0
erythrogenys, Citellus Pygmaeus, Rhombomys 1 four year old draught camel 750.0
1 three year old draught donkey 200.0
opimus, Meriones unguiculatus, M.
1 year work of a draught horse 200.0
meridianus, Lagurus sagitta, and Stylodpus 1 year work of a draught cattle 160.0
telum 1 year work of a draught camel 300.0
1 year work of a draught donkey 80.0
Alpine Grassland: Lepus oiostolus, Ochotona 1 cow hide 13.0
curzoniae, O. Tibetana, O. Thomasii, O. 1 lamb skin 15.0
1 cow hide 20.0 (or 7% of liveweight)
cansus, Marmota himalayana, Pitymys
1 horse hide 15.0 (or 5% of liveweight)
irene, P. lencurus, P. oeconomus, Myospalax 1 sheep skin 4.5 (or 9% of liveweight)
fontanieri, and Allactaga sibirica 1 sheep (medium fat or more,
34.5 (or 69% of liveweight)
50 kg liveweight)
1 ox (medium fat or more, 280 kg
Measures for rodent control. The guidelines liveweight)
196.0 (or 70% of liveweight)
for rodent control in China are To make a
full-scale plan and focus on the key regions, to strengthen the monitoring and comprehensively control
in safe and efficient ways. The measures are as follows:
(1) Trapping. This involves catching rodents manually with simple tools. It is safe for people and
animals and the skin and bone of captured rodents could be utilized, but it is time and labour
costly and cannot be carried out on a large scale at the same time.
(2) Poisoning. This is a simple, easy and efficient method to kill rodents and can be done on a large
scale at the same time. But it is costly and causes environmental pollution. Attention must be
paid to safety of people and animals when toxic chemicals are used.
(3) Biological measures
Attracting eagles: Set up wooden or cement poles on the grassland at intervals of 500 m as
perches and attract eagles. This method has been used in China since the 1980s.
Biotoxins: Botulinal toxin produced by microorganism metabolite has been used on a large
scale to control rodents since 1985. Biotoxin features are highly efficient, residue-free, no
secondary nor environmental pollution and safe for people and animals.
Table 19. Area of rodents and pest damaged grassland and controlled areas in some provinces
Damaged area by rodents Damaged area by pests
(1,000 ha) (1,000 ha) Economic loss
Region (million RMB
Damaged Controlled Damaged Controlled Yuan)
Hebei 486.7 62.0 456.7 217.3 7 075.0

Inner Mongolia 5 036.0 1 173.3 2 926.3 382.7 4 8740.0
Liaoning 79.7 16.1 51.1 17.2 4 157.6
Jilin 573.3 347.3 173.3 166.7 440.0
Heilongjiang 213.3 54.7 420.0 90.0 5 700.0
Sichuan 2 692.0 200.0 220.0 33.3 20 000.0
Shaanxi 420.0 84.0 260.0 35.3 2 550.0
Gansu 2 198.7 162.0 566.4 41.3 16 590.0
Qinghai 6 807.2 1 524.3 948.0 146.2 29 089.4
Ningxia 200.0 46.7 166.7 6.7 990.0
Xinjiang 82.1 664.3 739.9 531.3 -
Total 18 789.0 4 334.7 6 928.4 1 668.0 135 332.0
Source: China Resource Information Editorial Committee (2000)
(4) Ecological measures The rodent population could be reduced dramatically by establishing
perennial artificial grassland since forbs (favourite food of rodents) could be eliminated from the
community. This is very efficient where the grassland is completely damaged and has become
bare ground. Ochotona curzoniae and Myospalax fontanieri on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau could
be effectively controlled thus.
Insect pests
Many pest insects threaten natural grassland, such as locusts, meadow caterpillar, meadow moth, leaf
beetle, long-horned grasshopper, and carabid beetle.
Locusts There are more than 50 species of locust on natural grassland, the important ones are Locusta
migratoria, Myrmeleotettix palpalis, Calliptamus italicus, Ghorthippus fallax, Comphocerus sibiricus
sibiricus, Haplotropis brunneriana, Oedaleus infernalis, Epacromius coerulipes, Chorthippus dubius,
Bryodema gebleri etc.
Both chemical and biological techniques are used to control locust in practice.
(1) Chemical control. A suitable pesticide is applied by air when locusts occur on a large scale.
(2) Biological control.
a. Chickens: Locusts can be predated by chicken that graze on grassland.
b. Sturnus (starling): The distribution of Sturnus is closely related with locusts, they can be
attracted by setting up artificial nests and a bird can eat 120 to 180 locusts daily.
c. Microsporidium of locusts is a protozoon of the Sporozoa which parasitises locusts and causes
the host insects to kill each other. This protozoon affects the offspring of the host. Microspo-
ridia of locust can be commercially produced for large scale locust control.
Meadow Caterpillar. Meadow caterpillar, of Lymantriidae family of Lepidoptera, only exists on the
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The major species are Gynaephora alpherekii, G. qinghaiensis, G. aureata, G.
ruoergensis, G. minora etc. Their larvae eat a large amount of grass and also can cause disease in the mouths
of livestock. Apart from pesticide, a sex attractant, a parasitical fly and a virus are used to control them.
Meadow Moth. Meadow moth (Loxostege sticticatis), exists both in temperate and alpine grassland
and often causes severe damage. It is important to eliminate the eggs by weeding, inter-cultivation in
artificial grassland and crop fields.
Meadow Leaf Beetle Meadow leaf beetle (Geina invenusta), is found in hilly grassland. The adult eats
the growing points of plants and the larva feeds on new leaves and young stems. Pesticide is usually
used to control this pest.
Diseases
As with rodents and pest insects, diseases are a major factor limiting the development of animal
husbandry in China. It is estimated that the economic loss of grassland caused by disease is around
2 600 000 RMB Yuan per year (Nan Zhibiao, 2000). Because they have been long ignored, damage
from plant diseases have increased considerably in recent years and now require major attention from
farmers and researchers.
The study of grass diseases in China and their control is quite underdeveloped because study only
began in the 1970s. Along with the increasing development of artificial grassland, grass pathological
research has made some progress. 1200 fungal diseases of forage grasses and 1240 pathogens have
been reported.
Toxic and harmful plants of grassland

Research on the poisonous and harmful plants of grassland started in 1950 and a full-scale survey was
carried out in 1990. The survey indicates that toxic and harmful plants propagate in large amounts where
the grassland is severely degraded. Therefore, the control of these noxious plants is an important part of
any programmes for grassland improvement.
1) Toxic Plants There are 49 families, 152 genera and 731 species of toxic plants in the grasslands
of China. The major families are Ranunculaceae (13 genus and 186 species), Leguminoseae
(22 genus and 153 species), Gentianaceae (7 genus and 100 species), Euphorbiaceae (11
genus and 59 species), Papaveraceae (3 genus and 45 species), Compositeae (11 genus and 40
species), Solanaceae (7 genus and 22 species) and Ericaceae (4 genus and 12 species). The most
harmful plants are Oxytropis glabra, Oxytropis gansuensis, Astragalus variabilis, Euphorbia
helioscopia, Euphorbia lunulata, Euphorbia hirta, Solanum nigrum, Solanum septemlobum,
Stellera chamaejasme, Achnatherum inerbrians etc.
2) Harmful Plants. Plants which could be distinctly harmful to livestock and animal products and
can be sorted into three groups.
Spiny shrubs: The spine of shrubs might hurt animals or contaminate wool and cashmere.
Awned grasses: The awns of seeds might hurt the skin and mouth or even pierce skin and hurt
the internal organs. The quality of wool may be affected by the awn.
Prickly forbs: Similar to awned grasses.
There are 64 species of harmful grassland plants in 13 families and 23 genera. It should be noticed
that harm by these plants is seasonal and relative. So, many harmful plants need not be cleared, the
alternative practice being to open the grassland (with harmful plants) to livestock at a suitable time.
Grassland Fire. Hundreds or even thousands of grassland fire disasters occur annually, the grassland
burnt may be hundreds or several millions of hectares (see Table 20). The frequency of fire is much
higher in drought years. Its seasonal pattern is Table 20. Grassland fire disaster in some provinces
very significant: in arid Inner Mongolia, fire
Times of fire disaster
normally occurs in winter and spring. In the Region Burnt area
Very (ha)
semiarid northeast and north China, it usually Total serious Serious
occurs in spring and autumn. In south China, it Hebei 45 515.9
occurs in winter and spring. Shanxi 21 1 170.7
Inner Mongolia 35 5 6 258 800.0
Liaoning 91 117.2
Grassland nature reserves Jilin 12 3 657.0
The establishment of grassland nature Heilongjiang 41 174.6
reserves began in the nineteen-eighties and Sichuan 12 1 940.0
11 have already been set up with a total Shaanxi 23 160.0
area of 2 068 968 ha, 0.5% of all grassland Gansu 49 1 545.0
Qinghai 14 616.8
(see Table 21). Of them, the Xilingele Steppe
Ningxia 2 0.1
Nature Reserve in Inner Mongolia has been Xinjiang 38 2 5 172.0
approved by the United Nations as part of the Total 383 7 6 273 869.3
International Biosphere Network. However, Source: China Agricultural Yearbook Editorial Committee (2000)
Table 21. Grassland nature reserves
Name Location Area (ha) Major objective

Inner Mongolia Xilingele Rangeland NR Xilingele 1 078 600 Typical steppe ecosystem
Gansu Anxi Desert And Gobi Grassland NR Anxi County 80 000 Wildlife in desert and gobi ecosystem
Heilongjiang Yueya Lake Grassland NR Hulin County 1 533 Deyeuxia angusifolia meadow ecosystem
Ningxia Yunwu Mountain Rangeland NR Guyuan County 4 000 Stipa bungeana rangeland ecosystem on
Loess Plateau
Jilin Yaojinzi Rangeland NR Changlin County 23 800 Leymus chinensis meadow ecosystem
Shanxi Wutai Mountain Grassland NR Taihuai Township 3 333 Subalpine meadow ecosystem
Liaoning Namusilai Rangeland NR Zhangwu County 7 103 Sandy grassland ecosystem
Shandong Yellow River Delta Grassland NR Kengli County 58 000 Glycine soja and wet grassland ecosystem
Xinjiang Middle Tianshan Dongnaisi Alpine Xinyuan County 66 667 Mountain meadow ecosystem
Meadow NR
Xinjiang Qitai Desert And Semi-desert Qitai County 12 600 Plain desert ecosystem and forage resource
Grassland NR
Xinjiang Fuhai Jintasi Mountain Grassland NR Fuhai County 9 733 Forage resource and mountain rangeland
ecosystem
Note: NR means Nature Reserve
Source: Editorial Committee of Environmental protection in China (2000)
the number of grassland reserves is very low compared with 85 forest nature reserves; the central
government plans to create another 17 grassland nature reserves in the near future, of which five are
under construction.
Zonation of flora
There are 6352 species, 29 subspecies, 303 varieties, 13 variant types and 7 cultivars of forage plants
in China. These belong to 1545 genera of 246 families (Tables 22 and 23).
Of all families, nine have more than 100 species: Leguminoseae, Gramineae, Compositeae,
Cyperaceae, Rosaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Liliaceae, Polygonaceae, and Salicaceae. Both Leguminoseae
and Gramineae have over 1 000 species. There are in all 3 873 species, 26 subspecies, 219 varieties
and 10 variant types in these 9 families, which account for 61.67% of the total of China. 43 families
have less than 100 species, covering 1,568 species, 1 subspecies, 67 varieties and 3 variant types, which
accounts for 24.45%. 30 families have 10 to 20 species, covering 430 species, 12 subspecies, which
accounts for 6.59%. 105 families have 2 to 9 species, covering 422 species and 6 variant types, which
accounts for 6.38%. Some families only have 1 species, covering 59 species, which accounts for 0.88%
(see Table23).
Out of all genera, Astragalus and Oxytropis of Leguminoseae and Carex of Cyperaceae contain more
than 100 species, covering 581 species, 2 subspecies, 18 varieties and 1 variant types, which accounts
for 8.99%. 784 genera only have 1 species, totally covering 757 species, 7 subspecies, 12 varieties, 3
variant types and 5 cultivated varieties, which accounts for 11.69% (see Table 24).
Species of unique forage plants (Animal Husbandry and Veterenary Medicine Division of Ministry of
Agriculture, 1996)
With a vast territory, complex natural conditions and without Quaternary Glaciation, China has plenty
of unique forage plants, including 10 species in 7 families of Pteridophyta, 35 species in 6 families of
Gymnospermae, and 273 species in the following 24 families of Angiospermae.
Table 22. Grassland flora of China

Variant
Item Families Genera Species Subspecies Variety Cultivars % of total
type
Lichens 5 7 16 - - - - 0.24
Bryophyta 14 17 31 - - - - 0.46
Pteridophyta 40 103 291 - 3 - - 4.39
Gymnospermae 10 27 88 - 12 - - 1.49
Angiospermae 177 1 391 5 926 29 288 13 7 93.42
Total 246 1 545 6 352 29 303 13 7 100.00
Source: Animal Husbandry and Veterenary Medicine Division of Ministry of Agriculture (1996)
Table 23. Major families of forage plants of China

Variant
Family Genera Species Subspecies Variety Cultivar % of total
type
Leguminoseae 125 1 157 6 69 4 3 18.48
Gramineae 210 1 028 15 98 3 4 17.12
Compositeae 136 532 1 5 - - 8.03
Cyperaceae 24 350 1 7 - - 5.34
Rosaceae 40 222 - 8 - - 3.43
Chenopodiaceae 38 183 3 11 1 - 2.95
Liliaceae 20 150 - 5 - - 2.31
Polygonaceae 11 135 - 8 - - 2.13
Salicaceae 3 116 - 8 2 - 1.88
Others 237 938 2 479 3 84 3 - 38.32
Total 246 1 545 6 352 29 303 13 7 99.99
Source: Cheng Shan (1994)
Table 24. Major genera of forage plants of China

Genus Species Subspecies Variety Variant types Cultivar % of total
Astragalus 276 2 14 1 1 4.39
Carex 181 - 3 - - 2.74
Oxytropis 124 - 1 - - 1.86
Poa 96 - 3 - - 1.48
Roegneria 74 - 16 2 - 1.37
Salix 80 - 3 2 - 1.27
Allium 73 - 2 - - 1.12
Polygonum 68 - 7 - - 1.12
Caragana 65 - 7 - - 1.07
Artemisia 66 - 2 - - 1.01
Indigofera 63 - 2 - - 0.97
Desmodium 54 - 8 - - 0.92
Saussurea 53 - - - - 0.79
Hedysarum 48 - 3 - - 0.76
Others 1 531 5 031 27 232 8 6 79.13
Total 1 545 6 352 29 303 13 7 100.00
Source: Cheng Shan, Resource of forage plant of China, 1994
Urticaceae (Elatostema ichangense, Elatostema sinense, Urtica dioica var. kansuensis, Urtica tibetica)
Polygonaceae (Oxyria sinensis, Atraphaxis manshurica, Atraphaxis jrtyschensis, Rheum tanguticum,

Calligonum alaschanicum, Rumex kaschgaricus, Polygonum songaricum)
Chenopodiaceae (Cornulaca alaschanica, Baolia bracteata, Ceratoides arborescens, Kalidium

cuspidatum var. sinicum, Suaeda stellatiflora, Suaeda rigida, Corispermum candelabrum, Corispermum
dilutum, Corispermum platypterum, Corispermum puberulum, Corispermum retortum, Corispermum
stenolepis, Corispermum falcatum, Chenopodium gracilispicum, Chenopodium intramongolica)
Amaranthaceae (Aerva hainanensis, Cyathula officinalis)
Caryophyllaceae (Psammosilene tunicoides, Arenaria tapanshanensis, Arenaria yunnanensis, Arenaria

kansuensis, Arenaria giraldii, Arenaria przewalskii, Arenaria formosa, Arenaria forrestii, Stellaria
chinensis)
Ceratophyllaceae (Ceratophyllum manschuricum)
Menispermaceae (Tinospora stinensis, Stephania sinica)
Magnoliaceae (Michelia yunnanensis)
Papaveraceae (Corydalis yanhuzuo)
Cruciferae (Megadenia pygmaea, Hedinia tibetica, Lepidium alashanicum, Lepidium cuneiforme)
Saxifragaceae (Saxifraga tangutica)
Rosaceae (Neillia sinensis, Chaenomeles cathayensis, Chaenomeles sinensis, Crataegus kansuensis,

Cotoneaster moupinensis, Spiraea chinensis, Potentilla chinensis)
Leguminoseae (Gymnocladus chinensis, Stracheya tibetica, Cercis chinensis, Calophaca sinica,

Alysicarpus vaginalis var. diversifolius, Amphicarpaea linearis, Albizia bracteata, Acacia delavayi,
Acacia yunnanensis, Melilotoides ruthenica var. oblongifolia, Melilotoides ruthenica var. inschanica,
Melilotoides tibetica, Uraria sinensis, Trigonella schischkinii, Glycyrrhiza yunnanensis, Dunbaria henryi,
Rhynchosia yunnanensis, Shuteria sinensis, Tephrosia purpurea var. yunnanensis, Pueraria omeinsis,
Pueraria yunnanensis. Mucuna hainanensis, Phaseolus yunnanensis, Gueldenstaedtia yunnanensis,
Gueldenstaedtia yadongensis, Moghania yunnanensis, Millettia kweichouensis, Millettia heterocarpa,
Dalbergia peishaensis, Dalbergia yunnanensis, Medicago alashanica, Bauhinia apertilobata,
Bauhinia esquirolii, Lespedeza caraganae, Lespedeza hengduanshanensis, Lespedeza davurica subsp.
huangheensis, Crotalaria hainanensis, Crotalaria heqingensis, Crotalaria yunnanensis, Campylotropis
ichangensis, Campylotropis yajiangensis, Campylotropis yunnanensis, Vicia amurensis f. sanheensis,
Vicia gigantea Vicia tibetica, Caragana jilungensis, Caragana tangutica, Caragana potanini, Caragana
opulens, Caragana kansuensis, Caragana brevifolia, Indigofera ichangensis, Indigofera chuniana,
Indigofera daochengensis, Indigofera hainanensis, Indigofera muliensis, Desmodium hainanensis,
Desmodium yunnanensis, Hedysarum polybotrys, Hedysarum xizangensis, Oxytropis biflora, Oxytropis
densifora, Oxytropis holanshanensis, Oxytropis inschanica, Astragalus taipaischanensis, Astragalus
adsurgens cv. shandawang, Astragalus tsadaensis, Astragalus baotouensis, Astragalus geerwusuensis,
Astragalus lasaensis, Astragalus sedaensis, Astragalus yumenensis)
Zygophyllaceae (Nitraria tangutorum)
Tamaricaceae (Tamarix chinensis, Reaumuria trigyna)
Umbelliferae (Ferula sinkiangensis)
Primulaceae (Androsace alashanica)
Labiatae (Mesona chinensis)
Compositeae (Hippolytia alashanica, Galatella songorica, Heteropappus meyendorffii, Seriphidium

borotalense, Kalimeris mongolica, Scorzonera manshurica, Ajania alabasica, Ajania parviflora,
Taraxacum heterolepis, Senecio atractylidifolius, Artemisia xigazeensis, Artemisia anethoides, Artemisia
blepharolepis, Artemisia dalai-lamae, Artemisia eriopoda, Artemisia feddei, Artemisia giraldii, Artemisia
igniaria, Artemisia oxycephala, Artemisia princeps, Artemisia subditgiata, Artemisia wudanica,
Saussurea likiangensis, Saussurea maximowiczii, Saussurea pectinata, Saussurea sungpanensis,
Saussurea tangutica, Saussurea graminea, Saussurea iodostegia)
Gramineae (Roegneria alaschanica, Roegneria intramongolica, Roegneria hirsuta, Roegneria

kokonorica, Roegneria sinkiangensis, Roegneria tibetica, Roegneria barbicalla, Roegneria multiculmis,
Poa pachyantha, Poa ianthina, Poa elanata, Poa hengshanica, Poa mongolica, Poa plurinodis,
Poa shansiensis, Poa orinosa, Festuca sinensis, Festuca elata, Festuca changduensis, Stipa aliena,
Stipa przewalskyi, Stipa roborowskyi, Deyeuxia kokonorica, Deyeuxia henryi, Deyeuxia hupehensis,
Deyeuxia himalaica, Isachne guangxiensis, Isachne hainanensis, Melica tibetica, Helictotrichon
delavayi, Digitaria chinensis, Puccinellia multiflora, Eragrostis alta, Eragrostis hainanensis, Eragrostis
laxa, Bromus sinensis, Bromus pseudoramosus, Bromus magnus, Agrostis breviaristata, Agrostis
morrisonensia, Cymbopogon tungmaiensis, Achnatherum chingii, Achnatherum inaequiglume, Trisetum
tibeticum, Setaria arenaria, Calamagrostis kengii, Arundinella yunnanensis, Eulalia micrantha,
Cleistogenes ramiflora, Cleistogenes foliosa, Oryzopsis grandispicula, Elymus purpuraristatus,
Elymus tangutorum, Ischaemum crassipes var. hainanensis, Themeda hookeri, Sorghum hezicao,
Glyceria chinensis, Pennisetum longissimum, Agropyron mongolicum, Andropogon girongensis,
Orinus kokonorica, Trikeraia ramosa, Stephanachne monandra, Littledalea racemosus, Sinarundinaria
chungii, Rottboellia laevispica, Hemarthria humilis, Erianthus rockii, Chloris anomala, Anthoxanthum
formosanum, Arthraxon hainanensis, Tripogon multiflorus, Spodiopogon ramosus, Psathyrostachys
huachanica, Brachypodium pratense, Microstegium biforme, Urochloa cordata, Pleioblastus amarus,
Chimonocalamus tortuosus, Sasamorpha sinica, Setiacis diffusa, Sinochasea trigyna, Colposium
tibeticum, Anisachne gracilis, Moliniopsis hui, Imperata flavida, Pseudosasa pubiflora, Neyraudia
montana, Phragmites jeholensis, Orthoraphium grandifolium, Diandranthus szechuanensis)
Cyperaceae (Schoenus nudifructus, Eleocharis yunnanensis, Kobresia gracilis, Kobresia inflata,

Kobresia minshanica, Kobresia pusilla, Carex kansuensis, Carex muliensis, Carex yunnanensis, Carex
serreana)
Commelinaceae (Murdannia macrocarpa)
Liliaceae (Asparagus trichophyllus, Smilax vanchingshanensis, Allium anisopodium var.

Zimmermannianum, Asparagus tenuissimus var. nalinianum)
Dioscoreaceae (Dioscorea exalata)
Orchidaceae (Bletilla formosana, Pholidota chinensis, Herminium alaschanicum)
Wild species of cultivated forages

As a world region of crop origin, China has plenty of wild forage plants. There are wild species of many
superior cultivated forages in China. Some are shown in Table 25 (Animal Husbandry and Veterinary
Medicine Division of Ministry of Agriculture, 1996).
Table 25. Wild forages and their distribution
Special and rare forage species Family - Species Region of distribution
(Animal Husbandry and Veterenary Medicine Gramineae
Division of Ministry of Agriculture, 1996) Agropyron sibiricum Northern China
The special and rare forage plants of China Agrostis tenuis Shanxi
mainly belong to the Gramineae, Leguminoseae Alopecurus arundinaceus Northern China
and Chenopodiaceae. Most of these plants are Alopecurus pratensis Northern China
Axonopus compressus Tropical areas of Southern China
distributed in China and have high adaptability
Bothriochloa ischaemum All China
and feeding value. Bromus inermis Northern China
Cynodon dactylon Southern China and Xinjiang
Gramineae: Sinarundinaria nitida, Aristida Dactylis glomerata Xinjiang and south-western China
tsangpoensis, Roegneria kokonorica, Agropyron Festuca arundinacea Xinjiang
mongolium, Bromus sinensis, Elymus tanguto- Festuca pratensis Xinjiang
Festuca rubra Northern and south-western China
rum, Festuca elata, Eragrostis hainanensis,
Phalaris arundinacea All China
Cleistogenes chinensis, Cleistogenes polyhyl- Phleum pratense Xinjiang
la, Arthraxon hainanensis, Arundinella bar- Poa pratensis Northern China
binodis, Urochloa cordata, etc. Psathyrostachys juncea Xinjiang
Leguminoseae
Leguminoseae: Medicago alashanica, Aeschynomene indica Eastern China
Melilotoides ruthenica var. obolongifo- Alysicarpus vaginalis Tropical areas of Southern China
lia, Melilotoides ruthenica var. inschanica, Desmodium heterocarpum Tropical and subtropical areas of
South China
Hedysarum laxum, Alysicarpus vaginalis var. Kummerowia striata Northern China
diversifolia, Indigofera chuniana, Crotalaria Kummerowia stipulacea Northern China
hainanensis, Desmodium hainanensis, Mucuna Lathyrus pratensis Xinjiang
hainanensis, etc. Lespedeza cyrtobotrya Northern China
Lespedeza hedysaroides Northern China
Lotus corniculatus Xinjiang
Cyperaceae: Kobresia cuneata, Kobresia cer- Lotus tenuis Inner Mongolia
costachys, Kobresia kansuensis, etc. Melilotus alba Northern China
Melilotus officinalis Northern China
Chenopodiaceae: Ceratoides arbores- Pueraria phaseoloides Tropical and subtropical areas of
South China
cens, Ceratoides compacta var. longipilosa,
Trifolium fragiferum Xinjiang
Corispermum chinganicum var. stauntonii, Trifolium pratense Northern China and Xinjiang
Corispermum candelabrum, Corispermum Trifolium repens Northern and south-western China
stauntonii, Corispermum dilutum, Kochia Trifolium incarnatum Xinjiang
prostrata var. canesdens, Salsola sinkiangen- Amaranthaceae
sis, etc. Amaranthus paniculatus All China
Liliaceae: Allium yanchiense, Allium tenuissimum, Allium anisopodium, Allium. songpanicum etc.
Dominant plants of the main zones (Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine Division of Ministry
of Agriculture, 1996)
Many plants play an important role in forming a grassland community in terms of coverage and herbage
yield in large grassland areas and various grassland types. According to their degree of dominance and
distribution area, the most important species in different grassland classes are as follows:
Main Dominant Plants of the Temperate Steppe The dominant plants are mainly xerocole and
fascicular grasses and sub-shrubs. They are listed as follows: Leymus chinensis, Stipa baicalensis, Stipa
grandis, Stipa krylovi, Stipa bungeana, Stipa breviflora, Stipa glareosa, Stipa klemenzii, Stipa capillata,
Festuca ovina, Cleistogenes squarrosa, Filifolium sibiricum, Artemisia frigida, Artemisia halodendron,
Artemisia ordosica, Artemisia intramongolica, Thymus serpyllum var. mongolium, Ajania fruticulosa.
Main Dominant Plants of the Alpine Steppe The dominant species are cold resistant, mainly from
Gramineae and Compositeae. The most important are Stipa purpureum, Stipa subsessiflora, Festuca
ovina ssp. sphagnicola, Orinus thoroldii, Carex moorcroftii, Artemisia stracheyi, Artemisia wellbyi, etc.
Main Dominant Plants of the Temperate Desert The dominant plants are super-xerocole shrubs and
sub-shrubs. The most important are Seriphidium terrae-albae, Seriphidium borotalense, Artemisia
soongarica, Salsola passerina, Salsola laricifolia, Sympegma regelii, Anabasis salsa, Reaumuria
soongarica, Ceratoides latens, Kalidium schrenkianum, Potaninia mongolia, Nitraria sphaerocarpa,
Ephedra przewalskii, Haloxylon erinaceum, Haloxylon persicum etc.
Main Dominant Plants of the Alpine Desert The ecological environment of this class is the harshest.
The dominant plants have a super ability to resist cold and drought. The most important species are
Rhodiola algida var. tangutica, Seriphidium rhodanthum, Ceratoides compacta etc.
Main Dominant Plants of the Warm Shrubby Tussock The dominant plants are mainly grasses of medium
height and some forbs. The most important are Bothriochloa ischaemum, Themeda triandra var. japonica,
Pennisetum centrasiaticum, Spodiopogon sibiricus, Imperata cylindrica var. major, Potentilla fulgens, etc.
Main Dominant Plants of the Tropical Shrubby Tussock Almost all of the dominant plants in this class
are hot season grasses. The most important are Miscanthus floridulus, Miscanthus sinensis, Imperata
cylindrica var. major, Heteropogon contortus, Arundinella setosa, Arundinella hirta, Eremopogon
delavayi, Eragrostis pilosa, Eulalia phaeothrix, Eulalia quadrinervis, Dicranopteris dichotoma, etc.
Main Dominant Plants of the Temperate Meadow These are mainly perennial temperate and
medium-humid mesophytic grasses. Some are halophytes or forbs. The most important are Achnatherum
splendens, Arundinella hirta, Agrostis gigantea, Calamagrostis epigejos, Bromus inermis, Deyeuxia
angustifolia, Deyeuxia arundinacea, Poa pratensis, Poa angustifolia, Miscanthus sacchariflorus,
Phragmites communis, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Festuca ovina, Carex duriuscula, Potentilla anserina,
Sanguisorba officinalis, Iris lactea var. chinensis, Suaeda spp., Sophora alopecuroides.
Main Dominant Plants of the Alpine Meadow The dominant forages are mainly cold resistant
perennials. Most are Kobresia and forbs. The most important are Kobresia pygmaea, Kobresia humilis,
Kobresia capillifolia, Kobresia bellardii, Kobresia littledalei, Kobresia tibetica, Carex atrofusca, Carex
nivalis, Carex stenocarpa, Blysmus sinocompressus, Poa alpina, Polygonum viviparum, Polygonum
macrophyllum, etc.
Main Dominant Species of the Marshes The dominant plants are mainly Cyperaceae and Gramineae.
The most important are Carex meyeriana, Carex muliensis, Carex appendiculata, Carex stenophylla,
Scirpus yagara, Scirpus triqueter, Phragmites communis, Triglochin palustre, etc.
6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF FODDER RESOURCES
Grassland use
Most grassland in China is in the arid, Table 26. Grassland types by use
semiarid or alpine areas where the climate Grassland type Area Usable grassland
(million ha) (%)
is harsh, communications are poor and the
Grazing pasture 264.2049 75.25
economy backward. The grassland within Warm season pasture 117.4606 33.45
agricultural and agro-pastoral areas is also Cold season pasture 64.1451 18.27
scattered in remote places. In this case, the Year round pasture 82.5994 23.53
grassland utilization is extensive, mainly Grazing and haymaking dual
67.3293 19.18
purpose pasture
free grazing. Utilization methods are based
Difficult usable grassland 19.5678 5.57
on the natural geographic conditions and Total usable grassland 351.1020 100.00
grassland productivity. Natural grassland Source: Animal Husbandry and Veterenary Medicine Division of Ministry
may be divided into three types according to of Agriculture (1996)
their use (see Table 26).
Grazing and Haymaking Dual Purpose Grassland. Grassland for dual purpose grazing and haymaking
is generally on plains with a sward height of 50cm, more than 50% of cover, less than 25 of slope and
high quality. The aftermath is grazed.
Grassland suited to haymaking is mainly in northern and south-eastern China with >400 mm. of
precipitation; it is scarce in the west temperate, arid and semiarid desert and steppe where it is only
available in scattered patches on high mountains. Hay land is also available in lowland meadow areas
along the rivers and by lakes; it is dominated by Phragmites communis (it is used for hay during early
growth, i.e. before the six leaf stage). In spite of high coverage of grass communities on the Qinghai-
Tibet Plateau hay land is still scarce since the grass is very short and is scattered in low altitude valleys.
Dominant grasses in the valleys are Leymus chinensis, Phragmites communis, Deyeuxia angustifolia,
Deyeuxia langsdorffii, Deyeuxia arundinacea, Stipa grandis, Stipa baicalensis, Stipa capilata, Stipa
bungeana, Spodiopogon sibiricus, Bothriochloa ischaemum, Themeda triandra var. japonica, Miscanthus
sinensis, Miscanthus sacchariflorus, Achnatherum splendens, Elymus sibiricus, Elymus nutans, etc.
According to the pattern of use, hay land can be divided into permanent and temporary types.
Permanent haymaking land is used on the same patches, at the same time of year. Temporary haymaking
land is used for hay or grazing, based on the precipitation and thermal conditions of the year and the
grass height. Grass is mown once in late summer or early autumn in northern China and twice in summer
and autumn in southern China. Harvested grass is mainly for hay and used as a supplement in winter and
spring; a little is sold. Some high quality hay, such as Leymus chinensis is exported to Japan and Korea.
It is not usual to make silage in pastoral areas.
Grazing. Grazing is the most important and essential method of using natural grassland. The area of
grazed pasture is 264 204 900 ha, which accounts for 75.25% of national grassland. Grazed pasture
has the following aspects: < 30 mm sward height or as for haymaking, but with an uneven surface,
>25degree of slope, low quality grass and unsuitable for hay. Based on topography, seasons of use
and water availability, the seasonal belts of grazing land may be divided into spring-autumn pasture,
summer pasture and winter pasture or cold season (spring, autumn and winter) pasture and warm season
(summer) pasture.
Seasonal bands of grassland in the plains of the northeast and Inner Mongolia are not clear and most
grassland could be grazed at any time of year. However, seasonal belts of grassland in north-western
arid desert areas are clearly defined since high mountains alternate with valleys. Animals graze desert
pasture in basins in winter and on the semi-desert and steppe pasture in outlying hills and low mountains
in spring and autumn and on the forest pasture and alpine meadows in summer. Stock and herders move
as far as tens of kilometres, even 500km, from winter to summer pasture. Although the grassland on the
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is in the alpine belt or above, it too is divided into warm pasture and cold season
pasture. The former is in lower valleys and the latter in the remote higher mountains.
In the past decade, the government put the Long-term contract grassland use system into force
with great effort. Under this system, grassland productivity is improved by sub-dividing pastures and
allocating long-term grazing rights to individual families based on the number of family members, with
fencing, establishing a homestead and barn, establishing artificial grassland and building infrastructure
for water and electricity supply. This has been basically completed nationwide, but it is not totally
applied on summer pastures because of their long distance from settlements, complex topography and
difficulty of management. Most herders began to adopt extensive rotational grazing systems and use
improved technology from the inception of the system. It also provides a good basis for managing
grassland legally.
Grasslands which are difficult to use include areas which are:

at high altitude, of harsh climate and in unpopulated areas
where there is a shortage of drinking water for man and animals
in the alpine belt where there is difficulty of access
in swamp and bottomland difficult to access
on small unpopulated islands
>35degree of slope
The area of such land is 19567680ha, or 5.57% of the total. Most water-scarce grassland is in Inner
Mongolia, Xinjiang and Qinghai, unpopulated areas in north-western Tibet and south-western Qinghai,
difficult swamps in Heilongjiang and Sichuan.
Grassland deterioration and control strategies

Grassland deterioration, a worldwide problem, is severe in China. According to data published in 1994
the national area of deteriorated grassland was 68000000ha up to the end of 1980s, which is 27.5% of
the total. It has increased remarkably in the past decade. Now 90% of national grassland is reported to
show signs of deterioration, in which, moderately degraded grassland is 130000000ha (32.5% of total)
and it is accelerating by 20000000ha per year (Liu Zixue, 2001). The current grassland deterioration
in major pastoral regions is shown in Table 27.
Evidence of grassland deterioration is drifting sand, salinization, patch-like distribution and
hammada. Its major causes are severe over-stocking caused by long-term uncontrolled grazing, improper
land reclamation and abandonment, climate change, collecting firewood and herbal medicine.
Grassland deterioration not only results in decline of productivity, but also in environment damage,
water and soil erosion, sand and dust storms, and desertification. The government is paying great attention
to this situation. As one of its most important targets, ecological environment rebuilding has been covered
in the West Development Plan by central
government in 2000. In agricultural and Table 27. Current situation of over-grazing and grassland
agro-pastoral areas, this target will be deterioration in major pastoral regions (%)
achieved through returning arable land 1990 1999
on slopes of >25 degree to forest and Region Over-

grazing Deteriorated Over- Deteriorated
Grassland grazing Grassland
grassland and reducing the number of rate
grazing livestock. Severely degraded Tibet - 14 30 15
Inner Mongolia - 40 32 60
pasture will be closed for vegetation
Xinjiang - - 60-70 65
recovery in pastoral areas. Simultaneously Qinghai - 17 31 39
stock numbers will be reduced with Sichuan - 24 13 28
yard feeding so that the vegetation and Gansu - 40 35 50
environment can recover rapidly. Heilongjiang - 30 124 65
Grassland improvement
The large area of degraded grassland has a severe negative influence on animal production and
the environment and causes great concern to the government. According to the Planning Program
of National Ecological Environment Construction and Outline of Fifteenth Ten Years Plan, the
following should be achieved by 2010:
to increase artificial grassland and improved grassland by 50000000ha;
to improve 33000000ha of degraded grassland and 20000000ha of desertified land;

to control of 600000ha of water and soil eroded land;
to return 6700000ha of arable land (on >25degree slopes) to forest and grass.
These objectives show the resolve of the Chinese people and government to improve degraded
grassland and the environment. There are temporary and permanent solutions for grassland improvement.
The latter is to establish artificial grassland, which will be discussed below.
Closure Closure is to protect grassland from grazing or control grazing pressure strictly through fencing,
so that it has a chance to recover. Herbage yield increases rapidly in the humid and subhumid areas
but the effect declines over time; closure should not exceed three years. In western China, where the
grassland is severely degraded, a large area has been closed to grazing since 2000 and many animals
have been culled or are stall fed.
Reseeding Reseeding is over-sowing degraded grassland with improved forages to improve sward
composition and productivity. Manual methods are used on small areas, but aerial seeding should be
used on large ones. The cost/benefit ratio is 1:24, the investment could be recouped within two years.
The following details require attention during aerial seeding:
1. the area should exceed 350 to 650ha of which the target area should be more than 80%;
2. seed should be pre-treated by coating, de-awning, scarification and legumes should be inoculated;
3. the land should be smoothed with a heavy harrow, plus burning and weeding;
4. after aerial seeding, treading by livestock can improve the establishment rate.
Irrigation Water shortage is a major constraint for grass and animal production since most of Chinas
grassland is in arid and semiarid areas. Grass yield could be increased by 6 to 9 times through irrigation
and the proportion of legumes in the sward could be increased as well, improving nutritive value. In Inner
Mongolia, 5% of water for agriculture is used for grassland irrigation. Thirty two reservoirs have been built
in pastoral areas of Qinghai, their storage capacity is 1739000m3. 512 water channels, totalling 2190km,
were built to irrigate 40000ha of grassland. The area of irrigated grassland is 140000ha in Xinjiang and
240000ha in Tibet. Surface flooding is the common irrigation method. The problem is that over half of the
area can be missed because of poor land-levelling. Sprinkler irrigation is not used in practical situations.
Fertilizers Fertilization is important for grassland improvement. A large amount of nutrients is

absorbed by grasses, especially highly productive grassland for hay and dual use. The deficit should
be supplemented by fertilizing. Dung is widely used combined with chemical fertilizers for artificial
grassland establishment. Trace fertilizers and rare earth fertilizers are also applied in some places. On
natural grassland the commonest and most practical fertilization application method is night penning,
i.e. concentrate animals in one place for two nights and then move them to another. This method can
increase grass yield by half in the following year.
Surface Tillage Shallow tillage (with surface cultivator) has a positive effect on grass yield on pasture
dominated by rhizomatous grasses such as Leymus chinense and Phragmites communis and those with
dense sod (dominated by Kobresia spp.). Shallow tillage improves air and water permeability of the
soil and enhances vegetative propagation by cutting rhizomes. The yields of grasslands dominated with
Leymus chinense, Kobresia spp. and Agropyron cristatum could be increased by 50 to 200%. Seed yields
of Leymus chinense and Agropyron cristatum can be increased by 180% to 1500%.
Burning is an old, practical method for grassland improvement. It is no longer used in northern China
because the grassland is so severely degraded. It is, however, still widely used in the shrub grassland and
swamp grassland in southern China.
Forage grasses and artificial grassland

Artificial grassland is special agricultural land combining pastoralism with agronomy. Even as the
artificial grassland constituted by Lolium perenne-Trifolium is symbolic of the western agro-pastoral
civilization, the artificial grassland of Medicago sativa is typical of the eastern agro-pastoral one. China
was one of earliest countries to grow Medicago sativa. In 126 BC, China began raising lucerne along
the Yellow River, and it was rotated with wheat. Apart from improving crop yield and soil fertility, this
system directly and indirectly contributed to forming livestock breeds such as Qingchuan cattle, Jinnan
cattle, Zaosheng cattle, Nanyang cattle, Guanzhong donkey, Zaosheng donkey (the donkey is less
important than before because of mechanized cultivation and transport).
Compared with natural pasture, the area of artificial grassland is small. In 1995 it was 13800000ha,
which is 3.4% of all grassland. It increased to 15 480 000 ha in 1997, 3.8% and 20 000 000 ha in
2000, 4.8%. Aerial seeding plays an important role for establishment; it began in 1979 and the area
of aerial seeded artificial grassland was 2 497 000 ha; by the end of 1998 the established area was
1 472 000 million ha Among provinces or regions, the artificial grassland areas in Inner Mongolia,
Gansu, Xinjiang, Shaanxi and Sichuan are large: over 2500000million ha in Inner Mongolia and close
to 1000000ha in Gansu. The priority is given to lucerne in all provinces except Sichuan. The lucerne
area in Gansu is close to 400000ha, which is 34% of the national total.
Nowadays, cereals, cotton, oilseeds and fruits are in relative surplus in China, but forage is scarce in
both urban and rural areas. Besides, environmental deterioration has drawn serious attention to reseeding
grassland; returning arable land to grassland and forest is one of 10 projects for reconstruction in western
China. It is expected that the development of artificial grassland will be speeded up in the near future.
Major forage grasses and forage crops

China has many forage grasses and forage crops. There are more than 100 species of cultivated forage
in China; most are legumes and grasses. Among these, over 30 species are sown on more than 10000ha
(excluding mixed sowing, see Table 28).
Table 28. Major forages and sown area (thousand ha,
Forage Legumes Around 21 genera and 1998)
around 60 species of legume are grown in Forage Area Life period Rank
China. The major genera and species are Medicago sativa 1 804.7 Perennial 1
briefly introduced as follows (Cheng Baoshu, Astragalus sinicus 1 686.9 Perennial 2
2001; Hong Fuzeng, 1989): Caragana koshinskii 1 108.7 Shrub 3
Astragalus huangheensis 653.2 Perennial 4
Astragalus: Astragalus huangheensis (=Astra- Vicia villosa 123.9 Biennial 12
Vicia sativa 98.9 Annual 14
galus adsurgens) is thermophilic, cold resistant,
Onobrychis viciaefolia 65.2 Perennial 17
salt tolerant, wind and sand resistant, adapted to Trifolium repens 31.7 Perennial 19
sandy land with 300 mm to 400 mm of rainfall Oxytropis coerulea 28.7 Perennial 20
and mainly used for aerial seeding for soil Trifolium pratense 28.2 Perennial 21
protection and forage. Astragalus sinicus has its Stylosanthes guianensis 26.9 Perennial 22
provenance in the subtropical area of China from Melilotus alba, M. officinalis 20.7 Biennial 24
Zea mays (forage) 570.5 Annual 5
24o to 35o N and has been cultivated for more than
Leymus chinensis 403.7 Perennial 6
600 years; it is used as a green manure on paddy Hordeum vulgare 358.7 Annual 7
fields (inferior 1/3 and roots) and forage (top 1/3) Elymus sibiricus 230.3 Perennial 8
for pigs. It is also a honey resource. Lolium multiflorum 183.2 Annual 9
Avena sativa 155.7 Annual 10
Caragana: Caragana korshinskii, Caragana Elymus dahuricus, E. excelsus 138.6 Perennial 11
Avena nuda 118.7 Annual 13
intermedia and Caragana microphylla, sub-
Setaria italica (forage) 80.0 Annual 15
shrubs tolerant to cold, drought, wind and Sorghum sudanense 77.2 Annual 16
sand, can be sown in arid sandy land where Bromus inermis 22.5 Perennial 23
the rainfall ranges from 150mm to 250mm. Secale cereale 20.1 Biennial 25
Lolium perrene 17.6 Perennial 26
Coronilla: Coronilla varia (a dual-purpose Agropyron cristatum 14.4 Perennial 28
Dactylis glomerata 13.7 Perennial 29
legume for forage and soil conservation).
Artemisia sphaerocephala 55.3 Sub-shrub 19
Raphanus sativus 17.0 Biennial 27
Desmodium: Desmodium. intortum, Desmo- Amaranthus paniculatus 10.5 Annual 30
dium uncinatum, etc. Source: Cheng Baoshu (2001)
Hedysarum: Hedysarum laeve, Hedysarum scoparium, Hedysarum fruticosum (sub-shrubs suitable for
temperate areas where the rainfall is 150mm to 350mm).
Kummerowia: Kummerowia striata, an annual legume with wide adaptation: drought tolerant, flood
resistant, photophilic and shade tolerant, and can be sown in tropical, subtropical and temperate areas
where the pH values range from 4.1 to 7.5.
Lathyrus: Lathyrus sativus, Lathyrus pratense etc. Annual legumes.
Lespedeza: Lespedeza bicolor, Lespedeza cuneata, Lespedeza dahurica (all indigenous and widely sown
in the north), Lespedeza hedisaroides.
Leucaena: Leucaena leucocephala, a shrub or tree with various varieties suited to tropical and
subtropical areas.
Lotus: Lotus corniculatus.
Lupinus: Lupinus luteus, Lupinus albus, etc.
Macroptilium: Macroptilium atropurpureum, is a tropical perennial creeping legume with high

proportion of leaf and high protein content and can be used as both fodder and for water and soil control.
Medicago: Medicago sativa (most important and widely sown), Medicago falcata and Medicago
denticulata, etc.
Melilotus: Melilotus alba (widely sown in 1950s and 1960s), Melilotus officinalis, Melilotus dentatus, etc.
Onobrychis: Onobrychis viciifolia (mainly used in sandy area where the conditions are unsuitable for
Medicago sativa through low temperature and rainfall), Onobrychis transcausia, Onobrychis arenaria,
etc.
Pocockia: Pocockia ruthenica (= Trigonella ruthenica, it is a rare legume in the alpine region, extremely
cold resistant and with stool shoots).
Pueraria: Pueraria lobata (sown in north) and Pueraria thomsonii (sown in south, high starch content
in roots), both good both for forage and water and soil conservation.
Stylosanthes: Stylosanthes guianensis (introduced).
Trifolium: Trifolium repens and Trifolium pratense (mainly sown in the humid hilly area in southern
China), Trifolium incarnatum, Trifolium hybridium, Trifolium lupinaster, Trifolium fragiferum, Trifolium
subterraneum, Trifolium alexandrinum, etc.
Vicia: Vicia sativa, Vicia villosa, Vicia faba (used for fodder and green manure, sown in autumn in
southern China), Vicia amoena.
Cultivated Grasses Around 24 genera and 60 species of grasses are cultivated in China. The major
genera and species are briefly introduced as follows:
Agropyron: Agropyron cristatum (sown in the northern China), Agropyron mongolicum (adapted to
steppe and desert zones) and Agropyron desertorum.
Alopecurus: Alopecurus pratense and Alopecurus arundinaceus; are not used much.
Arrhenatherum: Arrhenatherum elatius.
Bromus: Bromus inermis (has been sown in China for more than 100 years and its cultivated area is
increasing in the humid regions of northern China and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau), Bromus catharticus.
Cynodon: Cynodon dactylon (widely used as forage and turf).
Dactylis: Dactylis glomerata (sown widely in China and the area is large).
Elymus: is an important grass and of great value for establishing perennial artificial grassland. Cultivars
in this genus are characterized with strong adaptation, strong cold tolerance and easy maintenance.
Elymus sibiricus and Elymus nutans were domesticated in the 1950s and are major cultivated grasses in
northern China (especially on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau). They can be sown in pure stand but perform
better if the two are mixed. Elymus dahuricus and Elymus excelsus are also cultivated.
Elytrigia: Elytrigia repens, Elytrigia intermedia and Elytrigia trichophora.
Hemarthria: Hemarthria compressa (mainly grown in the subtropical south-western humid areas and
Sichuan).
Hordeum: Hordeum brevisublatum and Hordeum bogdanii (used for both grazing and hay with features
of hydrophile and salinity tolerance).
Leymus: Leymus chinensis (has a wide ecological range and is salinity resistant, with high nutritive
value and was sown on a large scale in the 1950s as one of the key cultivars of permanent artificial
grassland), Leymus secalinus (is resistant to cold, drought and salinity with strong colonising ability, but
its cultivated history is short).
Lolium: Lolium perenne (a famous perennial grass, widely cultivated since 1970s; an important forage grass
and also the most important turf grass in humid regions) and Lolium multiflorum (mainly sown in winter in
rice raising areas of subtropical zone can be grown in the warm Temperate Zone of North China).
Paspalum: Paspalum dilatatum and Paspalum wettsteinii (all cultivated species in this genus are
introduced and these two are important in tropical and subtropical areas).
Pennisetum: Pennisetum purpureum (introduced in the 1930s, is grown in subtropical areas on a large
scale).
Phalaris: Phalaris arundinacea (is all over China, and is widely sown since it tolerates waterlogging,
salt and pests), Phalaris tuberosa (introduced in the 1970s, is cultivated in southern subtropical areas)
and Phalaris canariensis (not used much).
Phleum: Phleum pratense (is cultivated and widely sown, but the area is small).
Poa: Poa pratensis, Poa pratensis var. anceps (wild on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and adapts to cold with
grazing and cutting tolerance), Poa trivialis, Poa erymophila and Poa compressa.
Puccinellia: Puccinellia tenuiflora (domesticated in 1930s) and Puccinellia chinampoensis (both are
famous for salinization control).
Roegneria: Roegneria semicostata, Roegneria ciliaris (both are widely distributed), Roegneria
kokonorica (domesticated in the 1960s and is important for artificial grassland with its strong cold
tolerance in alpine regions of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau).
Setaria: Setaria anceps (introduced, sown in southern subtropical areas).
Sorghum: Sorghum sudanense (introduced in the 1930s and sown nationwide. It is a vital fish fodder).
Spartina: Spartina anglica (introduced from United Kingdom in 1963 and widely planted in coastal
areas. It is of great value for the improvement of saline coastal areas).
Zoysia: Zoysia japonica, Zoysia sinica, Zoysia tenuifolia, Zoysia matrella, Zoysia macrostachya etc.
(creeping grasses for grazing, slope consolidation and turf).
Other Cultivated Forages: Amaranthus paniculatus, annual herb of Amaranthaceae, is a high quality
fodder for pigs, poultry and cattle. It is of ancient cultivation in China where the area is the largest in
the world.
Calligonum mongolicum, the super-xerocole shrub of Chenopodiaceae; a pioneer plant for sand fixation
in desert and gravel desert with tolerance to drought and cold. It is usually used for aerial seeding.
Ceratoides latens, a shrub of Chenopodiaceae, important in Temperate Zone and alpine desert for
artificial pasture with tolerance to drought and cold, and adaptation to sandy and rocky soils.
Kochia prostrata, a creeping sub-shrub of Chenopodiaceae, is good forage in desert and semi-desert areas
with tolerance to drought, salt, poor soil and a high protein content, and it is suitable for establishing
rainfed grassland.
Lactuca indica, a biennial herb of Compositeae, indigenous to China and sown country-wide as fodder
for pigs and poultry.
Silphium perfoliatum, a perennial herb of Compositeae, introduced in the 1980s and is cultivated
nationwide as fodder for cattle, pigs and rabbits.
Symphytum peregrinum, a perennial herb of Boraginaceae, introduced in the 1970s is widely cultivated
between the Great Wall and Yangtze River as pig and cattle fodder.
Forage Cereals: Avena sativa is the most important fodder crop in the north and alpine areas. It is
generally sown pure; the sown area has increased rapidly in recent years because it is easy to grow and
harvest. Its seeds do not ripen on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, but high quality freeze-dried hay could be
got through adjusting sowing time to enable it to complete heading before the frost.
Hordeum vulgare is an important forage and its cultivated area is only slightly less than forage maize.
It is sown country-wide both in the north (spring barley) and the south (winter barley). Naked barley is
the Tibetan staple food.
Secale cereale introduced from Russia in 1940s and now widely cultivated in northern and alpine areas.
In 1979 an American cultivar winter grazing 70 was introduced and extended nation-wide.
Setaria italica, annual, is indigenous to China and has been cultivated for more than 6,000 years. It is
widely sown in the north as a cereal. The nutritive value, palatability and digestibility of its straw are
higher than those of wheat and rice. It could be made into high quality hay (not removing the grain) by
dense planting.
Sorghum bicolor has been cultivated in China for 4000 years, but its area is much less than Sorghum
sudanense and is increasing in recent years.
Zea mays is the most important forage in China and sown country-wide in a long, narrow belt from
northeast to southwest. It was used as human food before 1980, but now is almost all used as animal
feed.
Grain Legumes as Forage: Cicer arietinum is a dual-purpose crop, introduced from Russia in the
1950s. Now it is cultivated both in the north and the south. Its grain is a very nutritious concentrate.
Glycine max is indigenous to north-eastern China and the forage variety is a primitive form. Both green
chop and grain are good forage with high protein content.
Pisum sativum (white flower) and Pisum arvense (purple flower) are annuals and have been cultivated
for 2000 years in China. It is sown country-wide because of cold tolerance and it is better to mix with
oats than Vicia sativa.
Vicia faba is a dual-purpose crop and has been cultivated for 2100 years in China where its cultivated
area is the greatest in the world. A forage cultivar introduced in 1960 is cold resistant with high yield
and high quality.
Root Tuber, Stem Tuber and Melon Forages Beta vulgaris, biennial herb of Chenopodiaceae, is
widely grown in the north for sugar (main purpose) and fodder. Fodder cultivars normally cannot grow
in alpine regions, but it could be grown and yield well by using plastic sheet mulching.
Brassica rapa, a biennial crucifer, is an old cultivated crop. It was mainly grown on the Qinghai-Tibet
Plateau in early times and now is extended to the whole country as a succulent fodder. Its yield could be
greatly increased by using plastic sheet mulching.
Cucurbita moschata, annual Cucurbitaceae, gives high yields and high quality succulent fodder. The
contents of carotene, vitamin A, B and C in flesh and fruit are 100 times higher than grain cereals.
Daucus carota, biennial of the Umbelliferae, grown country-wide as a succulent fodder.
Helianthus tuberosus perennial herb of Compositeae; leaf, stem and tuber can be used.
Aquatic Forage Crops: Alternanthera philoxeroides, amphibious perennial herb of Amaranthaceae,

from Brazil and was introduced in 1920s. Cultivated both in the north and south as fodder for pig,
poultry, cattle, sheep and fish. Its dry matter content is less than 5%.
Aneilema keisak, an annual herb of Commelinaceae, has been cultivated in subtropical southern China
for a long time. Its dry matter content is around 5%. It grows fast and is used as fodder for pigs, cattle
and rabbits.
Azolla imbricata, a floating fern of Azollaceae, widely distributed in tropical and subtropical zones; has
been cultivated in China for 500 years. It forms a fern-algal symbiosis with blue green algae (Anabena
azolla, Cyanophyta) and can fix atmospheric nitrogen. Its yield is as high as 300 to 500 tonnes/ha with 16 to
18% of crude protein (DM base). It is high quality fodder for pig, poultry and fish, and a good green manure.
Eichornia crassipes, a floating herb of Pontederiaceae, is a high yielding aquatic forage indigenous to
South America. It is cultivated in the warm Temperate Zone in China. Its dry matter content is around
5%. It is used as fodder for pigs, poultry, cattle, sheep and fish or as green manure.
Pistia stratiotes, floating herb, of Araceae, is a high yielding aquatic forage in tropical and subtropical
zones. It has been extended to the watershed of the Yellow River. The dry matter content ranges from 5
to 6%. It is mainly fed to pigs, poultry and fish or is a green manure.
Zizania caduciflora, perennial temperate and subtropical grass, long cultivated in southern China. Its
height is 1 to 2.5m and it is high quality fodder for cattle, horses and fish with 14% of crude protein.
Classification of Artificial Grassland (Hu Zizhi, 1997)

Artificial grassland is playing an increasingly important role and its area has increased in recent years.
To understand and guide the artificial grassland development scientifically, its classification has been
given great attention.
Principles of Artificial Grassland Classification The following five principles should be followed for
classification:
1. The classification should depend on the labour factor. It differs from natural grassland, for arti-
ficial grassland is an agricultural resource created through human effort and can only exist while
the cultivation is kept going. So cultivation differentiates natural from cultivated grassland. Then
artificial grassland could be differentiated from semi-artificial grassland depending on the degree
of cultivation, i.e. permanent cultivation or periodic cultivation. Semi-artificial grassland should
be included in natural grassland because the vegetation components are not changed radically.
2. Moisture and thermal conditions are basic factors for artificial grassland type determination. The
thermal condition is the priority basis for determining the high-grade units. It is the same as with
natural grassland, the bio-community of artificial grassland is formed and maintained under certain
water conditions. People can considerably modify the water supply to grasslands under current
production conditions. However, the thermal condition cannot be changed by human intervention.
The thermal condition becomes, therefore, the crucial factor to define the type of artificial grass-
land. Besides, the type difference caused by the variance of water condition in the same thermal
zone has been eliminated by irrigation and other cultivation practices to a great degree, so the
number of types in a thermal zone is decreased remarkably and most of the types are mesophytic.
3. The major feature of land is determined by soil, thus the soil is used to define the middle clas-
sification grade. Land preparation is an important step for artificial grassland establishment. The
soil should be levelled for irrigation and machinery operation. The influence of topography on the
distribution of water is greatly decreased. In this case, the effect of soil on restricting the character-
istics and production of artificial grassland stands out. It is the reason to treat soil as the parameter
of middle grade of artificial grassland classification.
4. Forage species and species components are used as the basis to determine the lower classification
grades. The grass component in vegetation is the most distinct feature of the structure and appear-
ance of the community, and it also indicates its feeding value. Compared with natural grassland,
the grass component of artificial pasture is simple and it is therefore easy to be used as the param-
eter to classify types. At the same time, the stability of the grass component is much lower than
that of temperature and soil, which is why it can only be used as the classifying parameter of low
grade.
5. The classification system of artificial grassland should be linked with the natural grassland clas-
sification system. This is because any piece of artificial grassland is established and maintained
under the ecological environment of natural grassland. In substance, artificial grassland is the
result of highly intensive management of natural grassland. Furthermore, from the view of agri-
cultural resources, natural grassland and artificial grassland are two parallel levels with the same
use. Therefore, each classification system should be properly linked in an integrated system.
Classification System and Classification Standards Based on the above-mentioned principles, the
classification system of artificial grassland may be constituted with three grades, i.e., class, subclass and
type. The classification standards of each grade are described as follows:
Class: is divided according to thermal condition. The features of class can be used to guide artificial
grassland regionalization. Thermal grade is determined with >0 C accumulative temperature (sum
theta, see Table 29), totally 5 grades, i.e. tropical zone, subtropical zone, temperate zone, cold temperate
zone and frigid (alpine) zone. The thermal values of each zone are shown in Table 29. Class is named
with the name of the thermal grade, the five Table 29. Division of thermal grade
Classes are Tropical Zone Artificial Grassland, >0 C cumulative
Thermal zone temperature Thermal grade
Subtropical Zone Artificial Grassland, Temperate (sum theta)
Zone Artificial Grassland, Cold Temperate Zone Frigid (Alpine) Zone < 1 300 C Frigid
Cold Temperate Zone 1 300 to 2 300 C Cold Temperate
Artificial Grassland and Frigid Zone (Alpine)
2 300 to 3 700 C Cool Temperate
Artificial Grassland. Temperate Zone*
3 700 to 5 300 C Warm Temperate
5 300 to 6 200 C Warm
Subtropical Zone*
Subclass: after class Subclasses are divided by 6 200 to 8 000 C Subtropical
soil type. The features of subclass can be used Tropical Zone > 8 000 C Tropical
to guide soil improvement and fertilizer regime. * Please refer to Table 11, the division of thermal zone is
simplified because the rate of dependency of cultivated forage
Subclass is named by soil type and temperature grasses on temperature is lower than wild ones.
zone is used as a prefix to express the features of
subclass, for example, Tropical Zone Latosol Artificial Grassland, Temperate Zone Chernozem Artificial
Grassland, Frigid Zone Alpine Meadow Soil Artificial Grassland etc.
Type: after subclass determination, the type is determined according to forage species or species
component. The features of type can be used to select cultivation and utilization patterns. Type is named
with the forage or forage group. For example, Sorghum sudanense forage, Lolium perenne + Trifolium
pratense + T. repens mixture. For convenience of mapping, several types could be merged according to
life form, economic group or life span.
Connection of Artificial Grassland Classification to the Comprehensive and Consequence

Classification System of Natural Grassland The classification system has an inherent relation to the
Comprehensive and Consequence Classification System of Natural Grassland; this is embodied in the
following points:
First, both systems have three basic grades, Class, Subclass and Type. The thermal, soil and forage
species are used as the classification parameters for these three grades in the artificial grassland
classification system. This is similar to the Comprehensive and Consequence Classification Sys-
tem of Natural Grassland. Therefore, this system can be called the Comprehensive and Conse-
quence Classification System of Artificial Grassland.
Second, the temperature could be used as the interface to connect the systems because water and
temperature are used for class division in both. So, the two systems could be merged and expressed
in a unified index chart (see Figure 13).
Third, soil and topography are used for subclass division in natural grassland and soil is used in
artificial grassland. Topography is not as important in artificial grassland classification as in natural
grasslands.
Fourth, the type of both systems is determined by forage species, so it could be connected directly
to compare the aspects of community and grass production.
Grass cultivars and seed production

The selection and breeding of forage grasses in China can be traced to early times, farmers selected many
native forages. However, modern grass breeding began quite late. In the nineteen-fifties two cultivars of
Medicago sativa were bred, i.e. Gongnong No. 1 and Gongnong No. 2; breeding has speeded up since
1980. The National Examining and Approval Committee for Forage Cultivars, affiliated to the Ministry
of Agriculture, was constituted in 1987. A set of laboratories and experimental stations was set up. There
are more than 300 researchers working in forage breeding in 2000. 379 forage cultivars were submitted
for registration and 219 were approved by the end of 2000 (44 during 1998 to 2000), including 90 of
improved cultivars, 39 of native cultivars, 55 of introduced ones, 35 of cultivated wild varieties. Out of
the registered cultivars 17 are Medicago sativa and these can increase yields by 10 to 30% (National
Examination and Approval Committee of Forage Grass Cultivars, 1992; Su Jiakai, 2001).
In 1986, the National Crop Germplasm Store in the China Agricultural Academy (based in Beijing)
was set up It is in charge of long term conservation of crop genetic resources (including forage: seeds can
be conserved for over 50 years). In 1989, a Forage Germplasm Store was set up in the Grassland Institute
of the Agricultural Ministry. Its storage capacity is 40 000 and it is in charge of midterm conserving
and supplying forage germplasm. Meanwhile, five Resource Gardens of perennial forages in Hohhehot,
Beijing, Wuhan, Nanning and Kunmimg were set up for field conservation, propagating and supplying
germplasm. In 1998, the nationwide Testing Centre of Forage Seeds was founded. All these units, based
on the Forage Germplasm Store, combined with the National Crop Germplasm Store and Resource
Gardens, make up a national network for conserving, supplying, and testing of forage germplasm.
Good forage grass cultivars

The characteristics of some important cultivars in terms of breeding targets are introduced below
(detailed information can be obtained from the National Examining and Approval Committee of Forage
Grass Cultivars, contact address: Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine Division, Ministry of
Agriculture, Beijing 100026)
Early Ripening Cultivars Erect milkvetch (Astragalus huangheensis = A. adsurgens) cannot produce
seeds or the seed yield is very low north of the Yellow River because of insufficient accumulated
temperature. New cultivars, Huanghe No. 2, Longmu No. 2 and Zaoshou were bred by systematic
selection or 60Co-y. Flowering date could be 20 days earlier and the seed yield can be increased by 80
to 120%.
Lactuca indica originated in the warm temperate and subtropical zones. New cultivars, Gongnong,
Longmu and Mengzao were bred by mixed selection, and these new cultivars are early maturing,
cold resistant and high seed yielders.
Cold Resistant Cultivars Legume cultivars suitable for mixed sowing and pure stand are very scarce in
northern China. New cultivars of Medicago sativa, Caoyuan No. 1, Caoyuan No. 2, Gannong No.
1, Longmu 893, Tumu No. 1, Xinmu No. 1 and Xinmu No. 3 were bred using interspecific
crossing or intergeneric crossing of M. sativa x M. falcata. Hybrid cold resistant cultivars of Onobrychis
viciifolia are Mengnong and Gannong No. 1.
Disease Resistant Cultivars Downy mildew is a major diseases of Medicago sativa. Shingling No.
1 is a cultivar resistant to downy mildew, bred by identifying disease-inoculated strain, selecting, and
crossing. Its disease-free rate is 95 to 100%.
Stylosanthes guianensis is severely infected by anthracnose. Reyan No. 2 was bred through selection
and 907 through 60Co-? for resolving the problem.
Salt Tolerant Cultivars A salt-resistant cultivar of Medicago sativa, Zhongmu No. 1, was crossbred
with four good cultivars as parents through open pollination and mix selection for four generations. It
enables Medicago sativa to be grown in saline soil and yields can be higher by more than 10% compared
to ordinary cultivars.
Drought and Heat Resistant Cultivars It is hot and dry in the Yangtze River catchment in summer and
this is to the detriment of over-summering temperate forages. The new cultivar, Emu No. 1, was bred
from cultivar Regal of Trifolium repens as parent material through natural selection, artificial selection,
individual selection and multiple crossbreeding. The summer survival rate was increased by 15%.
A new cultivar, Nannong No 1. (Lolium perenne x Festuca arundinacea), was bred by intergeneric
crossing with Lolium perenne cv Manawa as female parent and Festuca arundinacea as male. It is
cold resistant, and tolerates waterlogging and drought.
Grazing Tolerant Cultivars of Lucerne with Stool Shoots Based on introduced stoloniferous lucernes,
two new cultivars, Gannong No. 3 and Gannong No. 2 of Medicago sativa, were bred respectively in
semiarid area and alpine area through spot sowing, individual fixed planting and cloning. The proportion
of plants with stolons of the former is more than 30%, and the proportion of plants with horizontal roots
of the latter ranges from 50 to 80% (Geng Huazhu, 1995).
Polyploid Cultivars Polyploid plants are characterized by eugonic growth, high yield and strong cold
and drought resistance, but low seed yield. This feature could be used to increase the yield of vegetative
organs. Up to now, heptaploid Triticosecale wittmack cv Zhangxin 1881 and hexaploid cv Zhangsi
237 have been bred octoploid. Tetraploid Lolium multiflorum cv Ganxan No. 1 and Shangnong
were bred as well.
Hybrids These cultivars include Zea mays cv Jiqing No. 7 (Pa91 X 340), Longmu No. 3 (GJ60 X
GB47-1), Longmu No. 5 (J38 X GB33), Liaoqing No. 8 (Liaoyuan No. 1 X Gueiqong), Huanong
No. 1 (Tian 111 X Mexico Euchlaena mexicana inbred line A1), Xinduo No. 2 (Huangyu 555 X
7G) and Zhongyuandan No. 32 etc. These cultivars have significant heterosis.
Cultivars of Sorghum bicolor, Liaosiza No. 1 (S. bicolor male sterile line T X 623A X sugar S. bicolor
restorer line 1022) and Liaosiza No. 2 (S. bicolor sterile line LS3A X sweet S. bicolor restorer line
Roma), are waterlogging tolerant, drought tolerant and salinity tolerant. Wancao No. 2 (Sorghum
bicolor x S. sudanense) has low hydrocyanic acid content and is suitable for green use. Pennisetum
purpureum (male sterile line Tifa 23A X restorer line Bil 3B-6) is taller and has more tillers. Mingmu
42 is a fodder cultivar of Saccharum officinarum bred from CO419 (female parent) and PT43-52
(progeny of wild variety, male parent). It is has high yield, high quality and multiple resistance.
Cultivars Selected from Wild Plants Puccinellia chinampoensis can grow in salty soil (pH > 9.4, salt
content of topsoil 2.0 to 2.5%), but native types only germinate where the temperature range is more
than 10 C. This limits their widespread use. Using four excellent strains and an integrated variety a new
cultivar, Jinong has been bred. Its germination and yield are improved significantly.
Hedysarum laeve and Hedysarum scoparium are excellent pioneer shrubs for wind breaks, sand fixation
and fodder. The productivity of wild strains is low. New cultivars, Zhongcao No. 1 of Hedysarum
laeve and Zhongcao No. 2 of Hedysarum scoparium, were bred through single plant selection, mix
selection, strain test, regional testing and production testing. New cultivars retain the excellent features
and strong vitality of wild plants and the biomass could be increased by 20%.
Seed production
China has a very long history of grass seed production, but seed supply is still a bottleneck for grass and
forage production because of the weak breeding work. Despite a set of bases for foundation seed having
been set up in the nineteen-eighties, the output of commercial seed is very low. China can only produce
seeds of Medicago sativa, Astragalus huangheensis, Melilotus alba, Vicia sativa, Vicia villosa, Leymus
chinensis, Puccinellia tenuiflora, Puccinellia chinampoensis, Elymus sibiricus, Elymus nutans, Elymus
dahuricus, and Sorghum sudanense to a certain degree. The seeds of Astragalus sinicus are produced
and used by farmers themselves, but there are no commercial seeds in China due to the small production
scale. The situation of Lolium multiflorum is similar to Astragalus sinicus, the vigour of harvested seeds
by farmers is quite low since humid weather and the local government encourages farmers to use the
seeds produced in drier areas. Imported seeds are also used in these areas.
Seeds of other grasses and forages that cannot be produced commercially include seed of Lolium
perenne, Dactylis glomerata, Festuca arundinacea, Trifolium repens, Trifolium pratense and the cold
season turf grasses Poa pratensis, Festuca elata, Festuca capillata (Festuca tenuifolia), and Agrostis
stolonifera; for these there is almost total dependence on imports. Although large amounts of seed of
Zoysia japonica, and Cynodon dactylon can be produced in China, seeds would have to be exported
for further selection and cleaning and then reimported for end use because of lack of seed cleaning
technology and related equipment.
Turf culture in China has developed rapidly at 20% annual growth since 1996.
Since the demand for grass products from East Asia and within China keeps increasing and the
price is steady since 1995, the production of forage products has been promoted especially based
on Medicago sativa. In 2000, the central Chinese government started the West Development Plan,
including returning arable land to pasture and forest on a large scale; this is ongoing. This is strongly
increasing the demand for grass, forage and turf seeds. According to statistics, the imported grass seed
in 2000 was around 10000tonnes and both forage and turf account for 50%. Because of the long term
increasing demand for grass seed, China is beginning to invest in their production and since 2001 has
set up production bases to promote self-sufficiency. However because turf seed production has high
technical requirements, dependence on imports will not be changed in the long term.
Zonation of grassland for sustainable ecological and economic development

The Zone of Grassland Agro-ecosystems is a multiple-component complex that consists of the
environment, flora and fauna, social and economic systems in a geographical area and functions as an
ordered and structured integration. Natural conditions vary significantly over the vast territory of China
and various grassland types and grassland ecosystems have developed in different regions. In these
regions grassland exploitation is characterized by different local social and economic factors.
Principle of division of economic zones of grassland agro-ecosystems

The grassland industry, based on a well-functioning grassland agro-ecosystem, can use both native
and introduced forages in a large range of varying ecological environments. Therefore, its adaptability
to natural characteristics is wider and more flexible than traditional crop production and forestry.
Considering the regional characteristics of grassland industry in relation to natural, social and economic
conditions, the zonation for sustainable development is based on the following criteria:
1. Similarity of ecological conditions, precipitation and temperature in particular;
2. Similarity of grassland types and landscape;
3. Similarity in grassland production and its structure;
4. Consistency between grassland ecosystems and economic systems;
5. Consistency between grassland policy and critical technology adopted; and
6. Consistency of grassland zones and administrative divisions that provide practicability of regional
programming for grassland development.
Grassland zones
On the basis of the above criteria, Chinas grasslands can be divided into seven ecological-economic
zones as follows:
Zone 1: Inner Mongolia-Ningxia Arid Grasslands, which includes the Ningxia Huizu Autonomous
Region, the bulk of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region and that part of Hebei Province north of
the Great Wall.
Zone 2: Northwest Desert Shrublands, which includes Tibet Autonomous Region, the Hexi Corridor of
Gansu and Alashan Meng of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region.
Zone 3: Qinghai-Tibet Alpine Shrublands, including Tibet Autonomous Region, Qinghai Province, the
southern part of Gansu Province, the western part of Sichuan Province and the northwest of Yunnan
Province.
Zone 4: Northeast Forests, including Heilongjiang Province, Jilin Province, Liaoning Province and the
northeast of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region.
Zone 5: Loess Plateau and Huang-Hai Plain, which covers Shanxi Province, Shandong Province,
Henan Province, Beijing and Tianjing Municipalities, the north of Shaanxi Province, the east of Gansu
Province, that part of Hebei province to the south of the Great Wall and the parts of Anhui Province and
Jiangsu Province to the north of the Huaihe River.
Zone 6: Southwest Karst Shrublands, including Guizhou Province, Chongqing Municipality, the east
of Sichuan Province, the southeast of Yunnan Province, the bulk of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous
Region and the west of Hunan Province and Hubei Province.
Zone 7: Southwest Evergreen-broadleaf Forests-shrublands, including Zhejiang Province, Jiangxi

Province, Fujiang Province, Guangdong Province, Hainan Province, Taiwan Province, Hongkong and
Macao, the Sichuan Basin, the south of Shaanxi Province Tianshui Prefecture of Gansu Province, the
east part of the Guangxi Zuang Autonomous Rejoin, the parts of Anhui Province and Jiangsu Province
to the south of the Huaihe River and the eastern parts of Hubei Province and Hunan Province.
Statistical data on local natural and social conditions and agricultural production in each Zone are given
in Tables 3033.
Current grassland situation and proposed strategy for each zone

Inner Mongolia-Ningxia Arid Grassland Zone This is one of the most important pastoral areas in
China. Grassland types change from meadow grasslands to typical grasslands, then to desert grasslands
from northeast to southwest, with decreasing precipitation. The environment is fragile due to severe
desertification caused by frequent gales, coarse soils, overgrazing and poor management. Deserts and
desertified lands make up 11% and 18.4% respectively of the land of this zone.
The rich grassland resources have high primary productivity and stocking capacity. Typical
grasslands in Hulun Beir Meng and Jirem Meng in the east of the zone are one of the best grassland
areas in China, with annual hay yield and stocking capacity of 9001500 kg/ha and 0.71.2 sheep unit
per ha, respectively; desert grassland types are in the Ulanqab Meng, on the Ordos Plateau and in the
areas to the east of the Helan Mountain Range, with Stipa spp., Salsola collina, Artemisia frigida etc. as
dominant species. Annual hay yield and stocking capacity are 400600kg/ha and 0.250.40 sheep unit
per ha, respectively.
Winter grasslands are scarce, only 3060% of the warm-season grasslands, so they are heavily grazed
and their grazing usually lasts five months, longer than on warm-season grasslands. Significant annual
variation in precipitation causes great differences in forage production, which can be as much as four
times between a year of good rainfall and a dry one. Crop growing has been expanding to the north,
taking over more and more grasslands, resulting in sharpened conflicts in the local society.
Nomadic, extensive management still prevails. With rapid growth in livestock numbers and slow
development in establishing artificial pastures in past years, the grasslands have deteriorated seriously
under heavy grazing. Shortage of pasture and frequent natural disasters cause heavy losses of livestock:
loss, sale and domestic consumption by local herders makes up a third each of the total animal
production each year.
In this zone, crop production should be restricted and development focused on livestock, grassland
protection and establishment of artificial pastures and integration of crop production with feedlot
operation. Feed processing and mechanization of forage production should have a high priority in
development planning.
Northwest Desert-shrubland Zone

Table 30. Major climate data of each grassland zone
This is the largest of the zones defined
Annual 0=C
in this study; it is in arid and semi-arid Annual
accumulated Humidity (K)
Zone precipitation
desert areas, in most of which annual temperature (mm/C)
(mm)
(C)
precipitation is less than 250mm, with 1 2 0003 000 250400 0.51.4
long hours of solar radiation between 2 4 0005 700 < 250 0.10.9
26003400hr/annum. An extremely 3 2 0001 600 500700 0.14.4
arid climate, frequent wind and sparse 4 1 7003 500 5001 000 1.63.3
5 3 0004 800 500900 1.12.1
vegetation are features of the fragile
6 4 0007 000 1 0002 000 1.23.5
environment (Geography Institute, 7 4 5007 500 2 0002 500 1.62.7
Chinese Academy of Science, 1983). Note: K = r/(0.1 sum theta), r is annual precipitation (mm), theta is annual >0=C
Sand storms often cause serious accumulated temperature (C)
damage to grassland production. By estimation, desertification and salinization have affected

486000km2 and 1730700km2, respectively, which account for 21.6% and 47.5% of the total affected
land in China.
There are 676 continental rivers in the zone that are fed by melting snows and glaciers in the Tianshan
Mountains, the Kunlun Mountains, the Altay Mountains and the Qilian Mountains. These rivers have
played an important role in nourishing the development of local oases agriculture for thousands of years.
Nowadays, however, only the Yili, the Ertix and Shule Rivers can maintain their supply to the increasing
population in the zone, while the others are seriously short of water. Meanwhile, the area of arable land
affected by secondary salinization has reached 14.7% and 31.1%, respectively, of the total arable lands
in Xinjiang and the Hexi Corridor of Gansu (Ren Jizhou and Zhu, 1998).
The forage yield (dry matter) of the native grasslands is 300 kg/ha in mountain areas, and
3001200kg/ha from sown pastures. It is an indicator of the great potential of grassland productivity of
this zone. Livestock production is mainly in the mountains, where serious seasonal imbalance between
forage supply and livestock requirement is a major constraint. Very often, in spring, livestock die in large
numbers due to fodder shortage. On the other hand, the fodder resources of crop-producing areas in the
zone are not used efficiently for there could be a combination of grazing and crop production.
As measures of improvement, artificial pastures should be widely and intensively established in
mountain areas to protect against natural disasters. Rotational grazing regimes need to be adopted and
measures taken to protect water sources. In desert areas the stocking rate should be strictly controlled,
while in oases feed and fodder production needs to be expanded. Livestock can be transferred from
mountain areas to oases for fattening which would greatly improve the overall production system.
Zone of Qinghai-Tibet Alpine Shrublands The population here is the smallest of all zones, while the
area of natural grassland is the largest. Due to high altitude, average more than 3000m, solar radiation
in the zone is 50% higher than in neighbouring zones. However, heat resources are less.
Water resources in the zone are unevenly distributed. Annual precipitation is 10002000mm, even
as high as 30004000mm in some places on the southern slopes of the Himalayas and in the southeast
of the Hengduan Mountains. It is only about 50 mm in the Qaidam Basin and the northwest of the
Qiangtang Plateau (Geography Institute, Chinese Academy of Science, 1983). Annual precipitation is
between 500700 mm in other areas. Many rivers rise on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, which is the area
richest in hydraulic energy in China. The rivers are mainly in the southeast.
The primary productivity of native natural grasslands is low. Forages from the alpine meadow type
are palatable and nutritious, while those from sparse wood and shrub grasslands are of poor quality. Due
to the long cold season, windy weather, frequent snow disasters and droughts, the imbalance between
fodder supply and livestock requirement is great and so the system has difficulty in resisting the impact
of natural disasters. Long-term overgrazing has turned many places on grasslands into Black-Soil-
Patches or Sandy Lands (Liu et al., 1999; Ma and Li, 1999; Ma et al., 1999).
The off-take of a marketable surplus of animal products in the zone is the lowest in China.
Measures for improvement that should be taken include strictly controlling the stocking rate, breed
improvement, adopting rotational
grazing, establishing artificial pastures Table 31. Major socio-economic data of each grassland zone
(1995)
and accelerating the development Theoretical
of markets for animal products. Land area Population Arable Grassland NPP of
Zone (104 km2) land grassland
Meanwhile, the problems of transport, (104) (104 ha) (104 ha) (106 tonne
low adoption of new technology and DM/year)
1 69.77 2 038.87 488.67 5 404.55 255.60
funding for development should be
2 222.33 1 999.04 407.81 8 854.78 214.29
given a high priority in the agenda. 3 220.95 918.98 108.25 13 562.62 810.09
Tourism could be integrated into the 4 96.56 10 211.30 1 715.36 2 153.78 122.38
traditional grassland industry to take 5 97.96 32 398.91 3 243.06 2 610.76 164.71
full advantage of the resources of 6 83.50 1 1194.23 749.46 3 134.07 371.42
beautiful scenery and native Tibetan 7 168.48 5 5081.53 2 749.90 3 589.18 436.33
All 959.55 113 843.23 9 491.02 39 309.74 2 374.82
culture. The zone is one of the least
Note: NPP is net primary productivity, calculated by the formula of Li et al. (1998) and
polluted regions in the world, and Zhou and Zhang (1996)
thus there is a potential to produce Table 32. Agricultural production in each grassland zone (108
green foods for the increasing demand RMB, 1995)
for such products on the world market. Zone Crops Forestry Livestock Fisheries
Sustainable development in local 1 149.60 8.65 95.2 2.82
2 289.57 7.35 89.87 2.34
society, environment and economy
3 42.30 2.89 46.58 0.16
could be realized through organizing 4 977.70 33.87 485.38 86.05
a grassland agro-ecosystem that 5 2 720.49 129.17 1 357.90 3.27
functions well at all its production 6 710.24 82.22 340.75 18.74
levels.(Hu Zizhi, 2000) 7 4 200.10 346.39 2 253.84 861.56
China 9 169.22 611.07 4 671.99 1 298.19
Northeast Forests Zone The zone

is characterized by adequate rainfall Table 33. Marketable surplus of livestock in the five most
important regions (%)
but low temperatures. The major Region Cattle Horse Ass Mule Camel Pig Sheep
grassland types are meadow grassland, Inner
21.3 8.7 8.7 3.2 15.4 62.1 33.4
typical grassland, alpine meadow and Mongolia
marsh. The dominant species are Tibet 10.8 -- -- -- -- 49.1 21.5
Gansu 16.6 4.0 7.1 1.9 13.1 85.2 32.0
Leymus chinensis, Stipa baicalensis,
Qinghai 11.5 1.3 2.5 1.1 16.2 71.9 23.0
Dendranthema maximowiczii and Xinjiang 26.8 16.3 11.9 9.5 14.6 83.6 45.1
Cinnamomum austro-sinense, with China 20.4 9.6 13.9 8.2 14.9 107.1 54.6
meadows of Leymus chinensis as the
most important type. Annual forage
yield is 10001500kg/ha (dry matter) and remains quite stable from year to year. The stocking capacity
is 1.52.0 sheep/ha
Dairy cattle and milk production in this zone takes first place in China and the grassland industry
is integrated with local crop production to use local fodder and feed resources such as crop residues
and maize, more efficiently. The strategy for development in the zone is to establish large-scale
production bases through increased input and establish close co-operation between agricultural sectors
for efficient utilization of resources. Ecologically healthy animal products should be the main output of
the production bases.
Loess Plateau and Huang-Huai-Hai Plain Zone The zone is the area with the longest history
of agriculture in China. There are many fine native breeds and rich feed resources. In addition to
concentrates, silage and urea-treated maize stover have been widely adopted in recent years in beef
feedlots which have become a profitable farm enterprise. To meet the demand for fodder, lucerne
(Medicago sativa) cultivation is expanding rapidly. In Gansu and Shandong, farmers grow Medicago
sativa (Gannong No. 2 and No. 3, and native or imported cultivars) for hay or selling to the processing
company for pellet making. Farmers income can be increased by more than 15% compared with cereal
growing.
The climate is of humid or semi-humid monsoon type, with high consistency between rainfall and
biologically active accumulated temperature, and is favourable for agriculture. However, the variation
in rainfall between years is large and thus drought is a major problem (Hou et al., 1991). Surface and
underground water is insufficient to meet agricultural demand. Average runoff per capita is only about
500m3, only a fifth of the national average (Ren and Bao, 1992). The Loess Plateau is seriously eroded,
while the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain is dominated by soils of poor quality for agriculture, such as Shajiang
black saline soil and heavy sandy soil.
The zone is one of the major areas of forage seed production in China. The forages include Medicago
sativa, Melilotus spp., Onobrychis viciifolia, Sorghum sudanese, Astragalus adsurgens, and Zoysia spp.
Erosion control and conversion of farmlands to woodlands and pastures should be the major measures on
the Loess Plateau for sustainable development. Pasture establishment can be integrated into the planning
of small catchment management. In the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain wastelands on sandy river flats and beach
areas near the sea can be used to grow pastures for fodder production and soil improvement. Based on
established pastures and crop by-products, beef and dairy cattle, sheep and goats can be raised to expand
the livestock sector of the local agriculture.
Southwest Karst Shrubland Zone There are 48 ethnic minorities and half of the poverty-stricken
people in China live in this zone (Research Group of Sustainable Agricultural Development in Karst
Regions of China, Chinese Academy of Engineering, 1999). The karst landforms have widely distributed
limestone cliffs and bare stone deserts caused by irrational cultivation, overgrazing and deforestation
on mountain slopes. It is estimated that the area of stone deserts has quadrupled in the past 50 years
in Guizhou and Yunnan Provinces. This trend of land degradation has been accompanied by serious
water loss and soil erosion and, as a consequence, general deterioration of the ecological environment
(Research Group of Sustainable Agricultural Development in Karst Regions of China, Chinese Academy
of Engineering, 1999).
Natural grasslands are fragmentarily distributed in mountainous areas and are usually difficult to
manage. Moreover there are many poisonous plants, with palatable species accounting for only 30 -
60%. Native forage legumes are scarce, but the leguminous shrubs that exist in great number have not
yet been utilized. Both overgrazing and under-utilization of local fodder resources exist in the zone.
Water and heat resources are rich here, but radiation is inadequate to support plant growth for seed
production (Hou et al., 1991). Cereals can be grown but their yield and quality are low. However, local
climatic conditions are suitable for making improvement in natural grasslands and establishing artificial
pastures by vegetative production (Ren et al., 1999). Sown pastures can have 34 cuts, even 6 cuts in
some places, annually. Some forages, such as Lolium spp., Stylosanthes spp., Trifolium repens, Trifolium
pratense and Dactylis glomerata grow well under local conditions. Annual hay yield is 3400~4500kg/
ha from natural grasslands and 8 000~10 000 kg/ha from sown pastures; on some it was more than
10000kg/ha, with 2133ha of pastures carrying 12000 sheep that produced 2.5~3.0kg clean wool each
in a year (Jiang et al., 1996 ab).
The development of vegetative agriculture and rational utilization of native leguminous shrubs could
be a way to realize sustainable development (Ren et al., 1999; Liu et al., 1999). The Central Government
can provide funds and policy support to speed up the development on the basis of careful planning
for rational utilization of local grassland resources. It is the responsibility of the local governments to
allocate land-use rights among farm households as a measure to encourage them to establish artificial
pastures on mountain slopes and on other types of wasteland.
Southeast Evergreen Broadleaf Forest-shrubland Zone Of all the zones in this study this has the
largest population, the most developed economy and the best climatic conditions (Hou et al., 1991)
(Tables 31 and 32). Natural grasslands are secondary after tropical and sub-tropical forest is cleared (Yu
et al., 1996). Their annual hay yield is 2000~3000kg/ha, but quality is usually poor. Productivity could
be increased by 5~8 times if improvement measures are applied (Yang et al., 1997).
Traditionally green manure is grown on local farms, so it is easy to establish a new rotation scheme
between paddy rice and commercial fodder production in the zone to realize better economic, ecological
and social benefits. According to a study by Yang et al. (1997 ab) in Guangdong Province, rotation of
Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) and rice increased the content of organic matter, total N, available
N, biomass of micro-organisms and enzyme activity in the soil. These, in turn, increased the yield of
early rice and late rice by 10% and 7%, respectively; furthermore, the annual forage production was
worth RMB 15000. The current area used for forage can be expanded in existing farming systems with
available techniques. The processing industry needs to be developed for producing high-quality animal
products with high added value.
The economic zone of the grassland agro-ecosystem is a kind of integrating system between
Grassland Industry, Crop Production and Forestry. It is a multi-component complex of ecosystems
in a large geographical area, involving various economic and social activities. The theory of system
joining can be used to guide in planning and implementing development programmes in these zones for
achieving sustainable economic, social and environmental benefits (Ren and Wan, 1994).
System discordance occurs when exchanges between system components or sub-systems are
hindered. It usually takes the following forms (Ren and Zhu, 1995):
1. temporal discordance such as seasonal discordance between forage growth and livestock require-
ments;
2. spatial discordance between fodder supply and demand taking place in different regions;
3. interspecies discordance such as the discordance between forage species and the needs of different
species of livestock.
Experience has proved that realization of system pairing between different zones or between sub-
systems in the same zone is the key to solving the problems (Ren and Zhu, 1998). If pairing is successful,
the productivity of the systems as a whole can be greatly increased and the results are more likely to be
sustainable (Ren and Wan, 1994).
Chinas population is 1 286 000 000 now and will be 1 385 000 000 by 2010. According to the
government plan for the livestock sector, the annual output of meat, eggs and milk should be increased
by 19.59%, 22.22% and 100%, respectively, by 2010 in comparison to 2000. Achieving these goals
means that the productivity of the grassland industry must be 24.8 animal product units per hectare
in 2010, therefore, it also means that measures must be taken to improve existing natural grasslands
and establish artificial pastures on a large scale. In addition to pairing between different systems,
pairing should be realized between different production levels, so that free flows of material inputs and
information can be maintained between the levels.
7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND

PERSONNEL
There are 23 organizations related to grassland and grass research in China, of which six national institutes
are affiliated to the China Agricultural Academy and China Academy. f 36 agricultural universities, 16 can
provide four-year bachelor education on grassland science. Gansu Agricultural University, Inner Mongolia
Agricultural University, Xinjiang Agricultural University, China Agricultural University and China
Agricultural Academy are authorized to provide a Ph.D. programme. The top-level technical extension
organization in charge of grassland management and fodder production is the Animal Husbandry and
Veterinary Medicine Station of Chinas Agriculture Ministry. Accordingly, each province has a Grassland
Station or Forage Grass and Forage Crop Extension Station. Each county has an Animal Husbandry and
Veterinary Medicine Station at county level or a Grassland Station where the grassland area is large.
1. Grassland Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences

Address: Wulanchabu Donglu, Hohhehot 010010, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region
Contact: Dr. Xu Zhu, Forage Germplasm
Email: [email protected]
Tel: 0086 471 4926909
Fax: 0086 471 4961330
2. Grassland Division, Beijing Animal Husbandry Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural

Sciences
Address: Yuanmingyaunxi Road No. 2, Beijing 100094
Contact: Dr. Li Xianglin, Head
Tel.: 0086 10 62815750
Fax: 0086 10 68979104
3. Gansu Grassland Ecological Research Institute

Address: P.O. Box 61, Lanzhou 730020, Gansu Province
Contact: Prof. Zhang Zihe, Director, email: [email protected]
Dr. Nan Zhibiao, Vicedirector, email: [email protected]
Prof. Ren Jizhou, Academician, email: [email protected]
Tel.: 0086 931 8663778
Fax: 0086 931 8663778
4. Sichuan Grassland Institute

Address: Xipu, Chengdu 624000, Sichuan Province
Contact: Prof. Ze Bai, Director
Tel.: 0086 28 7842341
Fax: 0086 28 7851305
5. Grassland Resource Division, Geography and Natural Resource Institute, Chinese Academy of
Sciences
Address: Building 917, Anwaidatun Village, Beijing 100101
Contact: Prof. Su Daxue, Grassland Resource
Prof. Huang Wenxiu, Grassland Livestock Ecology
Tel.: 0086 10 64889456
Fax: 0086 10 64889456
6. Qinghai Grassland Institute

Address: Xining 810003, Qinghai Province
Contact: Dr. Zhou Qingping, Director, Grassland Management
Tel.: 0086 971 5318386
Fax: 0086 971 5318044
7. Xinjiang Grassland Institute

Address: Kelamayidong Road 21, Urumchi 830000, Xinjiang Uigur Autonomous Region
Contact: Prof. Cui Hengxin
Tel.: 0086 991 4834864
Fax: 0086 991 4846011
8. Northwest Plateau Biology Institute of Chinese Academy of Sciences

Address: Xiguandajie 59, Xining 810001, Qinghai Province
Contact: Dr. Zhao Xinquan
Tel.: 0086 971 6133353
Fax: 0086 971 6133353
9. Grassland Science College of Gansu Agricultural University

Address: Yingmencun 1, Lanzhou 730070, Gansu Province
Contact: Dr. Long Ruijun, Director, email: [email protected]
Dr. Zhang Degang, Vice Director, email: [email protected]
Tel.: 0086 931 7631227
Fax: 0086 991 7632044
10. Grassland Science Department of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University

Address: Zhaowuda Road, Huhhehot 010018, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region
Contact: Dr. Li Qingfen, Director, email: [email protected]
Dr. Han Guodong, email: [email protected]
Prof. Yi Jin, Forage Physiology, email: [email protected]
Prof. Yun Jinfeng, Forage Breeding
Tel.: 0086 471 4301371
Fax: 0086 471 4954460
11. Grassland Science Department of Xinjiang Agricultural University

Address: Nanchang Road, Urumchi 830052, Xinjiang Uigur Autonomous Region
Contact: Prof. Zhu Jingzhong, Director, e-mail
Dr. An Shazhong, email: [email protected]
Dr. Meng Lin, email: [email protected]
Tel.: 0086 991 4523001 ext. 2612
Fax: 0086 991 4552178
12. Grassland Science Department of Qinghai University

Address: Ningzhang Road, Xining, Qinghai Province
Contact: Dr. Zhu Zhihong, Director
Tel.: 0086 471 4301371
Fax: 0086 471 4954460
13. Grassland Research Institute of China Agricultural University

Address: Yuanmingyuanxilu 2, Beijing 100094
Contact: Dr. Han Jianguo, Director, Forage Seeds
Tel.: 0086 10 62891264
Fax: 0086 10 62892799
14. Grassland Science Department of Sichuan Agricultural University

Address: Xinkang Road 36, Yaan City, Sichuan Province
Contact: Dr. Zhang Xinquan, Director, Forage Breeding
Tel.: 0086 835 2242326
Fax: 0086 835 2242851
15. Grassland Science Department of Nanjing Agricultural University

Address: Weigang, Nanjing 210095, Jiangsu Province
Contact: Dr. Sheng Yixin, Director, Forage
Tel.: 0086 25 4395314
Fax: 0086 25 4395314
16. Grassland Research Institute of Northeast Normal University

Address: Renmindajie, Changchun 130024, Jilin Province
Contact: Dr. Zhou Daowei, email: [email protected]
Prof. Zhu Jingchen, email: [email protected]
Tel.: 0086 431 5662860
Fax: 0086 431 5684009
17. Tropical Pasture Research Center of Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences
Address: Danzhou 571737, Hainan Province
Contact: Prof. Yi Kexian, Vice Director, email: [email protected]
Tel.: 0086 890 3300645
Fax: 0086 890 3300440
18. Grassland Ecosystem Research Station of Botany Research Institute of Chinese Academy of
Sciences
Address: Xiwaidajie 141, Beijing 100044
Contact: Prof. Chen Zuozhong
Tel.: 0086 10 62599055
19. China Grassland Society

Address: Yuanmingyuanxilu 2, Beijing 100094
Contact: Prof. Hong Fuzeng, Chairman
Tel.: 0086 10 62891666
Fax: 0086 10 62892799
20. Grassland Research Institute of Ningxia Agricultural College

Address: Wangtaipu, Yunning 750105, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region
Contact: Prof. Wangning, Grassland Management
Email: [email protected] OR [email protected]
Tel.: 0086 951 8409373
Fax: 0086 951 8400175
21. Inner Mongolia Academy of Animal Science

Address: West Suburbs, Huhhot 010030, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region
Contact: Prof. Lu Dexun, Sheep Nutrition
Tel.: 0086 471 3963783
Fax: 0086 471 6965224
8. REFERENCES
Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine Division of Agriculture Ministry of China (1994).
Grassland Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Integrated Survey Committee of Chinese
Academy of Sciences. Data on the Grassland Resources of China. Beijing: China Agricultural Science and
Technology Press. (Chinese).
Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine Division of Ministry of Agriculture (1996). National
Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine Station, Peoples Republic of China, Rangeland Resources of
China. Beijing: China Science and Technology Press. (Chinese).
Cai, Yunlong (2000). Principles of Natural Resources Learnt from China, Beijing Science Press (Chinese)
Chen Baoshu (2001). Cultivation of Forage Grasses and Forage Crops. Beijing: China Agricultural Science
and Technology Press. (Chinese).
Chen Shan (1994). Grassland Forage Plants Resources of China. Shenyang: Liaoning Nationality Press.
(Chinese).
China Agricultural Yearbook Editorial Committee (2000). China Agricultural Yearbook 2000. Beijing:
China Agricultural Press. (Chinese).
China Resource Information Editorial Committee (2000). Resource Information of China. Beijing: China
Environment Science Press. (Chinese).
Editorial Board of Cattle Breeds of China (1998). Cattle Breeds of China. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and
Editorial Board of Sheep Breeds of China (1989). Sheep Breeds of China. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and
Editorial Committee of Environmental Protection in China (2000). Environmental Protection in China.
Beijing: China Environment Science Press. (Chinese and English).
Geng Huazhu (1995). Alfalfa of China. Beijing: China Agricultural Press.
Hong Fuzeng (1989). Regional Division of Cultivated Perennial Forage Grasses of China. China Agricultural
Science and Technology Press. (Chinese).
Hou, G.L., Li, J.Y. and Zhang, Y.G. (1991). Climatic Resources of Chinese Agriculture. Beijing; Chinese
People University Press, 57168 (Chinese).
Hu, Zizhi (1997). Panorama on Grassland Classification. Beijing: China Agricultural Press. (Chinese).
Hu, Zizhi (2000). Pratacultural Development and Environment of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Beijing: China
Tibetanology Press. (Chinese).
Hu, Zizhi (1979). Probe to Evaluating Grassland Productivity by Using Animal Products, Abstracts of
Animal Husbundry, No. 3, 18 (Chinese).
Jiang, W.L., Mu, X.D. and Cheng, Q.G. (1996).Optimum Model of Grassland Husbandry in Yunnan-
Guizhou Plateau: 1. Optimisation of Grazing System with Shantong Fine Tail Sheep on Sown Pasture, Acta
Prataculture Sinica, No. 1, 6774 (Chinese).
Li, D.Q., Sun, C.Y. and Zhang, X.S. (1998). Modelling the net primary productivity of the natural protential
vegetation in China. Acta Botanica Sinica. 560566.(Chinese).
Liu, G.D., Zeng, X.B. and Cai Rong (1999). Vegetative Agriculture and Sustainable Development of
Prataculture in the South of China, Acta Prataculture Sinica, No. 2, 17 (Chinese).
Liu, Zixue (2001). The Great Role of Grassland Industry Endowed by History, China Green Times, Sept.
11.(Chinese).
Ma Yushou, Lang Baining and Wang Qiji (1999). Review and Prospect of the Study on Black Soil Type
Deteriorated Grassland, Pratacutural Science, No. 2, 29. (Chinese).
Ma, Yushou, Li, Qinyun. (1999). Study on the Control of Weeds and Poisonous Plant on Black Soil Type
Deteriorated Alpine Meadow, Pratacutural Science, No. 3, 4650. (Chinese).
Miller, D.J. and Craig, S.R. (1996). Rangelands and Pastoral Development in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas,
Kathmandu, Nepal: International Centre for Integrated Moutain development. (English)
Ministry of Agriculture (1998). China Rural Household Statistics. (Chinese).
Nan, Zhibiao (2000). Establishing Sustainable Management System for Diseases of Pasture Crops in China,
Acta Prataculture Sinica, No. 2, 19. (Chinese).
National Biodiversity Situation Research Report Editorial Group (1998). Report on National Biodiversity
Situation Research. Beijing: China Environment Science Press. (Chinese).
National Bureau of Statistics (2000a). Peoples Republic of China. China Statistics Yearbook 2000. Beijing:
China Statistics Press. (Chinese and English).
National Bureau of Statistics (2000b). Peoples Republic of China. China Rural Household Statistics
Yearbook 2000. Beijing: China Statistics Press. (Chinese).
National Examination and Approval Committee of Forage Grass Cultivars (1992). Registered Grass
Cultivars of China. Beijing: Beijing Agricultural University Press. (Chinese).
Ren Jizhou (1985). Grassland Survey and Planning. Beijing: Agricultural Press. (Chinese).
Ren, Jizhou and Wan C.G. (1994). System Coupling and Desert-oasis Agro-ecosystem. Acta Prataculture
Sinica. 3(3): 18.(Chinese).
Ren, Jizhou, Hu, Z.Z. and Zhang, Z.H. (1999). A Preliminary Discussion on Grassland Ecological -
Ecological Region in China, Acta Prataculture Sinica. 8: 1222. Suppl. (Chinese).
Ren, Jizhou and Zhu, X.Y. (1995). The Basic Pattern and Its System Discordance of Grassland in Hexi
Corridor of China. Acta Prataculture Sinica. 4(1): 6979. (Chinese).
Ren, Jizhou and Zhu X.Y. (1998). Biological Improvement and Optimized Productive Model of Salinized
Grassland in Hexi Corridor. Beijing: Science Press. 147181. (Chinese).
Ren, M.E. and Bao, H.S. (1992). Natural Division and Its Renovation and Exploitation in China. Beijing:
Science Press. 53153. (Chinese).
Research Group of Sustainable Agricultural Development in Karst Regions of China, Chinese Academy
of Engineering. (1999). Strategy and tactics for solution of sustainable agricultural development problem
in karst regions of China. Acta Prataculturae Sinica. 8 (Suppl.): 3242. (Chinese).
Su, Jiakai (2001). Review on Forage Grass Breeding, Journal of Grassland and Turf, No. 3, p.16.
Sun, He (1994). Agricultural Natural Resources and Regional Development of China. Nanjing: Jiangsu
Science and Technology Press. (Chinese).
Wu, Zhengyi (1980). Vegetation of China. Beijing: Science Press. (Chinese).
Yang, Z.Y., Xin, G.R., Yue, C.Y., Chen, S.Y., Liang, Z.Z., Lu, Z.H. and Zhang, Y.Y. (1997a). A case study
on benefits of Italian ryegrass-rice rotation system. Pratacultural Science. 14(6): 3539.
Yang, Z.Y., Yue, C.Y., Xin, G.R., Jian, S.G. and Yang, Z.R. (1997b). Effects of winter cropping Lolium
multiflorum in rice field on growth of succeeding rice and a preliminary approach to its mechanism.
Pratacultural Science. 14(4): 2024 (Chinese).
Zhang, R.C. (1989). Yak of China, Lanzhou: Gansu Scientific Press. (Chinese).
Zhou, G.S. and Zhang, X.S. (1996). Study on Npp of natural vegetation in China under global climate
change. Acta Phytoecologica Sinica. 1119. (Chinese).
Websites
Details of high resolution maps of Grasslands in China
Details of Grasslands and Grassland Sciences in Northern China (book)
Horqin Grasslands Detecting Changes 1975 to 1990 Using Remote Sensing
China - Changes in the Length of Growing Period 1958-1988
China - Conversion of Grasslands to Cultivated Land 1988 - 1995 Atlas of Grassland Resources of China
9. CONTACTS
Prof. Hu Zizhi
Honorary Director
College of Grassland Science
Gansu Agricultural University
Lanzhou 730070, P. R. China
Tel: 86 931 7631213 (O)
Fax: 86 931 7632044
E-mail:[email protected]
Dr. Zhang Degang

Deputy Director
College of Grassland Science
Gansu Agricultural University
Lanzhou 730070, P. R. China
Tel: 86 931 7631213 (O)
Fax: 86 931 7632044
E-mail: [email protected]
The pasture/forage resource profile for China was prepared in 2001 by Prof. Hu Zizhi and Dr. Zhang
Degang in Lanzhou, P. R. China, who will undertake periodic updating.
[The profile was edited by J.M. Suttie and S.G. Reynolds in April/May 2002 and some livestock data
updated in October 2006 by S.G. Reynolds.]

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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY 8

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES 17

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 20

5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE 26

6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF FODDER RESOURCES 41

Classification of Artificial Grassland (Hu Zizhi, 1997) 49

7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL 58

Figure 1. Map of Peoples Republic of China

Figure 2. Distribution of human population

Figure 3. East, Central and West Parts of China

Figure 4. Map of land use

Figure 5. Distribution of arable land in China

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY

Figure 6. Three terraces of China [Sun He, 1994]

Figure 7. Topography of China

Figure 8. Soil distribution

Figure 9. Soil - vegetation distribution

Key: Factors of desertification

Figure 10. Distribution of desertified land in Northern China

Figure 11. Vegetation distribution of China

b. combine Sabina open forest 38. Sympegma regelii rock desert

a. Stipa Non-vegetation area

b. Poa, Festuca Saline incrustation

63. Stipa purpurea steppe Sand desert

a. contain Stipa subsessiliflora var.basiplumosa Gobi

b. contain Festuca Alpine top gravel

(35) Subtropical, tropical bush savanna combine succulent thorny

elaphus, Procapra picticaudata, and Pantholopus hodgsonii. Rodents: Marmota himalayana,

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Features of agricultural zones

Character and developing trends of nine first class agriculture zones

Figure 12. Ecological zonation of agriculture

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Farm size (National Bureau of Statistics, 2000a)

Table. 6 Livestock population (in thousand head)

Table 7. Output of livestock products of China

Livestock species and breeds

Cattle (Bos taurus) (Editorial Board of Cattle Breeds of China, 1998)

Yak (Bos grunniens)

Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)

Sheep (Ovis aries) (Editorial Board of Sheep Breeds of China, 1989)

Goat (Capra hircus)

Horse (Equus caballus)

Camel (Camelus bactrianus)

Pigs (Sus scrofa domestica)

Uncontrolled Grazing: Pasture use is not planned Table 8 Stock units

Integration of livestock into farming systems

5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE

Area and distribution of grassland

resources from 1980 to 1990 (Rangeland Table 9. Grassland area in China

Figure 13. Index Chart of Class of

Table 12. Precipitation grades and their associated

Table 13. Area of different grassland classes

Figure 14. Grassland distribution and classes

and Hu Zizhi, 1979). Shaanxi 0.48 9 029 582 2.01 18

following rules should be followed when

Figure 16. Carrying capacity pattern chart of different grassland classes

Hebei 486.7 62.0 456.7 217.3 7 075.0

Toxic and harmful plants of grassland