Aluminum Casting Alloys- LM Series

Uses and General Remarks

LM0 Mainly used for sand casting for electrical, chemical and food applications.
LM2 One of the two most widely used alloys for all types of die castings
LM4 The most versatile of the alloys; has very good casting characteristics and is used
for a very wide range of applications. Strength and hardness can be greatly
increased by heat treatment.
LM5 Suitable for sand and chill castings requiring maximum corrosion resistance e.g.
marine application
LM6 Suitable for large, intricate, and thin-walled castings in all types of molds; also
used where corrosion resistance or ductility is required.
LM9 Used for application especially low pressure die casting requiring the
characteristics of LM6 with higher tensile strength after heat treatment
LM10 Mainly used for sand and chill castings requiring high strength and shock
resistance. Requires special foundry technique; heat treated.
LM 13 Mainly used for pistons.
LM16 Suitable where high mechanical properties are desired in fairly intricate sand and
chill castings. Requires heat treatment.
LM18 Combines good foundry characteristics with high resistance to corrosion.
LM20 Mainly used for pressure die casting. Similar to LM6 but a little better
machinability and hardness.
LM21 Generally similar to LM4-M in character and application but better machinability
and proof strength.
LM22 Used for chill castings requiring good foundry characteristics and good ductility.
Requires heat treatment
LM24 Suitable for large, intricate, and thin-walled castings in all types of molds; also
used where corrosion resistance or ductility is required. After LM6, this has a
wide variety of usage.
LM25 Suitable where good corrosion resistance combined with thermal properties are
required. Strength is attained by heat treatment.
LM26 Mainly used for pistons as an alternative to LM13.
LM27 A versatile sand and chill cast alloy introduced as an alternative to LM4 and
LM21.
LM28 Piston alloy with lower coefficient of thermal expansion than LM13. Requires
special foundry technique.
LM29 Same characteristics as LM28 but wit still lower coefficient of expansion.
LM30 For unlined die-cast cylinder blocks with low expansion and excellent wear
resistance.
Standard Melting and Fluxing Procedures for Aluminum Alloys
Aluminum-Silicon-Copper Alloys (e.g. BS 1490, LM4, LM13, LM16,LM21, LM22,
LM24 and LM27)
Metal Treatment for Sand Casting:
Melt initial charge under cover of cover flux @ 250gms per 50kg melt. Continue
charging until melt is complete and has acquired requisite degree of superheat. When the
metal temperature begins to fall, slowly plunge 0.25% of degasser tablets by weight per
melt. Hold until bubbling ceases. These charges may be increased if the charge is
corroded by way of lower virgin/scrap ratio of the melt. Better way is to degas is by use
of dry nitrogen gas plunged into the melt with a rotary motion. Plunge grain refiner
tablets or Al-Ti master alloy ingots. Whichever method is used, finish off by adding a
further 250gms of cover flux per 50kg melt to the metal surface and rabble gently and
skim off cleanly.
Recommended pouring temperatures are:
Light castings, up to 13mm section 730C
Medium castings 13-38mm section 710C
Heavy castings, over 38mm section 690C

Metal Treatment for Gravity and High Pressure Die Casting:

A full metal casting outlined above is not usually necessary. What is very essential, is
however, that the holding bale out furnaces are regularly drossed off in order to
circumvent the possible formation of hard spot inclusions in the metal. Gravity casters
will hold the metal at average temperatures about 700-740C and can therefore, use cover
fluxing the amount and manner mentioned above.
Pressure die casters, because of different requirements of the process, hold metal in bale
out furnaces at temperatures closer to liquidus, i.e. around 610-640C. At these low
temperatures normal cover fluxes work too slowly if at all. Using low melting fluxes,
especially for this process is essential and this requirement must be clarified to the
supplier of flux materials.
Aluminum Silicon alloys
(a) Medium Silicon Alloys-3to6% Silicon
(BS 1490, LM18, LM25, LM8)
Modification of these alloys is not essential but it often improves mechanical properties.
Grain refinement also improves response to heat treatment where this is carried out. It
prevents patchiness due to grain-size variation in articles subsequently anodized.
Recommended pouring temperatures are:
Light castings, up to 13mm section 730C
Medium castings 13-38mm section 710C
Heavy castings, over 38mm section 690C
(b) The Eutectic Alloy Group- 10-13% Silicon
(BS 1490, LM6, LM20)
General Notes
Castings made from these alloys are supplied in as-cast condition and not heat treated. As
such they are suitable for marine application, automobile fittings, switch-boxes and
where corrosion resistance is and ease of casting are essential.
These alloys have excellent casting properties and very good corrosion resistance. The
LM6 type is best in this latter respect. Although of medium strength with relatively low
hardness and elastic limit, they have excellent ductility. Because of their high silicon
content, they have a tendency to drag during machining and cause rapid tool wear.
Carbide tipped tools with large rake angles, low cutting speeds and use of lubricants and
coolant are recommended.
These alloys are suitable for low pressure casting.
Melting Considerations
As with most aluminum alloys, accurate temperature control is essential if best results are
to be expected. Gas pick-up increases with temperature of the melt. It must be maintained
at minimal and consistent with requirements of the fluxing treatment. As with both gas
and oil fired furnaces, temperature continues to rise after the heating is stopped. The fuel
must be stopped before peak temperature is reached. For this, accurate temperature
measurement must be functional alongside the furnace.
Modification:
Although aluminum-silicon alloys were the first to be produced and used, it was not until
1921, when Dr.Pacz found that their mechanical properties can be greatly improved by
adding sodium fluoride that they assumed industrial importance. The process of adding
sodium or other alkali fluorides to molten metal to improve mechanical properties was
termed modification. Later, several alternatives involving alkali metals and alkaline-
earth metals were found by which modification could be achieved. Of these, two most
widely used modifying agents are sodium/ alkali metals and fluorides and strontium.
Advantages of degassing before modifying
It is sometimes thought that by using modified ingot by the refiner, subsequent
modification process in the foundry can be cut down or even dispensed with. However,
when it is borne in mind that degree of modification in as supplied ingot varies
considerably and also that the ratio of scrap to ingot in any one charge also varies it will
be seen that the only way to achieve constant degree of modification is to destroy any
existing modification and then re-modify to a known and controlled extent. Function of
degassing is, of course, to remove harmful gases, mainly hydrogen. A strong degassing
treatment not only removes but also destroys sodium as well. It is essential therefore that
degassing must precede modification and never vice versa.
Aluminum-Magnesium Casting Alloys:
BS1490 LM10

Melting Procedure (Salts Method)

1. Coat and preheat all melt handling tools.
2. Heat up crucible
3. Charge in ingot metal and scrap (runners, risers, etc.). It is preferred that the scrap
is added before ingots. This practice saves magnesium loss and crucible life by
preventing direct impact of ingots during charging.
4. When melt has attained plastic state add 1.5kg of cover flux per 50kg melt.
5. Shut off the furnace when a temperature of 680C has been attained and mix and
rabble the flux into the melt for three to four minutes. Now refine the grain by
plunging tablets (125gms per 50kg melt) or master alloy till bubbling has ceased
 followed by standard degassing process. After degassing do not interfere with the
melt until it is poured.

Degassing by Gas Plunging

This method of degassing is extremely efficient provided that it is performed with
knowledge and care. A perforated hollow spindle coupled to a low-speed motor is
plunged into the melt in rotary motion and dry nitrogen gas is introduced through the
spindle in controlled volume into the melt. This gas enters the melt from the bottom of
the ladle through perforations in the form of bubbles. As the bubbles rise to the top, they
attract the entrapped gas (mainly Hydrogen) in the melt to attach to its surface, and thus,
released to atmosphere. This physical reaction is based on the principle of differential
surface tension. The speed of rotation must be well designed and the volume of gas must
be such that only gentle ripples are formed on the surface of the melt allowing that much
time for the physical reaction to occur.
It is known that the residual gas in the melt, after degassing by gas plunging method is
much less than that by tablet method. It is also an environment friendly process.
GRAVITY AND LOW PRESSURE DIE CASTING

Gating and feeding of Aluminum Gravity Castings

The primary consideration of designing permanent molds for aluminum casting is the
gating system. It must be ensured that the gate and the runner are provided at the correct
location.
While the gating system can be changed in sand casting, it is not the case in permanent
molds. In most case it is appropriate to provide gate at the thickest section of the casting.
This allows smoother flow of metal into the mold and the feeding is also possible by
access to hottest metal for the thickest section. This is true and feasible for the castings
that are compact. However, for castings with greater length, it is advisable that the gate is
attached to thin sections so that the metal reaching the remote thick section is colder,
feeding of thick section is possible by adequate risers and thin sections fill fully due to
availability of hot metal. In this way, a thermal balance is also achieved as the entire mold
virtually solidifies simultaneously. Such an example is shown in Figs.1, 2 and 3.

The in-gate must be big enough to remain full during the mold filling phase and
permits rapid yet turbulence-free filling of the mold.
It is important for aluminum casting that the mold is filled from the bottom rising to the
top. Too large (thick) an in-gate must be avoided in order to permit quicker trimming and
lesser metal loss during sawing. Some typical gating systems are shown in fig.4.

Following are the questions that must be discussed during the design of a die:
1. How to part the die?
2. What are the locations most vulnerable to air traps?
3. Whether metallic or sand cores should be used?
4. Where is the heat accumulation going to occur? Whether these locations would
call for cooling or feeding? If so, is it possible to provide them?
5. How and what type of coating be applied to any given mold profile?

Advantage of Bottom Gating

Example of Bottom Gating

Tips to Designer of LPDC Dies

1 Choice of Machine
Low Pressure Die Casting machines are identified by the capacity of the crucible to hold
the volume (or weight) of liquid metal. Based on this capacity, the machine structure,
hydraulic pressures and casting parameters such as casting weight, die size, etc. are
ascertained. For the purpose the designer must avail the machine manual.

Interesting is the weight range of castings that are planned for production by LPDC
process. This gives a fair idea of die size and metal refilling (topping) frequency. In turn
one can arrive at die size and productivity and make the choice of the machine capacity.

Conversely, if a machine is readily available and the component is planned for production
on it, the designer has to acquire the data of the weight of casting and component drawing
and compute estimated productivity, number of refills per unit time (e.g. per shift),
estimated die size (incl. Base Plate), in-gate locations, ejection facility and prepare a
feasibility report. Care is necessary when preparing the report.

2. Casting Layout Feasibility.

Consultation with concerned personnel is essential regarding methodology, layout,

identification of problems, incorporating remedial plan for such problems and finally, a
perception of degree of difficulty of (a) casting process (b) die manufacture.

Good casting layout is planned on the following priority:

1. Die size estimation and admittance
2. Maximum portion of mold covered by metallic die
3. Least possible usage of sand core
4. Ease of providing gating to ensure turbulence free flow of metal in the mold
5. Gate location (see also #7)
6. Air and gas removal from the mold
 7. Operational ease (casting process, maintenance)
8. Ease of sand core manufacture
9. Ease of die manufacture

3. Die Size Estimation.

This aspect has a severe limitation. The overall size of the die is specific to the casting
size and, therefore, limited. Nevertheless, there are principal clues to be used while
estimating the size:
Optimum thickness of die inserts
Optimum die release strokes
Optimum ejection stroke
Optimization of sliding mechanism
It must be ensured that the die is, in principle, as compact as possible. However, thick
sections of the casting necessitate thin mold wall and vice versa. Ejection and/or release
strokes are based on requirement that no portion of casting is in contact with mold wall
post release. And lastly, never work on the maximum stroke limit specified by the
machine manufacturer. Use the optimum. If required review the sliding mechanism of
the die. If nothing is adjustable, the casting is not feasible to be cast on the given
machine. Do not proceed!

4. Admittance Feasibility in Machine Structure.

Following aspects to be considered:
Distance between tie-bars in all axes
Die locating feasibility
Fixing locations of machine structure
Guidance
Interlocks
Ejector mechanism
Ejector strokes
Hydraulic cylinder stroke-length for all moving die elements

5. Choice of guiding mechanism for all moving die-blocks together with locators.
Slider guides provided in the base plate of the machine
Stroke-lengths available
Whether additional guides need to be provided in the die blocks
Whether additional guides provided in design would damage the machine
elements
6. Design of sand core-boxes and choice of print locations.

A casting manufactured by LPDC process without internal intricacy is not imaginable.

Because a casting made by all-metal mold is successfully and economically
manufactured by high- pressure die casting process, it is therefore to be perceived
that an LPDC-apt casting will employ sand core/cores.

The sand core profile is specific to casting requirement. Yet, it is a good idea for a die
designer to discuss and simplify the profile with casting designer if in the opinion
of the die designer, the profile/profiles is difficult to provide at core-box
manufacturing stage, core manufacturing stage or, even, core transportation
stage. When the profile satisfies die-designers conviction the design of core-box
commences. Following considerations are helpful while designing the core-box:
Process required (hot-box, shell, CO2, etc.).
Number of cores required
Simplest parting of each core box
Identification and avoidance of weak sections of the core
Informing (warning) core production department of such locations (if necessary,
providing them with special handling instructions.
Avoidance of appendages (if required, provide multiple cores by splitting
complicated portions into more simpler cores)
Location of sand introduction into the box
Air removal (venting) from the box
Core removal (stripping) arrangement
Core-print design
Of the above considerations, core-print design needs elaboration. Following aspects need
urgent attention:
1. Strength of prints
2. Air venting of print profiles to ensure strength
3. Minimum dimensions to ensure strength
4. Maintaining asymmetry of locations to ensure correct placement in die
5. Maintaining differential dimensions to ensure correct placement in die

7. Choice of in-gate location.

The most critical decision of designing is the choice of in-gate location. Wrong
location of it results in casting defects ranging from complete un-filling to
porosity. Since the direction of metal introduction (injection) into an LPDC-die is
fixed (bottom upwards) planning of locating the gate/s must be fixed in
conjunction with the layout feasibility (see #2).
Following aspects need urgent attention:
Thick sections of the casting nearest to gate
Thin sections of the casting are away from the gate
Wall thickness (average) of the profiles located remotely from the gate (4 to 4.5
mm required).
 Directional solidification pattern is possible
Distance of the farthest portion of casting from assigned gate location.
Degree of difficulty of mold filling with regard to internal intricacy of the mold.
Degree of difficulty of mold filling with regard to external intricacy of the mold.
Whether feasible to prevent sand-core shift due to liquid metal movement inside
the mold.
Identification of leakage prone areas of casting (gate should be close enough to
compensate shrinkage of these areas).
Liquid metal flow-pattern inside the mold.
Perception of gas and air movement for chosen gate location during mold filling
phase.
Whether the in-gate profile (cut-out) disturbs core placement (print wash-off).
Whether the gas and air can be removed successfully during mold filling phase.
Whether the ascribed location in any way disturbs the die operation.
Whether the ascribed location in any way weakens the die elements.

8. Calculation of in-gate area.

In-gate area is the opening at the intersection of connector passage and the casting
surface. Gate area of an LPDC die has dual function
1. To fill total casting volume
2. To compensate solidification shrinkage (feeding)
To satisfy the above needs as well as to derive commercial gain (yield %) it is best to start
with the minimum using simple mathematical formulae and a set of technical
assumptions as follows:

W= Weight of casting in grams.

= specific gravity of liquid Aluminum
V= velocity of liquid metal at the gate (cm./sec)
t= mold fill time (sec)

W
Total In-gate Area A = ----------- (sq. cm)
t*v*Z
Weight (W) of the casting is either known or can be estimated from the drawing.

Mold fill time (t) is assumed. It is the actual time to fill the mold and is independent of
the time taken by liquid metal to rise from the stalk tube up to the in-gate. This may be
assumed about 60 seconds on average (but not exceeding 90seconds). While lower mold
fill time facilitates quicker mold filling, it also impair air/gas removal resulting in heavy
air/gas traps and porosity. Core shifting is also the result. On the other hand, higher time
results in unfilled remote thin sections of the casting. To a large extent, the phenomenon
of short filling can be compensated (countered) by setting higher pneumatic air pressure
or by adjusting the rate of increase of air pressure per shot.
Velocity of metal at in-gate for LPDC process is assumed to be 2.5 cm./sec

Specific gravity of liquid aluminum is 2.4 grams/ccm.

The calculated area is the total minimum required and is to be divided equally over the
number of gates chosen. Besides, corrections may be made later on the basis of
casting trial results. Number of gates and gating corrections are discussed under #9

9. Liquid metal flow-pattern within chosen layout and gate position.

To discuss liquid metal flow pattern the designer must have finalized casting layout
and chosen the in-gate location and calculated the area as suggested above.

With the layout in place, the sand core positions within the mold decided and with the
knowledge that the direction of metal flow from down vertically upward, following
effects need be perceived:
1. Push-up effect of flowing metal on sand core
2. Sand core resistance to free flow of metal
3. Evolution of gas from metal-core contact
4. Transitory exertion of back pressure of gas and air on flowing metal

While (3) & (4) are elaborated separately under #10 & #11, it is imperative that the first
two points are related directly to gate locations, gate geometry and the correction factor
of calculated in-gate area. Following actions of the designer are helpful:
Provide even number of gates
Maintain symmetry of locations around casting axes
Provide quadrilateral or kidney shapes to gates (do not consider circular shape)
Incorporate spout on the side of gate so as to guide the metal flow towards the
casting area placed away from the gate.
Round-off the casting/gate junction sumptuously
If the casting trial reveals internal cold-shuts, non-filling at remote locations despite wall
thickness correction (minimum 4mm), it is certain that the mold must fill faster.
Therefore, the in-gate area must be increased. If the calculated in-gate area is found to be
insufficient, the correction required does not exceed 10% (and never above 15%). If the
problems persist after correction, it is to be assumed that it not the gate area but some
other parameter that requires attention and scrutiny.

10.Gas removal with regard to liquid metal flow pattern in the closed die.
Gas and air removal from the mold is the prime consideration of designer. It should, and
does, figure at each and every stage of design. Enhanced efficiency of gas removal from
mold ensures high productivity at least rejection. This also reduces the sensitivity of
bonding reagents used in core manufacture.
Air present in the enclosed system at the start of the cycle (in the space between liquid
metal face of stalk tube and the farthest face of the mold) needs to be displaced as the
metal rises through stalk tube. As the metal reaches the in-gate, there is only air in the
mold. Rest should be designed to vacate through air vents (see #11). Venting area,
locations and method is to be designed.

As the metal rises further into the mold the displacement of air continues till it touches
the core profile. As this occurs, gas evolves and is pushed upward by metal. As plugs,
hatches, serrations, etc are constricting in function, they are effective for air removal.
Core gas may not pass through them. For effective gas venting the designer must
innovate gas-channel locations and profiles by using knowledge of metal spread inside
the mold.
All gas channels can vent air but all air-vents do not vent gas.

Efficient venting is one that removes the air and core gas freely from the mold as the
liquid metal rises. Any blockage or insufficient vent area results in back pressure of gas
on flowing metal resulting in air/gas dissolution and eventual porosity. The resistance of
gas in a badly vented mold is so great that section as thick as 10mm in diameter also
exhibits non-filling! Thicker sections reveal porosity on cutting open.

The LPDC process, fortunately, has a unidirectional mold-filling pattern. The most
effective venting area is, of course, the top-faces of all side blocks, the punch, mating
surfaces of all sliding elements and the clearance gap between punch and the cover block.
Even the clearance between ejector pins and their guiding holes must be made use of.

11.Provision of venting and gas channels at sensitive locations.

Venting, as discussed in #10, is desired in stages, namely, air removal and removal of
air-gas combination. Types of vents: hatches, serrations, knurls, plugs, tubes and
open-top. See annexure for conceptual views.

12.Choice of ejector pin locations.

It is important to obtain prior clarification whether the ejector prints should be raised or
indented into the casting. Points of interest while choosing ejector locations:
Study of sections of casting where ejectors are foreseen
Section-wise strength assessment of casting locations where ejectors are foreseen
Section-wise strength assessment of die locations where ejectors are foreseen
Maximum stroke required
Availability of required stroke in the machine
Balancing equilibrium
 Deepest sections
Temperature conditions prevailing at the time of ejection
Assessment of size and adaptability of ejector box vis--vis machine specification

13. Identification of critical locations of casting with respect to foundry and casting
machining problems.

Areas to be marked on drawing copy after discussion with each concerned department
that are involved in handling/using the casting in question. All the difficulties
foreseen and suggested solutions must be noted down and taken cognizance of at
the time of drafting.

Machining allowances to be provided on casting faces may be aimed at the minimum.

14. Choice of connector geometry and decision of its manufacturing feasibility.

Connector is a die element that connects the liquid metal to the mold. A good
geometrical connector design must consider the following aspects:
Choice of gate locations with respect to injection center in mold
Number of gates required
Distance (height) of metal that must rise within the connector up to the gate
mouth
Insurance of turbulence-free (gradual) flow of metal through the connector
Maintenance of metal pressure at the gate during solidification
Leakage-free fitment of connector to the die and stalk face
Choice of raw material considering strength and thermal conditions
Ease of manufacture of the connector

15. Choice of material for each die-element and insurance of availability of each
chosen material.
Some of the vital elements that constitute the die have specific functional and thermal
conditions to withstand.

Bearing these in consideration, choice of materials is mentioned in tabular format

overleaf.
 Die Element Function Thermal Condition Strength Consideration Recommended
Material
Casting Mold forming 1) Withstand thermal 1) High T.S. 1) H11/H13
Profile shocking 2) Fatigue strength 2) SG Iron
Insert 2) Working Temp. 250C 3) Creep resistance 3) GG-25
Blocks 4) Hardness (Rc 45)
5) Freedom from
Cracks
6) Wear Resistance
Metallic Core Mold forming 1) Withstand thermal 1) High T.S. 1) H11/H13
Pins shocking 2) Fatigue strength 2) SG Iron
2) Working Temp. 250C 3) Creep resistance 3) GG-25
4) Hardness (Rc 45)
5) Freedom from
Cracks
6) Wear Resistance

Backing 1) Mounting of 1) Working Temp. 180C 1) High T.S. 1) SG Iron*

Blocks Profile Inserts 2) Fatigue strength 2) Cast Steel*
2) Assisting 3) Creep resistance * Freedom from
movement 4) Freedom from cracks and porosity
3) Connection to Cracks and porosity
pulling
arrangement

Punch Guiding the 1) Working Temp. 200C 1) High T.S. 1) SG Iron*

Cover Block Punch 2) Die Closing 2) Fatigue strength 2) Cast Steel*
with respect to side 3) Creep resistance * Freedom from
blocks 4) Freedom from cracks and porosity
Cracks and porosity
5) Wear Resistance

Connector Metal Feeding to 1) Working Temp. 800C 1) High T.S. 1) Mild Steel
the mold 2) Withstand Compression 2) Fatigue strength 2) Cast Steel*
load at 800C 3) Creep resistance * Freedom from
4) Freedom from cracks and porosity
Cracks and porosity

Slider 1) Working Temp. 200C 1) Bearing Strength St EN-31

Guides 2) Low Thermal expansion 2) Wear Resistance Surface nitrided
Location Mating 1) Working Temp. 200C 1) Bearing Strength St EN-31
Guides 2) Low Thermal expansion 2) Wear Resistance Surface nitrided

Ejector Pins Casting Ejection 1) Working Temp. 200C 1) High T.S. Standard
2) Wear Resistance Surface nitrided
3) Hardness (Rc 55)
16. Specifying the treatment and test of each chosen material.

Common test for all materials is chemical composition. The other vital one is the crack
detection test. If the chemical analysis is satisfactory, test of TS and Elongation
may be ignored, although recommended. Hardness test by ball indentation is
recommended where hardness is specified. All the elements procured in cast
condition have to undergo and pass the ultrasonic testing for porosity, crack,
oxide trap check. Wear resistance test on nitrided elements is optional. Fatigue
and creep tests being time consuming, may be ignored.

It is important to realize that no machining and subsequent heat-treatments to be

undertaken if the chemical analysis report of any given material is doubtful.
Functional failure of the die is at risk.

17. Provision of Shrinkage Allowance

The allowance provided to counter shrinkage of solidifying liquid aluminum in LPDC

molds is compensatory in nature. Since the shrinkage is three-dimensional but
linear in occurrence, the allowance is provided on all dimensions. Some parting-
line related dimensions, instead of compensation in percentage, are adjusted over
machining allowances. Where machining allowance is not effective, shrinkage
allowance is a must.

There is only an empirical formula of percentage allowance. For LPDC, like GDC, it
is 0.8 to 1.2% on linear dimension. However, there is a definite tendency of
shrinkage pattern given the alloy chemistry. The percentage is considered
minimum for Al-Si alloys and compensation for Al-Si-Cu, Al-Si-Cu-Mg, Al-Si-Mg
and Al-Mg alloys, in ascending order of percentage shrinkage.

18. Drafting, Modeling & Digitizing

Although conventional drawing board drafting is perfectly acceptable, it is time

consuming. Besides, mainly in case of urgency, this method attracts human errors
due to time pressure, and worse, it can carry forward these errors unnoticed!
Wherever feasible, computer aid must be made use of in drafting and
manufacturing. Needless to say that computer aided (integrated) manufacturing
facility is very common these days.

A tabular format of all the die elements together with a clear mention of raw material
sizes, specifications against each element must be prepared and handed over to
purchase department. This saves material cost and manufacturing time and cost.
19. Critical Inspection.
Once the drafting is checked the die is manufactured and assembled, a critical inspection
is to be taken up.
Dimensional inspection of each die element
Dimensional inspection of each core-box element
Assembly inspection with core placement
Dry cycle trial
On complete satisfaction the die is handed over to production trial

20 . Corrections (if necessary).

Any concern or dissatisfaction at the die inspection level must be taken care of prior to
production trial. No doubts and/or errors can be carried forward. While
suggesting the corrections it must be scrutinized that there is no generation of a
new interlinked error. Corrections must be clearly highlighted in the inspection
report

21.Critical Inspection of corrected parameters.

Actually this is a shortcut with a high risk of overlooking the errors generated on
interconnected parameters. It is therefore a good idea to conduct complete
inspection over again. However if the corrections are being suggested and made
as per instructions based on prior study (see #20), only the corrections may be
inspected. The designer is to make this decision.

22.Translation of all design aspects to production department.

Read this heading also in conjunction with # 29,30 & 31.

When the die is ready for production trial and is transferred from tool room to production
cell for the purpose, the concerned production personnel is rarely involved in the
progress. It is necessary that the designer convened a meeting of the staff and planned the
casting trial only after discussion on the vital aspects (dos and donts) with them.
23.Personally attending casting trials and understand from the casting department any
amendments.

The designer must attend the first production trial of all his creations. His attendance
is of dual purpose. He gets to see how his drawing board concept behaves on
foundry floor! Any error committed by the operating personnel can be corrected
on the spot, so that his ideas are accurately implemented. He judges for himself
any failures and not only corrects them but uses the new experience in future.

24.Analyze and finalize amendments.

Analysis of the problems faced during the trial is vital. Accuracy of all analyses is
based on experience of casting process. As an example, non-filling, cold shuts,
etc. need not be due to wall thickness alone. Therefore, merely increasing the wall
dimension may not help. The problem could well be one of venting, gate size,
pressure setting, dwell time, metal temperature, rate of incremental pressure, etc.
Careful analysis of experience is important.

25.Incorporate such amendments into the drawings and models as well as in the die.

If the problem/s calls for dimensional inaccuracy amend the drawing accordingly,
rectify and repeat actions of #19 through #24 all over again.

26.Inspection of amended parameters.

(Refer to #21)

27.Personally attending casting trial with amendments.

(Refer to #23)
28.Repeat procedure till the production series is satisfactory.

A die is considered to be fit to run only when it yields output to the satisfaction of
consistent end use consistently. Till such time the designer has to concentrate on
analysis, amendments and documentation of amendments. The design and
development endeavor is deemed complete only when pre-decided number of
batches satisfies the end use.

29. Maintenance Plan incorporated Die Design

Parameters relating to on-line maintenance aspects, preventive maintenance aspects,
corrective maintenance aspects must find definite place in the design of a die. Knowledge
of the process is therefore essential.

When a die is running, maintenance related problems are encountered that directly effect
casting quality. These problems are defined as on-line. Cleaning of blocked vents,
stripping and coating, die heating. These are NOT necessarily a result of poor preventive
maintenance. Metal and carbon soot (from the core gas) entrapment in the vent plugs,
erosion of coating from sliding blocks, lubrication of sliding elements, etc are some of the
online problems of the operator. Dismantling and re-assembly of the die in already heated
condition is the corrective action. Here, the designer provides the operational ease at the
drawing board itself. Any difficult (cumbersome) locations that are impossible to simplify
are reported to the production personnel through history files with red alert notes.

Tabular form of report of instructions for preventive maintenance together with time
cycle is also to be devised by the designer at the very start.

30. Preparation of History File having detail of the entire exercise undertaken
during the design to production stage.
This is a dossier. It must contain all aspects that were considered (in totality),
implemented and even considered but discarded (together with reasons of discarding/
acceptance) from its inception. Update on amendments, reasoning, results thereof to be
prepared. In the present context, history file acts as a case paper to improve upon
performance of the given die, reduction in lead time to get the quality output from the
subsequent replacement dies and, above all, it imparts guideline for designing dies of
other similar components.

31. Updating and Preservation of History File in the Archive.

It requires constant updating (based on actual experience) by the production /

maintenance personnel as and when necessary but with the knowledge and consent of the
designer.
Preparation of Gravity and Low Pressure Molds for
Production:
Die Preparation:
Cleaning and Stripping: Any die that is to be loaded needs to be prepared
thoroughly not only to ensure soundness but also to improve aesthetic appearance
of the castings made from the die. Any existing coating from the previous run has
to be stripped by using brass wire brush. More efficient method, though very
costly, is the glass bead blasting. Ejector pins and core pins are stripped by rotary
wire brush, mounted on bench grinding machine or pneumatically operated. Most
important endeavor is to open and clean all the air vent plugs of coating and/or
entrapped metal that are incorporated in the mold system. Sliding locations,
surfaces also need cleaning to ensure proper fitment of the die assembly.
Die Heating Procedure: All the coatings used in GDC process adhere to the
mold wall at temperature range of 150-220C. While the white coating yields best
results in the upper half of the range, graphite coating works fine about 150C or
even less. For this reason, the heated die is first applied white coating and the
black coat is applied on the cooling die. For heating the die, not just for coating
preparation but also for pre-starting heat, profile burners must be used. These
profiles are specifically designed for the given mold only to ensure that there is
no concentration of heat due to flame direction. All profiles must receive equal
amount of heat (as far as possible). Infra-red digital thermometer is very
convenient to measure die temperature and initiate the coating process.

Die Coating:
Coating of all contours of the mold is absolutely essential to bring forth differential
insulation levels as well as facilitating stripping of the casting from the mold. Besides, it
is not desired that the coating is applied to mold after every shot. These needs highlight
that the thickness of any coating and its property to adhere to the mold must be judged
while application. Also vital is the method of application.
With these aspects in mind, it is essential to first mention the types of coatings:

In general, there are two types of coating materials. The white, Kaolin base with
sodium silicate binder and the black, graphite based coating. The white coating is
sprayed on the mold areas constituting casting profiles and gates & Feeders. Black,
graphite coating is sprayed on the profiles that require smooth retrieval from the
mold, e.g. slider guiding profiles and also on the top of white coating on the
contour forming profiles of the sliders.

The thickness of coating is maintained by the functional requirement. For example,

profiles that need to be insulated (thin sections, gates and risers) are coated thicker than
those profiles of the mold that require chilling effect (thick sections of the contour).
Methods of application:
White or black coating, spray guns are to be used to apply coating on casting profile
forming elements of the mold. This ensures surface finish quality of the casting. Hand
application of white coating (using paint brushes) is effective in runner, riser, feeder and
in-gate areas. Thickness, and thereby insulation, of these areas is ensured. Besides surface
finish of these areas is irrelevant and only functional criterion is important. Black coating
is to be sprayed on slider seat areas and on the sliders themselves to impart lubrication
required during removal. However thick coating is applied using brush on areas that are
only to slide during closing and opening of the die. Examples are base surface plate, base
and sides of side blocks. In order to ensure perfect mating of the die to avoid leakage
from the parting faces of the side blocks, it is a good practice to polish gently the coated
surfaces with emery paper to remove high spots created by manual coat application.

Preventive maintenance of coating storage- and application related

equipment:

It is often observed that the nozzle is clogged when required most urgently. Besides, the
surface finish of the casting suddenly worsens after coating. The cause for both
the problems is common. It is the lack of maintenance and care. It is known that
the white die coating is pulverized kaolin and sodium silicate binder. While the
particles coagulate, sodium silicate hardens in the absence of water. One must
have a complete knowledge of preserving coating in supplied cans, the coating
that is ready for spraying in storage cans as well as the knowledge of maintaining
the spray gun clean at all times. Care, mentioned below helps:
Coating preparation: The die coat is withdrawn from the suppliers tin or can
and transferred to a sieve (strainer). This solid lump will also carry with it the
binder. Pour soft water over the lump and allow the liquid to pass through the
sieve into a fresh and clean container. Because of the strainer, only fin particle
will pass through. Ensure the required quantity of the coating in the container and
the consistency of the prepared die coat. If needed, add more coating to strainer
and repeat process to satisfaction. Do not forget to close the lid of the can of
supplier tightly. Stir the prepared coating solution well before transfer to the gun.
Now, close the lid of the storage can. This ensures prevention of dust particles
mixing with the solution. When this coating is to be used during the production,
vigorous stirring must precede transfer to gun. Thin particle size of the coating
ensures superb surface finish of the casting.
Spray Gun Maintenance:
With assured particle size of die coat it is also important that the mist created by
the gun is equally fine. To obtain this, the jar and the nozzle of the gun must be
clear. The nozzle opening movement must also be smooth. All these functions of
the gun are impaired when it is not cleaned. Again the sediments of caolin settle in
these locations and solidify during non use. It is therefore necessary that the gun
is maintained clean. This is done by following simple actions:
1. During the weekly-off day, the gun is dismantled and the nozzle, mouth,
slides, and the jar are thoroughly washed and solid particles removed
 using soft tooth-brush. After the assembly, the personnel must check the
spray mist by using water in the jar.
2. When the die operator uses the gun, he must not use any gloves to adjust
the nozzle. The cloth or leather fibers can also clog the nozzle. After each
use it is important that he pours the remainder coating back into the can
and rinses the empty jar and nozzle tip with clean water. In many
foundries this is accomplished by maintaining a separate container of
clean water in which the gun is left submerged! It saves time of rinsing
with same effect.
It is important for the foundries to demand smaller packing sizes of the
white coating from the suppliers. This is because the seal once opened coating
must be consumed fast. Over-storage of opened coating may lose the property of
adherence due to gelling of silicate!
One must not forget to open and or clean the vents all over again and fit
them back in place once the coating of the die is over

HIGH PRESSURE DIE CASTING OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS

Die Design Aspects
1. Choice of Machine
Pressure Die Casting machines are identified by the closing force that is applied on die
that is enough or sufficient to counter the metal injection force. Based on this capacity,
the machine structure, hydraulic pressures and casting parameters such as casting
shadow area, die size, etc. are ascertained. For the purpose the designer must avail the
machine manual.

As a guideline to ascertain the machine size the following formula is useful:

Closing Force required (tons) = shadow area (sq. cm) * specific pressure (tons
per sq. cm)

Shadow area is the total area of casting on moving half (includes runner, no. of cavities
and overflows.)
 Same Shadow Area of different shapes

Specific pressure is an assumed value by experience for Aluminum Alloys:

Assume 1000kg/sq. cm. for castings of premium grade with high strength and surface
treatments

Assume 750kg/sq. cm. for castings requiring high mechanical strength during field
function.

Assume 500kg/sq. cm. for castings for low engineering and high aesthetic performance.

Now

Correct Machine Size (ton force) = n * calculated closing force (tons)

n is the factor of safety.

n equals 1.6 for castings of premium grade with high strength and surface treatments
1.25 for castings requiring high mechanical strength during field function
1.10 for castings for low engineering and high aesthetic performance

If a machine is readily available and the component is planned for production on it, the
designer has to compute the Shadow Area of casting (on the contemplated moving half)
from component drawing, functional requirement of casting and check feasibility of the
number of cavities per mold.

2. Casting Layout Feasibility.

Consultation with concerned personnel is essential regarding methodology, layout,

identification of problems, incorporating remedial plan for such problems and finally, a
perception of degree of difficulty of (a) casting process (b) die manufacture.
Good casting layout is planned on the following priority:
Die size estimation and admittance
Ease of providing gating to ensure turbulence free flow of metal in the mold
Gate location
Air and gas removal from the mold
Operational ease (casting process, maintenance)
Ease of die manufacture

3. Die Size Estimation.

This aspect has a severe limitation. The overall size of the die is specific to the casting
size and, therefore, limited. Nevertheless, there are principal clues to be used while
estimating the size:
Optimum thickness of die inserts
Optimum die release strokes
Optimum ejection stroke
Optimization of sliding mechanism

It must be ensured that the die is, in principle, as compact as possible. However, thick
sections of the casting necessitate thin mold wall and vice versa. Ejection and/or release
strokes are based on requirement that no portion of casting is in contact with mold wall
post release. And lastly, never work on the maximum stroke limit specified by the
machine manufacturer. Use the optimum. If required review the sliding mechanism of
the die. If nothing is adjustable, the casting is not feasible to be cast on the given
machine. Do not proceed!

4. Admittance Feasibility in Machine Structure.

Following aspects to be considered:
Distance between tie-bars in all axes
Die locating feasibility
Fixing locations of machine structure
Guidance
Interlocks
Ejector mechanism
Ejector strokes
Hydraulic cylinder stroke-length for all moving die elements

5. Choice of in-gate location.

The most critical decision of designing is the choice of in-gate location. Wrong location
of it results in casting defects ranging from complete un-filling to porosity. Since the
direction of metal introduction (injection) into an HPDC-die is fixed planning of locating
the gate/s must be fixed in conjunction with the layout feasibility.
Following aspects need urgent attention:
Thick sections of the casting away from the gate
Thin sections of the casting are nearest to gate
Wall thickness (average) of the profiles located remotely from the gate.
Distance of the farthest portion of casting from assigned gate location.
Degree of difficulty of mold filling with regard to internal intricacy of the profile.
Degree of difficulty of mold filling with regard to external intricacy of the profile.
Identification of leakage prone areas of casting (gate should be close enough to
compensate shrinkage of these areas).
Liquid metal flow-pattern inside the mold.
Perception of gas and air movement for chosen gate location during mold filling phase.
Whether the gas and air can be removed successfully during mold filling phase.
Whether the ascribed location in any way disturbs the die operation.
Whether the ascribed location in any way weakens the die elements.

6. Calculation of in-gate area.

In-gate area is the opening at the intersection of connector passage and the casting
surface. Gate area of an HPDC die has dual function

1. To fill total casting volume, ideally by driving out the air in the mold
2. To compensate solidification shrinkage (feeding)

To satisfy the above needs as well as to derive commercial gain (yield %) it is better to
start with the minimum using simple mathematical formulae and a set of technical
assumptions as follows:

W= Weight of casting (including overflows) in grams.

= specific gravity of liquid Aluminum
V= velocity of liquid metal at the gate (cm./sec)
t= mold fill time (sec)

W
Total In-gate Area A = ----------- (sq. cm)
t*v*
Weight (W) of the casting is either known or can be estimated from the drawing.

Mold fill time (t) is assumed. It is the actual time to fill the mold and is independent of
the time taken by liquid metal to rise from the stalk tube up to the in-gate. This may be
assumed about 0.05 second on average (but not exceeding 0.07seconds). While lower
mold fill time facilitates quicker mold filling, it also impair air/gas removal resulting in
heavy air/gas traps and porosity. On the other hand, higher time results in unfilled remote
sections of the casting. To a large extent, the phenomenon of short filling can be
compensated (countered) by setting higher speed of injection or by adjusting 1st and 2nd
phase transition switch.

Velocity of metal at in-gate for HPDC process is assumed to be 5000 cm./sec

Specific gravity of liquid aluminum is 2.4 grams /cubic cm.

The calculated area is the total minimum required and is to be divided equally over the
number of gates chosen. Besides, corrections may be made later on the basis of
casting trial results.
The in-gate thickness for aluminum castings can be maintained as follows
1.0 to 1.4 mm for Al-Si Alloys
1.2 to 2.5 mm for Al-Si-Cu Alloys

There is also a minimum measure of thickness based on wall thickness of casting:

Minimum 0.5 mm for extremely thin walled castings
Minimum 1.0 mm for thin walled castings
Minimum 1.5 mm for thick walled castings

Runner & Gate Design

7. Air and Gas removal with regard to liquid metal flow pattern in the closed die.
Gas and air removal from the mold is the prime consideration of designer. It should, and
does, figure at each and every stage of design. Enhanced efficiency of air/gas removal
from mold ensures high productivity at least rejection.

Air present in the enclosed system at the start of the cycle (in the space between liquid
metal face of sleeve tube and the farthest face of the mold) needs to be displaced as the
metal rises through sleeve. As the metal reaches the in-gate, there is only air in the mold.
Rest should be designed to vacate through air vents. Venting area, locations and method
is to be designed.

Efficient venting is one that removes the air and gas freely from the mold as the liquid
metal rises. Any blockage or insufficient vent area results in back pressure of gas on
flowing metal resulting in air/gas dissolution and eventual porosity. The resistance of gas
in a badly vented mold is so great that section as thick as 10mm in diameter also exhibits
non-filling! Thicker sections reveal porosity on cutting open.

8. Guiding of Moving Elements

Any pressure die-casting die is made up of a fixed and a moving die half. Further a die
may have one or more cored profiles in any one or both halves. The ejector box moves
back and forth when actuated. All such elements that are moving from their rest position
and are involved in performing specific functions need to be guided. These guides must
endure the action of engagement over a long period of time and have also to ensure
repetitive accuracy of positioning. Guide pillar and bush combination is the most
common arrangement. The materials used for the purpose are mentioned under#11. But
there is a pillar size stipulation with respect to the die size:

Length X Width of Die (sq. cm) Diameter of four Pillars (mm)

Up to 200 10
200 to 300 12
300 to 500 16
500 to 800 20
800 to 1200 25
1200 to 1700 30
1700 to 2500 40
2500 to 3500 50
3500 to 5000 60
5000 to 6000 65
6000 to 7500 70

9. Choice of ejector pin locations.

It is important to obtain prior clarification whether the ejector prints should be raised or
indented into the casting. Points of interest while choosing ejector locations:
Study of sections of casting where ejectors are foreseen
Section-wise strength assessment of casting locations where ejectors are foreseen
Section-wise strength assessment of die locations where ejectors are foreseen
Maximum stroke required
Availability of required stroke in the machine
Balancing equilibrium
Deepest sections
Temperature conditions prevailing at the time of ejection
Assessment of size and adaptability of ejector box vis--vis machine specification

10. Identification of critical locations of casting with respect to

foundry and casting machining problems.
Areas to be marked on drawing copy after discussion with each concerned department
which is involved in handling/using the casting in question. All the difficulties foreseen
and suggested solutions must be noted down and taken cognizance of at the time of
drafting.
Machining allowances to be provided on casting faces may be aimed at the minimum.

11. Choice of material for each die element and insurance of

availability of each chosen material.
Die Element Function Thermal Condition Strength Recommende
Consideration d
Material
Casting Cavity forming 1) Withstand thermal 1) High T.S. 1) H11/H13
Profile shocking 2) Fatigue strength 2) X
Insert 2) Working Temp. 3) Creep resistance 40CrMoV 1
Blocks 250C 4) Hardness (HRc 48) 3) X
5) Freedom from 38CrMoV 1
Cracks
6) Wear Resistance
Metallic Mold forming 1) Withstand thermal 1) High T.S. 1) H11/H13
Core Pins shocking 2) Fatigue strength 2) X
2) Working Temp. 3) Creep resistance 40CrMoV 1
250C 4) Hardness (HRc 48) 3) X
5) Freedom from 38CrMoV 1
Cracks
6) Wear Resistance
Backing 1) Mounting of 1) Working Temp. 1) High T.S. EN8
Plates Profile Inserts 180C 2) Fatigue strength Mild Steel
2) Assisting 3) Creep resistance
movement 4) Freedom from
3) Connection Cracks and porosity
to pulling
arrangement
 Mounting Mounting on Working Temperatures 1) High T.S. EN8
Plates and Platens of range between 100 & 2) Fatigue strength Mild Steel
Spacers Machine and 125C 3) Creep resistance SG IRON
Ejector spacing 4) Freedom from
Cracks and porosity

Ejector Pins Ejection Working Temperatures 1) High T.S. 1) H11/H13

range between 200 & 2) Fatigue strength 2) X
250C 3) Creep resistance 40CrMoV 1
4) Hardness (HRc 58) 3) X
5) Freedom from 38CrMoV 1
Cracks Nitrided
6) Wear Resistance
Sole plates Sliding guides 1) Withstand thermal 1) High T.S. 1) EN31
shocking 2) Fatigue strength 2) X
2) Working Temp. 3) Creep resistance 40CrMoV 1
250C 4) Hardness (HRc 50) 3) X
38CrMoV 1

12. Specifying the treatment and test of each chosen material.

Common test for all materials is chemical composition. The other vital one is the crack
detection test. If the chemical analysis is satisfactory, test of TS and Elongation may be
ignored, although recommended. Hardness test by ball indentation is recommended
where hardness is specified. All the elements procured in cast condition (e.g. S.G.Iron)
have to undergo and pass the ultrasonic testing for porosity, crack, oxide trap check. Wear
resistance test on nitrided elements is optional. Fatigue and creep tests being time
consuming, may be ignored.

It is important to realize that no machining and subsequent heat-treatments to be

undertaken if the chemical analysis report of any given material is doubtful.
Functional failure of the die is at risk.

13. Provision of Contraction Allowance

The allowance provided to counter shrinkage of solidifying liquid aluminum in HPDC
molds is compensatory in nature. Since the shrinkage is three-dimensional but linear in
occurrence, the allowance is provided on all dimensions. Some parting-line related
dimensions, instead of compensation in percentage, are adjusted over machining
allowances. Where machining allowance is not effective, shrinkage allowance is a must.
There is only an empirical formula of percentage allowance. For LPDC, like GDC, it is
0.8 to 1.2% on linear dimension but for HPDC it amounts to 0.6 to 0.8%. However, there
is a definite tendency of shrinkage pattern given the alloy chemistry. The percentage is
considered minimum for Al-Si alloys and compensation for Al-Si-Cu, Al-Si-Cu-Mg, Al-
Si-Mg and Al-Mg alloys, in ascending order of percentage shrinkage.
14. Drafting, Modeling & Digitizing
Although conventional drawing board drafting is perfectly acceptable, it is time
consuming. Besides, mainly in case of urgency, this method attracts human errors due to
time pressure, and worse, it can carry forward these errors unnoticed! Wherever feasible,
computer aid must be made use of in drafting and manufacturing. Needless to say that
computer aided (integrated) manufacturing facility is very common these days.
A tabular format of all the die elements together with a clear mention of raw material
sizes, specifications against each element must be prepared and handed over to purchase
department. This saves material cost and manufacturing time and cost. Some soft-wares
such as Euclid, Pro-E, Catia, etc. are very helpful ( these are registered trade marks).

15. Critical Inspection.

Once the drafting is checked the die is manufactured and assembled, a critical inspection
is to be taken up.
Dimensional inspection of each die element
Dimensional inspection of each core-box element
Assembly inspection with core placement
Dry cycle trial
On complete satisfaction the die is handed over to production trial

Maintenance Plan incorporated Die Design

Parameters relating to on-line maintenance aspects, preventive maintenance aspects,
corrective maintenance aspects must find definite place in the design of a die. Knowledge
of the process is therefore essential.

When a die is running, maintenance related problems are encountered that directly effect
casting quality. These problems are defined as on-line. Cleaning of blocked vents,
stripping and coating, die heating. These are NOT necessarily a result of poor preventive
maintenance. Metal and carbon soot (from the core gas) entrapment in the vent plugs,
erosion of coating from sliding blocks, lubrication of sliding elements, etc are some of the
online problems of the operator. Dismantling and re-assembly of the die in already heated
condition is the corrective action. Here, the designer provides the operational ease at the
drawing board itself. Any difficult (cumbersome) locations that are impossible to simplify
are reported to the production personnel through history files with red alert notes.

Tabular form of report of instructions for preventive maintenance together with time
cycle is also to be devised by the designer at the very start.

Metal Injection in Pressure Die Casting

Pressure Die Casting, as the name suggests, is the method of casting where use of
hydraulic pressure is made to produce a high quality and near-net finish casting with very
good surface finish over a series of large quantum. While the other uses of hydraulic
pressure in the casting system are very important, it plays a vital role in injecting the
metal into the mold and effects compacting on the solidifying casting rendering it
internally sound and imparting high mechanical strength. It is indeed the subject of
interest here.
Hydraulic pressure and flow controls on the injection side of the machine together with
compressed gas accumulator constitute the metal injection system. Timers and
electromagnetic valves ensure different phases of metal travel at different speeds from the
location of shot sleeve to the farthest point of the mold. This happens mainly in three
distinct phases. Once the metal is poured in accurate quantity (shot weight) and the
impulse of plunger actuation is given, the plunger carries (doses) the liquid metal into the
mold. It is extremely important to understand the function of pressure and speed of the
plunger at various intervals. In a single movement the plunger satisfies three separate
functions (called phases) and ensures the casting quality. Due to the very nature,
dispersed porosity is inevitable. However by setting the phases right, it can be minimized.

Objective of First Phase:

Although many die casters ignore the importance of this phase, it is the most vital.
Ironically, most state of the art die casting machines have attempted technological
improvement to ensure high efficiency of this phase of injection. The first phase is also
termed as the "primary venting phase."
One must understand that entrapped air in the casting system is the nemesis. Air removal
(or venting) from the mold minimizes porosity in the casting. It is essential to figure out
that in a closed die, air is present from shot sleeve to the tip of the mold cavity. When the
plunger moves the liquid metal towards the mold, the air occupying vacant space of the
mold is pushed ahead by the moving metal towards the mold. Most of the air then finds
the exit through the air vents (overflows) till the liquid metal fully occupies the runner
and in-gate profile. This brings about an ideal situation. In the absence of air, the runner
is full of liquid metal limiting the air content to the cavity space only. With the
incorporation of adequate venting, that is efficient to drive out balance air during the
mold filling 2nd phase. However, there are other sources like vapor from die coatings and
lubricants that render included porosity in castings. How to minimize such vapors is not
the subject of this article.

Setting of the first phase:

From the function the first phase performs, it is clear that two parameters are important
1. The distance to which the liquid metal needs to be carried before the 2nd or mold
filling phase is effective.
Speed at which the liquid metal needs to be dragged
Although theoretical calculation of both the above aspects is possible, on the shop floor it
is not really difficult to ascertain the limits by quick trials and minimum error. Of the two,
#1 is set as follows:
Close the heated die
Pour the liquid metal into the heated sleeve
Give the "shot" impulse and observe the plunger travel with a hand on the
"Emergency Stop-switch of the machine
As soon as the cam accompanying the plunger rod approaches the limit switch, switch off
the machine
Allow the dragged metal to solidify
Open the machine and observe the flow pattern with respect to the in-gal profile.
If the metal has frozen short of in-gate, reset the position of the limit switch so as to
increase the traverse (towards the machine platen)
If the metal has frozen into the cavity profile, reset the position of the limit switch so as
to decrease the traverse (away from the machine platen
Repeat the trial till the condition is satisfied.
In modern machines, this setting is micro-processor based and is much simpler and
faster to establish the parameter.

This position of the switch marks the end of 1st phase and commencement of the 2nd or
mold filling (high speed) phase. It must be borne in mind that the reading on the scale
fitted on the machine is specific to that machine. It can be repeated for all future
production series, as long as the same machine is used. Any change of machine requires
establishment of this parameter afresh following the same principle.
To set the speed of the 1st phase, a full casting cycle is essential. For this purpose
Set the speed of the second phase and the intensification pressure on the machine
The heated die is closed after accurately setting the traverse of the plunger (see the steps
mentioned above).
Liquid metal of accurate shot weight dosed into the heated sleeve
Shot switch is actuated and the entire cycle is allowed
Repeat 10 to 15 shot cycles before inspecting the surface finish of the casting
Finally, heat the casting to about 350C for 5 to 10 minutes and observe the surface finish
How to conclude on speed results:
If the casting shows non-filling in the farthest region from the gate, the speed of 1st phase
is too slow. Yet do not speed it up. Attempt pouring the metal at higher temperature,
first (without changing the speed) and then decide on increasing the speed.
If the casting is acceptable to visual inspection, conduct the heating test mentioned above.
If the surface is smooth, the set speed is accurate. If there is appearance of blisters on the
casting skin (also called "chicken-pox"), reduce the speed and repeat the trial till satisfied.
The lower the filling ratio (shot volume to sleeve volume) the lower should be the speed
of 1st phase.
Conclusion:
1st phase setting accuracy ensures minimum porosity occurring due to entrapped free air
from sleeve and runner spaces.
It ensures basis of obtaining a better surface finish
It guarantees much better internal soundness due to low porosity levels
With a certainty of 1st phase accuracy, all concentration can to on limited use of spray
materials and lubricants and correction in venting efficiency.
For new contracts, the die development lime' is substantially reduced.
Yield is improved.
Documentation of parameters:
A sample data sheet is given below. It is important that every foundry designs its own
format to suit. It is even more important that these are available with documented result
on the machine as the production is on and that the record is made use of.
Objective of Second Phase:
This is the mold filling phase. It happens at high speed of injection plunger. Speeds up to
6-7m per second are also desired in some cases where surface finish is of paramount
importance. Castings that are subsequently electroplated are typical cases. Not in all cases
is this true. Castings for automotive application require higher strength than finish. Here
3-5 m per second is sufficient.
Relation between Second Phase and Air Venting:
When the metal is dragged to the in-gate plane by the first phase what lies ahead is the air
of the entire mold cavity. The second phase is actuated at high plunger (effectively, metal
speed). The flowing metal must drive away this air completely to occupy the mold
contours. When the trapped air cannot escape one of the following defects results (in
ascending order of volume of trapped air):
Blunt corners of the contour
Flow lines on surface of casting
Dispersed porosity in cut sections
Large blow-holes
Unfilled sections

Adequate provision for venting must be made in die design itself. If needed, more
venting must be incorporated even at later stages of production if there is incidence of
rejection. Venting ensures both, better surface finish and internal soundness.
Different types of venting methods are
Overflow wells
Serration vents
Straight hatches
Provision of ejector pins
Combination of above methods to suit.

All overflows must be brought with ejector pins. This ensures that the air also escapes
through the sliding gap provided between the ejector hole and the pin itself. Placement of
ejector pin below also ensures that the overflow bean is thrown out with the casting
every single time.
The length of the ejector pins must be deliberately kept shorter so that a button is formed
that pushes the bean out and due to limited catching area releases the profile together
with the casting. Should the pin be longer, it penetrates the overflow bean and the bean
remains stuck on the pin and severed while the casting is removed from mold. In such
cases most die operators find it tedious to remove it and allow the bean to remain as it is
and the purpose of venting is defeated for all subsequent shots.

The success of mold filling phase (second phase) is thus unthinkable without
adequate venting!
Objective of Third Phase:
This is the pressure intensification phase and is actuated by the intensifier of the machine.
When the mold is completely filled and the metal starts solidify from mold-wall inward,
an intensified pressure tends to push the liquid metal through the liquid core canal and
feeds the portion of solidifying sections. The extent of this feeding is, however, limited
and for this reason the casting layout must be such that the thicker sections of the casting
are nearer to the in-gate. This is true of castings that have average wall thickness of 2 to 3
mm and above, having combination of thick bosses. For thin walled castings (1.5 to 2
mm) third phase actuation is neither effective nor employed! In these cases it is important
that all thick sections are provided with core pins and maximum fillet radii are brought at
the intersection of thin sections.

Importance of cooling:
Any high pressure-die casting system without incorporation of cooling is asking for
trouble. This is necessary to control casting quality and more importantly, productivity.
Thick sections of a casting may possess shrinkage cavities and/or dispersed gas porosity
(pin holes). Although pin holes can only be shifted away from the critical locations,
shrinkage cavities can definitely avoided by incorporating cooling at the appropriate
locations. On the moving die half, cooling of dies facilitates trouble-free ejection of
casting from the mold without inflicting damage such as warping, ejector pin dent or
ruptures, etc. On the fixed die half cooling helps avoiding plunger seizing, biscuit bust
and thereby encourages least possible hold or dwell time.
The term cooling in die casting is a misnomer. It is never intended to quench the die. It
is only intended to maintain constant temperature of the die so that the thermal
equilibrium is maintained or in other words the die runs at a constant temperature, shot
after shot. Reduction of thermal shocking effect increases the die life substantially. To
bring about the best results, it is best that the method of cooling, medium of cooling and
location of cooling channels are carefully selected at the design stage itself.

Calculation of die cooling:

It is important that the heat transferred by the liquid cast metal to the mold wall is
calculated. In aluminum alloys the temperature interval between cast metal and ejected
casting is ca. 200K. The heat transferred is
Qmet = m (c * T + Cliq.)

Qmet= heat given by metal (kJ/Shot)

M= weight of shot (incl. gate, overflows etc.)
c= average specific heat capacity of aluminum alloy [kJ / (kg*K)]
T = temp. gradient between cast alloy and casting temp at ejection stage.
Cliq= Latent heat of casting metal (kJ / kg)

If (c * T + Cliq.) is denoted as Z then

Qmet = m * Z
This is actually the quantum of heat to be removed from the mold per shot
The value of Z can be assumed to be 580 (kJ/ (kg.shot) for aluminum alloys.

Now if n is the number of shots per hour then the heat transfer per hour is

met = n * Qmet = n * m * Z

If the heat absorbed by the die is die

die = * A* / b

= heat of the die material [ KW / (m * K)] can be assumed as 0.029 for H11/H13
A = Surface area (sq.m.) perpendicular to heat flow
= temperature difference between cavity wall and outer area of the die (K)
b = thickness of both die halves.

The die cooling heat is

k = met - die

This heat must therefore be removed from the die.

It must be mentioned that these are not exact calculations and require allocation of
additional allowances for safety.

Die cooling Methods:

Spraying of water-based coatings

This is the most primitive method and is applicable to small castings, in general but on
selective contours of large castings. Deliberate and excessive spray can vitiate the casting
surface by appearance of flow lines. Dry air spray as a follow up action is absolutely
essential. Besides, it yields best results when employed by spray automats with controls
in place rather than manual action. As shown in picture:
 Passing of pressurized water through channels
This is the most commonly employed method. It must be borne in mind that the injection
plunger, casting sleeve and the bush must be provided with cooling by this method. The
moving insert must also be cooled to expect uninterrupted production and casting quality.
Some examples are shown:
Some cores, punches etc. can be cooled in isolation as shown:

Pressurized cooling requires the constancy of temperature of water at the inlet

which is facilitated by an efficient cooling tower system.
 Local Water Cooling

Principle of cooling mechanism (examples)

A must be 20 to 30 mm for Al-castings

Passing of pressurized hot coolants through channels

This is the most efficient method of cooling the dies. The equipment is, however,
costly. Special cooling materials are injected at high pressure using pumps and the
system works doubly efficient. First it can pre-heat the die to requisite temperature
and when the casting production begins the same system cools the die to required
temperature. The geometry of channels to be brought in the die is not different from
those employed for water cooling. Only the medium is different. The pictures of the
equipment are below.
Deployment of Heat Pipes:

Heat Pipe Construction

Heat Pipe as local Cooling Medium

Parameter Control of HPDC:

INVESTIGATION
RAW MATERIALS REPORT
METAL Ideal Observation
Metal Chemistry Inspection

Melting Practice Ideal Observation

Melting Furnace
Virgin/Scrap
Fuel
Holding Furnace
Fuel
Virgin/Scrap
Temp. Control
Holding Temp.
Metal Treatment
Degassing
Nucleation
Any Other

Die Dressings Ideal Observation

Water-base coating (Dilution ratio?)
Oil Based Coatings
Spray method

Water Cooling
Fixed Half
Moving Half
Sprue-bush area
Sleeve
Plunger

Die Locking Ideal Observation

Procedure
Clamping

Waste Disposal
Rejected castings
Gates & Overflows
Any Other

CASTING PARAMETERS Ideal Observation

Line Pressure Setting
2nd Phase Setting
3rd Phase Setting
Plunger Dia
Plunger Life
Water Cooling Locations connected?
Dwell Time
Ejector Delay
Ejector Hold Time
Cast-in Insert?
Cast-in Insert Drying/pre-heating?
Working Tools Condition
Pouring
Pouring Volume Consistency (Cake
Thickness)

Spraying & Lubrication Ideal Observation

Plunger
Sleeve/Bush
Fixed Die Locations
Moving Die Locations
Overflow Area
Air spray time
Whether overflows sticking to Die?
Whether overflows removed from Die?

TOTAL CYCLE TIME PER SHOT

SHOP-FLOOR PARAMETERS

Metal Ideal Observation

Metal Mix in Melting Furnace
Melting Temperature
Melt Treatment in Melting Furnace
Melt Transfer Temperature
Melt Treatment in Holding Furnace
Metal Mix in Holding Furnace

Machine Setting Ideal Observation

Machine Size
Sleeve Size
Sleeve Fitted where?

Machine Line Pressure

Nitrogen Gas Pressure
Intensifier Pressure Setting
No. of Turns on Dial for Phase II Speed
Limit Switch Setting of Phase I

Die Setting Ideal Observation

Die Clamping Reading
Ejector Rod Size
Whether Bumper or Retractable Ejection
No. Of Ejector Rods
Ejector Rod Locations
Ejector Stroke Setting

Die Cooling Ideal Observation

Platen Cooling
Fixed Half
Moving Half
Sliders if any
Panel Setting Ideal Observation
Die Opening Timer Setting
Ejector Delay Timer Setting
Ejector Hold Timer Setting

Operating Instructions Ideal Observation

Spoon Size
Spoon Treatment

Plunger Lubrication Scheme Ideal Observation

Plunger Lubricant

Die-coat Dilution Ratio Ideal Observation

Spray Gun Nozzle Setting

Coating & Lubricating Instructions:

Fettling and Trimming of HPDC Castings

Casting which has been separated from the mold has to be stripped of gate, overflows,
flash etc. Common practice is to remove these by twitching followed by filing. Trimming
by this method is not incorrect. It is to be borne in mind that HPDC Castings are
supposed to be near-net finished and may be subject to negligible machining and
sophisticated surface treatments. Any defects such as file marks, uneven surface etc, is a
cause of rejection. To avoid this situation, trimming tools in combination with hydraulic
or eccentric presses are employed. This deployment is swift, accurate, saves space, time
and manpower. The die operator can perform the operation alongside machine during the
hold time of the casting cycle. The adjoining picture explains:

The picture above shows how the castings are placed differently in the trimming tools to
achieve same result. Note that the springs placed at the bottom of the tool are compressed
upon actuation of punch but release the trimmed casting as the punch retrieves.
 Trimming Press
Trimming Press

Elements of Maintenance:
Maintenance Section of a die casting unit is analogous to a medical clinic. It undertakes
routine checks as well as conducts complicated transplantation well in time before the
patient (the equipment) is dead! It is easy to conclude that no die casting unit that has
ignored the importance of maintenance has ever succeeded commercially. The symptoms
of bad maintenance of a die casting foundry show in the form of
Higher down times
Frequent stoppages due to equipment failure
Inconsistent quality of single series of a casting
Inconsistent quality of separate series of casting
Loss of productivity
To overcome the inconsistency of output, a sincere and knowledgeable maintenance
squad must be in place. Proper tool-kits and equipment must be provided to them.
Instruction of maintenance schedule of every item together with action plan and
frequency stipulation must be available with the maintenance group. Some aspects of
production that require constant vigilance are mentioned below (Those aspects not
finding mention here can also be incorporated by individual experience):

1. Tool Maintenance
Part Recommended Check Recommended Action
Frequency
Die inserts After every series Decarburizing, cleaning, visual inspection
for heat-check damages, polishing where
needed. It is strongly recommended that
 the pressure die casting dies are stress
relieved every 20000 shots
Core Pins After every series Decarburizing, cleaning, visual inspection
for cracks and bends, polishing where
needed. Replacement, if need be
Ejector Pins After every series Decarburizing, cleaning, visual inspection
for cracks and bends. Ejector pins must be
tried through ejector holes for proper and
satisfactory sliding movement.
Guiding Elements Weekly Decarburizing, cleaning, visual inspection
for cracks and bends. Pillars must be tried
through bushes for proper and satisfactory
sliding movement and clearances.
Threaded holes After every series Check for slippage
Bushes, Sleeves, After every series Decarburizing, cleaning, visual inspection
plungers for heat-check damages, polishing where
needed. It is strongly recommended that
the pressure die casting dies are stress
relieved every 20000 shots
Die Clamps and T- Monthly Check bends, cracks and thread fitment.
bolts Replace if necessary
Rubber Hoses and After every series Check for burnt rubber, sealing at mouths
clips and clip fitment. Avoid seepage.
Cooling Channels Annually Chemical decalcification of water passages

2. Machine Maintenance
Part Recommended Check Recommended Action
Frequency
Pump Weekly Check response to pressure setting.
Check coupling condition.
Check temperature
Oil Level in Tank & Daily Top up if necessary.
Leakages Plan shut-down and remove leakages
Cleaning Weekly Extensive mopping and removal of all
metal splashes.
Oiling of moving/sliding parts
Pressure Gages Weekly Check response to pressure setting.
Replace gages if necessary and repair the
defective gages.
Pump Cooling Weekly Check water flow and ensure cooling
efficiency.
Pump Motor Weekly Check temperature in running condition.
Check terminals and continuity.
Tie Rods & Bushing Weekly Check clearances.
Clean.
Lubricate.

Electro-magnetic Weekly Clean.

Valves Check oil seepage.
Check contacts.
Electrical Weekly Check terminals and continuity.
Connections
Platens Weekly Check T-slots, T-nuts, clamps and
clamping studs.
Check clamp tightness of the loaded die
correctly.

3. Equipment Maintenance
Furnace
Part Recommended Check Recommended Action
Frequency
Crucible Weekly Check for cracks, flame erosion and oxide
adherence.
Rotate the position of the crucible by 90
if flame erosion is severe.
Check condition of crucible stand and
replace if necessary.
Brick Lining Weekly Check for bonding, cracks etc.
Patch up, if necessary.
Plan relining if beyond repair.
Burner Weekly Clean nozzle and check oil passage.
Check response to flame setting.
Oil pipe-line Daily check but weekly Check if choked. Clean if necessary.
action Check for oil leakage and repair if
necessary. Check oil flow.
Oil Tank Half-yearly Clean the residual sediment at the base
Heater Coils Weekly Check continuity and general condition.
Change if necessary.

Compressor
Part Recommended Check Recommended Action
Frequency
Cleanliness Daily Mop the dust and dirt. Also clean the fan
blades.
Condensed water Daily Drain out the condensed water from the
air tank as well as from water separators
of the pneumatic circuit.
Oil Level Daily Check oil level and top up if necessary.
If the oil condition is poor, drain it
 completely and refill with unused oil on
the weekly off day.
Pressure setting Weekly Check response to on and off setting
Electric Motor Weekly Check temperature in running condition.
Check terminals and continuity.

Air Pipe-lines
Part Recommended Check Recommended Action
Frequency
Air leakages Daily check but weekly Check if choked. Clean if necessary.
action
Air passage Weekly Check for air leakage and repair
plumbing if necessary. Check air flow.

Cooling Tower
Part Recommended Check Recommended Action
Frequency
Pump and pump Weekly Check water discharge.
motor Check coupling condition.
Check temperature
Vanes Weekly Clean vanes.
Check placement.
Water Reservoir Weekly Clean the base in particular and side
walls of reeds and solid sediments.
Check for cracks in the wall and repair if
necessary.

Water Lines
Part Recommended Check Recommended Action
Frequency
Passage Weekly Check for water leakage and repair
plumbing if necessary. Check water flow.
Seepage & Daily / Weekly Undertake repair if seeping.
plumbing

Decalcification Annually Decalcify all the piping network using

recommended reagents.

4. Electrical Maintenance (General)

Part Recommended Check Recommended Action
Frequency
Terminals Weekly Check and ensure fitment.
Earthing of Weekly Check the earth connections of all
connections electrically operated equipments
thoroughly.
 Check earthing condition of the electric
supply panel. Rectify through service
provider urgently when in doubt.
Cable Condition Annually Inform service provider when necessary
and get changed

Environmental Responsibility
Foundry, in its total functioning, is a pollution prone industry. The work force
involved in production activity is vulnerable to tough physical activity and health
hazards. But, it doesnt mean that it cannot be improved. A good working condition
can always be created with the strong managerial will and inclination. Any cost
involved in creating clean working ambience is an investment and not a cost. An
improved quality of output and productivity is an undisputed outcome in a clean and
well-lit foundry.
Maximum use of natural light, proper exhaust system for flue gases and lawful
disposal of waste, aeration are a few examples of the cheapest methods of achieving
the goal. Mechanization in foundries must be well aimed and targeted to reduce
physical effort that can be utilized to maximize per capita output with least effort.
This is best done by understanding the problems involving the workforce by constant
tte--tte. This, in modern parlance, is called rationalization. Though, this term is
often misinterpreted as replacement of manpower by automation. Due to the very
nature of work it is a bad practice to ignore safety. Clothing and equipment of safety
are bare essentials.

Clean and well lit die casting shop (observe light and cleanliness)
 Management of foundry combining technical, commercial and environmental
cognizance has always succeeded.

References:

1. Anschnitt-technik bei Aluminium und Messing-Kokillenguss; Max Schied;

Oberingenieur, VDG, Mannheim
2. Giesserei Handbuch; Kaiser Aluminium; erste Auflage, Beuth Verlag, Berlin.
3. Neuzeitliche Metallgiessereien; A Schulenburg, Fachverlag Schiele und Schoen,
Berlin.
4. Trenn- und Schmiermittel fuer den NE-Metalldruckguss; Geiger+Co, Heilbronn.
5. Praxis der Druckgussfertigung; Ernst Brunhuber, Fachverlag Schiele und Schoen,
Berlin.
6. The Foseco Foundrymans Handbook; Pergamon Press, Oxford