CHAPTER II

THEORITICAL REVIEW

A. Speaking

1. Definition of Speaking

Speaking is one of two productive skills in a language teaching. It

is defined as a process of building and sharing meaning through the use of

verbal or oral form (Chaney, 1988:13 and Gebhard, 1996:169). Moreover;

Nunan (2003:48) defines that speaking consists of producing systematic

verbal utterances to convey meaning.

To know deeper what speaking is, Nunan differentiates it from

writing. First, in spoken language, speaking must be listened by others. It

has temporary and immediate reception. When we do listen from other

people, it has special prosody some like stress, rhythm, and intonation. It

must be there an intermediate feedback for communicating directly. By

speaking activity, orator or speaker have to pay attention of planning and

editing by channel.

Whereas the second, in written language, the activity is done as a

visual term. The time for doing it, is permanent and it is delayed reception.

The writer uses punctuation as well to make others clearer in vision or

reading the meaning. There is no feedback or it is usually delayed or

indirectly communicating. The planning is unlimited and there are often

editing and revision in any parts of the written language.

 Based on the utterances above, they can be concluded that the

differences between spoken language and the written one as follows:

Spoken language Written language

Auditory Visual

Temporary; immediate reception Permanent; delayed reception

Prosody (rhythm, stress intonation) Punctuation

Immediate feedback Delayed or no feedback

Planning and editing limited by channel Unlimited planning, editing, revision

2. The Importance of Speaking

Human being as social creature always communicates to one

another. It can be occurred with the process of interchange of the thought

or ideas which include interactions. For examples telling information or

some news, asking other helps for their needs, or etc. All of them can be

done trough speaking to others directly. It means that the activity of

speaking itself has a very important role in human life.

Ramelan (1992:13) says that all human being whenever they live

always speak language, although they do not have any writing system to

record their language. From the statement above it can be concluded that

speaking is very important in mastering foreign language. Thus speaking

capability can be measured whether a foreign language learner in

successful in learning or not. But in mastering speaking skill can be seen

 not only from the performance of learners in spoken, but also we have to

see from their competence in using the language.

3. Speaking Competence

Speaking competence is not only the theoretical study but also it is

daily activities and humans need for growing. As according to Chomsky

in Garnham (1985:23) said linguistic performance is the actual use of

language in concrete situation. And also according to William OGrady,

et.al (1996:4) states that linguistic competence is the ability in producing

and understanding an unlimited number of utterances.

From the two definitions above, we can conclude that speaking

skill consists of linguistic performance and linguistic competence. In other

word, we can say that speaking skill is a mental motor skill, it consist of

the coordination of sound, mechanism, which is produce by our muscles

and it is also has as a mental aspect. That is the ability in arranging the

meaningful words and sounds. Tarigan (1990:15) says that speaking is the

competence to express explain and convey thinking, feeling, and idea.

Speaking ability means the ability to think.

Based on the explanation above, to measure the students speaking

ability, has five competences as follows:

a. Pronunciation

Hornby defines pronunciation as the way in which a language is a

spoken, way in which a word is pronounced (Hornby, 1974:669). It

 means that pronunciation is an important of language, including its

aspect like accent, stress, and intonation.

b. Grammar

Grammar and pronunciation has a close relationship. In addition to the

sound system learners must be taught by using structure system of

language. Learners must be given insight into word order, inflection

and derivation into the other meaningful features of the English

language. It will help students to speak fluently.

c. Vocabulary

Hornby (1974:979) defines vocabulary is range of words known or

used by a person in trade, profession, etc. If students have many

vocabularies, it will be easier for him to express his idea.

d. Fluently

Hornby (1974:330) defines fluency as the quality of being able to

speak smoothly and easily. It means that someone can speak without

any hesitation. Someone can speak fluently even though he makes

errors in pronunciation and grammar.

e. Self-Confidence

Self confidence becomes an important factor in speaking learning

process. A student with good grammatical and vocabulary master

usually has a big confidence to express idea, suggestion or answer the

question. He feels like that, so he thinks he knows what will he say

and how to express.

10

 4. Teaching Speaking

Based on the different between writing and speech before, we can

see why people who learn of foreign language largely from textbooks

often sound bookish when they speak. Moreover, from the differences

above, the students assume that speaking is more difficult. This is because

they have to think of the idea, directly, with the limited time.

In fact, speaking is easier. In delivering the message and / or media

through speaking actually, they can select the diction based on their own

vocabulary bank. It can help them to communicate with others freely

without concerning to the grammar directly.

Teaching speaking is not merely asking the students to produce

sound. According to Nunan (1991:40), speaking is the same as oral

interaction which are conventional ways of presenting information,

expression our idea and thought have in our mind, so speaking is not only

expressing our ideas, but also presenting new information to others.

Speaking as an interactive process of constructing meaning always

involves in producing words and the meaning depends on the context. The

classroom is only one of many environments to which children can

increase the linguistic competence (Stewig: 54). Furthermore, speaking

itself requires that learners not only know how to produce specific point of

language such as grammar, pronunciation or vocabulary (linguistic

competence), but also they have to understand when, why, what way to

produce the language (sociolinguistic competence).

11

 Speaking becomes immediate and spontaneous or planned and

deliberated. Confidence and enthusiasm are critical factor in oral language

development, and because much oral language is immediate, it involves

taking risk. Students learning in teaching speaking will be most effective

when there is relationship mutual trust when students oral language is

accepted and a variety of communication styles are accommodated in the

classroom, and when students have frequent opportunities to talk in formal

and informal.

Speaking is productive oral skill. In fact, speakingespecially in a

language other than our own is quite a complex undertaking which

involves using all the different levels of language. So, here we need to try

several strategies for teaching speaking that can be used to help language

learners gain practice in speaking in target language (Nunan, 2003:64).

To make it clearer, Nunan (2003: 55, 56) proposes at least four

principles for teaching speaking. Below are the descriptions:

a) Give students practice with both fluency and accuracy.

Accuracy is the extent to which students speech matches what

people actually say when they use the target language. Fluency is the

extent to which speakers use the language quickly and confidently,

with few hesitations or unnatural pauses, false starts, word searches,

etc. Teacher must provide students with fluency-building practice and

realize that making mistakes is a natural part of learning a new

language.

12

 b) Provide opportunities for students to talk by using group work or pair

work, and limiting teacher talk.

It is important for us as language teachers to be aware of how

much we are talking in class so we dont take up all the time the

students could be talking. Pair work and group work activities can be

used to increase the amount of time that learners get to speak in the

target language during lessons.

c) Plan speaking tasks that involve negotiation for meaning.

Learners make progress by communicating in the target

language because interaction necessarily involves trying to understand

and make teacher understood. This process is called negotiating for

meaning. It involves checking to see if youve understood what

someone has said, clarifying your understanding, and confirming that

someone has understood your meaning.

d) Design classroom activities that involve guidance and practice in both

transactional and interactional speaking.

When we talk with someone outside the classroom, we usually

do so for interactional or transactional purposes. Interactional speech

is communicating with someone for social purposes. Transactional

speech involves communicating to get something done, including the

exchange of goods and/or services.

13

 5. Types of Speaking Test

There are some types of speaking tests. According to S. Kathleen

Kitao and Kenji Kitao, they are:

a. Reading aloud

One way to test speaking is by having the testees read aloud.

This is not generally a good way to test speaking. However, it is a way

to test pronunciation separately from the content.

b. Conversational Exchanges

Another simple type of test is in which students are given a

particular situation and instructed to respond in a certain way. These

tests one usually highly structured and require only a limited response,

not connected discourse.

c. Role-Play Test

Another type of test is a role-play. In a role-play the testee

and a confederate are given information on which to base a role-play

and the testees are evaluated on their ability to carry out the task in the

role-play. Role-plays require the testee to use various functions that

she/he might need in real communication.

d. Group or Pair Activities

In this type of test, students are put together in pairs or groups

that are given a task, a quiz to work on together or a puzzle to work

out. The point of this is not to find the right answer but to stimuli

speech for the tester to evaluate.

14

 In this research, the researcher will use the combination

between Role-Play Test and Group or Pair Activities ones.

B. Picture Cards

1. Definition of Picture Card.

Picture card is a card whether it is thick or stiff paper, with

painting, drawing, or photograph which can be used for various purposes

(Oxford Learners Pocket Dictionary, 1987:53). It is like as media in

teaching learning process in the class when they have speaking activities,

or etc. It can be called as a Flash card and its size is rather varieties. But

the writer here used it which has approximately one-sixth or one-fourth

of the folio paper size.

2. The Purpose of Using Picture Card

In this research, after discussing with the collaborators and based

on the researchers thought, we had to choose it as a media in our

teaching and learning activity especially in speaking term, because we

concluded that by using picture card it will be suitable, simple and

interesting media for encouraging and furthermore for improving

students competence in speaking. The kind of picture card here would be

the still one.

3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Picture Card

By using picture card as a media in teaching speaking, we would

have some advantages as follows:

15

 The first, picture card can be used as educational game. The

second, it can be used as a tool to explore them to be enthusiastic in

chasing to get competitive game score. And so, it can have a meaning or

value in a game, or simply serve as symbols for object or action.

Moreover it is particularly helpful with shys who are reluctant to talk. It

also will be useful for many games and activities, again and again; often

students can help to make them as a craft activity (Gordon Lewis, 2000:

17 19).

Beside, Brown, James W (1983: 179 193) says that the

advantages of using picture card such as: The first, students can learn to

comprehend visuals and thereby improve their visual literacy. Second, it

is to indicate criteria and processes to be used in selecting still pictures

that will contribute to achievement of objectives. Third, to provide the

information and guidance needed to prepare flat opaque pictures for use

and for accessible storage. The last, suggest how still pictures of all types

can be used to advantage in multi-media packages with other learning

materials.

Based on some advantages above, the writer / researcher

furthermore clarified them as follows: The first, it was used for

measuring the grade of individual participant / student by scoring.

Second, someone sometime looked for the suitable way to help her /

himself in memorizing. So, by using picture card he / she can get the

correct tool for it. Third, the teacher must be clever in exploring students

16

 competence in speaking. By using picture card they can be enthusiastic in

chasing to get score in their group. It means the class would be live and

very active along the learning process.

Whereas the disadvantages of using picture card as a media, the

teacher must be creative and always looks for varieties of pictures

whether through manual or traditional pictures by handmade up to rather

modern ones through photographs. It means the English teacher needs

much more time for preparation before having English teaching and

learning activity.

4. Procedure of Using Picture Cards.

There are some stages to use the media some like picture card to improve

students competence in speaking. The writer tried to conclude that the

suitable order was just as follows:

a. Clear a space in the classroom then make in a group of 4 or 5.

b. The students stand or sit down facing the teacher in a semi circle or

other shape with enough space to move comfortably. The teacher

stands a few metres away from them so that they can all see their

teacher.

c. Distributing a set of vocabularies must be memorized by them until

they attend.

d. The teacher keeps picture cards which have suitable matching with the

students possess.

17

 e. Call out an instruction (whether in positive or negative

command/prohibition) and announcement, such as; Teguh says: raise

your hand, dont close the door, attention for the members of English

club, or etc.

f. The students must do what the teacher says by responding / speaking

up in yes expressions.

g. The next turn teacher calls group by group to attend at the hot seat

which teacher provided before.

h. Giving a set of pictures and speak up by small group or get turns

individually.

i. The group has more and more correct instruction or announcement,

will be the winner.

j. The teacher can monitor of all the actions, up to the last group.

C. Teaching Speaking Competence Through Picture Card as a Media

One of the elements in students environment that can support their

study is a suitable and appropriate media. The researcher and collaborators

conclude that through picture card as a media, the teachers will develop the

content of material will be given in the classroom. It also can help the

students absorb the topic of material fast, easily, and clearly, especially when

they must combine between words and suitable pictures based on instruction

and announcement. It will be far different when there arent any pictures at

all, because it will be bored without any interesting views.

18

 (Kinder, 1950; 120 and Yuswotomo, 1991; 140) states there are two

kinds of pictures that can be used as teaching media. They are the original

pictures and the pictures of illustration. The original pictures show the

concrete shapes of the object, or person related to the topic being discussed.

The pictures of illustrations, on the other hand, are made in order to display a

situation or an object needed for the teaching activities such as the illustration

of a conversation between mother and father in a dining room.

In this research, the writer must select the kinds or the types of the

pictures themselves, because it wont be possible to apply both of them in the

limited time. After discussing with collaborators, the researcher here will

choose the better choice to be applied in front of the students when they have

a speaking activity, it is the original ones. They will be simpler in

performance, clearer and more suitable to be discussed by them.

D. Basic Assumption

The basic assumption of this research is that picture card can make

students enjoy, relax, and active in spite of the teaching speaking process

occurs. This condition will be really good because they always try to explore

themselves in following class activities without their awareness.

It means through picture card in speaking competence activity will encourage

the students eager to speak up much more than before.

19

E. Hypothesis

Based on the assumptions above, the writer has a hypothesis that picture

card can improve students competence in speaking at the Seventh Grade of

State Junior High School 3 Purbalingga, Academic Year 2011/2012.

20