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3.0 CELL DIVISION (3 hours)

by
Amran Md Said
Matriculation College of Pahang

Chapter Outlines:

3.1 The Concept of Cell Division

The importance of cell division in living organisms.

a phenomenon to determine the survival of organisms
distribution of indentical material to the daughter cells.
cell division results in the increase in number of cells

Basic characteristics:
Cell division results in the increase in number of cells
Cell division is the means whereby parents pass on genetic material to the daughter cells

Happens in 2 ways:
Mitosis in somatic cells
Meiosis in reproductive organs
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Cell division is the means whereby parents pass on genetic material to the daughter cells

genetic material related with DNA and Chromosome

What is DNA and Chromosome?

DNA the basic building block of DNA consisting a sugar, a base, and a phosphate.
Nucleosomes the basic structural unit of eukaryotic nuclear chromosomes, consisting
of two molecules each of the four core histones.
Chromatin The piece of DNA-protein complex that is studied and analyzed.
Chromosome The physical structures in which the genetic material of the cell is
organized.
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Genetic Blueprints for Cells

FUNCTIONS OF:
DNA - codes plans for making cells
Chromosome - a single DNA molecule containing many genes
human (46 chromosomes)
Gene each gene gives the directions for making 1 protein
humans (approximately 2000 genes in each chromosome)

Parts of chromosomes

Centromeres - region two chromosomes held are together before they are separated
in mitosis
Kinetochore - proteins bind to centromere and attach chromosome to spindle in mitosis
Chromatid - one of the two visibly distinct longitudinal subunits of all replicated
chromosomes that becomes visible btw early prophase and metaphase of mitosis

Sister chromatids & centromeres

When do we expect to see chromatin & chromosomes?

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Chromatin
thin threads comprises DNA and associated proteins
when eukaryotic cell is not dividing (interphase)

Chromosomes

highly compacted structures from condensed chromatin.

seen at the time of cell division (prophase)

THE CELL CYCLE

1.2 The Cell Cycle

the period that extends from the time a new cell is produced till it completes its division
is known as a cell cycle
Four stages in the cell cycle
Events during the G1, S, G2 & M

The Cell Cycle

orderly sequence of events

occurs from the time a cell is first formed
until it divides into two new cells.
Most of the cell cycle is spent in interphase.
Following interphase is the mitotic stage.
The four stages of the cell cycle;
i. G1 The first growth phase
ii. S Phase
iii. G2 The second growth phase
iv. Mitosis

THE CELL CYCLE

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The cell cycle is the complete sequence of events in the the period that extends from the
time a new cell is produced till it completes its division is known as a cell cycleife of an
individual diploid cell.

i. G1 The first growth phase

The longest phase

Volume of cytoplasm increase
Protein synthesis
Increase number of organelles: mitochondria, ER, Golgy apparatus

ii. S phase

DNA synthesis phase

The cells DNA replicates

iii. G2 The second growth phase

Energy stores are increased.

1.3 Mitosis

At the end of this topic, students should be able to :

Describe the four stages of the mitotic cell division
Explain the behavior of the chromosomes at each stage
Briefly describe the cytokinesis process
Compare the cell division in animal and plant cells
State the significance of mitosis
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Mitosis

This is a process of nuclear division (karyokinesis) and followed by division of

cytoplasm called cytokinesis.

Review of The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

Mitosis

Definition of terms
What are sister chromatids and non-sister chromatids?

Sister chromatids
duplicated chromosome
genetically identical

Non sister chromatids

Genetically non identical (one from maternal &
another from paternal)
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Mitosis Process

Mitosis is divided into four distinct stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
(PMAT)

What happens during mitosis?

Centromeres divide
sister chromatids separate
become daughter chromosomes.
End of mitosis, each chromosome consists of a
single chromatid.

What is mitotic cell division?

is the division of somatic cells

produce cells that are an exact copy of parent cell

whereby the number of chromosomes stays constant 2n 2n.

it ensures genetic stability through generations.

PROPHASE

The chromosomes become visible, long, thin threads.

Gradually they shorten and thicken and each is seem to comprise two chromatids joined at
the centromere.

From each centriole, microtubules develop and form a star-shaped structure called an aster.
Some of these microtubule, called spindle fibers, span the cell from pole to pole.
Collectively they form the spindle.

The nucleolus disappears and finally the nuclear envelope disintegrates, leaving the
chromosomes within the cytoplasm of the cell.

2. METAPHASE

Centrosome positioned at opposite poles

Chromosomes move along spindle microtubules to equator of the cell
Attach to spindle fibre by means of centromere

3. ANAPHASE

Sister chromatids
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Separate & move towards opposite poles

One set of chromosomes moves along the spindle microtubule to each pole of the cell.
The shorting of the spindle fibers is due to the progressive removal of the tubulin molecules of
which they are made.
The energy for this process is provided by mitochondria which are observed to collect around
the spindle fibers.

4. TELOPHASE

The chromatids reach their respective poles and a new nuclear envelope forms around each
group. The chromatids uncoil and lengthen, thus becoming invisible again

The spindle fibers disintegrate and nucleolus reforms in each new nucleus.
CYTOKINESIS division of cytoplasm
In Animal Cells
Occur by a process known as cleavage.
The first sign of cleavage is the appearance of cleavage furrow.

CYTOKINESIS division of cytoplasm

In Plant Cells

Have walls but no cleavage furrow.

During telophase, vesicles derived from Golgi apparatus move along microtubules to the
middle of the cell producing a cell plate.
The cell plate enlarges until its surrounding membrane fuses with the plasma membrane
along the perimeter of the cell.
Two daughter cells result, each with its own plasma membrane.
A new cell wall arising from the contents of the cell plate has formed between the daughter
cells.
Cytokinesis in Plants

Differences between mitosis in plant and animal cells

Significance of mitosis
Genetic stability

Mitosis produce two nuclei which have the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
Daughter cells are genetically identical to the parent cell and no variation in genetic
information can be introduced during mitosis.
This result in genetic stability within populations of cells derived from the same parental cells.

2. Growth

The number of cell within organism increases by mitosis and this is the basis of growth in
multicellular organisms.
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3. Cell replacement

Replacement of cells and tissues involves mitosis.

4. Regeneration

Some animal are able to regenerate whole parts of the body, such as legs in crustacea
and arms in star fish. Production of the new cells involve mitosis.

5. Asexual reproduction

Mitosis is the basis of asexual reproduction, the production of new individuals of a

species by one parent organism.

Stages of Mitosis (diagrams)

Mitosis growth & development

Asexual Reproduction by Mitosis (Protozoa)
Asexual Reproduction by Mitosis (Hydra)
Asexual Reproduction by Mitosis (yeast)

Explain the processes in Meiosis I and Meiosis II

Explain the position and changes of the chromosomes during each stage
Define chromatid, synapsis, bivalent, tetrad, chiasma, cross-over and centromere
State the significance of meiosis
Compare and contrast meiosis and mitosis
Meiosis requires two nuclear divisions and four haploid nuclei result.
Humans have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes, or 46 chromosomes total.

Process whereby a nucleus divides by two divisions into four nuclei, each containing half the
original number of chromosomes.
Consist of meiosis I and meiosis II.
The period of time between meiosis I and meiosis II is called interkinesis .
No replication of DNA occurs during interkinesis because the DNA is already duplicated.

Prophase I

The longest phase. This phase can be divided into 5 stages;

a) Leptotene
b) Zygotene
c) Pachytene
d) Diplotene
e) Diakinesis
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Five Sequential Stages

Leptotene - Chromosomes condense
Zygotene - Synaptonemal complex
Pachytene - Crossing over
Diplotene - Cell growth
Diakinesis - Chromosomes recondense

Metaphase I

The bivalents become arranged around the equator of the spindle, attached by their
centromeres.

Anaphase I

Spindle fibers pull homologous chromosomes, centromeres first, towards opposite poles of
the spindle.
This separate the chromosomes into two haploid sets, one set at each end of the spindle.

Telophase I

The arrival of homologous chromosomes at opposite poles marks the ends of meiosis I.
Halving of chromosome number has occurred but the chromosomes are still composed of two
chromatids.

Telophase I

Spindle disappear.
Cleavage furrow (animals) or cell plate (plants) then occurs as in mitosis.

Interkinesis

a period of time between two nuclear divisions of a cell where no DNA replication occur.

Meiosis II is similar to mitosis.

Prophase II

This stage is absent if interkinesis is absent.

The nucleoli and nuclear envelopes disperse and the chromatids shorten and thicken.
Centrioles, if present move to opposite poles of the cells and the end of prophase II new
spindle fibers appear.

Metaphase II
Chromosomes line up separately around the equator of the spindle.
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Anaphase II
The centromeres divide and the spindle fibers pull the chromatids to opposites poles,
centromeres first.

Telophase II

As telophase in mitosis but in meiosis four haploid daughter cells are formed.
The chromosomes uncoiled, lengthen and become very indistinct.
The spindle fibres disappear and the centrioles replicate.
Nuclear envelope re-form around each nucleus
which now posses half the number of chromosomes of the original parents cell (haploid).

Halving the chromosome number ensures that when gametes with the
haploid number fuse to form a zygote

the normal diploid number is restored.

Meiosis leads to increased variation because:

When the haploid cells fuse at fertilization there is recombination of parental

genes.

During metaphase I, homologous chromosomes are together at the equator

of the spindle, but they separate into daughter cells independently of each other.

Chiasmata and crossing-over can separate and rearrange genes located on

the same chromosome.

Three events, unique to meiosis, occur during the first division cycle.

1. During prophase I, homologous chromosomes pair up in a process

called synapsis.

A protein zipper, the synaptonemal complex, holds homologous

chromosomes together tightly.

Later in prophase I, the joined homologous chromosomes are visible

as a tetrad.

At X-shaped regions called chiasmata, sections of nonsister

chromatids are exchanged.

Chiasmata is the physical manifestation of crossing over, a form of

genetic rearrangement.
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2. At metaphase I homologous pairs of chromosomes, not individual

chromosomes are aligned along the metaphase plate.

In humans, you would see 23 tetrads.

3. At anaphase I, it is homologous chromosomes, not sister chromatids, that separate and

are carried to opposite poles of the cell.

Sister chromatids remain attached at the centromere until anaphase II.

The processes during the second meiotic division are virtually identical to those of
mitosis.

Meiosis I:
Prophase I - pairing of homologous chromosomes
Metaphase I homologous pairs line up at equator
Anaphase I homologous chromosomes separate
Telophase I daughter cells are haploid

The events of meiosis II are like those of mitosis except in meiosis II, the nuclei contain the
haploid number of chromosomes.
At the end of telophase II of meiosis II, there are four haploid daughter cells that are not
genetically identical.
At the end of mitosis , there are two diploid daughter cells that are identical.