mUNICIPAL sOLID WASTE
mUNICIPAL sOLID WASTE
mUNICIPAL sOLID WASTE
effective and sustainable waste management, together with a good sanitation. This
volume provides a comprehensive presentation and overall picture of municipal
solid waste management, including waste generation and characterization, waste
reduction and recycling, waste collection and transfer and waste disposal. It
analyses how these aspects are practiced in developing and developed countries.
The traditional method of disposal composting at different scales is discussed,
including the benefits of compost. 'Energy-from-waste-technologies' are amply
discussed, with comparisons between developed and developing countries, and
with parameters and conditions for successful operation of these technologies.
Moreover, the construction and operational aspects of landfills to maintain
environmental safety and the health of the residents nearby are described in
depth. In addition to a chapter with case studies of several countries and cities in
every continent, a special chapter is dedicated to municipal solid waste
management in India, including legal provisions, financial resources, private
participation and citizens' rights and obligations, and the status in three major cities.
By presenting different elements that constitute a sustainable procedure, including
the recovery of clean energy, this volume will serve as a guide to students in science
and engineering and to key players in waste management services and policies.
ISBN: 978-0-415-69036-2
Municipal Solid Waste
Management
Processing Energy Recovery Global Examples
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Municipal Solid Waste
Management
Processing Energy Recovery Global Examples
P. Jayarama Reddy
BS Publications
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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2011 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Dedicated to
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Foreword
The book by Dr. P Jayarama Reddy focuses on issues related to
municipal solid waste treatment and management. It is a compendium of
topics from cradle to grave. To the best of my knowledge this is the first
of its kind effort. The author has addressed all issues related to municipal
solid waste management. It covers in detail topics starting from
characterization of the waste, modes of collection and transfer to
technological advances in composting and landfilling. The methods
related to producing energy from wastes are discussed at length and
provide great insight to the readers.
capita with less recovery and reuse of solid wastes. This increasing
volume of waste demands an effective waste management system in
terms of collection capacity, treatment, disposal and aftercare. Thus the
necessity for greater investments of human, technological and financial
resources for waste management is pertinent in order to maintain a
cleaner and sustainable environment. An integrated system of solid waste
management in which the waste from its origin to disposal is considered
is perhaps the answer.
The challenge of delivering effective and sustainable waste
management is an issue which confronts all stakeholders including
central and local Governments, the public and professional (private)
waste managers and even citizens. Improving awareness of the various
waste management options is crucial for the development of a more
sustainable approach to waste management, linking public participation
and the essential infrastructure expansion to recover value from the
residual waste stream.
The process of Composting waste has been the traditional way of
treating solid waste. Composting is now practiced from a simple
inexpensive type to a large and expensive type (centralized) depending on
the waste quantity, composition and other factors.
Energy from Waste has a significant role to play in dealing with the
residual municipal waste stream. An Energy from Waste plant, also
known as Waste-to-Energy (WTE) plant, operates by taking the waste
and converting its hidden energy into a type of usable energy heat,
electricity and transport fuels just as coal, oil and gas are used as fuels
in fossil-fired power stations. WTE can be used with all types of waste
from domestic, commercial, industrial, construction and demolition, to
sewage and agricultural and so on. The only criterion is that the waste
fraction needs to be combustible and/or biodegradable. WTE is now an
essential component of a sustained solid waste management programme.
Energy from Waste is the application of sound proven combustion
engineering principles to a variety of technologies which reduce and
sanitize the residual municipal waste fraction in order to recover energy.
Several waste combustion systems capable of dealing with raw,
processed or sorted fractions of MSW, fluidized-bed combustion systems,
and processed waste energy recovery options such as refuse-derived fuel
(RDF), gasification and pyrolysis are in operation in many countries,
mostly developed countries. Biochemical processing technologies such as
anaerobic digestion, also called biomethanation of waste, wherein
biogas is produced is also a proven technology which is widely used
(xi) Preface
- Author
Acknowledgement
The author conveys his sincere thanks to Dr. Valli Manickam,
Chairperson, Environment Area, Administrative Staff College of India,
Hyderabad, India for offering valuable suggestions and for writing
foreword.
The author has drawn/quoted substantial material, photos, tables etc.,
from publications/Survey Reports/Documents released by several
Universities/Institutes/Government departments worldwide, and Organi-
sations such as UNEP, The World Bank, UNDP, and USEPA, and
prominent NGOs in India and abroad. The author expresses his grateful
thanks to the Authors of these references. These are also sincerely
acknowledged at the appropriate places and at the end in the text.
The author is personally indebted to many of his close friends, former
colleagues and students, and members of his family for their warmth,
encouragement and support. He conveys his special love to his grand
daughters, Hitha and Tanvi for their willing assistance in computer work
and for picking up some photos and pictures; and to the little ones, Diya
and Divija, for providing cheer at times of tiredness with their innocent
queries.
It is a pleasure to acknowledge the general support given by
BS Publications, mainly, Anil Shah and Nikhil Shah, and the special
technical help by Naresh Davergave and his team to bring this book along
with an awesome cover so nicely.
-Author
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Contents
Foreword .............................................................................................. (vii)
Preface .................................................................................................. (ix)
Acknowledgement ................................................................................ (xiii)
1. BASICS ............................................................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction .......................................................................... 1
1.2 Types of Solid Waste ............................................................ 4
1.3 Waste Management Concepts............................................. 10
1.4 Health and Environmental Impacts..................................... 11
1.5 Global Warming ................................................................. 13
1.6 Source Reduction ................................................................ 19
5. COMPOSTING ............................................................................. 67
5.1 Process ................................................................................ 67
5.2 Benefits ............................................................................... 69
5.3 Composting Technologies .................................................. 70
5.3.1 Backyard or a Home Composting ....................... 73
5.3.2 Vermi Composting .............................................. 75
5.3.3 Aerated (Turned) Windrow Composting............. 81
5.3.4 Aerated Static Pile Composting .......................... 83
5.3.5 In-Vessel Composting ......................................... 85
5.4 Biowaste Composting in Europe ........................................ 88
5.5 Composting Challenges ...................................................... 89
5.6 Composting in Developing Countries................................. 89
5.7 Composting in Developed Countries .................................. 95
Basics
1.1 Introduction
The start of civilization has seen human race generating waste such as
bones and other parts of animals they slaughter for their food or the wood
they cut to make their shelters, tools, carts etc. The advancement of
civilization has witnessed the waste generation getting enhanced, and
becoming more complex in nature. The beginning of industrial era has
had enormous effect on the life styles of people which have started
changing with the availability of many consumer products and services in
the market. The manufacturing and usage of vast range of products as
well as management of the resulting waste give rise to emission of
greenhouse gases. This has led not only to the pollution of air and water
but has affected the Planet Earth through global warming.
Rapid migration of rural populations to urban centres, in search of
better opportunities of livelihood, has resulted in an overwhelming
demographic growth in many cities worldwide. This situation is more
pronounced especially in Asia and Africa. The projected growth rate in
North America is less because it has already recorded a growth rate of
> 70%. Also in Europe, the situation is similar. But in Africa and Asia,
around 35% of the population presently is urban (Fig.1.1). Asian
countries are experiencing an urban growth of approximately 4% per
year. This growth rate is expected to continue for several more years, and
by 2025, 52% of the Asian population is likely to be living in urban
1
2 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Ashes: Residues from the burning of wood, charcoal and coke for
cooking and heating in houses, institutions and small industries. Ashes
consist of fine powders, cinders and clinker often mixed with small
pieces of metal and glass.
Rubbish: Apart from garbage and ashes, other solid wastes produced in
households, commercial establishments, and institutions.
Bulky wastes: Bulky wastes are large household appliances such as
cookers, refrigerators and washing machines as well as furniture, crates,
vehicle parts, tyres, wood, trees and branches. The bulky metallic wastes
are sold as scrap metal but some portion is disposed as sanitary landfills.
Street wastes: Street wastes include paper, cardboard, plastic, dirt, dust,
leaves and other vegetable matter collected from streets, walkways,
alleys, parks and vacant plots. Municipal waste includes street waste
also.
6 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Table 1.1 Source and quantum of some major industrial wastes in India.
Quantity
Sl
Waste (Million tonnes Source
No.
per annum)
Steel and Blast
1 35.0 Conversion of steel
Furnace
2 Brine mud 0.02 Caustic soda industry
By product from smelting of
3 Copper slag 0.0164
copper
4 Fly ash 70.0 Coal based thermal power plants
5 Kiln dust 1.6 Cement plants
Sugar, paper, fertilizer, tanneries,
6 Lime sludge 3.0 soda ash, calcium carbide
industries
7 Mica scraper waste 0.005 Mica mining areas
Phosphoric acid plant,
8 Phosphogypsum 4.5
Ammonium phosphate
Mining and extraction of alumina
9 Red mud / Bauxite 3.0
from Bauxite
10 Coal washery dust 3.0 Coal mines
11 Iron tailing 11.25 Iron Ore
12 Lime stone wastes 50.0 Lime stone quarry
(Source: Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management, CPHEEO, New Delhi)
Introduction 7
(iii) Polluter Pays Principle relates to the polluting party paying for the
impact caused to the environment. With respect to waste
management, a waste generator is required to pay for the disposal
of the waste.
waste; and Intestinal infections that are transmitted by flies feeding on the
waste;
Chronic diseases: Workers at Incineration plants are at risk of chronic
respiratory diseases, including cancers resulting from exposure to dust
and hazardous compounds;
Accidents: Bone and muscle disorders resulting from the handling of
heavy containers; infecting wounds resulting from contact with sharp
objects; poisoning and chemical burns resulting from contact with small
amounts of hazardous chemical waste mixed with general waste; burns
and other injuries resulting from occupational accidents at waste disposal
sites or from methane gas explosion at landfill sites. Some common
parasites and pathogens connected with solid waste are given in
Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Common parasites and pathogens associated with waste
(Ref: CPREEC)
nights, heat waves and wild fires, more frequent and severe storms,
cyclones, and droughts, change in precipitation patterns, spread of disease
to regions previously unknown, migration of birds and plants to cooler
regions, extinction of certain plant and animal species etc., in different
regions of the world. There have been many more early signals observed
as a result of global warming in all the continents during the last two to
three decades. The frequency and severity of these impacts have been
differing over the regions of the globe.
The simulations of the specially developed climate models indicate a
continual warming of the planet if the current rates of greenhouse gas
emissions continue, with the temperatures rising by another 2.7 to 11F
by 2100. This huge rise could trigger a wide range of changes in the
global climate in this century and beyond. The projected climate changes
may occur at an enhanced rate compared to what we have been
experiencing, and affect adversely the ecosystems, agriculture and food
supplies, water resources, coastal regions, human health and settlements,
and in general, the entire environment. The island-states and countries
like Bangledesh are threatened by sea level rise. The observations over
the recent decades point out that many aspects of climate change are
happening faster and with more severity than what climate models have
projected.
Both developed and developing countries have recognised that the
increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and the resulting climate
change weaken the economies, disrupt the development of the countries,
especially poorer countries which are more vulnerable to climate change,
and adversely affect people and the environment. As early as in 1980s,
very many countries met for the first time and approved an agreement
called Montreal Protocol, to control CFCs which impact the protective
ozone layer. The Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 with the
participation of over 180 countries was a mega event where a full range
of environmental issues were addressed; and an international treaty,
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
was formulated to set a goal of stabilising greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphere at safe levels. Under the Framework
Convention, an agreement called Kyoto Protocol that set targets for the
industrialized countries (called Annex-1 countries) to curb their
greenhouse gas emissions to an average of 5.2% below their 1990
emission levels came into force in 2005, and began to bind for ratified
countries in 2008. More than 180 countries ratified the Protocol, which
might be considered as the the first multinational step to limit greenhouse
gas emissions. The largest emitter country, US and Australia, though
16 Municipal Solid Waste Management
signatories, did not ratify. The Kyoto Protocol (KP) will expire by 2012,
and some of the countries that accepted the targets are unlikely to fulfill
for two reasons: (i) KP may not provide adequate conformity incentives,
and (ii) The most developed and the largest polluting country, US, is not
bound by KP since it has not ratified.
Three market-oriented mechanisms, Clean Development Mechanism,
Joint implementation, and Emissions Trading, were formulated to help
the Annex-1 countries to reduce the costs of meeting their obligations
under Protocol. The Clean development Mechanism (CDM) is a project-
based mechanism where industrialized countries can purchase carbon
benefits from projects implemented in developing countries to meet their
emission reduction obligations. In the developing countries, these project
investments help to promote projects attuned to sustainable development
such as clean energy projects (examples: solar, wind, biomass, waste-to-
energy, clean coal technology etc). The CDM enjoys solid support in
developing countries; a large number of projects are undertaken in these
countries in the areas of renewable energy generation and solid waste
management. In US, despite non-ratification of the Protocol by the
federal government, many States and several major industries have
voluntarily designed policies and programmes to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions. The European Union has unilaterally committed to higher
targets of emission reductions than those specified in the Protocol and has
come up with new green processes and technologies. Despite these
efforts, the global greenhouse gas emissions have been steadily
increasing.
Today, US and China each contribute 20% of worlds greenhouse gas
pollution, European Union 14%, Russia and India 5% each. The fast
developing economies, China, India, Brazil and Russia currently figure
among the major emitters of greenhouse gases as well as in the worlds
top ten consumers of energy due to the wide spectrum of their economic
activities. If the trend continues, especially in China and India, their
emission levels may exceed those of many developed countries. Yet they
are not inclined to agree to time-bound targets for emission reductions
citing their relatively low emissions per head compared to those of
developed countries. The per capita CO2 emission for different countries,
in metric tons, are: USA: 20.01, EU: 9.40, Japan: 9.87, Russia: 11.71,
China: 3.60, India: 1.02, and World Average: 4.25 (taken from Indias
National Action Plan 2008). With large populations and with no sign of
reverse in the population growth, the per head emissions are likely to
remain low for many more decades for China and India. They are,
however, committed to be a part of international initiative in tackling
Introduction 17
The green dot system facilitated the industries to comply with waste
management regulations, and its goals were set for collecting the waste
and separating it. These two goals aimed to recycle 72 percent of glass,
tinplate and aluminum packaging waste, and 64 percent of paper, plastic
and composite packaging in Germany. The US, however, reported
recycle rate of only 22 percent of glass and tinplate packaging in 1990.
The regulations to achieve this ambitious goal would create incentives for
the industries to minimize waste during manufacture and packaging. The
green dot system concentrates on three types of packaging: transport
packaging such as pallets and crates; secondary packaging in containers
like boxes for commodities; and primary packaging - actual casing of the
product. Companies/manufacturers were unable to meet the recycling
quotas on their own and the Dual System was created for them with a
membership. Members in the system put the green dot trademark on
their packaging that guaranteed recycling for their packaging if collected.
Drop off and curbside collection for all packaging with the green dot
trademark is also available. These recycling receptacles make it more
convenient for households to recycle, helping the companies with greater
chances to meet the required recycling quotas. As of September 1993,
12000 companies had signed for the green dot programme including 1900
firms based outside Germany.
The green dot system had proved that it could reduce the quantity of
waste. In 1992-1993, the consumption of packaging has decreased by
about 4%. Containers have been reused and the quantity of secondary
packaging has dropped by 80%. The green dot system was responsible
for the collection of 4.6 million tons of recyclables in 1993. But, there are
some concerns with the system such as the oversupply of recyclable
waste, and the necessity for creation of more markets for products made
of recyclables. The success of the programme depends on whether the
collected waste is fully reused/ recycled or not.
Source reduction is also applicable to domestic, commercial, and
institutional sources of waste generation. Source reduction also refers to
the reuse of products or materials. Reuse can help to reduce waste
collection, waste disposal and handling costs, because it avoids the costs
of recycling or municipal composting or landfilling or combustion or
such other processing methods. Source reduction also helps to conserve
resources and reduces pollution. It helps to control emission of
greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming, and toxicity of the
material that is created.
22 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Between two and five percent of the waste stream is potentially reusable
according to local studies in Berkeley, California and Leverett,
Massachusetts. Between 1960 and 2008, the amount of waste each person
creates in USA has almost doubled from 2.7 to 4.5 pounds per day. The
most effective way to stop this trend is by preventing waste in the first
place. Since 1977, the weight of 2-liter plastic soft drink bottles has been
reduced from 68 grams each to 51 grams. That means that 250 million
pounds of plastic per year has been avoided in the waste stream.
CHAPTER 2
24
Energy from Waste 25
countries are the major factors for concern. In addition, the Municipalities
or the concerned authorities are not fully equipped to undertake the task
of managing the wastes efficiently due to limited revenues/budget (UNEP
2002, Doan 1998, Cointreau 1982) through collection, transport, storage,
treatment and disposal. As a result, a substantial part of MSW generated
remains unattended and pile up not only at the collection points but at
street corners and public vacant places (Fig. 2.1) creating problem for
public health and environment.
reason the rate of generation remains high during the weekday and
decreases during the weekends. Similarly, the quantity of waste
generation increases during the festive days. For example, after a very
popular festival in India, the amount of paper waste generated rises
tremendously due to a huge amount of fireworks and crackers being used
during the festival. Therefore, before a management plan to handle citys
MSW can be adopted, the nature of city and future trends of change need
to be studied in detail to project the future quantity of solid waste likely
to be generated. Fig. 2.2 shows a prediction of quantity of solid waste
expected to be generated during the next 25 years, for high-income,
medium-income and low-income countries. It is clear from the figure that
much attention is required for middle and low-income countries, where a
high rate of increase is expected during the coming years.
Fig. 2.2 Current and projected waste generation in high-, middle- and low-
income countries (source: Martin 1996)
Tables 2.1 and 2.2 provide the waste generation rates in developing
and developed countries. The differences in waste generation between
developed and developing countries interestingly give rise to not only
additional problems but also potential opportunities in waste
management.
Energy from Waste 27
Germany 0.99
Mexico 0.85
France 1.29
Turkey 1.09
Italy 0.96
Canada 1.80
Table Contd
28 Municipal Solid Waste Management
In Latin American countries, the data shows that quantities and quality
of wastes are related to the economic conditions of the countries; the
richer ones generating more wastes per inhabitant, and their wastes tend
to contain more paper, glass, and metal containers than in the poorer
countries. Waste quantities generated range between 0.3 and 1.0
kg/inhabitant/day (this includes commercial, market, and street-cleaning
wastes). Densities vary between 150 and 200 kg/m3 (when measured
loosely), and from 400-500 kg/m3 after compaction in the truck. The
wastes are very humid (~ 45-50%) and have a high organics content
(40-50%). Organics content tends to be higher in poorer countries. The
higher consumption of manufactured products with the growth of per
capita GDP is evident in the observed differences in the content of the
waste generated between small towns (where the organics content is
high) and large cities within the same country.
Many Asian cities report data on MSW composition; but it is often
difficult to use the data, as the place and season for the sampling is not
Energy from Waste 31
Table 2.5 for some countries. The total amount includes also other waste
types than those from manufacturing industries and construction.
Manufacturing
Region/Country Total Construction
industries
Asia
China 1 004 280
Japan 120 050 76 240
Singapore 1 423.5
Republic of korea 39 810 28 750
Israel 1 000
Europe
Australia 14 284 27 500
Belgium 14 144 9 046
Bulgaria 3 145 7
Croatia 1 600 142
Czech republic 9 618 5 083
Denmark 2 950 3 220
Estonia 1 261.5
Finland 15 281 1 420
France 98 000
Germany 47 960 231 000
Greece 6 680 1 800
Hungary 2 605 707
Iceland 10
Ireland 5 361 3 651
Italy 35 392 27 291
Latvia 1 103 422 7
Malta 25 206
Netherlands 17 595 23 800
Norway 415 4
Poland 58 975 143
Portugal 8 356 85
Romania 797
Table Contd
34 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Manufacturing
Region/Country Total Construction
industries
Slovakia 6 715 233
Slovenia 1 493
Spain 20 308
Swedan 18 690
Switzerland 1 470 6 390
Turkey 1 166
UK 50 000 72 000
Oceania
Australia 37 040 10
New Zealand 1 750 NR
(Source: 2006 IPCC)
{Refs: Environmental Statistics Yearbook for China 2003; Eurostat 2005; Latvian
Environment Agency 2004; OECD 2002; National Environment Agency, Singapore 2001;
Estonian Environment Information Center 2005; Statistics Finland 2005;
Milleubalans 2005}
Municipal solid waste generation has both pros and cons, but the fact of
the matter is that it is impossible to live without generating some trash.
By using recycling methods, one can minimize the amount of municipal
solid waste generated. Using reusable paper bags or cloth shopping bags,
and taking steps to buy recycled products whenever possible are some of
the desirable practices. These steps will decrease the amount of municipal
solid waste that is generated, as we see in this section, making it a little
easier to manage and dispose of.
Waste reduction and waste recycling are important components in
waste management strategy. MSWM operations are consuming large
fraction of municipal operating budgets; in developing countries, as much
as 60% are for collection and transfer of the wastes for disposal. Recently
in these countries, there is discussion of sustainable development through
an integrated approach to waste management, including minimization of
the production of wastes and maximizing waste recycling and reuse.
Most of the cities have been practicing source separation and recycling
formally and informally.
Recycling is often defined to encompass also waste-to-energy
activities and biological treatment. For practical reasons a more narrow
38
Waste Reduction and Recycling 39
3.1 Recycling
Recycling of waste provides economic as well as environmental benefits,
and also reduces reliance on virgin materials. Such programmes can
reduce pollution, save energy, mitigate global climate change, and reduce
pressures on biodiversity. Reusing items delays or sometimes avoid at
item's entry in the waste collection and disposal system. Source reduction
coupled with reuse can help to reduce waste handling and disposal costs,
by avoiding the cost of recycling, municipal composting, land filling and
combustion.
Recycling involves the reprocessing of waste into a usable raw
material or product thus enabling materials to have an extended life in
addition to reducing resource consumption and avoiding disposal costs.
Transportation and collection of recyclable materials involve costs,
resulting in an increased market price of such materials compared to
virgin materials. The collection of materials that could be recycled or
sorting and processing recyclables into raw materials (such as fibers) or
manufacturing raw materials into new products are different steps.
Collecting and processing secondary materials, manufacturing products
with more recyclable content, and buying recycled products constitutes a
cycle that ensures the overall success and significance of recycling.
(i) Collection and Processing: Collecting recyclables varies from
community to community; however, there are four primary
methods of collection: curbside, drop-off centers, buy-back centers,
and deposit/refund programmes. Regardless of the method used to
collect the recyclables, they are sent to a materials recovery facility
to be sorted and prepared into marketable commodities for
manufacturing. Recyclables are bought and sold just like any other
commodity; the prices for the materials alter and fluctuate with the
market.
(ii) Manufacturing: After cleaning and separation, the recyclables are
ready to undergo the next stage of the recycling circle. More and
more of today's products are being manufactured with total or
partial recycled content. Common household items that contain
recycled materials include newspapers and paper towels;
aluminum, plastic, and glass soft drink containers; steel cans;
40 Municipal Solid Waste Management
repairs. In countries such as Vietnam, India and China, if one takes into
account the use of compost from dumps sites as well as materials
recovered, the major portion of municipal wastes of all kinds are
ultimately utilized. Since manufacturers can readily use leftovers as
feedstock or engage in waste exchange, residuals and old machines are
sold to less advanced and smaller industries. In offices and institutions,
paper, cardboard, glass bottles, plastics, and all salable materials are
sorted out and sold, and the rest is sent to dust bins. At the household
level, gifts of used clothes and goods to servants, relatives, charities and
the needy are still significant. In the middle- and low-income cities of the
East Asia/Pacific region, informal source separation and recycling of
materials have always been practiced. Materials separated or picked out
from mixed wastes include ferrous and nonferrous metals, papers/
cardboard, glass, plastics, clothing, leathers, animal bones/feathers, books
and household goods (which are repaired and sold in second-hand
markets). In Bangkok, Jakarta, and Hong Kong there are some very large
industries dealing entirely recyclables such as papers, ferrous metals,
plastics, and glass. In the Pacific islands, repair and reuse are important
and recycling industries are small-scale. In China and Vietnam, waste
recovery and recycling has been organized at the city level and supported
by national ministries. In China, especially, the major cities have large
recovery companies which collect recyclables from offices, institutions,
and factories. There are also neighborhood redemption centers where
people can sell bottles, paper, and clothes.
In South Asia, resource recovery and recycling usually takes place in
all components of the system predominantly by the informal sector,
waste pickers or a section of the solid waste management staff for
extra income. Such work is done for very low incomes in a very labor-
intensive and unsafe way. These items then reach the recycling facilities
through agents. In Cambodia, even though waste separation at the source
is not practiced, the main items such as soft and hard plastics, glass, steel,
paper, cardboard, aluminium and alloys etc., are collected and sent to
Vietnam and Thailand for recycling for lack of such facilities in the
country. Similarly, most of the recyclable wastes collected in Nepal and
Bhutan are sent to India, due to insufficient recycling factories in the
countries (Glawe et al 2006). The importance of recycling activities in
reducing waste volume, recovering resources and its economic benefits is
42 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Country 3 R practice
Afghanistan Informal
Bangladesh Informal
Bhutan Informal
India Formal + Informal
Maldives Informal
Nepal Informal
Pakistan Formal + Informal
Sri Lanka Formal + Informal
(Source: Visvanathan and Norbu 2006)
In West Asia, the Palestinian settlements in Gaza and the West Bank
have been sites of intensive repair, reuse, and recycling since their
inception. Waste separation at the household level and selling the
recyclable materials to roaming buyers still continue. There are also
small-scale recycling industries for plastic, paper, and glass in the region;
scrap metal is recycled locally or transported to re-rolling mills of other
countries. In Israel, the high quantity of recyclables reaching waste
streams has compelled the government to sponsor the recovery and
recycling of the materials due to the decline of the informal sector.
Recycling has been emphasized since 1993 to reduce waste quantities at
landfills. A number of recycling centers (drop-off centers) are running
successfully in Israel, where people can leave textiles, paper, and
cardboard; in Tel Aviv and Jerusalem there is curbside pickup of papers
in boxes supplied by the authorities.
Different experiments in several countries are tried with source
separation of household waste. For example, in Dubai, drop-off centers
accept paper, cardboard, aluminum, and PVC bottles. Incentives are
given to large-scale recycling units for paper and glass. In Saudi Arabia,
an industry has been supported to convert waste paper into egg trays. In
Sharjah (UAE), a company processes plastic into rubbish sacks. The
governments in developing countries support recycling industries in
principle, with financial support such as tax rebates varying from country
to country (UNEP).
Waste Reduction and Recycling 43
In Africa, the informal recovery and reuse of materials from the waste
stream occurs at several levels. At the household level items are reused
before entering the waste stream, thereby extending their useful life.
Waste pickers also recover materials for personal and commercial
purposes. The extent of commercial recycling of paper, metals, glass, and
plastic depends on the presence of industrial or other end uses for these
materials. While such industries may be found in some primary cities,
they are largely absent in secondary cities and in rural areas. Even in
those cases where they are found, they do not consistently stimulate
recycling in their host cities. The official statistics on MSW generation
and recycling, waste reduction or materials recovery in Africa are very
few.
Materials recovery is prevalent in Latin America and the Caribbean.
Recycling occurs in all large cities and in most medium-sized cities.
Paper and cardboard, glass, metals (mostly aluminum) and plastics are
the materials most often recovered and recycled (except plastics) by
large-scale industries. Large scale recycling programs of non-hazardous
industrial solid wastes have been established in Colombia, Mexico, and
Venezuela. In some large cities in Argentina, Brazil, Mexico and
Colombia, recycling bins have been set up outside supermarkets, where
glass and paper products can be deposited.
The greatest amount of materials recovery and recycling is achieved
through several networks such as roving buyers, small and medium
traders, wholesaling brokers, and recyclers. Typical examples of the
informal recycling industries are those which recycle broken glass into
bottles, waste plastics to toys and shoes, and waste paper to paper board.
The activities are mainly driven by the scarcity and expense of raw
materials. From the point of view of waste reduction, the traditional
practices of repair and reuse, and the sale, barter, or gift of used goods
and surplus materials, are a benefit to the poorer countries.
Animals also play a significant role in the reduction of organic wastes
in many places, especially smaller cities and towns in the developing
world. Cattle, pigs, goats, dogs, cats, poultry, and crows feed regularly
from garbage piles and open vats; animals such as goats, sheep, and pigs,
kept in squatter areas are fed household vegetable wastes. In cities like
Hong Kong, Bangkok, Manila, Cebu, and most cities and towns of China
and Vietnam, pig and poultry farmers routinely collect food wastes from
households and restaurants for animal feed. In some small Chinese cities,
pigs are released on garbage dumps to reduce organic wastes. It has been
estimated that up to 50% of domestic and restaurant organics are fed to
44 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Fig. 3.1 Waste reduction and materials recovery in typical cities of developing
and developed countries (Source: UNEP).
Waste Reduction and Recycling 45
In the urban centers of Australia, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, and New
Zealand which are economically advanced, a high degree of waste
reduction, separation at source, and recycling is being achieved through
public education, curbside collection, and volume-based collection. In
many European Union (EU) countries, materials recovery and recycling
have been acknowledged as an indispensable aspect of integrated solid
waste management systems. This is reflected in policy documents and is
evident in practice. Nevertheless, there are considerable variations in
European practices in source reduction, materials recovery, and recycling.
European countries often have completely unrelated systems for
collecting different recyclable materials. Paper is often collected curbside
from row- or single-family houses, and in half- or one cubic meter
collection containers from apartments. Glass collection, on the other
hand, is more likely to be performed using closed recycling collection
containers, sometimes called igloos.
In European Union, the concept of producer responsibility
dominates the process of materials recovery; i.e, financial responsibility
for recycling and disposal is placed on the product and/or package
manufacturer, and incentives for recovery, reuse, and recycling through
taxes, fees, and deposits are internalised. In Southern and Eastern Europe
and also in France and the UK, the presence of recycling containers or
collection programmes is more sporadic. Italy, which has made
considerable progress in materials recovery, is an exception.
The rising disposal costs, the difficulty of siting landfills and
incinerators, and the current public concern for the environment have
made recycling a top priority in North America. Volunteer groups
organize neighborhood collection drives for papers, bottles, and cans. A
well-established network of haulers, brokers, and reclaim yards recover
paper and metals from businesses. Waste reduction in North America
includes source reduction, reuse, recycling, and composting, all of which
divert significant quantum of materials from disposal facilities. Source
reduction involves reducing the amount and toxicity of materials before
they enter the waste stream, and can include product reuse, reduced
material volume, reduced toxicity, increased product lifetime, and
decreased consumption. These programmes have been implemented
through education, research, financial incentives and disincentives
(e.g., volume-based fees), regulation, and technological advances. North
American recycling programmes include source separation, curbside
collection, centralized drop-off or buy-back facilities, materials recovery
facilities, and mixed-waste processing facilities. Typical materials
recycled in North America include paper (e.g., cardboard, office paper,
46 Municipal Solid Waste Management
and newsprint), bottles and cans (e.g., steel, glass, aluminum and plastic),
ferrous scrap, batteries, tires, used oil, appliances, and construction and
demolition debris. Composting is often considered a form of recycling in
North America.
Two main collection methods are used: central collection, where
waste generators transport materials to a drop-off or buy-back center; and
curbside collection, where recyclables are collected at the point of
generation (usually households). Central collection centers have been in
place for many years. The local governments in order to achieve higher
recycling rates have started curbside collection also. Central collection
centers accept materials from homes and small businesses. These are
commonly known as drop-off centers and buy-back centers. Both the
centers want waste generators to bring recyclables to a central facility,
but only buy-back centers pay for the material. Both types of centers are
less expensive to operate than curbside collection programmes (UNEP).
in the urban areas of developing countries are now targeting more on the
WEEE issue without realizing the level of toxicity involved in their
actions. In Pakistan, Sher Shah in Karachi is one of the principle
markets for second hand and scrap materials where all sorts of electronic
and electrical spare parts, computers and smuggled goods arrive by sea
and land for sale or further distribution to other cities in Pakistan. Sher
Shah serves as an open informal market, without state controls of any
kind (source: Toxics Link).
study at the Bisasar Road landfill in Durban, South Africa, it was found
that picking of waste supported 200 families, earning the equivalent of
$15,500 per month, or $77 per family per month (Johannessen 1999).
This practice is particularly risky where municipal wastes contain human
excreta, biomedical and industrial wastes, and where pickers do not have
protective clothing or access to washing facilities. It is a matter of great
concern that children and pregnant women are plenty among pickers.
In China, a few decades ago waste pickers used to be relatively low; now
their number is increasing. The influx of rural migrants to the cities has
contributed to this trend. Most of the pickers are from poor families with
little or no formal schooling. They are often illegal immigrants from rural
areas or even foreign countries. The incomes of these pickers range from
as low as US$0.40 to around US$3.00 a day. Some cities in Indonesia
have introduced licensing of waste pickers at dump sites in an attempt to
control the practice. Licensing has met with mixed success, in some cases
being welcomed at first but then encountering resistance (UNEP).
Most municipal authorities do not intend to enforce prohibition of
picking, as it deprives the livelihood of poor people. Any major change to
the waste disposal structure through technology decisions must take into
account the urban poor, many of whom may be dependent on waste
picking for their entire subsistence. Organizations working with pickers
argue for better recognition of the usefulness of waste recovery to
developing societies, and for humane treatment of pickers. In 1989, the
President of Indonesia pleaded for the recognition of the useful role of
waste pickers. Since then in the cities of Java, many schemes were
initiated with international aid to assist pickers in various ways. These
schemes are meant to overcome the social prejudice which restricts
pickers to improve their status, acquire new skills, or simply move up the
ladder to become buyers, dealers, or processors. In order to help the
pickers from health and exploitation risks, NGOs and social activists have
suggested to (i) provide free or subsidize protective clothing to reduce the
health risks, (ii) provide access to basic health care and inoculations
against tetanus, (iii) regulate picking, by the provision of designated
picking areas at transfer stations and dumps, (iv) enable pickers to
organize cooperatives to improve their earnings and working conditions,
and (v) control harassment of street pickers and itinerant buyers.
Certain Cooperatives and NGOs in some developing countries
implement some of these suggestions. NGOs are developing simple
cleaning and processing methods for cleaning materials taken from mixed
garbage to improve the prices that pickers can get for them. NGOs in
these countries such as the Self Employed Women's Association in India
Waste Reduction and Recycling 57
Waste Collection is a key link in the chain of MSWM from the point of
generation to ultimate disposal. In any initiative to strengthen or upgrade
waste management service, sustainable, contextually appropriate
collection should be a major focus of attention. In developed countries,
the system, by and large, is in place and operates satisfactorily. In
developing countries, the approach to collection differs from region to
region. In some countries, collection involves a direct transaction
between generator and collector. The level of service is low, and the
generators often have to bring their wastes long distances and place them
in containers that are sometimes difficult to use.
58
Waste Collection and Transfer 59
Fig. 4.1 Men who belong to the Yellow Brigade, move waste from households
to a transfer point in the two-tier collection system of Surabaya, Indonesia
(credit: Antonio Fernandez, source: UNEP)
In the poorer countries of the region, collection rates can be < 50%.
However, in Bangkok, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, Seoul, and Shanghai,
more than 80% of the waste generated is collected. There are, of course,
disparities in collection service between rich and poor areas. Shanghai
and Beijing cities in China have well structured systems for collection,
transport, treatment, and reuse of MSW. However, a weak link in
collection and transportation in Chinese cities is the lack of high-quality
transfer stations (UNEP).
There is considerable variation in collection and transport systems in
South and West Asia, not only from country to country, but within
sections of one urban area. But the most important common issue is
irregularity or lack of municipal service for squatter settlements or
congested low-income areas. The frequency of scheduled collection is
partly governed by climate and the system in use. In the Indian
subcontinent, temperatures are high and the system is often open
(i.e., the street containers and transfer points are not covered and waste is
exposed). In such circumstances daily or twice-daily collection is
required. In central and northern areas of the region where there is
curbside or door-to-door collection, collection may be less frequent,
although regular. In many cases in south Asia, municipal authorities
arrange the collection from the bins located at many locations in a
60 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Fig. 4.4 In Latin America, women are often involved in small-scale collection
enterprises (credit: Alvaro Cantanhede, source: UNEP)
Large cities in Latin America and the Caribbean have fairly efficient
waste collection coverage. Buenos Aires, Santiago, and Havana claim to
collect essentially all of their wastes while So Paulo, Rio de Janeiro,
Bogot, Medell, Caracas, Montevideo, La Paz, and Port of Spain claim
more than 90% coverage. In many cities the collection and transfer are
carried out using conventional equipment and compactor trucks which are
expensive to maintain. By entrusting the collection services to a private
party who can administer funds more efficiently, this problem has been
solved to a large extent. In Latin America, women are often involved in
small-scale collection enterprises (Fig.4.4). The frequency and efficiency
of waste collection in this region is a major problem. Frequency varies
from daily to once a week (not including the many areas of cities which
are not serviced at all), and the frequency of collection in an area is not
determined by technical considerations such as putrefaction rates of the
wastes, weather, vehicle availability, and routing necessities, but rather
by its affluence. In cities such as Rio de Janeiro, Mexico City, Caracas,
and Buenos Aires, more than 50% of the wastes go through a transfer
station, and the need for the transfer stations has grown significantly in
the recent years as the distance between the city and the disposal sites
grows.
In areas where collection services which remove waste from
individual households or streets exist, often there are no standardized
containers used to store waste prior to pickup. Headley (1998) states that
in Barbados, there are no containers designated by municipalities or
collection companies to set out waste for collection; the individual
Waste Collection and Transfer 63
Composting
5.1 Process
This is an old method of treating solid waste which overtime has evolved
into an environmentally sound system of waste processing.
Natural composting, or biological decomposition, began with the first
plants on earth and has been happening ever since. As vegetation falls to
the ground, it slowly decays, providing minerals and nutrients needed for
plants, animals, and microorganisms. A large range of organisms are
available to start and sustain composting.
Composting is the biological decomposition of organic waste
(biodegradable materials) consisting of complex animal and vegetable
materials into their constituent components. It is a natural process in
which micro organisms consume what they like in warm, moist, aerobic
and/or anaerobic environment. The most common form of composting -
aerobic composting - takes place in the presence of oxygen. The end
product is known as compost which is an organic soil-like stable
material that is dark brown or black, and is earth-smelling (Fig. 5.1).
Compost is a rich nutrient-filled material (Fig. 5.2) which can be used as
a soil amendment or as a medium to grow plants.
Under the action of microorganisms in the presence of adequate
moisture and oxygen, a biodegradable material breaks down into carbon
dioxide, moisture and compost. It may take a very long time for certain
67
68 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Among the organic waste, some food products are barred because they
can attract pests or affect the quality of compost. The materials to include
are fruit and vegetable waste, egg shells, tea bags, coffee grounds, leaves,
grass, wool and cotton rags, sawdust, non recyclable paper and yard
clippings; and the materials to exclude are dairy foods, meat, oils and fats,
grease, chicken, lard, fish, mayonnaise, cat manure and dog manure.
Composting is suitable for organic biodegradable fraction of MSW,
garden waste or waste containing high proportion of lingo celluloses
materials which do not degrade under anaerobic conditions, waste from
slaughter houses and daily waste. This method is not suitable for wastes
that may be too wet. In principle, the compost is created by combining
organic wastes in proper ratios into piles, rows, or vessels, and adding
bulking agents such as wood chips to accelerate the breakdown of organic
materials, and allowing the finished material to undergo a curing process
to fully stabilize and mature.
Composting 69
5.2 Benefits
Composting Process offers the benefits of resource efficiency and
producing a useful product of economic value from the organic waste,
without sending to a landfill. The compost offers a wide range of
environmental, economic, and other benefits.
(a) Compost enriches soils: Compost is used as a soil amendment
because it regenerates poor soils. This material when added to
soils increases the nutrient content. That is, compost helps to
improve soil texture and in augmenting micronutrient
deficiencies. It helps soils to retain moisture and in maintaining
soil health. Compost helps to control plant diseases and pest
infestation, reduce the need for chemical fertilizers and water, and
promote higher yields of agricultural crops. Compost, if not
adequately matured, may cause chemical burns on plants or
compete with them for use of soil nitrogen.
Fresh compost should not be used for starting sensitive seedlings
such as tomatoes and peppers because they may succumb to
70 Municipal Solid Waste Management
and the compost produced may be unsafe for use. The time of composting
depends on the process used, the compost ingredients, and how the
system is managed. For example, under optimum conditions,
thermophilic composting with frequent mixing or turning can produce
useable compost within a month or two; a worm bin requires three to six
months to turn food scraps to compost; and an unmanaged leaf pile may
take more than a year to break down. In general, even after it appears
finished, it is advisable to let compost "cure" for several months. During
this additional time, degradation occurs at a slower rate, resulting in a
more chemically stable end product. Stability of compost can be tested
by re-wetting the material and observing if it heats up again, which
indicates that there are still un-composted materials in the pile. If the
composting is completely done, the initial ingredients are no longer
recognizable, and the end product is an earthy-smelling substance similar
to a rich organic soil. These aspects will be seen in the following pages.
Composting technologies are many, from simple and inexpensive
backyard or onsite composting method to more expensive and high-tech
methods such as in-vessel composting. Composting varies as much in
its complexity as in the range of organic materials recovered. The most
common composting methods are listed in the order of increasing costs
and levels of technology required and are described in detail on the
following pages:
(a) Backyard Composting,
(b) Vermicomposting,
(c) Aerated (Turned) Windrow Composting and Static Pile
Composting, and
(d) In-vessel Composting.
few months. The bedding must be kept moist by adding 3 pints of water
for each pound of bedding to enable the worms to breathe. If the bedding
dries out, some water is sprinkled on it with a plant mister. It is very vital
to get the right type of worms such as red worms or "wigglers" (Eisenia
foetida) that thrive in a worm bin.
Organic waste such as vegetables and fruits cut into small bits,
eggshells, tea bags, coffee ground, paper coffee filters, and shredded
garden waste are fed to the worms. Worms specially like cantaloupe,
watermelon, and pumpkin. Citrus fruit waste may be added in limited
amounts to prevent from becoming too acidic. Meat scraps or bones, fish,
greasy or oily foods, fat, tobacco, or pet / human manure should not be
mixed. All this food material has to be covered completely with the
bedding to discourage fruit flies and molds. One pound of worms will eat
about four pounds of food scraps a week. If more food than the worms
can handle is added, anaerobic conditions will set in and cause odour. If
adding food is stopped for a while, the odour dissipates. Red worms can
tolerate temperatures from 50 to 84F, though 55 to 77F is ideal.
Procedure: The first step is choosing a proper location for the worm bin.
The location should ensure the required temperature and humidity. It is
preferable to place worm bin outside in the shade during the hot summer
and indoors in winter to protect from the cold. The preparation of the
bedding is the next step. Commonly available material like newspaper is
soaked in water for a few minutes; then wringed it out like a sponge and
fluffed before adding to the worm bin. The bedding need to be very
damp, but not soaking wet (only two to three drops of water should come
out when you squeeze the bedding material). The bedding is evenly
spread until it fills about three-quarters of the bin. A couple of handfuls
of soil (from outdoors or potting soil) are sprinkled into the bedding to
bring in beneficial microorganisms and aid the worms' digestive process.
The bedding is fluffed up roughly once a week to enable the worms gets
plenty of air and freedom to move.
The worms are then gently placed on top of the bedding. If the bin lid
is not placed for a while, the worms will burrow into the bedding, away
from the light and will not try to crawl out of the bin due to the light
overhead. After the worms have settled in their place, the collected food
wastes are placed in a hole in the bedding, and cover it with at least an
inch of bedding. The next feeding may be done after a week. The worms
78 Municipal Solid Waste Management
are allowed alone during this time to get used to their new surroundings.
The food scraps are buried in a different area of the bin each time. Worms
may be fed any time of the day. Other organisms may be seen in the
worm bin, as they help break down the organic material. Most of the
organisms will be too small to see, but white worms, springtails, pill
bugs, molds, and mites can be easily spotted. In about six weeks, a soil-
like material called worm castings is ready for use. The castings can be
used to boost plant growth. In three or four months, it will be time to
harvest the castings. The castings will be mixed with partially
decomposed bedding and food scraps, in addition to worms; this is called
vermi compost.
The vermi compost may be harvested by one of the two methods:
1. Food scraps may be placed on only one side of the worm bin for
several weeks, and most of the worms will migrate to that side of
the bin. Then the vermin compost can be removed from the other
side of the bin where food scraps are not added. Then, fresh
bedding is added. This process is repeated on the other side of the
bin. After both sides are harvested, food scraps may be added to
both sides of the bin again.
2. The contents of the worm bin are emptied onto a plastic sheet or
tarpaulin in strong sunlight or artificial light. In 20-30 minutes, the
worms will burrow down to escape the light. Then the top layer of
vermicompost can be scrapped off, and more of it can be scrapped
off every 20 minutes or so. After several scrapings, piles of worms
are left which can be returned gently to the bin in fresh bedding.
The harvested castings can be mixed into potting soil soon after
harvest to give best result on indoor plants. For storing or for use
for outdoor plants, curing in an aerobic environment is required to
make it dry and to eliminate the possible introduction of new
species.
How to choose a Vermicomposting system: A variety of methods may
be used to process large volumes of organic residuals with earthworms,
ranging from land and labor-intensive techniques to fully automated high-
tech systems. Types of systems include windrows, beds, bins, and
automated raised bioreactors. Choosing which vermicomposting system
to use will depend upon: (a) Amount of feedstock to be processed,
(b) Funding available, (c) Site and space restrictions, (d) Climate and
weather, (e) State and local regulatory restrictions, (f) Facilities and
equipment on hand, and (g) Availability of low-cost labor (Rhonda
Sherman 2009).
Composting 79
Health effects: Vermi culture does not necessarily kill all pathogens.
Rather, some viruses and parasites can survive the process. Therefore, if
the input materials contain pathogens, the finished product could still
contain pathogens. This may be of particular concern in developing
countries, where wastes used in vermi composting may not be source-
separated.
Effect of Climate: Worms are sensitive to climatic variations. Extreme
temperatures and direct sunlight are not healthy for the worms and may
not keep them alive. In hot, arid areas, the bin should be placed under the
shade. Many of the problems posed by hot or cold climates can be
avoided by vermicomposting indoors and maintaining optimal
temperatures.
Uses of vermin compost: Vermicompost is worm manure. Vermicompost
improves soil structure, reduces erosion, and improves and stabilizes soil
pH. In addition, vermicompost increases moisture infiltration in soils and
improves its moisture holding capacity.
The worm compost can be mulched or mixed into the soil in the
garden and around the trees and plants. It can also be used as a top
dressing on outdoor plants or conditioner on the lawns. For indoor plants,
vermicompost is mixed with potting soil. In horticulture, worm castings
are the very best soil amendment available. The nutrient content of
castings is dependent on the material fed to the worms, and the
wormcastings provide these nutrients in a readily available form to plants.
The biology of the worms gut facilitates the growth of fungus and
bacteria that are beneficial to plant growth. In addition, many chemical
compounds that promote plant growth are found in castings. In essence,
plant growth is significantly increased by vermicompost, whether it is
used as a soil additive, a vermicompost tea, or as a component of
horticultural soilless container media. Vermicompost causes seeds to
germinate more quickly, seedlings to grow faster, leaves grow bigger, and
more flowers, fruits or vegetables are produced (Fig. 5.5). These effects
are greatest when a smaller amount of vermicompost is usedjust 10-40
percent of the total volume of the plant growth medium in which it is
incorporated. Vermicompost also decreases attacks by plant pathogens,
parasitic nematodes and arthropod pests (Rhonda Sherman 2009).
Composting 81
Fig. 5.5 Turnips: 0%, 10%, 20% vermicompost by volume added to field plots,
Biological & Agricultural Engineering, NC State University
(source: Rhonda Sherman 2009)
Fig. 5.6 Huge Compost Pile (Photo Courtesy: Campaign Recycle Maui
Inc.,/Compost Maui Inc).
In this method, Organic waste is shaped into rows of long piles called
"windrows" (Fig. 5.6) which form the basic environment for compost
bacteria and other organisms to perform decomposition.
The aspects to be considered in planning windrows are:
(i) the size of the windrows must be of ample mass to allow for heat
build-up,
82 Municipal Solid Waste Management
(ii)
the windrow size is determined by the composition of the wastes
and the climate ,
(iii) the shape of the windrows is related to the type of aeration that is
used and the kind of equipment used to aerate,
(iv) whether the windrows are open or covered depends on the
climate and the moisture content of the waste, and
(v) the spacing of the windrows is dependent on the size of the site
and type of equipment used.
The ideal height, between 4 and 8 feet, is large enough for a pile to
generate sufficient heat and maintain temperatures, while small enough to
allow oxygen to flow to the windrow's core. The ideal pile width is
between 14 and 16 feet. Active pile systems require manual or
mechanical turning of the windrows. The turning aerates the piles, blends
the materials, brings about additional size reduction, and prevents
excessive buildup of temperature that may lead to spontaneous
combustion. An active pile system has relatively high land use
requirements, and low capital cost and low-to-moderate operating cost. It
can be developed without purchase of specialized equipment because
mechanical turning can be done with loaders or bulldozers, which are
present in almost any municipality; it requires limited site infrastructure,
and imposes very limited requirements for site modification.
Windrow turning machines of different sizes have been developed in
Asia, America, and Europe. The ones built in India are low cost and work
effectively with the waste stream. Windrow turning machines enable
production of more uniform compost. They decrease labour costs but
increase the capital costs of active pile systems. They may increase land
requirements, as the design of turning machines limits the size of the piles
as well as influence pile spacings. Specialized windrow turning machines,
however, are more effective in aerating windrows compared to
bulldozers, and also a cost-effective alternative.
This technique of composting can accommodate large volumes of
diverse wastes, including yard trimmings, grease, liquids, and animal
byproducts (such as fish and poultry wastes); but frequent turning and
careful monitoring are required. Since this method is suited for large
quantities, it is appropriate for entire communities/ local authorities, and
high volume food-processing businesses like restaurants, cafeterias, and
packing plants.
Effect of Climate: In a warm, arid climate, windrows are covered or
placed under a shade to prevent water from evaporating. In rainy seasons,
the shapes of the pile can be adjusted so that water runs off the top of the
Composting 83
pile rather than being absorbed into the pile. Windrow composting can
also work in cold climates; the outside of the pile might freeze, but in its
core, the temperature can reach 140 F. Fig.5.7 shows locally designed
windrow turning machines, like this one in New Delhi (credit: Chris
Furedy, source: UNEP)
Fig. 5.7
This method, however, does not work well for composting animal
byproducts or grease from food processing industries. They are used
more frequently in sludge composting than in composting of bio-waste or
yard waste.
This method requires equipment such as blowers, pipes, sensors, and
fans, which might involve significant costs and technical assistance.
Construction of large piles which require less land than the windrow
method is possible if a controlled supply of air is arranged. This method
produces compost relatively fast, within 3 to 6 months.
Effect of climate: The climate affects the process of composting. In a
warm arid climate, aerated static piles are covered or placed under a
shelter to prevent water from evaporating. In the cold climate, the core of
the pile retains its warm temperature. However, the aeration may be more
difficult due to passive air flowing rather than active turning. Some
aerated static piles are placed indoors with proper ventilation.
Composting 85
design. The large metal drums are up to 30 meters long and may
be divided into separate chambers. Some have trommel screens in
the first chamber to remove designated materials during
composting. Dano-type systems require a large stretch of land for
the active pile composting.
(c) In tower systems, the compostable material is introduced into a
vertical tower and composted under forced aeration. Some tower
systems also mechanically turn or stir up the material during its
residence. The residence time in tower systems is typically 2 to 5
weeks, and composting is essentially complete when the material
is removed to curing piles. Tower-type systems offer more odour
control during composting and require much less land, since the
period of active composting takes place in the vessel. They
represent a particularly sound practice for sludge composting or
co-composting of sludge and yard wastes.
Types of feedstock: In-vessel composting can process large amounts of
waste without taking up as much space as the windrow method. In
addition, it can accommodate virtually any type of organic waste such as
meat, animal manure, biosolids, food scraps. Some in-vessel composters
can fit into restaurant kitchens while others can be large enough to
accommodate large food processing plants.
Effect of Climate: In-vessel composting can be used year-round in
virtually any climate because the environment is electronically controlled.
This method can even be used in extremely cold weather if the equipment
is insulated or operates indoors.
In this method, very little odour and minimal leachate are produced,
and conversion of organic material to compost takes as little as a few
weeks. However, the compost that comes out of the vessel requires a few
more weeks or months for the microbial activity to stabilize and to cool
the pile. Northern European countries, in particular Denmark, Germany,
and The Netherlands have developed a particularly sound practice in their
system approach to composting of separate kitchen and yard waste, which
they call biowaste.; this practice entails the use of a modular in-vessel
composting system followed by a period of composting, either in aerated
static piles or active windrows. In either case, several months of curing
are needed prior to processing for market. The finished biowaste compost
can be used for agricultural, horticultural, and civil engineering
applications.
Health and Environmental impacts: The impacts due to composting
process include noise, odour, and ugliness (Garrod and Willis 1998). In
88 Municipal Solid Waste Management
There are three scales at which composting has been implemented: the
residential level, the decentralized community level, and the centralized
large-scale (municipality-wide) level; the larger the undertaking, the more
capital investment is required. Most developing countries have found
success with composting when implemented at the household level, with
some projects doing well at the community level as well. At the
municipal level, certainly overall cost and functionality are the primary
reasons for the success of a given process; the financial commitment
required as well as the effort required to maintain equipment
satisfactorily to keep a large scale operation running, has resulted in
widespread failures in India, Brazil, and elsewhere (Hoornweg, et al
1996). In developing countries, most of the city-based large mixed-waste
compost plants which are designed by outside consultants, have either
failed or operate at less than 30% of capacity. In many urban places,
unreliable collection systems contribute to the inefficient running of the
composting facilities. In India and China, small- and medium-scale
composting facilities operate successfully while many failures are
reported in other countries. Large cities - Bangkok, Hanoi, Shanghai, and
Tokyo - earlier installed imported mechanical composting plants; some of
them are now defunct and the remaining ones are not operating at full
capacity for various reasons. Two industrial composting plants operated
in Dakar (Senegal) and Abidjan (Ivory Coast) during the 1970s. These
were financially unproductive and beset by mechanical problems and had
to be closed. In the suburbs of South African cities, Durban,
Johannesburg, and Pretoria, there are community composting centers
where the garden waste dropped by residents is used. The compost is sold
for household gardens. In the suburbs of urban centers of Africa, NGOs,
community based organizations, and economic interest enterprises also
promote composting of MSW. These projects are generally highly labor-
intensive with a low capital investment. The compost produced is largely
for self consumption or for sale to households or hotels in the city. By
and large, compost systems fail or operate poorly for economic and
technical reasons. The economic reasons relate to (i) the ability to
secure waste and (ii) the need to market the compost that is produced. In
many parts of Asia, where there is a long tradition of successful
composting, the inexpensive disposal of waste in dumps or landfills does
not seem to obstruct composting. In most of Latin American and African
countries, efforts to setup composting have failed because sufficient
waste is not available. The technical failures relate to: (i) failure of the
mechanical systems that control waste streams (i.e., pre-processing), and
(ii) failure to create the right environment for the biological process to
occur successfully. Pre-processing methods based on manual separation
Composting 91
Since the organic fraction of the waste stream is high in most places in
South and West Asia, there is considerable interest in composting of
MSW in the region, and a long history of experiments with composting.
But, large-scale centralized composting (as distinct from neighborhood
composting) has had little success in this region. Centralized composting
refers to composting of animal and plant wastes transported from
multiple sources to a facility that can receive 10 to 200 tons per day. This
is also referred to as Municipal-scale composting plants. These operations
call for technical and environmental assistance, pre-processing system,
and marketing structure for the finished compost. Centralized regional
composting facilities generally have a capacity of more than 50 tons per
day, and as much as 1,000 tons per day. Centralized composting has not
been successful even in Latin America and the Caribbean, mostly due to
high operating costs; most of the municipalities are unable to subsidize.
For example, the plants installed in Brazil (Sao Polo city) and in Mexico
had to be closed.
Decentralized composting or small scale composting is done using the
wastes of a number of households, shops, or institutions, on unused land
or in parks. These sites usually process less than five tons of waste per
day and generally reduce the need for movement of compostable
materials. This can be extended to village or community scale where the
facility can handle about 2 to 50 tons/ day, depending on the size of the
community and the amount of compostables in the waste stream. Here,
more turning, processing, screening, and storage of the compost may be
required.
waste composting programmes in the US. Canada currently has over 160
composting projects throughout the country (UNEP). Since Backyard
composting and mulching is a source reduction activity that saves money
for both the municipality and the resident, many communities in North
America have developed programmes to encourage backyard
composting, by offering educational materials and by distributing
composting bins. A number of communities buy the bins in bulk and
distribute them free of charge or for a nominal fee. In Vancouver,
Canada, however, they charge $25 for the bin. The City of Seattle in US
funds a backyard composting education programme run by a local
organization of urban gardeners that trains volunteers to be proficient at
composting. Toronto operates a similar programme through the
Recycling Council of Ontario. In 1989, 5% of both Seattles and
Torontos total waste stream was composted by residents. Seattle has also
implemented a sophisticated multi-point composting programme that uses
a combination of curbside pickup, drop-off, and backyard composting
elements.
In North European countries, the collection of compostable materials
for transport to centralized composting facilities is vital. Collection of
compostable portion, referred to as bio-waste or green waste (garden
and kitchen organics) from households is generally performed using 120-
liter green rolling carts, and in some urban areas, using smaller, 35-liter
pails or paper bags. The bio waste is collected alternate weeks bringing
the cost and energy usage within acceptable budgetary and environmental
levels in many Northern European countries. Centralized composting has
a long tradition in Western Europe in particular, where some plants still
in operation. Most European compost installations are aerobic systems,
with the compost having a short residency time in a reactor or pre-
composter and a longer time in aerated static piles. Windrow composting
exists but is less common.
Centralized composting installations are designed to compost mixed-
waste. Pre-processing and separation machinery are included to remove
the non-compostable materials before mixing and composting and the
recovered non-compostable materials are sent for recycling. These plants
are under operation in Greece and Spain. Because the waste arrives at the
facility not only mixed but compacted, both compostable materials and
recyclables are exceedingly contaminated, requiring frequent
modifications. Two other approaches - Wet-dry approach and source-
separated collection of compostables approach to centralized
composting are also tried; the later one is favoured in Denmark,
Germany, The Netherlands and other European countries. The current
Composting 97
CHAPTER 6
6.1 Introduction
Recovering recyclable materials and reusing them in the original form or
recycling into new products is one of the economic benefits that the
community could derive from municipal solid waste. Waste processing
offers other benefits depending on the choice of technology. We have
seen that composting the biodegradable component of the municipal
waste provides a product which can be used for enriching the soil and/or
as a fertilizer. The most important benefit is to produce energy from
waste in the form of heat or electricity.
Municipal solid waste-to-energy plants can generate large amounts of
electricity and syngas, and are a great alternative to other waste disposal
methods as well as an alternative to fossil fuel usage which contribute to
global warming and pollution. Waste-to-energy is a clean technology, and
can be a vital component of the future of energy. This method of
disposing of MSW that is generated will become even more important as
the population around the world continues to rise, and even more energy
will be needed and more waste will be generated. Several Waste-to-
energy technologies are available which have potential to produce clean
energy (electricity). Specially designed power plants fitted with pollution
control equipment to clean unwanted emitted gases are in operation
globally. Among renewable energy sources, waste is all the more
attractive since its valorization enables both production of useful energy
98
Energy from Waste 99
Fig. 6.1 Pathways which waste can be converted to energy or energy related
products (source: The Australian Business Council for Sustainable Energy;
Taken from Wagner 2007)
100 Municipal Solid Waste Management
The energy recovery from waste not only depends on the chosen
pathway but critically on certain physical and chemical parameters of
waste.
The important physical parameters requiring consideration are:
(i) Size of constituents (smaller size of the constituents aids in faster
decomposition of the waste),
(ii) Density (wastes of the high density reflect a high proportion of
biodegradable organic matter and moisture whereas low density
wastes indicate a high proportion of paper, plastics and other
combustibles), and
(iii) Moisture content (high moisture content causes biodegradable
waste fractions to decompose more rapidly than in dry
conditions; also makes the waste rather unsuitable for thermal
conversion incineration, pyrolysis/gasification for energy
recovery because the waste must be supplied to remove
moisture).
The important chemical parameters to be considered for determining
the energy recovery potential and the suitability of waste treatment
through Bio chemical or Thermal conversion technologies include
(a) Volatile solids, (b) Fixed carbon content, (c) Inerts, (d) Calorific
value, (e) Carbon/Nitrogen ratio, and (f) toxicity.
The desirable range of values of these parameters has to be maintained
for technical viability of energy recovery through different treatment
methods.
power plants reduce the need for large landfill capacity because
disposal of ash requires less land area than does unprocessed MSW.
However, the ash and other residues from MSW treatment may
contain toxic materials; hence the power plant wastes must be tested
regularly to ensure that the wastes are safely disposed to prevent
toxic substances from getting into the ground and water supplies.
Hazardous ash must be disposed of as hazardous waste. Depending
on state and local restrictions, non-hazardous ash may be disposed
of in a MSW landfill or recycled for use in the laying of roads
and/or parking lots. It can also be used for daily covering for
sanitary landfills.
The environmental pollution control methods are briefly mentioned in
later pages.
Combustible Reaction
Carbon C + O2 = CO2
Hydrogen 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
Sulfur S + O2 = SO2
Carbon monoxide 2CO + O2 = 2CO2
Nitrogen N2 + O2 = 2NO
Nitrogen N2 + 2O2 = 2NO2
Nitrogen N2 + 3O2 = 2NO3
Chlorine 4Cl + 2H2O = 4HCl + O2
Fig. 6.2 shows the main operating zones and parameters of furnace-
boiler assembly. The major components of a mass burn facility are:
(a) waste receiving, handling and storage system; (b) the combustion and
108 Municipal Solid Waste Management
steam generation system (boiler); (c) a flue gas cleaning system; (d) the
power generation equipment (steam turbine and generator); (e) a
condenser cooling water system; and (f) a residue handling and storage
system. Mass burn combustion system includes a water wall furnace or
water-cooled rotary combustion furnace or controlled air furnace (Kumar
Sudhir 2000).
The combustion grate and the furnace is the critical part of a WTE
plant. The first task of the combustion system is (i) to ensure the
destruction of all the organic elements and pollutants contained in the
waste by providing the necessary high-temperature profiles through the
system as well as the required burn-out residence times, and (ii) to
minimise the entrained fly ash to prevent the formation of pollutants such
as dioxins and furans. For the plant to achieve the required levels of
performance, fully engineered integration of grate, furnace and boiler are
critical (CIWM 2003). The objective of a mechanical grate in a mass-
burn furnace is to convey the refuse from the point of feed through the
burning zone to the point of residue discharge with a proper depth of fuel
and sufficient retention time to achieve complete combustion. The refuse
bed should be agitated so as to enhance combustion. However, the
agitation should not be so distinct that particulate emissions are unduly
increased. The rate of movement of the grate or its parts should be
adjustable to meet varying conditions or needs in the furnace (Velzy and
Grillo 2007).
Several types of mechanical grates have been used in continuous feed
furnaces burning as-received (unprocessed) MSW. These include
reciprocating grates, rocking grates, roller grates, and water wall rotary
combustors for mass-burn units and traveling grates for RDF units. The
reciprocating grates, rocking grates, and roller grates agitate and move
the refuse material through the furnace by the movement of the grate
elements and the incline of the grate bed. Additional agitation is obtained,
particularly in the reciprocating grate, by drops in elevation between grate
sections. The furnace configuration is largely decided by the type of grate
used.
The most common grate technology developed by Martin GmbH,
Munich, Germany (Fig. 6.3) in the year 2000, has an annual installed
capacity of about 59 million metric tons, worldwide. A second very
popular mass burning technology is provided by Von Roll Inova Corp
(Switzerland) with an installed worldwide capacity of 32 million tons
(Themelis 2003). Both the Von Roll and the Martin grates use a
reciprocating motion to push the refuse material through the furnace.
Energy from Waste 109
However, in the Martin grate, the grate surface slopes steeply down from
the feed end of the furnace to the ash discharge end and the grate sections
push the refuse uphill against the flow of waste, causing a gentle
tumbling and agitation of the fuel bed (Velzy and Grillo 2007).
electricity plus kWh of heat recovered per tonne of MSW and as the
percentage of thermal energy input in the MSW feed, level of emissions
achieved, optimal resource recovery and beneficial use of WTE ash, the
aesthetic appearance of the facility, and the acceptance of the facility by
the host community (Psomopoulos et al 2009).
Substantial quantities of heat energy have to be recovered during the
thermal destruction of the combustible portions of MSW. Systems that
have been successfully used to recover this energy include (a) mass-fired
refractory combustion chambers followed by a convection boiler section;
(b) a mass-fired water wall unit where the water wall furnace enclosure
forms an integral part of the boiler system, and (c) an RDF
semisuspension-fired spreader-stoker/ boiler unit. Each system has
perceptible advantages as well as disadvantages (Velzy and Grillo 2007).
Dry Scrubbers: The particulate matter and gases from the air are
washed by passing them through a liquid. The scrubber removes acid
gases by injecting a lime slurry (a watery mixture) into a reaction tower
through which the gases flow. A dry powder containing salts is produced
and collected along with the fly ash in an electrostatic precipitator or in
filters, and discharged into the ash residue. The lime also causes small
particles to stick together, forming larger particles that are easier to
remove. Ash is stabilized by the addition of lime which enhances its
natural alkalinity.
Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP): They use high voltage to negatively
charge incoming dust particles, and then these charged particles are
collected on positively charged plates, ESPs. These are very commonly
used as WTE air pollution control devices. Nearly 43% of all existing
facilities use this method to control air pollution.
Fabric Filters (Bag houses): These consist of hundreds of long fabric
bags made of heat-resistant material suspended in an enclosed housing
which filters particles from the gas stream. Fabric filters are able to trap
fine, inhalable particles ( <10 microns) and can capture 99% of the
particulates in the gas flow coming out of the scrubber, including
condensed toxic organic and heavy metal compounds.
Stack Height: Stack height is a safety measure to ensure that any
remaining pollutants will not reach the ground in a concentrated area.
When the gases enter the stack they are quite clean due to the controls
explained above. Presently, Stacks built have a height of 200-300 feet
(60-90 m) or more, nearly twice as high as the stacks used on older
municipal incinerators. Stack heights should be determined by calculating
quantity of fuel used and considering local weather conditions. Standard
equations could be used for determining stack heights.
Dioxins and Furans: In recent years, Polychlorinated dibenzofurans
(PCDFs), commonly called dioxins and furans, are of serious concern due
their toxicity, carcinogeecity and possible mutagenicity. These
compounds are found in many foods including fish, poultry and eggs, and
occur in such common products as wood pulp and paper. About 75
different forms have been identified, of which five dioxins and seven
furans are considered to be most toxic. But these compounds can be
virtually eliminated by maintaining very high temperatures during the
combustion process. Also, a combination of scrubbers and fabric
filtration systems can remove up to 99 percent of these large molecules.
Activated carbon injection before the flue gas treatment has also proved
118 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Table 6.4 Commercial products and markets for acid gases recovered from
MSW incinerator flue gases
Acid gas Product Market
Road treatment (winter)
Secondary aluminium smelting
HCl NaCl
Animal hide treatment
Water softening
Road treatment (winter
A/C dessicant
HCl CaCl2 Soil stabilization
Lightweight concrete
Coal washing
Regeneration of cationic exchangers
Hydrochloric
HCl for boiler feedwater
acid
Electroplating
Building products
SO2 Gypsum
Blender in cement manufacture
(Source: CIWM 2003)
6.2.2 Pyrolysis
Thermal gasification and Pyrolysis are considered advanced thermal
technologies, however, they are yet to be utilised on a large scale like
incineration technologies. These processes involve the thermal
breakdown of solid materials into a synthetic gas or syngas, and in some
cases a solid char and/or liquid (oil). The process energy is provided in a
reactor. One advantage of these technologies is that the syngas can be
utilized both in boilers or low profile reciprocating engines for generating
clean electricity more efficiently compared to conventional incinerators.
Since net energy recovery and proper destruction of the waste are ensured
in these processes, they have an edge over incineration.
These two technologies are related and are established for
homogenous organic matter like wood, pulp, and so on. They are now
being offered as an option for disposal of MSW. Gasification and
pyrolysis have now reached thermal conversion efficiencies of up to
75%; however a complete combustion is superior in terms of fuel
conversion efficiency. Some pyrolysis processes need an outside heat
source which may be supplied by the gasification process, making the
combined process self sustaining.
130 Municipal Solid Waste Management
6.2.3 Gasification
Gasification, unlike pyrolysis, is the process of conversion of
carbonaceous materials (coal, petroleum, biofuel, biomass, or solid
waste) into a combustible gas in the presence of a controlled amount of
oxygen or air. The resulting combustible gas is called synthesis gas (or
syngas), and consists of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, carbon dioxide
and methane, hydrocarbon oils, char and ash. Syngas is itself a fuel.
Gasification is an endothermic thermal conversion technology for
extracting energy from different types of organic materials. The
emissions from a gasification plant include nitrogen oxides, sulphur
dioxide, particulate matter, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride,
ammonia, heavy metals, dioxins and furans.
The advantage of gasification is that using the syngas is potentially
more efficient (than direct combustion of the original fuel) because it can
be combusted at higher temperatures, so that the thermodynamic upper
limit to the efficiency defined by Carnot's rule is higher or not applicable.
Syngas may be burned directly in internal combustion engines (IC
engines) or used to produce methanol and hydrogen, or converted via the
Fischer-Tropsch process into synthetic fuel. Materials that are not
otherwise useful fuels, such as organic waste can be used in the
gasification.
132 Municipal Solid Waste Management
In addition to these major components, the fuel gas will also contain
trace contaminants such as particulates, acid gases and heavy metals.
These have the potential to cause operational problems in any
downstream energy conversion process (CIWM 2003).
The gasification process is not new; it was originally developed in the
1800s to produce town gas for lighting and cooking, and the first four-
stroke engine was run on producer gas in 1876. Electricity and natural gas
later replaced town gas for these applications, but the gasification process
has been utilized for the production of synthetic chemicals and fuels since
1920s. Wood gas generators, called Gasogene or Gazogne, were used to
power motor vehicles in Europe when there was fuel shortage during
World War II (Fig.6.10). The application to wastes, and in particular to
MSW or products derived from MSW is, however, relatively new and
still in the commercial demonstration stage.
are 9 kWe systems used for water pumping and street lighting operated
by the local panchayats. Despite their technical soundness, the systems
have to face financial and maintenance problems locally. Most of the
systems are not running after 1 to 3 years.
through a phase change (solid to liquid) and add to the volume of slag
with minimal energy recovery and increased cost for refining.
There are several plasma arc facilities working all over the world. For
example,
(a) PEAT International constructed a plasma arc waste disposal facility
at National Cheng Kung University (NCKU) in Tainan City,
Taiwan, which handles 35 metric tons of waste per day from a
variety of waste streams, including incinerator fly ash, medical
waste, organic industrial process waste and inorganic sludges. It can
also process waste consumer batteries and other materials, including
heavy metal sludges, and refinery catalysts (waste streams that
would generate valuable metal alloys). It has been in operation from
2005;
(b) Three similar small plants are in operation in Japan a 166-short-
ton (151,000 kg) per day "pilot" plant in Yoshii, co-developed by
Hitachi Metals Ltd. and Westinghouse Plasma, which was certified
after a demonstration period in 19992000; a 165-short-ton
(150,000 kg) per day plant in Utashinai City, completed in 2002;
and a 28-short-ton (25,000 kg) per day plant commissioned by the
twin cities of Mihama and Mikata in 2002;
(c) Advanced Plasma Power (APP) has developed Gas plasma, a
patented modular process, based on proven gasification and plasma
conversion technology which uses refuse-derived fuel feedstock to
produce a hydrogen rich syngas, energy (electric power) and
vitrified gravel called Plasmarok. APP which originally had a test
facility in Faringdon, Oxfordshire has moved to Swindon, Wiltshire,
in 2007 where they operate a scale pilot plant. The plant runs in a
building under a light vacuum and contains all odours. The entire
process occurs within the building. A full scale plant will treat
100,000 short tons (91,000 t) per annum of municipal waste and
produce (1) enough power for 10,000 homes, (2) enough heat for
around 700 homes, (3) over 99% landfill diversion of feedstock
with minimal residues and emissions, (4) increase recycling rates by
over 20%, (5) high performance, high-value aggregate glass
(trademark Plasmarok), (6) novel combination of three existing and
proven technologies (termed Gasplasma) and (7) negative carbon
Energy from Waste 139
Fig. 6.12 Startechs trash converter (Photo courtesy: Kevin Hand, Source:
Popular Science, The Prophet of Garbage, 2007)
6.3.1.1 Introduction
Organic waste such as cattle manure is treated using Anaerobic Digestion
(AD). The process is also called Biomethanation. It is a process
whereby wet residues, for instance waste from dairy industries or cattle
manure is broken down in a controlled oxygen-free environment, by
bacteria that naturally occur in the waste material. A gas called biogas is
produced. Biogas is a mixture of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide
(CO2). Hydrogen sulphide, water, and numerous trace gasses are also
present in smaller amounts. The biogas production ranges from
50-150 m3/tonne of wastes, depending upon the composition of waste.
The biogas can be utilised either for cooking/ heating applications, or
through dual fuel or gas engines or gas/steam turbines for generating
electricity. Depending on the nature of waste input and the system design,
biogas is typically 55 to 75% pure methane. State-of-the-systems
producing biogas with more than 95% methane are reported.
Biomethanation is a fast growing process and is being utilized in many
parts of the world.
The merits of the AD process are: (a) most of the materials that are
currently sent to landfill can be utilized, (b) natural methane emissions
are reduced, and (c) conventional generation with its associated carbon
emissions is removed. The residual digestate which is nutrient-rich can be
used as fertiliser reducing the need for chemical fertilisers.
Scientific interest in the production of biogas by the natural
decomposition of organic matter was first reported in the 17th century by
Robert Boyle and Stephen Hale, who noted that flammable gas was
released by disturbing the sediment of streams and lakes (Fergusen and
Mah 2006). In 1808, Sir Humphry Davy found that methane was present
in the gases produced by cattle manure (Cruazon 2007). The first
anaerobic digester was built in Bombay, India in 1859. Biogas Plants of
different designs and capacities have been installed in the rural India to
help farmers to generate biogas, a source of energy, and fertilizer using
the animal dung generated by their livestock. In 1895 the technology was
142 Municipal Solid Waste Management
6.3.1.2 Process
Anaerobic digestion is a complex process that involves interaction
between many different microorganisms, so-called consortia. Each
consortium lives optimally at a desirable set of chemical and physical
conditions.
A number of macro- and micronutrients are required in order to
facilitate the biological conversion and growth processes. Ten
macronutrients, namely, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur,
phosphorous, calcium, potassium, iron, and magnesium, should be
present in concentrations exceeding 104 M. Among important
micronutrients, nickel and cobalt should be present in concentrations
below 104 M (ProBiogas 2007).
The degradation processes can be divided into four major phases:
hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis.
Each of the four steps relies on certain microbial consortia to perform
the conversion processes. Some consortia are highly tolerant and can
utilise multiple substrates, while others are very sensitive towards
environmental changes. In addition, they are only capable of utilising a
single substrate. Hence, in order for the four degradation processes to be
in balance, the overall chemical environment in the biogas reactor has to
satisfy the needs of all consortia all the time.
1. The digestion process starts with bacterial hydrolysis of the feed
stock (plant and animal matter). In this phase, hydrolytic and
fermentative microorganisms excrete hydrolytic enzymes that convert
biopolymers (the insoluble organic polymers) such as carbohydrates
into soluble compounds, to make them available for other bacteria.
Energy from Waste 143
between the bacteria and their food. This enables the bacteria to
more readily access the substances they are feeding off and
increases the speed of gas yields.
A large number of systems presently available worldwide for
digestion of solid wastes are for low (< 10%) or medium (10-16%)
solid concentrations. Some of these systems, when applied to MSW
or market waste, require the use of water, sewage sludge or manure.
(iv) Single stage and multistage systems: Digestion systems can be
configured with single-stage or multistage. In a single-stage
digestion system, all of the biological reactions occur within a
single sealed reactor or holding tank. Utilising a single stage
reduces construction costs; however, it facilitates less control of the
reactions occurring within the system. Acidogenic bacteria, through
the production of acids, reduce the pH of the tank. Since
methanogenic bacteria operate in a strictly defined pH range, the
biological reactions of the different species in a single stage reactor
can be in direct competition with each other.
Another one-stage reaction system is an anaerobic lagoon. These are
earthen basins, pond-shape, used for the treatment and long-term storage
of manures. Here the anaerobic reactions are contained within the natural
anaerobic sludge contained in the pool.
In a two-stage or multi-stage digestion system, different digestion
vessels are optimised to get maximum control over the bacterial groups
existing within the digesters. Hydrolysis, acetogenesis and acidogenesis
typically occur within the first reaction vessel. The organic material is
then heated to the required operational temperature (either mesophilic or
thermophilic) before pumping into a methanogenic reactor. The initial
hydrolysis or acidogenesis tanks prior to the methanogenic reactor can
provide a buffer to the rate at which feedstock is added. If an amount of
higher heat treatment to kill harmful bacteria in the input waste is
required, there may be a pasteurisation or sterilisation stage prior to
digestion or between the two digestion tanks. It is not possible to
completely isolate the different reaction phases. There is often some
biogas that is produced in the hydrolysis or acidogenesis tanks.
The residence time in a digester varies with the quantity and type of feed
material, and the configuration of the digestion system, whether one-stage
or two-stage. In the case of single-stage thermophilic digestion, residence
times may be around 14 days, which is relatively fast compared to
mesophilic digestion. The plug-flow nature of some of these systems will
Energy from Waste 149
mean that the full degradation of the material may not have been realised
in this timescale. In such an event digestate will be darker in colour and
will typically have more odour.
In two-stage mesophilic digestion, residence time may vary between
15 and 40 days. Continuous digesters have mechanical or hydraulic
devices, depending on the level of solids in the material, to mix the
contents enabling the bacteria and the food to be in contact. They also
allow excess material to be constantly extracted to maintain a reasonably
constant volume within the digestion tanks. At the end, three principal
products biogas, digestate and water - result in anaerobic digestion.
However, requirement of two reactors and more process controls may
lead to higher capital costs and system complications.
loads; when idle, gas turbines consume roughly the same amount of fuel
as when generating power. Additionally, the gas must be compressed
prior to use in the turbine.
Steam turbines can be used for power generation where extremely
large gas flows are available.
Biogas does not contribute to atmospheric CO2 concentrations because
the gas is not released directly into the atmosphere.
Digestate: The solid residue of the original input material to the digesters
that the microbes cannot use is referred to as digestate. It also consists
of the mineralised remains of the dead bacteria from within the digesters.
Digestate can come in three forms; fibrous, liquor or a sludge-based
combination of the two fractions. In two-stage systems the different
forms of digestate come from different digestion tanks. In single stage
digestion systems the two fractions will be combined and if necessary,
separated by further processing.
The second by-product (acidogenic digestate) is a stable organic
material comprised largely of lignin and cellulose, but also of a variety of
mineral components in a matrix of dead bacterial cells. Some plastic may
also be present. The material resembles domestic compost and can be
used as compost or to make low grade building products such as
fibreboard.
The third by-product is a liquid (methanogenic digestate) that is rich
in nutrients and can be used as a fertiliser depending on the quality of the
material being digested. In industrial waste, the levels of potentially toxic
elements (PTEs) may be higher which needs to be considered when
deciding a suitable end use for the material.
Wastewater: The final output from anaerobic digestion systems is water.
This water originates both from the moisture content of the original waste
that was treated, and water produced during the microbial reactions in the
digestion systems. This water may be released from the dewatering of the
digestate or may be implicitly separated from the digestate.
This wastewater will typically have high levels of biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) which indicate an
ability to pollute. Some of this material is termed 'hard COD', i.e., it
cannot be accessed by the anaerobic bacteria for conversion into biogas.
If this effluent is released into watercourses it would negatively affect
them by causing eutrophication. As such further treatment of the
wastewater is often required. This treatment will typically be an oxidation
152 Municipal Solid Waste Management
stage where air is passed through the water in a sequencing batch reactors
or reverse osmosis unit.
6.3.1.7 Applications
Anaerobic digestion is particularly suited to wet organic material and is
commonly used for effluent and sewage treatment. Almost any bio
degradable waste materials such as waste paper, grass clippings, food
waste, sewage and animal waste can be processed with anaerobic
digestion. Woody wastes are largely unaffected by digestion as most
anaerobes are unable to degrade lignin. Anaerobic digesters can also be
fed with specially grown energy crops such as silage for dedicated biogas
production.
In developed countries, the application of anaerobic digestion has
increased among Solid waste disposal methods, as a process for reducing
waste volumes and generating useful by-products.
Anaerobic digestion may either be used to process the source
separated fraction of municipal waste, or alternatively combined with
mechanical sorting systems, to process residual mixed municipal waste.
These facilities are called mechanical biological treatment plants,
described later in this book.
Utilising anaerobic digestion technologies can help to reduce the
emission of greenhouse gases in a number of ways: (a) replacement of
fossil fuels, (b) reducing methane emission from landfills, (c) replacing
industrially-produced chemical fertilizers, (d) reducing vehicle
movements, and (e) reducing electrical grid transportation losses.
Digestate (residue) can be used as a fertilizer providing vital nutrients
to soils. The solid, fibrous component of digestate can be used as a soil
conditioner. The sludge can be used as a substitute for chemical fertilizers
which are not only carbon-intensive but require large amounts of energy
to produce and transport. This solid digestate can be used to boost the
organic content of soils. In countries, such as Spain, where there are
many depleted soils, the markets for the digestate are high like the
biogas..
In countries that collect household waste, the utilization of local
anaerobic digestion facilities can help to reduce the amount of waste that
requires transportation to centralized landfill sites or incineration
facilities. If localized anaerobic digestion facilities are integrated into an
Energy from Waste 155
electrical distribution network, they can help reduce the electrical losses
that are associated with transmitting electricity over a national grid.
ktoe in the UK, and 353 ktoe in the third ranked country, Italy). One ktoe
is kiloton oil equivalent. In the UK, the biogas is directly recovered from
landfills. According to Cardiff University Waste Research Station,
anaerobic digestion has not taken off as a waste treatment and disposal
option in the UK mainly due to the lack of market for the produced soil
conditioner. In Germany, biogas production is mainly due to electricity
production from small agricultural methanisation units operating in
combined power and heat production. Six hundred such units were
installed in 2005 and 800 in 2006 to reach a total 3500 by the end of
2006.
Biogas from sewage is also used to run a gas engine to produce
electricity which can be used to power the sewage works. Some waste
heat from the engine, generally enough to heat the digester to the required
temperatures, is then used to heat the digester. The Anaerobic Lagoon at
the Cal Poly, SLO Dairy in USA is shown in Fig.6.13. The biogas from
this facility is used to fire a 25-kW power plant.
Fig. 6.13 Anaerobic lagoon and generators at the Cal Poly Dairy, USA 2003;
25 kW Power plant is fired using the biogas
(photo by Kjkolb, From Wikipedia, Free encyclopedia)
Centralised co-digestion of manure and suitable organic wastes is
today a mature technology, economically sustainable and a cost efficient
tool for reducing the emissions of green house gases and environmental
improvement. The technology provides economic and environmental
benefits by renewable electricity and heat production, improved manure
management and increased waste recycling. It reduces the nutrient losses
to water systems, the emissions of methane and nitrous oxide, the odours
and flies nuisance from manure storage and application, and increases the
veterinary safety by sanitation. The experience from Denmark proves that
Energy from Waste 157
intensive and the product was poor. A major problem with anaerobic
digestion is that MSW used as feedstock tends to float. A number of
design changes have to be achieved to produce small-scale digesters.
Despite several advantages that the systems offer to farmers, a biogas
plant never meets the owner's need for status and recognition, and biogas
technology unfortunately has a poor image!
6.3.3 Fermentation
This is a WTE technology which creates ethanol from biomass, using
waste cellulosic or organic material. In the fermentation process, the
sugar in the waste is changed to carbon dioxide and alcohol, as in the case
of general process used to make wine. Normally fermentation occurs in
the absence of air. A research group at Centurymarc has discovered that
the cellulose materials can be processed to create a highly efficient clean
burning fuel very similar to e-85 Ethanol. This process can convert one
ton of waste into ethanol in 24 hours, about 7 times faster than the current
methods of producing ethanol from corn. The process is not only faster
and more efficient but is also considered to be much less harmful to the
environment than ethanol derived from corn. According to Argonne
National Laboratory (USA), cellulose based ethanol emits 80 percent less
emissions into the atmosphere than standard gasoline, where as corn
based ethanol emits only 20 to 30 percent less than gasoline. Also
cellulose based ethanol does not require fossil fuels when being distilled,
which further lowers the amount of greenhouse gas emissions. The reader
may refer to literature for more details.
The other drawbacks are (a) the process is energy intensive and
(b) recovery of glycerol is difficult because of formation of soap when the
product was washed to remove alkaline catalyst (Wan Omar et al., 2009).
Therefore, a two-step process is followed. The first step is the pre-
treatment esterification which is an acid catalyzed conversion of free
fatty acids to esters using methanol. This reaction (shown below) would
decrease the free fatty acid content of the oil to the desired level. This
reaction, however, produces water which needs to be removed to prevent
saponification.
acid
Free fatty acid + alcohol ester + water
catalyst
The pre-treatment step has converted free fatty acids into esters. What
is generally done to make the process cost-effective and time efficient is
as follows (Canaki and Gerpen 2006): The acid catalyst and the methanol
are added, allowed reacting and then settling. The methanol/ water
mixture can then be removed. Again, add more acid catalyst and
methanol, allow reacting and then settling. The methanol/ water mixture
is then removed, and the transesterification step is performed. It is highly
desirable to carry out this reaction in at least two stages as the addition of
water to the transesterification reaction causes the reaction to slow down.
It is essential to ensure that there is no water present to avoid gels and
emulsions forming with biodiesel. Although the esterification reaction in
pre-treatment step changed the FFAs in waste oils into corresponding
Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME) or known as biodiesel, un-converted
FFAs and triglycerides still remained in the pre-treated oil. Consequently,
transesterification reaction with alkali was performed to complete the
reaction (second step).
The second step is transesterification of the pretreated product by using
alkali catalyst. i.e, after the pretreatment, sodium hydroxide (catalyst) and
methanol are added and the transesterification reaction begins. After
several hours, biodiesel is formed along with glycerol. The next step is
glycerol separation. A successful transesterification reaction is signified by
the separation of the ester and glycerol layers. The heavier co-product,
glycerol, settles out and may be sold as it is. Or it may be purified for use in
other industries, e.g. the pharmaceutical, cosmetics, etc.
Then, methanol is distilled from biodiesel and glycerol phases.
Finally, biodiesel is washed with warm water to remove any excess
Energy from Waste 165
catalyst or soap from it. The biodiesel is then stored or used (Beth Knight
et al 2006).
This two-step catalystic biodiesel production was also carried out
using ferric sulphate as solid acid and calcium oxide (CaO) as solid
base. In this study, relationships between reaction temperature, reaction
time, and molar ratio of methanol to oil, and the optimum conditions in
the pre-treatment step are investigated. This study concludes that
optimum condition for pre-treatment step is estimated to be 3 hours for
reaction time, 600C for reaction temperature, and 7:1 for molar ratio of
methanol to oil to produce maximum total FAME (biodiesel) yield of
81.3% (Wan Omar et al 2009). Several studies have been undertaken for
the production of biodiesel from waste cooking oil (e.g, Prafulla Patil
et al., 2010; Wang et al 2010; Saifuddin et al., 2009).
The process flow diagram proposed for the production of biodiesel
from waste vegetable oil at Oregon State University is shown (Beth
Knight et al 2006).
The cost effectiveness of esterification will depend on the feedstock
being used, and the other relevant factors such as transportation distance,
amount of oil present in the feedstock and others.
The economic analysis of all types of options has shown that the alkali
catalyzed reaction minimizes capital cost and will provide a comparable
biodiesel product to one produced from virgin vegetable oil (Beth Knight
et al 2006). It is the most economical process.
Enzymatic approach: This approach is considered to be costly. But, from
the technology point of view, the main advantage of the enzymatic
approach is that the reaction can be performed in mild conditions, and can
handle both transesterification and esterification simultaneously. Initially,
applications of the enzymatic approach did not make use of an inert
solvent. As such, the reaction time was deemed too long and the
biocatalyst was eventually deactivated by glycerol or water. Only a batch
operation was possible and the overall operating cost was determined to
be high. Even then, product quality is unpredictable as the immobilized
lipase deactivates after several runs. Sunho Corporation has developed
Biodiesels Enzymatic Transesterification Process (ET Process) which
makes use of an inert solvent that protects the lipase so that it can have a
long lifespan. The reaction can be done at ambient temperature and
pressure in a continuous, integrated process. Since there is no water
washing involved after the reaction, biodiesel and glycerol can be
recovered with high purity. The reaction time is also reduced to less than
30 minutes, hence allowing for better time and cost efficiency (Sunho
Corp. 2010).
166 Energy from Municipal Waste
Biodiesel
Washing Unit
Proposed process flow diagram for the production of biodiesel from waste vegetable oils (source: Beth Knight 2006).
167 Energy from Municipal Waste
A typical Lagon and Vista group Solid and Liquid Waste management
Technology Demonstration of EcoSolutions Manila is schematically
presented. Fig.6.16 is self explanatory. The system is conveyor-linked
and facilitates manual and automated sorting of waste. It also processes
biodegradable wastes through a biodigester and treats the wastewater for
continued water reuse within the system. Although the technology claims
that the operations could be carried out without the use of dumping
areas, it is clear that since the system lacks any provision for recycling
residual wastes, final disposal in a landfill would still be required.
Although the whole system attempts to pursue an integrated approach
to waste management, it tends to complicate (in a very costly way) the
simple task of waste segregation which in fact should be carried out in the
household level. It would be much better leaving the recovery of
recyclables at the household level and managing only biodegradable
wastes by having the biodigester, thus saving costs of conveyer belt
system.
Another serious concern is the consumption of more time for the
process to complete. The use of conveyors could be optimized and
rendered cost-efficient only in large scale applications where the garbage
is transported to longer distances, allowing more labourers to sort the
waste at a faster rate, thereby increasing the system's overall processing
capacity.
Table Contd.
174 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Landfilling
7.1 Introduction
Landfills are the ultimate storage area of a city's MSW after all other
MSWM options have been exercised. In many cases, especially in
developing countries, the landfill is the only MSWM option available and
practiced. The safe and effective operation of landfills depends on sound
planning, administration, and management of the total MSWM system.
Landfills are one of the ways of treating solid waste by burying after
separating recyclable materials from the collected waste. Landfills range
in nature, from uncontrolled open dumps to controlled open dumps to
sanitary landfills. Uncontrolled open dumps are primitive and not a
sound practice, but controlled dumps and sanitary landfills can
provide effective disposal of a city's MSW in accordance with
appropriate local health and environmental guidelines/ standards. Fig.7.1
shows the disposal methods of municipal solid waste practiced before
2000 in some South Asian countries (Visvanathan and Glowe 2006). It is
clear that open dumping has been the predominant practice for long in
these countries, and controlled landfills is a recent concept. Same is the
case in most of the developing countries, especially poor economies, in
Africa and Latin America. These are further discussed under Landfills in
Developing countries.
175
176 Municipal Solid Waste Management
(a liquid with contaminants) which percolates into the soil. The leachate
eventually contaminates the surface and groundwater. For instance, in
India, leachates of around 14.9 106 m3/ year may be generated from
degradable organic matters from open dumping/unlined landfills
(Kumar et al., 2001).
(c) Storm water drainage system: It collects rain water that falls on
the landfill. It is essential to keep rain water out of landfill and
keep it as dry as possible to reduce the amount of leachate
production. To exclude liquids from the solid waste, the waste
must be tested for liquids before entering the landfill. This is done
by passing samples of the waste through standard paint filters. If
no liquid comes through the sample after 10 minutes, then the
waste is accepted into the landfill. Plastic drainage pipes and
storm liners collect water from areas of the landfill and channel it
to drainage ditches situated around the landfill's base. The ditches
are either concrete or gravel-lined and carry water to collection
ponds to the side of the landfill. In the collection ponds,
suspended soil particles are allowed to settle and the water is
tested for leachate chemicals. After the water has passed tests, it
is pumped or allowed to flow off-site.
(d) Leachate collection system: There is no perfect system to keep
out water from getting into the landfill. The water percolates
through the cells and soil in the landfill and as the water
percolates through the garbage, it picks up contaminants such as
organic and inorganic chemicals, metals, biological waste
products of decomposition. This liquid called leachate is typically
acidic. Perforated pipes are run throughout the landfill to collect
and drain leachate into a leachate pipe, which carries the liquid to
a leachate collection pond. Leachate is either pumped or flow by
gravity to the collection pond. The leachate in the pond is tested
for acceptable levels of various chemicals (biological and
chemical oxygen demands, organic chemicals, pH, calcium,
Landfilling 181
7.5 Benefits
The closed landfills have been used for different purposes. They include
industrial parks, airport runways, recreational parks, ski slopes, ball
fields, golf courses, playgrounds, and many others. When the bearing
capacity of the landfill surface is found to be adequate, buildings can also
be erected. Presently, the landfills are not considered as garbage dumps;
scientific methods are developed to engineer the establishment, maintain,
close, and re-use of the area for benefit of the community.
recovery wells, gas collection lines, and a gas burner. Both active and
passive systems have monitoring devices to prevent explosions or fires.
The technical feasibility of recovering methane gas depends on several
factors, the most important being the composition of the MSW. The
production of methane gas depends on a relatively high percentage of
organic MSW as well as proper nutrients, bacteria, pH, and high
moisture content. The size of the landfill must be large enough and
contain enough MSW to produce economically recoverable quantities of
methane. Generally, landfills having capacity of at least one million tons
should produce enough methane to support recovery operations. The age
of the landfill is also important because it can take anywhere from several
months to a few years after the disposal of MSW before sufficient
methane is produced.
Early methane production can be enhanced by using uncompacted
waste as the first layer of a landfill, thus allowing it to compost more
quickly. The engineering aspects of a landfill may also increase the
quantity of methane gas that can be recovered.
Landfill liners help keep methane from escaping from the landfill and
help maintain the anaerobic conditions necessary for methane production.
Similarly, a daily cover that keeps methane from escaping and also
avoiding the introduction of air into the landfill can increase the rate of
methane production. However, landfills that do not have engineered
liners or covers, and landfills sited in porous soils can still produce
significant quantities of methane.
In practice, not all landfill gas generated in the landfill can be
collected; some of it will escape through the cover of even the most
tightly constructed and collection system. Newer systems may be more
efficient than the average system in operation. A reasonable assumption
for the gas collection efficiency for a properly planned gas collection
system is 70-85%.
Landfill gas has a calorific value of around 4500 Kilo calories per m3.
It can be used as a good source of energy, either for direct thermal
applications or for power generation. There are three primary approaches
to using the landfill gas as in the case of biogas: (a) direct use of the gas
locally (either on-site or nearby); (b) generation of electricity and
distribution through the power grid; and (c) injection into a gas
distribution grid, if available.
186 Municipal Solid Waste Management
7.9 An Example
North Wake County Landfill in Raleigh, North Carolina, USA, which has
both a sanitary landfill (closed in 1997) and a working MSW landfill, is
located on about 230 acres of land, but only 70 acres is dedicated to the
actual landfill. The remaining land is for the support areas (runoff
collection ponds, leachate collection ponds, drop-off stations, areas for
borrowing soil and 50-100 foot buffer areas. The cost of its construction
188 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Fig. 7.4 The cross-section drawing shows the structure of a municipal solid
waste landfill. The arrows indicate the flow of leachate
A bulldozer prepares
Landfilling 189
A leachate collection pond catches the contaminants that can get into water that
goes through the trash in a landfill
Grass and other plants cover the municipal solid waste landfill.
Landfilling 191
Table Contd
192 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Open dumps have the lowest initial capital investment and operating
costs. That is why; these sites are most common in developing countries
especially in Africa and in some parts of Asia. Frequently, municipalities
dump wastes in low-lying land, rather than at designated dump sites,
literally as landfill; for this reason the site in these cases is not permitted
to rise above ground, as it is designated for development. Private
landowners who wish to have depressions filled accept municipal wastes.
Filling of wetlands with wastes has been important, as witnessed in the
land development of Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai, and Colombo.
Sometimes, wastes are illegally dumped in water bodies of all kinds,
especially by settlements that are denied the facility of municipal waste
collection, polluting the water bodies.
The practice of open dumping is a problem for the poorer and smaller
cities and towns of developing countries. For example, most of the
Central America except for Costa Rica, the Guyanas, and most Caribbean
countries, and all non-capital cities in Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru, and
many medium-sized cities with the exception of those in Chile, Cuba,
Trinidad and Tobago, and Colombia dispose waste in open-air dumps,
posing significant environmental health to waste pickers who enter freely.
Since most large dumps have hundreds of extra workers in the form of
waste pickers, and the municipal workers are not being provided with
protective stuff, the health risks at dumps are very high. These workers
are exposed to risks from human feces, slaughterhouse wastes, toxic dust,
Landfilling 193
and Panama all have manual landfills. Manual landfills are often the best
option for small cities and towns. Those involved in manual landfills in
Colombia believe that, in general, the maximum that such facilities can
reasonably handle is 20 tons/ day.
Landfilling is one of the most widely used methods of disposal for
E-waste and requires special attention. It is highly prone to hazards
because of leachate which often contaminates water resources.
Uncontrolled dumps and older landfill sites pose a much greater danger
of releasing hazardous emissions. Mercury, lead and cadmium are the
most toxic leachates. Mercury will leach when certain electronic devices
such as circuit breakers are destroyed. Lead leaches from the broken cone
glass of cathode ray tubes from TVs and monitors which contain lead.
When brominated flame retarded plastics or plastics containing cadmium
are landfilled, both PBDE and cadmium may leach into soil and ground
water. Landfills are also prone to uncontrolled fires which can release
toxins.
Landfills can be a part of an integrated system for the management of
MSW in developing countries. If carefully designed and well managed
within the framework of the local infrastructure and available resources,
landfills can provide safe and cost-effective disposal of a city's MSW.
But they are not designed for the routine disposal of industrial or
hazardous waste, used oil, or other special wastes. If they are pressed
beyond their design limits, the landfill degrades into a potentially toxic
open dump and results in adverse consequences for human health and the
environment.
An integrated MSWM system may prioritize its waste management
options according to waste minimization, materials recovery/ recycling,
composting, incineration, and landfilling. Incineration is a sound practice
only under particular conditions. But it is not generally used in MSWM
systems due to high capital and technical resources required. The other
components of the integrated approach can improve landfill operations
and extend the life of the facility.
The benefits of Waste minimization or source reduction, materials
recovery and recycling, composting process are already explained. It is
more cost-effective to perform these operations close to the site of waste
generation. This reduces the cost of transporting the materials to the
landfill and minimizes the difficulty of separating mixed wastes at the
landfill.
Landfilling 197
CHAPTER 8
8.1 Introduction
Traditionally, agriculture and livestock rearing and related activities have
been the main livelihood of most of the Indian people. Still India is an
agriculture-oriented country a rural India despite rapid growth of wide
range of industrial activity in the last half-a-century. India has been
witnessing two developments in the recent decades: a desirable
development such as fast economic growth through rapid
industrialization, and an undesirable development such as population
explosion. These have led to unplanned and rapid urban growth and
extensive slums. Though increasing urbanization in India is a part of the
global trend with 27.8 percent of Indias population (285 million) of the
total 1027 million living in urban areas (as per the 2001 census). The
number of towns and cities have increased to 4378 of which 393 are
Class-I towns, 401 are Class-II towns, 1,151 are Class-III towns and
remaining are classified as small towns with populations ranging between
20,000 to less than 5000. The number of metropolitan cities having
million plus population has increased to 35 as per 2001 census. This
growth has seen growing public concern with exponential increase in
sanitation and environmental concerns (WB- Hanrahan, D 2006).
Sanitation and environment issues are clearly the contributors to basic
health conditions in urban areas but MSWM has a lower priority than
water supply and sanitation.
199
200 Municipal Solid Waste Management
The subject of public health has assumed prominance in the last one to
two decades due to population explosion in municipal areas, growing
public awareness towards cleanliness and proper sanitation, and
emergence of newer technologies (Kumar et al., 2004). Some of the
important developments that took place in India are the following:
1. The Bajaj Committee was appointed in 1994 to draw up a long
term policy to be adopted, and made several recommendations in
all elements of SWM. The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
and the Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering
Organization (CPHEEO) of GOI jointly organized a national
workshop in April 1995 which emphasised the necessity to
improve the SWM as a priority.
2. In 1998, a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) was filed in the Supreme
Court of India seeking a direction to the central and state
governments, and the local bodies to improve the MSWM
practices. This has led to Barman Committee Report that reviewed
all aspects of MSWM and authorized the governments to exercise
powers under the Environmental Protection Act, 1986.
3. The Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) published a Manual
on Municipal Solid Waste Management for the civic bodies and
user agencies for proper implementation of rules and management
of solid wastes (CPHEEO, 2000).
4. The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) released the
Municipal Solid Waste Rules in 2000, and identified the Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB) as the agency to monitor the
implementation of these rules. These Rules were mandatory and
the municipalities were required to submit annual reports to CPCB
on the progress of SWM practices (CPCB, 2000).
These aspects are discussed further in the later pages.
Though many cities do not have reliable data on the allocated budget
for MSW management, the budget is generally paltry because of low
priority given to it among the civic activities. Based on the secondary
data on the budget allocation provided by civic agencies, one could see
that most of the bigger cities spend 5 to 10% of their total budget on
MSW management (NEERI 2005). The activity is mostly labour
intensive, and most of the budget is spent on the wages of sanitation
workers, supervisors and higher ups. Improving the working atmosphere
and the efficiency of the workers by providing proper training, equipment
and gadgets receive little attention.
MSW Management in India 203
Regarding the waste characteristics, the study has found the following:
The compostable organic and recyclable fractions were observed to be
higher in some cities probably due to higher standard of living.
(a) For cities having population < 0.1 million and between 0.110.5
million (19 cities), the characteristics are C/N ratio = 18 to 37; the
208 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Table 8.1 Waste generations in Class 1 Cities with Population above 100,000
Rubber,
Population No. of Total
leather Inert
range (in cities Paper Glass Metal compostable
and material
millions) surveyed matter
synthesis
0.1 to 0.5 12 2.91 0.78 0.56 0.33 44.57 43.59
0.5 to 1.0 15 2.95 0.73 0.56 0.32 40.04 48.38
1.0 to 2.0 9 4.71 0.71 0.46 0.49 38.95 44.73
2.0 to 5.0 3 3.18 0.48 0.48 0.9 56.67 40.07
> 5.0 5 6.43 0.28 0.94 0.80 30.84 53.90
Note: All values are in per cent calculated on wet weight basis. Source: NEERI (1995)
210 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Calorific
Population range Nitrogen as Phosphorus Potassium C/N
value
(in millions) total nitrogen as P2O5 as K2O Ratio
kcal/kg
0.1 to 0.5 0.71 0.63 0.83 30.94 1009.89
0.5 to 1.0 0.66 0.56 0.69 21.13 900.61
1.0 to 2.0 0.64 0.82 0.72 23.95 980.05
2.0 to 5.0 0.56 0.69 0.78 22.45 907.18
5.0 and above 0.56 0.52 0.52 30.11 800.70
Table 8.4 Physical Composition of Municipal Solid Waste in 1 million plus Cities and State Capitals in India (average values)
Ranchi 51.49 3.17 6.48 1.79 1.45 25.92 1.45 4.97 2.74 3.19 0.38 100
Bhubaneshwar 49.81 5.74 5.70 0.46 0.79 27.15 2.10 3.21 2.85 2.20 0.00 100
Ahmedabad 40.81 5.28 5.29 0.79 0.30 39.28 0.92 5.00 1.22 1.02 010 100
Nashik 39.52 9.69 12.58 1.30 1.54 27.12 1.11 2.53 0.34 4.12 0.15 100
Raipur 51.40 8.31 7.07 0.76 0.16 16.97 1.47 3.90 1.43 6.44 0.08 100
Asansol 50.33 10.66 2.78 0.77 0.00 25.49 0.48 3.05 3.00 2.49 0.95 100
Bangalore 51.84 11.58 9.72 0.78 0.35 17.34 1.14 2.29 2.67 2.28 0.01 100
Agartala 58.57 8.11 4.43 0.98 0.16 20.57 0.76 2.17 0.00 2.56 1.69 100
Agra 46.38 6.12 8.72 0.85 0.11 30.07 1.97 3.92 1.68 0.19 0.00 100
Allahabad 35.49 7.27 10.33 1.23 0.40 31.01 1.83 7.34 2.08 2.74 0.30 100
Damam 29.60 10.54 8.92 2.15 0.410 34.80 2.60 4.90 4.60 4.48 - 100
212 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Vishakapatanam 45.96 14.46 9.24 0.35 0.15 20.77 0.47 2.41 0.68 5.51 - 100
Dehradun 51.37 9.56 8.58 1.40 0.03 22.89 0.23 5.60 0.32 - - 100
Ludhiana 49.80 9.65 8.27 1.03 0.37 17.57 1.01 11.50 0.80 0.00 - 100
Guwahati 53.69 11.60 10.01 1.30 0.31 17.66 0.16 2.18 1.39 1.38 0.26 100
Kohima 57.48 12.28 6.80 2.32 1.26 15.97 0.18 1.86 1.70 0.00 0.35 100
Note: Increasing use of plastics is changing the composition of municipal solid waste and causing harm in the processing of waste. The use of
plastics has increased 70 times between 1960 and 1995. Source: CPCB (2000)
213 Energy from Municipal Waste
Table 8.5 Chemical Characteristics of Municipal Solid Waste (Average Values) of 1 million plus Cities and State Capitals
Name of the Volatile C per N per P per cent K per cent Hev
Mositure pH Range C/N ratio
city matter cent cent as P2O5 as K2O Kcal/kg
Indore 30.87 6.379.73 38.02 21.99 0.82 0.31 0.71 29.30 1436.75
Bhopal 42.66 6.999.03 35.78 23.53 0.94 0.66 0.51 21.58 1421.32
Dhanbad 50.28 7.118.01 16.52 9.08 0.54 0.55 0.44 18.22 590.56
Jabalpur 34.56 5-8410.94 46.60 25.17 0.96 0.60 1.04 27.28 2051
Jamshedpur 47.61 6.20 8.26 24.23 13.29 0.69 0.54 0.51 19.29 1008.84
Patna 35.95 7.428.62 24.72 14.32 0.77 77 0.64 19.39 818.82
Ranchi 48.69 6.968.02 29.70 17.20 0.85 0.61 0.79 20.37 1059.59
213
Bhubaneshwar 59.26 6.417.62 25.84 15.02 0.73 0.64 0.67 20.66 741.56
Ahmedabad 32 6.28.0 63.80 37.02 1.18 0.67 0.42 34.61 1180
Nashik 74.64 5.27.0 59 34.22 0.92 0.49 - 38.17 3086.51
Raipur 29.49 6.657.99 32.15 18.64 0.82 0.67 0.72 23.50 1273.17
Asansol 54.48 6.448.22 17.73 10.07 0.79 0.76 0.54 14.08 1156.07
Bangalore 54.95 6.07.7 48.28 27.98 0.80 0.54 1.00 35.12 2385.96
Agartala 60.06 5.217.65 49.52 28.82 9.96 0.53 0.77 30.02 2427
Agra 28.33 6.218.1 18.90 10.96 0.52 0.60 0.57 21.56 519.82
Allahabad 18.40 7.13 29.51 17.12 0.88 0.73 0.70 19.00 1180.12
214 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Name of the Volatile C per N per P per cent K per cent Hev
Mositure pH Range C/N ratio
city matter cent cent as P2O5 as K2O Kcal/kg
Damam 52.78 5.886.61 52.99 30.74 1.38 0.47 0.6 22.34 2588
Faridabad 34.02 6.338.25 25.72 14.92 0.80 0.62 0.66 18.58 1319.02
Lucknow 59.87 4.89.18 34.04 20.32 0.93 0.65 0.79 21.41 1556.78
Meerut 32.48 6.167.95 26.67 15.47 0.79 0.80 1.02 19.24 1088.65
214
Nagpur 40.55 4.917.80 57.10 33.12 1.24 0.71 1.46 26.37 2632.23
Vadodara 24.98 - 34.96 20.28 0.60 0.71 0.38 40.34 1780.51
Gandhinagar 23.69 7.02 44 25.5 0.79 0.62 0.39 36.05 698.02
Vishakapatanam 52.70 7.58.7 64.4 37.3 0.97 0.66 1.10 41.70 1602.09
Dehradun 79.36 6.127.24 39.81 23.08 1.24 0.91 3.64 25.90 2445.47
Ludhiana 64.59 5.217.40 43.66 25.32 0.91 0.56 3.08 52.17 2559.19
Guwahati 70.93 6.417.72 34.27 19.88 1.10 0.76 1.06 17.71 1519.49
Kohima 64.93 5.637.7 57.20 33.17 1.09 0.73 0.97 30.87 2844
Source of waste
Action to be taken
generation
Household Not to throw any solid waste in the
neighbourhood, on the streets, open spaces, and
vacant lands, into the drains or water bodies
Keep food waste/biodegradable waste in a non
corrosive container with a cover (lid)
Keep dry, recyclable waste in a bin or bag or a
sack
Keep domestic hazardous waste if and when
generated separately for disposal at specially
notified locations
Multi-storeyed Provide separate community bin or bins large
buildings, commercial enough to hold food/biodegradable waste and
complexes, recyclable waste generated in the building or
private societies society.
Direct the members of the association to deposit
their waste in community bin
Slums Use community bins provided by local body for
deposition of food and biodegradable waste
Shops, offices, If situated in a commercial complex, deposit the
institutions, etc waste in bins provided by the association
Hotels and restaurants The container used should be strong, not more
than 100 litre in size, should have a handle on
the top or handles on the sides and a rim at the
bottom for easy handling
Vegetable and Fruit Provide large containers, which match with
Markets transportation system of the local body.
Shop keepers not to dispose of the waste in
front of their shops or open spaces.
Deposit the waste as and when generated into
the large container placed in the market.
Meat and fish markets Not to throw any waste in front of their shops
or open spaces around. Keep non-corrosive
container/containers not exceeding 100-litre
capacity with lid handle and the rim at the
bottom and deposit the waste in the said
containers as and when generated.
Transfer the contents of this container into a
large container provided by the association.
Table Contd
218 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Source of waste
Action to be taken
generation
Street food vendors Not to throw any waste on the street, pavement
or open spaces. Keep bin or bag for the storage
of waste that generates during street vending
activity
Preferably have arrangements to affix the bin or
bag with the handcart used for vending.
Marriage halls, Not to throw any solid waste in their
community halls, neighbourhood, on the streets, open spaces, and
kalyanamandapas vacant lands, into the drains or water bodies.
Provide a large container with lid which may
match with the transportation system of the
local body and deposit all the waste generated
in the premises in such containers.
Hospitals, Nursing Not to throw any solid waste in their
homes, etc neighbourhood, on the streets, open spaces, and
vacant lands, into the drains or water bodies.
Not to dispose off the biomedical waste in the
municipal dust bins or other waste collection or
storage site meant for municipal solid waste.
Store the waste as per the directions contained
in the government of India, Ministry of
Environment Biomedical Waste (Management
and Handling) Rules, 1998.
Construction/ Not to deposit construction waste or debris on
demolition waste the streets, footpaths, pavements, open spaces,
water bodies etc.
Store the waste within the premises or with
permission of the authorities just outside the
premises without obstructing the traffic
preferably in a container if available through
the local body or private contractors.
Garden waste Compost the waste within the garden; if
possible trim the garden waste once in a week
on the days notified by the local body.
Store the waste into large bags or bins for
handing over to the municipal authorities
appointed for the purpose on the day of
collection notified.
MSW Management in India 219
8.5.1 Landfilling
In many metropolitan centres, open uncontrolled and poorly managed
dumping is commonly practiced, giving rise to serious environmental and
health problems. More than 90% of MSW in cities and towns are directly
disposed of on open land. Such dumping practices in many coastal towns
have led to heavy metals and other contaminants rapidly leaching into the
coastal waters. In larger cities like Delhi, the availability of land for waste
disposal is highly limited (Mor et al. 2006; Siddiqui et al. 2006; Sharholy
et al. 2006; Gupta et al., 1998; Das et al., 1998; Kansal et al., 1998;
Chakrabarty et al., 1995; Khan 1994). Hence, MSW is disposed by
dumping in low-lying areas outside the city ignoring the principles of
sanitary landfilling. The incoming MSW vehicles are not weighed and no
specific plan is followed when filling the dumpsites. Compaction and
leveling of waste and final covering by earth/inert material are rarely
done at most disposal sites. These sites are devoid of a leachate collection
system or landfill gas monitoring/collection equipment (Bhide and
Shekdar 1998; Gupta et al. 1998). The poorly maintained landfill sites are
prone to groundwater contamination because of leachate production
posing a serious threat to human health. Most of the disposal sites are
unfenced and the waste picking is common, creating problems during
operation of the sites. Further, open dumping of garbage facilitates the
breeding for disease vectors such as flies, mosquitoes, cockroaches, rats,
and other pests (CPCB 2000). The situation is similar to the one in any
developing country. Smoke and/or fire nuisance is caused by
unauthorized burning of waste by rag pickers. Open firing of MSW at
disposal sites is the regular method of reducing the volume of wastes. It is
also carried out to make picking of recyclables easier (Kumar et al 2009).
Organic matter content in the deposited MSW at the landfill site tends
to decompose anaerobically leading to emission of volatile organic
compounds and gaseous by-products. As we know, the landfill gas (LFG)
contains methane (50 to 60 per cent) and carbon dioxide as major
constituents, and has potential for non-conventional energy. Since
methane is more potent than carbon dioxide in contributing to greenhouse
gas effect, LFG has to be properly handled without letting into
atmosphere. TERI has estimated that the country released about
7 million tonnes of methane into the atmosphere in 1997, and if no efforts
are made to reduce the emission through methods like composting, it may
increase to 39 million tonnes by 2047 (Asnani 2006).
As no segregation of MSW at the source takes place, all kinds of
wastes including contagious waste from hospitals generally end up at the
MSW Management in India 221
disposal site. The industrial waste is also deposited quite often at the
landfill sites meant for domestic waste (Datta 1997). Until recently there
was not a single sanitary landfill site in India. Of late, four sites have
been constructed at Surat (Gujarat), Pune (Maharashtra), Puttur and
Karwar (Karnataka), and a few more sites are coming up. The Municipal
Solid waste (Management and Handling) Rules 2000, make it essential
for all local bodies in the country to have sanitary landfills. Some states
like West Bengal, Rajasthan and Gujarat are considering constructing
regional facilities, as the construction of landfills are expensive and
require professional management.
Despite several problems, landfilling would continue to be the most
widely acceptable and adopted practice in the country for many more
years/decades. The municipal authorities need to effect improvements to
the existing ones to ensure that the new landfills as well as the existing
ones follow the accepted norms of sanitary landfilling (Kansal 2002; Das
et al. 1998; Dayal 1994) and MSW 2000 Rules.
8.5.2 Composting
Throughout India, a large number of small-scale decentralized
composting schemes are operating with various levels of success. In the
composting, the waste volume can be reduced to 5085%. Manual
composting is the practice in smaller urban centers, and mechanical
composting in big cities (Bhide et al 1998; Chakrabarty et al.1995).
Government of India (GOI) primarily concentrated in 1960s, on
promoting composting of urban MSW and offered soft loans to urban
local bodies. In the Fourth 5-year plan period (19691974), block grants
and loans were provided to state governments for setting up MSW
composting plants. In 1974, GOI introduced modified scheme to revive
MSW composting, particularly in cities with a population over 0.3
million. Many mechanical compost plants with capacities ranging from
150 to 300 tonnes/ day were set up in Bangalore, Baroda, Mumbai,
Kolkata, Delhi, Jaipur and Kanpur during 19751980. A survey
(UNDP/WB RWSG-SA 1991) undertaken in 1991, analysed 11 heavily
subsidized mechanical municipal compost plants that were put up during
1975-1985 with input capacity of 150-300 tonnes/day, and found that
only three were under operation, operating at much lower capacities than
expected. This survey suggested setting up of several small-scale
(decentralized) compost plants instead of one large mechanical compost
plant. The decentralized compost plants have the merits to: (a) enhance
environmental awareness, (b) create employment in the neighbourhood,
(c) create more flexibility in operation and maintenance, (d) allow the
222 Municipal Solid Waste Management
residents close examination of the services and products, (e) reduce waste
management costs for the municipality, and (f) decrease dependence on
municipal services (Mansoor Ali 2004). NGOs and Community groups
have initiated and established subsequently small-scale compost plants in
many cities.
However, the first large-scale aerobic composting plant in the country
was set up in Mumbai in 1992 to handle 500 t/day of MSW by Excel
Industries Ltd. Currently, the plant is working at 300 t/day capacity, but
very successfully and the compost produced is in demand. Another plant
with a capacity, 150 tonnes/ day has been in operation in Vijaywada. Over
the years a number of plants have been installed in the principal cities of
the country Delhi, Bangalore, Bhopal, Ahmedabad, Hyderabad, Luknow
and Gwalior. Many other cities are in the process of establishing
composting facilities. It is estimated that about 9% of MSW is treated by
composting in the country (Gupta et al. 1998; Gupta et al, 2007; Sharholy
et al. 2006; Srivastava et al. 2005; Malviya et al. 2002; CPCB 2000; Reddy
and Galab 1998; Dayal 1994; Rao and Shantaram 1993).
Approximately 35 composting projects have been set up in India with
private sector participation in the states of Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, and Kerala. Typically the arrangement has been on a
BOO or BOOT structure. The treatment capacity of these facilities ranges
from 80 to 700 TPD and their combined capacity is about three millions
tons per year. More projects are being finalized with PSP arrangement.
Capital investment required for such facilities (capacity 100 to 700 TPD)
typically ranges from Rs. 30 to 75 million. The promoter equity has
largely been the project financing. The private partner recovers the
investment by selling compost derived from waste processing. For
example, Kolhapur Municipal Corporation (KMC), Maharashtra selected
Zoom Developers Ltd. to implement the solid waste composting project,
in association with Larsen Engineers in 1999. KMC and Zoom signed a
30-year, Build-Own-Operate-Transfer (BOOT) contract in 2000. The
facility would handle 160 TPD in the initial year, increasing to 270 TPD
in the final year. The KMC would deliver solid waste to the treatment site
(a weekly average of 770 tons), for which the concessionaire would
compensate it with a fixed annual payment of Rs. 0.48 million (escalated
annually at eight percent). The concessionaire would pay the city one
rupee per square meter per year for the land lease. The city would receive
an estimated Rs. 0.65 million in the first year of the facilitys
operation.The Composting projects in India are listed (see Annexure 4).
But not all of them are working.
MSW Management in India 223
substances and will be used as a fuel for the boiler in the plant. About 100
tonnes per day of palm oil industry waste is being used to produce 3 MW
of power. MNES finds the project working satisfactory to the capacity.
1.5 MW power project based on poultry droppings at Namakkal, Tamil
Nadu: The plant has been installed by M/s G. K. Bio-Energy Pvt. Ltd.,
Namakkal, based on biomethanation technology to generate power using
poultry droppings from one million birds of nearby poultry farms. It is
based on BIMA (Biogas Induced Mixing Arrangement) technology
developed and commercialised by M/s Entec, Austria. The engines used
for generating power are 100% biogas engines imported from Austria.
The total cost of the project is Rs.180.4 million.
5 MW municipal solid wastes (MSW) based project at Lucknow: The
project has been executed by M/S Asia Bio-energy Pvt. Ltd (ABIL),
Chennai on Build, Own, Operate and Maintenance basis in association
with Lucknow Nagar Nigam (LNN) who are responsible for supply of
required quality and quantity of MSW at the plant site. The plant based
on Biomethanation technology started its commercial operation in August
2003 but could reach to a maximum generation capacity of 1.5 MW only
by March 2004. The plant is presently facing problem in its operation
mainly due to non-availability of the required quality of MSW free from
debris, sand and silt.
0.5 MW power project based on slaughterhouse solid waste at M/s Hind
Agro Ltd., Aligarh, U.P: M/s Hind Agro has a 100% export oriented
modern integrated abattoir cum meat processing plant at Aligarh. The
biogas plant being installed at their place is designed to treat solid waste
generated from slaughtering of 1600 buffaloes everyday. The project for
biomethanation of slaughterhouse solid wastes to produce about 4000
cum. biogas per day for generation of 0.5 MW power from about
50 tonnes per day solid wastes was installed. The plant was installed by
M/s RSB Japan on turnkey basis under the technical supervision of
Central Leather Research Institute, Chennai.
A typical Farmyard Biogas plant generally applicable to rural
locations is described below (Ludwig Sasses article on Biogas plants):
A biogas plant operates on the principle of anaerobic digestion and
supplies energy (in the form of biogas) and residue as fertilizer. It
improves hygiene and protects the environment. A biogas plant is a
modern energy source, and improves working conditions especially for
the rural people in the country.
226 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Fig. 8.4 A farmyard Biogas plant (Courtesy: Ludwig Sasse Biogas Plants).
MSW Management in India 227
8.5.4 Incineration
The most attractive feature of the incineration process is very substantial
volume reduction of combustible solid waste. In some newer incinerators
designed to operate at temperatures high enough to produce a molten
228 Municipal Solid Waste Management
8.5.5 Gasification
In India, there are a few gasifiers in operation, but they are mostly for
burning of biomass such as agro-residues, sawmill dust, and forest
wastes. Gasification can also be used for MSW treatment after drying,
removing the inerts and shredding for size reduction. Two different
designs of gasifiers exist in India. The first one (NERIFIER gasification
unit) is installed at Nohar, Hanungarh, Rajasthan by Narvreet Energy
Research and Information (NERI) for the burning of agro-wastes,
sawmill dust, and forest wastes. The waste-feeding rate is about 50150
kg/h and its efficiency is around 7080%. About 25% of the fuel gas
produced may be recycled back into the system to support the gasification
process, and the remaining is recovered and used for power generation.
The second unit is the TERI gasification unit installed at Gaul Pahari
campus, New Delhi by TERI (CPCB 2004; Ahsan 1999). No commercial
plant has come up for the disposal of MSW, as it is still an emerging
technology for MSW.
Assumed MSW
Land required Cost
Technology quantity (Metric
(acre) (Rs. in million)
ton)
Biomethanation 150 6-7 60-90
Pelletisation 125 3-4 40-50
Incineration 100 2-3 60-70
Composting 150 7-8 15-20
materials from the streets, bins and disposal sites for their livelihood;
only a small quantity of recyclable materials is left out. In India, about
4080% of plastic waste is recycled compared to 1015% in the
developed countries. However, the recovery rate of paper was 14% of the
total paper consumption in 1991, while the global recovery rate was
higher at 37% (Pappu et al. 2007; CPCB 2004; Yelda and Kansal 2003;
Shekdar 1999; Ahsan 1999; Dayal 1994; Khan, 1994).
The role of the informal sector is very significant in recovering
materials compared to municipal authorities (Fig. 8.5). In Delhi, there are
more than 100,000 rag pickers and the average quantity of waste
materials collected by one rag picker is 10-15 kg/day. According to
another source, in Delhi, there are about 200,000 self-employed waste
pickers comprising of men, women, and children collecting about 2,000
tons of rubbish daily (CSE-publications). The rag pickers handle nearly
17% of solid waste in Delhi who collect, sort and transport waste free of
cost, as part of the informal trade in scrap. This exercise saves the
government Rupees 600,000 (US$13,700) daily. In Bangalore, the
informal sector involved in waste handling prevents about 15% of the
MSW going to the dumpsites. The waste pickers in Pune save around
Rupees 9 million/ year (US$200,000) for the municipal corporation by
their involvement.
In Hyderabad, the cost of MSWM per ton is less in the areas where
the private sector participates compared to the areas serviced by
municipality. In Mumbai, the observation is that the cost per ton of
MSWM is US$35 with community participation, US$41 with public
private partnership (PPP) and US$44 when only Municipal Corporation
of Greater Mumbai (MCGM) handles the MSW. Hence, community
participation in MSWM is the low-cost option. Several studies
undertaken by different institutes and authorities also revealed that the
role of the informal sector in MSWM is very important because it
provides a livelihood to many poor, unskilled and marginalized people.
The informal collection avoids environmental costs and reduces capacity
problems at dumpsites; and the rag pickers can provide excellent
segregation of MSW (Sharholy et al. 2005, 2006, 2007; Rathi 2006;
Joseph 2006; Agarwal et al. 2005; Srivastava et al. 2005; CPCB 2004;
Kansal 2002; Reddy and Khan 1994).
232 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Fig. 8.5 Women scavenging a dump, a health risk (source: ARRPET 2004)
Table 8.8 Timeframe for the Implementation of the MSW Rules 2000
(source: Asnani 2006)
Fig. 8.6 Status of Compliance of MSW Rules 2000 as on 1st April 2004
Though the progress has not been at a desirable level, there has been a
perceptible awareness among local bodies and policy makers to promote
solid waste management systems. Recent years have witnessed the
conditions improving in the country due to (a) regular monitoring by the
Supreme Court, (b) offer of incentives by state governments, (c) large
financial support from Central government on the advice of 12th Finance
Commission, (d) provision of urban renewal funds to the states
(JNNURM), and (e) technical and financial support from various
Ministries of Government of India and national and international
organizations.
To implement the rules expeditiously, one of the strategies could be to
contract out most of the SWM services to Private sector, NGOs, RWAs
MSW Management in India 243
(c) The owner/ operator of a facility is liable for the entire cost of any
remediation or restoration. An amount must be paid in advance as
estimated by the State Pollution Control Board/Committee, which
will plan and arrange for the implementation of the programme
for remediation/ restoration. The advance paid will be adjusted
once the actual cost is known and any further expenditure will be
recovered from the owner/ operator of the facility.
In addition to notified MSW Management Rules 2000, Biomedical
Waste Handling Rules 1998, and Hazardous Wastes Management Rule
1989, the Indian Government has taken further initiatives such as
Reforms Agenda (fiscal, institutional, legal), Technical Manual on MSW
Management, and Publications by the Technology Advisory Group on
MSWM.
The most significant initiative was to set up the Jawaharlal Nehru
National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) by the Ministry of Urban
Development with an assured grant of Rs 12,500 million ($291 million)
to 63 chosen cities. Since most of the cities are unable to raise funds,
JNNURM provides funds to meet their infrastructure needs. These
beneficiaries have obligation to embark on reforms in governance to help
improve efficiency and become self-sustaining in the future. These
include: income tax relief for waste management agencies, public -
private partnerships in solid waste management, capacity building, and
creating Urban Reforms Incentive Fund.
A developing country like India that is shifting from the traditional
economy to a technology-based industrialized economy faces problems
and challenges in the management of wastes. The solid waste
management systems are yet to emerge as a well-organized practice
despite their existance in most of our urban centres for the last few
decades. For instance, significant variations in the MSW characteristics
among urban centres exist; but little effort is made to shape the
relationship of the waste management system to the waste characteristic
Table 8.9 Estimated Cost for Vehicle, Tools, Equipments and Composting
(Source: Asnani 2006)
Panchayats Municipalities
No. State per cent (Rs crore) per cent (Rs crore)
Table Contd
248 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Panchayats Municipalities
No. State per cent (Rs crore) per cent (Rs crore)
13. Kerala 4.925 985 2.980 149
14. Madhya Pradesh 8.315 1663 7.220 361
15.Maharashtra 9.915 1983 15.82 791
16. Manipur 0.230 46 0.180 9
17. Meghalaya 0.250 50 0.160 8
18. Mizoram 0.100 20 0.200 10
19. Nagaland 0.200 40 0.120 6
20. Orissa 4.015 803 2.080 104
21. Punjab 1.620 324 3.420 171
22. Rajasthan 6.150 1230 4.400 220
23. Sikkim 0.065 13 0.020 1
24. Tamil Nadu 4.350 870 11.440 572
25. Tripura 0.285 57 0.160 8
26. Uttar Pradesh 14.640 2928 10.340 517
27. Uttaranchal 0.810 162 0.680 34
28. West Bengal 6.355 1271 7.80 393
Total 100.000 20000 100 5000
specified. But these projects are on hold by an order from Supreme Court
not to grant any subsidy because the apex court is examining the
allegation that the provisions are being misused.
Carbon Finance/Sale of Carbon credits: Kyoto Protocol is an
international initiative created to commit industrialized countries that are
responsible for increasing greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere to
reduce their emissions. The protocol has proposed three mechanisms to
help industrialized countries achieve their objective. The industrialized
countries could implement projects which result in emission reductions
anywhere in the world and earn carbon credits to count towards their
effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions globally. The three
mechanisms to achieve measurable and cost effective emission reductions
are: Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), International Emission
Trading, and Joint Implementation (UNFCCC 1997, Jayarama Reddy
2011).
The waste treatment and disposal projects can be implemented by
cities/towns under this provision, especially Clean Development
Mechanism, and avail financial benefits through the sale of certified
emission reduction credits to the industrialized (developed) countries.
CDM helps in overcoming technological and financial barriers associated
with MSW management projects.
In India, only 11 projects have been registered till 2008 in MSWM, of
which almost 50 % are on waste water and only 2 projects are of waste-
to-energy.
Landfills generate a gas consisting of 50 per cent methane which is a
potent greenhouse gas. Construction of landfills and compost plants, and
setting up WTE projects can earn substantial carbon credits in large cities
because of heavy generation of MSW. By selling these credits,
municipalities can generate funds which can help to recover the cost of
installations and plants, and to improve SWM services. The MoEF has a
Cell which serves as a nodal agency for the CDM projects.
There are no examples of Carbon finance (CF) revenues generated by
Indian municipalities or private operators from the MSWM business.
However, Table 8.12 provides a rough estimate of comparative and
potential CF revenues for various treatment technologies. Such finance
could be very important in covering the costs of activities which are
otherwise non-revenue generating. Although simple in principle, the
approach is new and the details are not well established. So, there are a
MSW Management in India 251
International Funding: Funds are also available for MSWM from UNEP,
GTZ and other International agencies.
Fig. 8.7 Waste generation trend and implications for land requirement
(source: TERI)
Private Sector
Participation in India
9.1 Introduction
There are several issues which hold back an effective delivery of
MSWM services by the Municipalities/ULBs. They include the
following: (a) low priority given to SWM services among other activities,
(b) poor community participation, (c) low quality services despite
substantial costs, (d) engaging huge labour force having low productivity,
(f) women and members of weaker sections mostly constituting the
workforce, (g) lack of technically competent staff, (h) lack of
technological know-how and (e) low cost recovery or no cost recovery.
These issues are not simple and have socio-economic implications.
Looking at the disappointing performance of MSWM services by the
municipalities in the country, it is better to change their role of being a
service provider to that of a service facilitator.
Involving Private Sector Participation (PSP) as service provider by
the municipalities may probably improve the situation. The global
experience has shown that PSP also called Public Private Partnership
(PPP) involvement in MSWM has several advantages:
bring finances for modernisation of SWM services and new
investments,
256
Private Sector Participation in India 257
in August 2001, which has paved the way for municipal authorities to
contract out certain SWM services.
The State Government of Tamil Nadu has exempted the Chennai
Municipal Corporation from the purview of contract labour (Regulation
& Abolition) Act 1970; vide its order No. 40 MS No. 99 dated 8th July
1999, allowing the municipal corporation to engage contract labour for
sweeping and scavenging activities. Karnataka has declared state policy
on Solid Waste Management; and States of Gujarat, West Bengal, Kerala
and a few others have created high-power state missions to facilitate
expeditious implementation of MSW rules in their respective states.
Initiatives taken by the States are briefly outlined in the later pages.
(Source: Position paper on PPP in SWM, Ministry of Economic Affairs, GOI, 2009)
Bidding Process:
Proper Bidding process is essential for the success of PPP. The main
elements are Prequalification, Preparation of Bid document, Invitation of
bids or expression of interest, and Invitation of technical Proposal.
268 Municipal Solid Waste Management
(h) Segregation at source has not been fully privatized in any city but
it has been partially privatized in Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Jaipur,
Jamshedpur, Mumbai, Nagpur, Nasik and Hyderabad.
The ULBs have shown confidence in adopting the concept of
privatization of SWM and have expressed interest in furthering the scope
of privatization in their cities.
The survey clearly indicates the positive impact and interest in
privatization of SWM. It is necessary that public and private bodies
should coordinate to create a suitable environment for facilitating
privatization of SWM in the country. The survey also points out that
SWM offers an opportunity for private sector participation, which can be
given a momentum by establishing a suitable framework for ULBs to
ensure sustainability of PPP models.
Absence of user charges in most cities is another obstacle. The door-
step collection of waste adds to the cost of SWM service and affects the
financial aspect of the system, unless the beneficiary pays. This is lacking
in many cities and the contractor is paid from the general revenue of the
municipality. The privatization effort followed in Gandhinagar (Gujarat)
and elsewhere is a good example of user charges levied to sustain door-
to-door collection. Absence of a labour rationalization policy also affects
in some cities, because the staff employed is more than adequate and yet
underutilized
Rajasthan:
In 2001, the state government has announced a policy for solid waste
management which outlines rules/guidelines for setting up of waste-to-
energy or waste-to-compost facilities with private entrepreneurs. Details
regarding the selection of entrepreneurs, the type of facility that would be
extended and the responsibilities of the selected entrepreneurs are
specified in the policy document. Further, a state level committee headed
by the Secretary, Local Self Government is empowered to receive and
recommend the proposals for the conversion of waste.
Land has been either allotted or identified for 152 out of 183 urban
local bodies for the construction of landfill sites. The District Collectors
have been asked to make the land available; and the development of
landfill sites in terms of laying approach road, fencing etc has started
under most ULBs. The Rajasthan Urban Infrastructure Development
Project (RUIDP) would develop landfill sites in six divisional cities,
namely, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Ajmer, Kota, Bikaner, and Udaipur, and also
provides equipment and tools for SWM.
Door to door collection of waste has been launched by ULBs as per
the guidelines in Jaipur, Ajmer, Jodhpur, Kota, Bhilwara, Pali, Bewar,
Jaisalmer, Bharatpur, Alwar, and Ramkanj Mandi.
During the financial year 2005-06, the Chief Minister has announced
assistance of Rupees 100 million to smaller local bodies to purchase
tools, equipment, and vehicles in order to improve the sanitation
facilities.
West Bengal:
The state government launched West Bengal Solid Waste Management
Mission in May 2005, which would function under the chairmanship of
Chief Secretary to Government. The objective of the mission was to
promote modernization of collection and transportation of MSW, and to
help development of cost-effective technology for treatment and disposal
of waste. Provision to provide the technical and financial support to
municipal bodies, PRIs, and authorities for setting up regional/common
SWM systems was also proposed.
A technical committee headed by Secretary, Department of
Environment prepared an action plan for implementing MSW Rules 2000
in the state. It was planned to construct 25 to 30 regional facilities to
cover 126 ULBs that include six Corporations. Each regional facility
would serve about five ULBs and each city would share the operation and
Private Sector Participation in India 275
Kodungaiyur which are located at 15 kms on south and north sides of the
city. The waste is tipped at the site and levelled by bulldozers. MSW
generated includes 68 % of residential waste, 16 % commercial waste,
14 % institutional waste and 2 % industrial waste. The properties of the
MSW generated showed that the majority of the waste is composed of
green waste (32.3%) and inert materials (34.7%) such as stones and glass
(CPCB 2000 and Damodaran et.al. 2003).
In compliance with the MSW Rules 2000, several attempts have been
made to improve the MSWM in Chennai. The initiatives include: source
segregation, door to door collection, abolition of open storage, daily
sweeping of streets and transportation in covered vehicles, wastes
processing by Energy recovery or Compsting, and Sanitary Landfilling.
A public awareness campaign on source segregation of MSW was
initiated during 2003. Corporation workers, zonal officers, revenue
officers, technical staff, teachers and school children were drawn in this
programme, comprised of public rallies, meetings, distribution of
pamphlets, street plays and advertisements. NGOs and members of local
welfare associations (like Civic Exnora) have started their own campaign
and helped in distributing the pamphlets prepared by the CoC. Door-to-
door collection scheme was introduced in June 2003 and expanded
throughout the city during January 2004 using Tricycles. Abolition of
open storage is moderately achieved by the removal of community bins
from the streets. Due to inadequate financial resources and indifference of
the population, and inaccessible narrow lanes it is difficult to achieve
total abolition of open storage. Daily street sweeping is done by the
Corporation workers. But implementation of daily street sweepings is
constrained by shortage of sanitary workers, lack of financial support and
public holidays. Ward level composting units were introduced in 106
places to reduce the transportation cost of MSW and the amount of waste
reaching dumpsite. The segregated waste is collected; the organic fraction
is sent to composting at ward level composting units, and the non
recyclable fraction is transported to the dumpsites for disposal. There
were proposals to recover energy from the waste, and composting of
organic fractions in centralized mechanical composting units. At the
suggestion of Environmental Resource Management (ERM 1996), the
open dump sites have been in operation for the past 20 years and their
lifetime is expected to last up to 2011; but they can be extended to a
further period by upgrading the sites. Based on the recent studies, CoC
has initiated the up-gradation process of Kodungaiyur dumpsite. The
Private Sector Participation in India 279
growth of 46.31% between 1991 and 2001 as against the all-India growth
level, 21.34%. The rural to urban mass migration exercise additional
population stress on the city. Change in lifestyles of the people has
resulted in increased wasteful consumption, leading to a change in the
composition and increase in the quantum of solid waste generated
(PJ Sarkar). Solid waste management in Delhi has been a poorly
managed affair with obligation on simply transporting the mixed waste
by trucks and disposing it in sanitary landfills (SLF).
Legal Framework: The Delhi Municipal Corporation Act 1957 has
section 42 C, 355-5.8 stating the functions and role of MCD and citizens
in disposal of the waste. The violation of the sections 353, 354, 355(2),
356 and 357 are subject to penalties. Section 357 (1) Keeping rubbish
and filth for more than 24 hours, carries an additional daily fine. The
responsibility of MCD is to provide receptacles, depots and places for
waste disposal; and not necessarily house to house collection. It is the
obligation of residents to use them for disposal of their waste.
Institutional framework: Three municipal bodies - the Municipal
Corporation of Delhi (MCD), the New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC)
and the Delhi Cantonment Board (DCB) are responsible for solid waste
management in Delhi. MCD alone manages almost 95 % of the total area
of the city. These authorities are supported by a number of other
agencies. The Delhi Development Authority (DDA) is responsible for
siting and allotment of land to MCD for sanitary land filling. Delhi
Energy Development Agency (DEDA) under Delhi Administration (DA)
is accountable for solid waste utilization projects such as bio-gas or
power generation in consultation with MNRE and MoEF of GOI. The
Department of Flood Control of Delhi Administration looks after the
supply of soil to be used as cover for sanitary landfills by the MCD.
The three municipal bodies, MCD, NDMC, and DCB have obligation
to carry on MSWM services in their respective areas, shown in the Tables
(source: CDP-Delhi, Ch.12):
1. Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD): The MCD area includes
urban areas, rural and urban villages, slum clusters and regularized
unauthorized colonies.
Private Sector Participation in India 283
Area Responsible
S.No. Item Number
(sq. km) Department
1 Area 42.74 ------
2. Sanitation Circles ------ 13 Health Dept
(approx.)
3. Number of employees ------ 1800
involved with sanitation
284 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Area
S.No. Item Number Responsible
(sq. km)
1 Area 42.97
2. Number of employees 450 Health
Involved with sanitation Department
minimization. In the West zone, the Metro waste Handling Private Ltd
has been conducting, slum programmes, street plays, school assembly
sessions and student rallies, posters & banner displays, awareness
programmes for households, training of staff etc. The response from the
people has been good in terms of improvement in the status of waste
segregation according to the contractor. NDMC has 900 community bins
(masonry built) and 1000 metallic skips (open container of about one m3
capacity).
Waste Generation: In the absence of a streamlined system of solid waste
management, the available data is based on per capita generation from
some studies (e.g., NEERI, 1991, Delhi Master Plan 2001, State of
Environment Report for Delhi, 2001), vehicle trips and fragmented data
from landfill records. Table 9.6 gives some idea of the waste generation
estimated from such sources.
A news paper report (Times of India, May 14, 2006, New Delhi)
estimates the solid waste generation at 8000 TPD and garbage dumped at
the three landfill sites at 7435 TPD. According to a study carried out by
IL&FS Ecosmart in 2005, the total generation is around 7700 TPD. The
website of NDMC notes lifting of 200-210 TPD garbage from its area.
Based on these estimates, it is proposed that the present generation of
municipal solid waste may be taken as 6500 TPD for MCD, 400 TPD for
NDMC and 100 TPD for DCB (total for NCT 7000 TPD). The figure is
corroborated by the figure of waste collection of 6500-7000 TPD
presented in a paper by MCD.
Private Sector Participation in India 287
Note: *Selling prices of all items as on January 2002, PET: Polyethylene Terepthalate,
LDPE: Low density Polyethylene, HDPE: High density Polyethylene, PP: Polypropylene
(Source: Recycling Responsibility, Traditional systems and new challenges of solid waste
in India, Srishti, 2002.)
The three compost plants can process at present about 400 TPD out of
7000 TPD, and the balance is assumed to be dumped at the three dump-
sites (landfills) listed in theTable 9.9.
that the wet waste would be collected daily and the dry waste would be
collected once or twice a week, depending on the amount generated. 83%
of total population of Greater Mumbai is served by the community bin
collection system and 15% by door-to-door collection. Garbage collectors
employed by various housing societies collect the waste manually at the
household level and dump it in the garbage bin at specified street corners.
There are about 6,300 community dustbins of different designs and
construction provided throughout the 5,500 waste collection points in
Greater Mumbai for collection and temporary storage of the all waste
other than the debris, silt etc.
The Corporation utilizes both manual (22%) and mechanical (78%)
means for the removal and transportation of wastes (Jain 2004). Manual
handling is carried out at the collection points, where waste is collected
by the municipal workers and dumped into transportation vehicles. Both
Municipal and contractors vehicles are used for removal and
transportation of garbage, but only municipal labour is used in this work.
For debris, silt etc. however only the contractors vehicles and their
labourers are used. 45% of the transportation is through municipal
transport and 55% is contracted out. Transportation of waste is carried
out by using different types of vehicles depending on the distances to be
covered by them. 60% of waste is transported through stationary
compactors, mobile compactors and closed tempos; 10% is through
partially open dumpers whereas 20% is through tarpaulin-covered
vehicles, which includes silt and debris.
There are at present 2 transfer stations (TSs), situated at Mahalaxmi
and Kurla. Both the TSs together handle about 600 MT of garbage
everyday and the remaining is transported directly to the dumping
grounds situated in the northern part of Mumbai. Separate transport
transfers the garbage from Mahalaxmi and other parts of the city which is
nearly 95 per cent of the waste generated, to the dumping grounds (Coad
1997). The transportation of garbage from the transfer stations is done
using 15-20 cubic metre Trailers and Bulk Refuse Carriers. Actually, the
TS at Mahalaxmi have the capacity to handle at least twice the present
load; but currently it is under-utilized. To remove and transport the
garbage, six municipal workers and one Mukadam (labour contractor) are
deployed with each refuse vehicle. The worker uses two baskets and two
iron rakes per vehicle.
For primary collection, transportation and disposal, MCGM deploys
141 refuse vehicles for the city region and 120 for the suburbs. 13 service
294 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Issus in SWM
The issues in MSWM in Greater Mumbai relate to primary collection and
disposal of waste because of peculiar characteristics of the city.
Large floating population and daily commuters, with almost 6500
thousand people travelling daily is a cause for road littering (Jain 2004).
In many areas of the city, streets are poorly maintained due to lack of
timely street sweeping. There is regular clogging of surface water drains
due to dumping of solid waste into it. Only 77 per cent of roads are
cleaned 6 days a week, and the major roads only are cleaned 7 days a
week (SWM Cell 2003). At present, the door-to-door collection of waste
is limited to just 15 per cent of the waste generated; the remaining waste
including recyclables is sent for disposal. This has led to increase in the
disposal waste quantity.
The problem is further aggravated due to a high density and large
proportion of slum population. The slum and pavement dwellers do not
have access to proper services and hence they dispose their waste in the
public spaces, roads, drains or railway tracks. Added to it, the hawkers
contribute significantly to littering of roads.
With increasing urbanization, land for dumping and creation of
landfill sites for disposal of waste is becoming unavailable. There are
only 4 landfill sites in the MCGM area, whose expected lifespan remains
only 5 years. It may be difficult for MCGM to find new waste disposal
sites in the near future to take care of not only the present level of waste
generation but the increase in generation due to the projected new
population.
Non-compliance of MSW Rules 2000 and absence of proper and
regular communication between citizens and local body authorities have
also added to poor MSWM services in Greater Mumbai. In order to set
right the lapses and to face future challenges in MSWM, local NGOs
along with the MCGM have taken up certain initiatives to improve the
waste management activities.
New Initiatives
Three new initiatives, namely, (i) The Advance Locality Management
(ALM), (ii) the Slum Adoption Programme and (iii) the Parisar Vikas
programme by the Stree Mukti Sanghatana (SMS) are planned.The
features, implementation, and the successes/failures of the schemes are
briefly discussed.
Private Sector Participation in India 297
Fig. 9.6 (left) shows the Waste collection bin at Nani Nani- Munna Munni Park
maintained by Pestom Sagar ALM. Figure (right): The Kangra Garden leased to
the ALM for maintenance has been turned into one of the finest gardens in the
city. A pit of 440 cu.ft volume surrounding the garden is used for vermin
composting (Courtesy: Mahadevia Darshini).
(ii) Slum Adoption Scheme: MCGM has found that the residents in the
slums have no sense of participation to keep the area clean, which
results in piling up of garbage and deteriorating health conditions
of the residents. This has been the conclusion in a survey
conducted in 100 communities of a slum enclave by YUVA, an
NGO. In order to motivate and involve the slum population in
keeping the slums clean, a scheme called Slum Adoption Scheme
(SAS) has been started by the MCGM through community-based
organizations and public participation.
A Community Based Organisation (CBO) involved SWM work in
the Prem Nagar Slum Community is provided with necessary
equipments for the purpose by MCGM who has also taken care of
the salaries of the slum cleaners. The project is functioning
successfully. The MCGM provides finances to the CBO for the
first three years, but the amount reduces gradually over the period.
Then, the CBO would raise Rs. 10/ household for collection of
segregated waste from house-to-house and for the maintenance of
toilet blocks. The scheme has been so designed that by the end of
the third year, the CBO would be self- sufficient in managing
services related to waste management and sanitation at the primary
level. But in reality, the beneficiarys contribution being as low as
300 Municipal Solid Waste Management
8 to 10 per cent of the total budget, the CBOs have found it hard to
sustain financially.
SAS has been designed to be a sustainable programme to
implement SWM scheme in the slums, but, in reality, it has not
been fully successful due to several reasons that included economic
unsustainability, excluding some slums by MCGM, interference by
local councillors etc.
(iii) Parisar Vikas Programme:
The Parisar Vikas Programme has been initiated by the Stree Mukti
Sanghatana (SMS) which is an NGO, a Womans Liberation
Organisation established in 1975. The SWM project of the SMS is
being funded by War on Want, a London based NGO, and the
Central Governments Suvarna Jayanti Shahari Rojgar Yojna
(SJSRY). The duration of the project has been from 2002 to the
end of 2005.
The main strategies of the programme are: Organisation and
training of the women ragpickers, improving the living standard of
women ragpickers, developing new techniques for treatment of
waste, and creating zero waste situations in cities by appropriate
waste recycling techniques.
SMS has been recognized as a training institute. The rag pickers
are given identity cards and are trained in waste handling, waste
collection, transportation of waste to pits and pit management, in
addition to health care and hygine. These trained women are
addressed as Trained Parisar Bhaginis (TPB). The two training
centres established in M-ward (Chembur) have trained Parisar
Bhaginis in bio-composting, vermicomposting and gardening. 300
women have been trained in manure and gardening techniques
through which 250 women have gained meaningful employment.
Simultaneously SMS has developed 5 to 6 composting models in
available space within localities.
200 groups, with 10 Parisar Bhaginis each, have been established.
A group leader heads each group. Awareness and leadership
development camps are organised for the group leaders with the
special material developed by SMS over the years for the training.
The 'Parisar Bhaginis' go from house to house and collect garbage
already segregated into 'wet' and 'dry' waste. They compost the wet
waste, and the product is sold in the market for use in the plant
nurseries and gardens in housing societies; the dry waste is sent for
Private Sector Participation in India 301
Fig. 9.7(a) Biogas Unit at BARC Fig. 9.7(b) Compost units along the
(Courtesy: Mahadevia, D) roadside for Garden waste
(Courtesy: Mahadevia, D)
These women are included under the Swarna Jayanti Shehari Rojgar
Yojana (SJSRY), and a grant of Rupees10 000 is given to each self help
group (SHG) as a running capital to start their micro enterprises. Of the
200 groups, 63 groups with 678 women received the revolving fund of
Rupees 678, 000 disbursed under the Thrift and Credit Societies
component of SJSRY.
A tempo is provided for the collection of dry waste. In 5 wards, even
Parisar Bhaginis have got such tempos from the MCGM.
Under the infrastructure development of SJSRY, grant has been
provided to construct sheds in seven wards for the storage of dry waste.
These sheds would be operated on a cooperative basis under the aegis of
PBVS and 5 such informal sheds are already in use by the Parisar
Bhaginis. The success of this scheme facilitated the formation of
neighborhood committees (NHC).
The Department of Urban Development, Government of Maharashtra
recognizing the importance of this partnership, has recommended to all
other Municipalities of the state to adopt this approach.
SMSs approach in Parisar Vikas has helped beneficiaries to gain
knowledge and skills, to advocate their rights, and to get organized.
Through this empowerment, the Parisar Bhaginis could improve their
bargaining power, better their social organization, and increase their
income and self-sufficiency.
For long-term sustainability of the project, SMS has strengthened the
self-help groups of rag pickers by involving more number of housing
colonies in the waste management scheme as well as in gardening
activities.
The involvement of MCGM in undertaking these experiments with
citizens, NGOs, and CBOs has resulted in new innovations and
methodologies in waste management systems. The projects have also
made an effort in an indirect manner to link the civil society groups to the
governance system, bringing in a sense of ownership and increasing the
transparency within its structure. Such kind of third party monitoring has
also helped to overcome the problems of the system and of mal-practices,
if any. The negotiating position of the ALM societies as well as the CBOs
has strengthened and they are able to use this in bargaining for better
civic service deliveries from the MCGM.
The rag-pickers have been brought into the formal schemes of SWM
which helped them to get organized. As a result, they receive better prices
for the collected materials, have better health care, are covered under
Private Sector Participation in India 303
insurance services and are getting more work than before. All these have
legitimized the rag-pickers in the society and have increased their income
and well being.
After nearly five years of the implementation of these programmes,
the benefits to various stakeholders are evident.
The participatory mechanism can reduce the cost of implementation of
any scheme, as seen from MCGM partnering with the CBOs for solid
waste management either through ALM or Slum Adoption Schemes.
Despite the new initiatives taken, the experience from Greater
Mumbai shows that the city has still a long way to go in SWM. The scale
of these new initiatives is inadequate to cover the whole city because of
its huge spread. The floods of July 26, 2005 has revealed that the garbage
collection has not been enough as not to clog the city drains in times of
heavy rains and cause severe inundation of the city areas. Nonetheless,
these new approaches have the potential to address the problem of waste
management in the most populated and complex Mumbai City.
CHAPTER 10
MSWM systems outside India are briefly discussed. The only criterion
for choosing the countries/cities from Africa, Latin America, East Asia,
Europe and North America is the availability of published/ documented
information.
10.1 Asia
In countries with high levels of education, approach to integrated solid
waste management is normally dictated by the public awareness of
resources, economics, and the quality of the environment. In Japan, for
example, cities have implemented laws and regulations governing
disposal bans on substances such as batteries, waste oil, tires, CFC gases,
PCBs, etc., and also a mandatory deposit/take-back requirement for
articles such as mercuric oxide batteries, aluminum and plastic
containers, tires, and non degradable plastic bags. The households in
Japan are also required to use transparent plastic bags for waste disposal
so that collection people can see the contents. In 1992 South Korea
passed a law promoting recycling.
304
MSW Management and Planning Global Examples 305
10.2 Africa
(Sources: Mwesigye et al, 2009, Rachel et al 2009)
Waste management problems in Africa are varied and complex. Waste is
typically disposed off without consideration for environmental and
MSW Management and Planning Global Examples 313
Since the local governments could not collect funds for solid
waste disposal (Onibokun and Kumuyi 2003), private companies
were contracted for waste disposal. However, these companies are
often as much ineffective as the State (Onibokun 1999). In Lagos,
the sixth largest city in the world, around 20 to 25 percent of
citys budget is allocated to waste management. However, even
with proper garbage-collecting trucks, the extremely dense streets
of Lagos make it impossible for the trucks to maneuver through to
collect the excessive amounts of garbage that are produced. While
in the five other mega-cities of the world, with over ten million
people, over forty trips are made per day from the city to the
dump site, only two trips are possible each day in Lagos
(UNESCO 2003).
The organic matter content, pH, particle size distribution, bulk
density, total porosity and the hydraulic conductivity, and
available heavy metals (zinc, copper, iron and lead) of soils from
an open dump site are greatly affected by the large volume of
wastes dumped on such locations. Wasteamended-soils (Open
dump sites soils) have high organic matter content (Anikwe
2002).
Causes for MSW problems: The Nigerian government is beset by
lack of adequate policies and human resources, insufficient
facilities, and financial difficulties (Agunwamba 1998). Lack of a
system for accountability in the government for the lapses adds to
the problem. For example, it is not uncommon for the government
to withhold employees wages for several months at a time if
finances are tight (Emily Walling et al 2004). People feel entitled
to waste collection services, and do not believe that waste
management is part of each individuals responsibility (Emily
Walling et al 2004).
The government has recently come up with national regulations
for solid waste control, characterized by strong governmental
involvement, development of an administrative infrastructure to
regulate pollution, establishment of pollution control measures as
a national priority, and end-of-the-pipe management
(Mazmanian and Kraft 2001). However, corruption and
inadequate finances promise that these regulations will be equally
as ineffective as earlier attempts. So, regulatory flexibility,
MSW Management and Planning Global Examples 317
Most beverages are sold in returnable bottles, which accounts for the
low proportion of glass and cans. The use of cans is stated to be on the
increase. It is noticed that the difference in composition between high and
low income is not very great. From actual observation, however, it
appears that in many MSW samples, the proportion of dust is
substantially greater than shown in the above analysis, which should
therefore be treated with caution.
The chemical analysis provides the following data:
Moisture - 64.2%; Ash - 8.9%; Combustible - 26.8%; C - 49.33%;
H - 5.45% N - 1.22%; S - 0.14%; Cl - 0.21%; O - 43.75%
Storage and collection: Municipalities are responsible for managing
MSW, including commercial wastes. The private sector handles industrial
wastes.
Industrial wastes constitute about 23 per cent of the total solid wastes
generated in the city. The collection and disposal of industrial waste in
Nairobi is done by industries themselves. Though its disposal is done at a
Municipal dumpsite, the industries have the responsibility to collect and
dispose the waste at the designated dumping site.
It is estimated in 1997 by JICA study that only about 25% of the waste
in Nairobi is collected. An alternative study, undertaken by UNCHS in
1997, has shown that 90% is collected by the Nairobi City Council
322 Municipal Solid Waste Management
(NCC). In the mid 1980s, the appalling NCC performance and demand
for municipal solid waste management services attracted private sector
providers. It is now estimated that there are at least 60 private companies
engaged in solid waste collection services in the city (JICA, 1998).
Private companies serve 45-73% of the households, 32% of the
institutions, 50% of the industries and 16.7% of the commercial
enterprises. About 81% of the households served by private companies
live in the high and middle-income areas (largely the western part) of the
city. The majority of the private companies are either small family
ventures or a hybrid between a community based organization (CBO) and
a private firm. Even NCC, which has the social responsibility of
providing SWM services to all citizens, concentrates its efforts on
residential areas and institutions that can afford private service at the
expense of areas inhabited by the poor. In Nairobi, the private sector
offers a more reliable service, for which a fee of Ks 200/household/month
is charged. According to the JICA study, the NCC collects 80 t/d of
which 91% is from stations and 9% from door-to-door. Private
contractors collect around 115 t/ day.
Individual household waste containers are present at higher and
middle income households only. Low income households make use of
communal containers or dumping stations - where waste is hand loaded
into vehicles. Some dumping stations are constructed of concrete but
others are just informal piles, which are sometimes burnt.
The vehicles may be tractor/trailers, open tippers, roll-ons or
compaction vehicles, depending on the size of the city. Typical payloads
are 2-3 tonnes. Vehicles are not covered and plastic/paper blows away
during transit. A study shows that, in 1996, 50% of the Nairobi City
Council refuse collection vehicles were non-operational at any one time.
The extent and nature of the solid waste management problems can be
summarized as follows:
First, the collection ratio, that is, the proportion of the solid waste
collected to generated, is low; as low as 25 per cent.
Second, there is marked inequality in the geographical service
distribution. The Western part of the city is well serviced by the private
parties and the NCC while the Eastern part is hardly serviced. High-
income and some middle-income residential areas together with
commercial areas are well serviced by private companies and the NCC.
Small private firms are increasingly servicing some of the relatively
better-off low-income areas. The core low-income areas (slums and other
MSW Management and Planning Global Examples 323
waste, green vegetable waste, and cow dung as well as food waste from
hotels, markets and other institutions, and transport it to use either as
animal feed or as organic fertilizer. The actual amount of waste removed
from the municipal waste stream through this route is not known.
Many informal agents (waste pickers, traders and dealers, itinerant
buyers, informal dump service providers and informal recycling
enterprises) are also involved in Nairobis SWM sector, albeit as a
secondary activity (Ikiara et al., 2004). These actors are involved in all
SWM domains, including waste collection, separation, storage, re-use,
recovery, recycling, trading, transport, disposal, and littering. They
reduce the waste that has to be disposed, more significantly, in non-
serviced areas inhabited by the urban poor. Like urban farmers, the actual
contribution of these informal actors to SWM in the city and other parts
of the country is not known.
Poor performance of MSWM: The poor SWM performance in Nairobi
is attributable to many factors. Expansion of urban, agricultural and
industrial activities has generated vast amounts of solid and liquid wastes
that pollute the environment and destroy resources. The problems are
mainly due to lack of appropriate planning, inadequate political will and
governance, poor technology, weak enforcement of existing legislation,
the absence of economic and fiscal incentives to promote good practices,
and lack of analytical data concerning volumes and compositions of
waste substances.
Administration of Nairobi is chaotic, with the NCC and the Central
Government (particularly the Ministry of Local Government and the
Provincial Administration in the Office of the President) often clashing
and duplicating roles. Moreover, as the policymakers (NCC councillors)
are generally not knowledgeable, the mismanagement and corruption
have become the hallmarks of the NCC. The by-laws related to
prohibiting illegal disposal of waste, specifying storage and collection
responsibilities for SW generators, and indicating the Councils right to
collect SWM charges is not effectively implemented. The Central
Government also fails to oversee the performance effectively.
This dysfunctional local administrative system has led to the
inefficiency of NCC operations - unprecedented deterioration of physical
infrastructure, lack of transfer facilities, widespread indiscriminate waste
dumping, lack of system-wide co-ordination and regulation of
stakeholders, absence of strong and effective partnerships between the
NCC and other SWM partners, lack of policy support for waste re-use
and recycling, communitys indifference to involve in SWM, prevalence
328 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Total
Total MSW Generated
City Size Population MSW Generation Rates
(million tons/year)
(million) (million) (kg/cap/day)
[% of total]
[no. of cities]
Domestic Municipal Domestic Municipal
>1 183 [55] 1.04 1.25 69 [55%] 83 [54%]
0.5 to 1 45 [59] 0.69 0.98 11 [9%] 15 [10%]
0.2 to 0.5 58 0.68 0.88 14 [11%] 19 [12]
< 0.2 151 0.56 0.68 31 [25%] 37 [24%]
Totals 434 0.79 0.97 125 154
planners fail to recognize the importance of NIMBY and the need for
positive public involvement to deal with it. Added to it, enforcement is
ineffective.
Disposal methods: The final disposal is appropriately based on sanitary
landfill; there has been an increase in the number of sanitary landfills and
controlled landfills, but open dumping still exists and is common. The
private sector is also involved to a limited extent, in operation of landfills.
For example, in Buenos Aires, as well as in some of the large cities in
Brazil, landfills are operated by private parties. Privately operated
landfills are also located in cities of Columbia, Ecuador, Mexico,
Panama, Paraguay, and Venezuela. Most manual landfills are operated by
small-scale enterprises.
Driven by Carbon financing, Landfill Gas-to-Energy (LFGTE) system
has been quite successful in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, and
Uruguay (WB 2008).
The Latin American countries have gained considerable experience
with composting, but the status is mostly disappointing.
No large-scale incineration (waste-to-energy) is preferred due to
economics, as well as high moisture content and low calorific value of the
waste generated.
Waste minimization and recycling efforts have been recent. On
average, the estimated MSW recycled is 3% in LAC. However some
countries are doing better: Mexico recycles 10% of waste stream; Paper
and cardboard are recycled in Brazil (44%), Colombia (57%), Chile
(50%), and Ecuador (40%).
Brazil recycles 87% of aluminum cans, 70% of steel cans, 35 percent
of PET containers, and 45% of glass bottles (WB 2008).
Source separation and separate collection is on the increase: 20% of
municipalities in Colombia and 5% of municipalities in Brazil have been
conducting source separation and separate collection.
Like in other developing countries, recycling is predominantly
performed by informal sector: PAHO estimates there are 500,000
wastepickers in LAC, 29% women and 42% children. Wastepickers face
high health and accident risks, and live in conditions of extreme poverty.
Many of them work at dumpsites, impeding attempts to operate as
sanitary landfills. Social programmes are needed to improve their living
and working conditions. In addition, the recycling activities need to be
moved from dumpsites to waste sources by properly organizing
332 Municipal Solid Waste Management
10.4 Europe
(Source: UNEP)
Europe has many industrialized countries. In cities of these countries,
since resources and skills are available and planners are quite well
informed, short-, medium-and long-term plans for waste management are
common.
338 Municipal Solid Waste Management
recovered a ratio that has more than doubled over the past 20
years. The recycling was also used everywhere in the country, and
Swiss recycling rates are among the highest in the world. The
remaining wastes are incinerated in clean processes which
generate electricity and heat, meeting some 2 % of the countrys
final energy requirements.
Waste disposal facilities: The requirements for disposal facilities
are specified in the Technical Ordinance on Waste (TVA) released
by the Government. It specifies stringent requirements for waste
that is to be landfilled. Today, three different types of landfill sites
are used for different types of waste in Switzerland:
Landfills for inert materials: only rock-like wastes may be
disposed of, from which virtually no pollutants will be leached out
by rainwater. These include materials such as construction waste
(concrete, bricks, glass, and road rubble) and uncontaminated soil
that cannot be used elsewhere. At suitable locations, landfills for
inert materials do not require any special sealing.
Landfills for stabilized residues: are designed for the disposal of
materials of known composition, with high concentrations of
heavy metals and only a small organic component, and which
cannot release either gases or substances readily soluble in water.
Typical materials include solidified fly ash and flue gas cleaning
residues from municipal waste incinerators, and vitrified
treatment residues. These sites are subject to more stringent
requirements than the above. Impermeable linings are required for
the base and sides of the landfill, and leachate is to be collected
and, if necessary, treated.
Bioreactor landfills: chemical and biological processes are
expected to occur. At these sites, drainage controls are required. In
addition, any gases emitted are to be captured and treated. Given
the unpredictable composition of their contents, bioreactor landfills
are at greatest risk of requiring expensive remediation at a later
date. Certain types of waste (e.g. incinerator slag) are required to be
disposed of in separate compartments, isolated from other types of
waste. If these wastes were intermixed, heavy metals would be
leached out in much greater quantities as a result of the relatively
low pH of incinerator slag. Compartments for residual wastes have
also been established at numerous bioreactor landfill sites.
(ref: Separate collections in Switzerland:
http://www.bafu.admin.ch/abfall/01472/index.html?lang=en)
344 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Table 10.8 Solid waste composition in Greece (Agapitidis & Frantzis 1998)
Biodegradable waste disposal: Greece would take more time than set by
the directive to reduce the waste going to the landfill. Provision has been
made for reducing biodegradable wastes reaching landfill to 75% by
2010, 50% by 2013, and 35% by 2020.
Biochemical treatment plants and/or energy recovery plants are
planned where economics prove feasible.
Three compost plants for commingled refuses have been constructed.
Two are operating less efficiently while the third is not operational.
There is not any incineration plant under elaboration or construction in
2007.
Legal provisions: The legislative framework for waste management in
Greece is mainly based on the EU legislation. A number of Acts were
issued which were supposed to correspond to the Waste Framework
Directive (Council Directive) but bureaucratic obstacles come in the way.
They were very complex resulting in considerable delays in formulating
waste management planning.
In an attempt to rationalize, the National Policy Plan (NPP) was
formulated. The Policy goals are the prevention or reduction of waste
production, the recovery of waste by means of recycling, re-use or
reclamation, the closure and restoration of all uncontrolled dumps until
2008 and the establishment of an adequate network of disposal facilities
choosing the best available technology. The planning of disposal capacity
has to be carried out on the regional level, and the Regions are legally
obliged to issue periodical Regional Waste Plans. The pertinent
Prefecture provides permits for waste handling, collection and transport
as well as processing and disposal facilities, though the local authorities
(Municipalities, associations) are competent to execute the works and to
develop and maintain a reliable, efficient and cost effective system of
solid waste collection and disposal. In addition a number of Ministerial
Decisions were issued setting the technical specifications for the design,
operation and maintenance of sanitary landfills as well as recycling
programmes. Despite the legal provisions in place, inappropriate waste
disposal and management practices persist resulting, as already
mentioned, in the degradation of surface and groundwater, air pollution
and forest fires (EEA, 2005).
The investigations of Greek Ombudsman (GO) on complaints
concerning uncontrolled disposal of wastes, deviations from the approved
environmental provisions, as well as systematic lapses in the selection
and approval of the siting of solid waste treatment facilities (The Greek
350 Municipal Solid Waste Management
the technical, financial, and potential cleanup risks to the private sector.
In addition, many municipalities prefer privatization because they do not
have ready access to the necessary team of operators, engineers, and
maintenance personnel required for running a facility.
Some municipalities prefer public ownership of solid waste facilities
because public ownership gives community officials more control over
facility development and operation. Another alternative is some form of
joint public/private ownership and operation agreement. This option has
the advantage of enabling the risks and costs of facility design,
construction, and operation to be allocated between a community and its
contractors in a way that is tailored to local needs and circumstances.
Many municipalities choose facilities that are publicly owned, but
privately operated, often by the same firms that designed and built the
facilities. To encourage efficient MSW operations, some cities, such as
Phoenix, Arizona have turned to privately operated service in some areas,
while maintaining municipally operated service in others. Some of these
cities have even adopted competitive bidding between the public works
department and private contractors.
Case study: New York City: (source: Themelis 2002) Since 1950s, New
York City (NYC) disposed most of its solid wastes in the giant (about 20
million square meters) Fresh Kills landfill in Staten Island. But, it was
closed in 2001 (re-opened temporarily after the September 11 attack on
the World Trade Towers). In 2002, New York City having a population
of 8 million, has generated about 12,000 metric tons per working day of
residential wastes (collected by the City) and nearly an equal amount of
commercial and institutional wastes, collected by private contractors. The
Department of Sanitation (DOS) of NYC collects waste in three streams,
separated at the household level: (1) Recyclable paper (clear bags),
(2) recyclable metal-glass-plastics (MGP, blue bags) and (3) all other
wastes (black bags). The four million metric tons of black bag MSW
collected annually by NYC are disposed as follows (Fig.10.7):
(a) Recycling: In recent years, NYC has launched a campaign to
increase recycling to the present level of about 700,000 metric
tons. The paper stream consists of mixed paper, newspapers,
magazines, and corrugated cardboard and represents about 65% of
the recyclables collected by NYC. Most of this stream is used in
paper recycling plants in Staten Island (Visy Paper) and
elsewhere. The residue from the paper stream (12-15% of the
paper stream) consists of plastics (mostly from plastic bags) and
some unusable paper.
MSW Management and Planning Global Examples 353
(c) Landfilling: The remaining 2.8 million metric tons of black bag
waste are transported, mostly by truck (> 90% of waste) to
Pennsylvania, Virginia, and New Jersey (Fig.10.8) where landfills
are located.
Transportation of MSW: Prior to closing Fresh Kills, the NYCs DOS
trucks travelled relatively short distances within the City to unload at
marine transfer terminals from where the waste was transported by barges
to the Fresh Kills landfill in Staten Island. Presently, six of the thirteen
transfer stations are located outside New York City and the DOS trucks
must travel distances up to 60 km to unload. It has been estimated that as
many as one thousand trucks cross to New Jersey each working day over
the existing two bridges and two tunnels (Columbia Earth Institute 2002,
Fresh Kills report).
At the New Jersey transfer stations, the NYC waste is loaded onto
20-ton tractor trailers that transport it to landfills in Pennsylvania,
Virginia, and New Jersey. The total distance traveled daily by the NYC
DOS 10-ton trucks crossing to NJ is estimated at 64,000 km per working
day. The distance traveled by the 20-ton trucks (average of 480 km per
round trip) is estimated at 216,000 km each day. Wang et al (2000) have
estimated fuel consumption for various types of heavy trucks. On the
basis of the above data, the fuel consumption for transporting NYC MSW
MSW Management and Planning Global Examples 355
Fracti
MSW 1, 2 on of
MSW 1, Fraction
Generatio MSW Fracti
2, 3 Fracti of other
n Rate dispos on of
Generatio on of Fraction of MSW
Region IPCC - ed to MSW
n Rate MSW MSW managem Source
/Country 1996 SWDS dispos
Year 2000 incine composted ent,
values 4 IPCC- ed to
(tonnes/ca rated unspecifi
(tonnes/ca 1996 SWDS
p/yr) ed 5
p/yr ) values
4
Asia
Eastern Asia 0.41 0.37 0.38 0.55 0.26 0.01 0.18
China 0.27 0.97 0.02 0.01 1
Japan 0.41 0.47 0.38 0.25 0.72 0.02 0.01 2, 31
Rep. of Korea 0.38 0.42 0.04 0.54 3
Southern and
0.12 0.21 0.60 0.74 - 0.05 0.21
Central Asia
Bangladesh 0.18 0.95 0.05 4
India 0.12 0.17 0.60 0.70 0.20 0.10 4
Nepal 0.18 0.40 0.60 4
Sri Lanka 0.32 0.90 0.10 4
South-eastern
0.27 0.59 0.09 0.05 0.27
Asia
357 Contd
358 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Africa
Europe
Russian
0.32 0.34 0.94 0.71 0.19 0.00 0.10 9
Federation
Northern
0.64 0.47 0.24 0.08 0.20
Europe
Southern
0.52 0.85 0.05 0.05 0.05
Europe
Contd
Appendix 1 359
Western
0.45 0.56 0.57 0.47 0.22 0.15 0.15
Europe
Dominican
0.25 0.90 0.06 0.04 12
Republic
Central
0.21 0.50 0.50
America
16, 17,
Guatemala 0.22 0.40 0.60
18
South America
Paraguay
0.44 0.40 0.60 24
(Asuncion)
Contd
360 Municipal Solid Waste Management
North America
29, 30,
Canada 0.66 0.49 0.75 0.71 0.04 0.19 0.06
31
Oceania
MSW generation and management data for some countries whose data are available are given above (source: IPCC
2006).
1
Data are based on weight of wet waste.
2
To obtain the total waste generation in the country, the per-capita values should be multiplied with the population whose waste is
collected. In many countries, especially developing countries, this encompasses only urban population.
3
The data are default data for the year 2000, although for some countries the year for which the data are applicable was not given in the
reference, or data for the year 2000 were not available. The year for which the data are collected is given below with source of the data,
where available.
4
Values shown in this column are the ones included in the 1996 IPCC Guidelines.
5
Other, unspecified, includes data on recycling for some countries.
6
A regional average is given for the whole of Africa as data are not available for more detailed regions within Africa.
(Source: 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse gas Inventories; Vol.5, Chap.2: Waste generation,
composition, and management Data).
1. Urban Construction Statistics Yearbook of China Year 2000 (2001). Ministry of
Chinese.Construction. Chinese Construction Industry Publication Company
2. OECD Environment Directorate, OECD Environmental Data 2002, Waste. Ministry of Environment,
Japan (1992-2003): Waste of Japan, http://www.env.go.jp/recycle/waste/ippan.html.
3. 1. '97 National Status of Solid Waste Generation and Treatment , the Ministry of Env, Korea,1998.
2. '96 National Status of Solid Waste Generation and Treatment , the Ministry of Env, Korea, 1997.
3. Korea Environmental Yearbook, the Ministry of Environment, Korea, 1990.
4. Doorn and Barlaz, 1995, Estimate of global methane emissions from landfills and open dumps, EPA-
600/R-95-019, Office of Research & Development, Washington DC, USA.
5. Shimura et al. (2001).
6. 2001 National Environmental Agency, Singapore (www.nea.gov.sg.) and
www.acrr.org/resourcecities/waste_resources/europe_waste.htm.
7. Ministry of Environment and Physical Development, Higher Council for Environment and Natural
Resources, Sudan (2003), Sudan's First National Communications under the UNFCC
8. 2000 Eurostat (2005). Waste Generated and Treated in Europe. Data 1995-2003. European
Commission -.Eurostat, Luxemburg. 131p
9. Problems of waste management in Russia: Not-for-Profit Partnership Waste Management Strategic
Ecological Initiative http://www.sagepub.com/journalsProdEditBoards.nav?prodId=Journal201691
Appendix 1 361
362 Municipal Solid Waste Management
ANNEXURE 2
Waste-to-Energy Facilities
in USA
(Source: Themelis 2006)
363
364 Municipal Solid Waste Management
The figure shows that many of the WTE facilities are located in the
East, and most of the recycling is in the coastal states of US.
Thermal treatment facilities installed in the 21st century are based
mostly on the grate combustion of as received MSW. US facilities
follow this type of treatment and on an industrial scale, the dominant
WTE technology is grate technology, because of its simplicity and
relatively low capital cost. The majority of the facilities is grate
combustion (mass burned as received or RDF), and represent over
80% of the total capacity of WTE in the US. Three dominant
technologies those developed by Martin, Von Roll, and
Keppel-Seghers are grate technologies. In terms of novel technologies,
gasification (JFE), direct smelting (JFE, Nippon Steel), fluidized bed
(Ebara) and circulating fluidized bed (Zhejiang University) are in
operation around the world, while some of them are under investigation
and discussion for possible implementation in the WTE facilities that will
be constructed in the US (Themelis, 2003, 2007, Psomopoulos et al.,
2009). One of the most successful types of facilities is the RDF-type
Appendix 2 365
Fig. Distribution of WTE plants; the numbers are shown in the brackets.
Table: WTE and Fossil fuel Power plants (OBrien and Swana 2006)
Waste-to-Energy Plants
Operating in India
370
Appendix 3 371
377
378 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Waste-to-Energy Status in
China
The need for intelligent waste management has led to the concept of the
hierarchy of waste management that places the various means for
dealing with MSW in order of environmental preference.
Of the estimated one billion tons (907 million tonnes) of global post-
recycling MSW, close to 200 million tons (181 million tonnes) are
processed in Waste-to-Energy (WTE) plants that recover the energy
content of waste in the form of electricity or heat. The dominant WTE
technology involves combustion of MSW on an inclined or horizontal
grate. There are over 500 WTE plants of this type operating in 35
countries.
Most of the global urban MSW, i.e., over 800 million tons (725
million tonnes) is landfilled. The Earth Engineering Center of Columbia
University has estimated that one square meter (about 10 square feet) is
used up, forever, for every ten tons (nine tonnes) of MSW landfilled.
True sustainable development requires that only inorganic residues be
landfilled, as is already the practice in several countries. However, this
would require us to considerably increase the present global WTE
capacity of about 200 million tons (181 million tonnes) and this is a very
costly proposition, especially for developing countries. Obviously, the
need is greatest in large countries with rapidly growing cities, such as
China and India, where existing dump sites are overfilled.
379
380 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Air pollution control systems: Most of the air pollution control systems
built in the Chinese WTE plants are similar to the predominant gas
control systems in the US: a combination of semi-dry scrubber, activated
carbon injection (to remove volatile metals and organic compounds) and
fabric filter baghouses (to remove particulate matter). In some WTE
plants, selective non-catalytic reduction is included to remove nitrogen
oxides, such as, for example, the WTE plants under design for
Guangzhou, Shantou, and Chongqing. A major problem that faced the
western incinerators in the late 1980s was high emissions of dioxin. The
US WTE plants in 1989 emitted a total of 10,000 grams of toxic
equivalent dioxins (grams TEQ), corresponding to 100 nanograms TEQ
per standard cubic meter of stack gas. This led to the US Environmental
Protection Agencys regulation of Maximum Achievable Control
Technology (MACT) that resulted in the retrofitting of about 90 WTE
plants in the US and the closing of nearly 50 small plants. As of 2002,
this retrofit resulted in decreasing WTE dioxin emissions by a factor of
1000, to less than 10 grams TEQ/Nm3.
The emissions of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and
polychlorinated dibenzofurans (dioxins) from 19 MSW incinerators in
China were investigated by the Chinese Academy of Science (CAS).
Sixteen stoker grate and three circulating fluid bed incinerators with
capacities from 150 to 500 tons/day (136-453 tonnes/day) were
examined. The air pollution control systems of nine of the grate
combustion WTE plants, consisted of semi-dry scrubber, activated carbon
injection and fabric filter baghouse; the other seven plants did not use
activated carbon injection. The results of this study showed that the
dioxin emissions of these 19 MSW incinerators ranged from 0.042 to
2.461 nanograms TEQ /Nm3; the average value was 0.423 ng TEQ/Nm3.
The dioxin emission levels of three MSW incinerators were higher than
1.0 ng TEQ/Nm3, which is the emission standard in China. Only six
MSW incinerators had dioxin emission levels below 0.1 ng TEQ/Nm3,
which is the emission limit in Europe, the US and other developed
countries. Therefore, the average emissions of dioxins from Chinese
incinerators ranged from being as low as European and US plants to
being 24 times the western standard. Considering the significant amount
of MSW generation in China, the dioxin emissions from some poorly-
operated WTE have been a severe problem and caused an adverse public
reaction against all WTE facilities.
The dioxin emission factors to the atmosphere from these 19 MSW
incinerators were calculated to range from 0.169-10.72 g TEQ for per
ton MSW with an average 1.728 g TEQ per ton MSW.
Appendix 5 383
(WTE), after the EU, Japan, and the US. There were 66 WTE plants in
China by 2007; this is projected to increase to one hundred by 2012. Two
thirds of these plants employ either imported or domestic versions of
combustion on a moving grate; and the other third various forms of a
home-developed technology, the circulating fluid bed reactor. There is
preparation to increase to 140 WTE plants in the next 5 years (Kalogirou,
2010).
This study also examines in detail the environmental performance of
Chinese WTE plants. Using as a yardstick the emission of dioxins from a
group of 19 Chinese WTE plants, we found that seven operate below the
EU dioxin standard (0.1 nanograms TEQ per standard cubic meter of
stack gas) and 12 above this standard. The fact that several WTEs in
China are able to control dioxin emissions to the very strict EU standard
(which is 10 times lower than the present Chinese standard for dioxins) is
very encouraging and indicates that Chinese operators and air pollution
control systems can be as good as those in the west.
International Agreements
and Commitments to
Environmentally Sound
Management of Waste
Waste Management:
The Basel Convention (Article 4) requires each Party to minimize waste
generation and to ensure, to the extent possible, the availability of
disposal facilities within its own territory. The objective of
environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes underpins the
Convention. At its fifth meeting in December 1999, the Conference of the
386
Appendix 6 387
Import/export controls:
The original Prior Informed Consent procedure of the Basel Convention
(Article 4.1) was strengthened by the subsequent decisions of the Parties
to prohibit the export of hazardous wastes from OECD to non-OECD
countries (Decisions II/12 and III/1). The Basel Convention imposes
strict conditions on the transboundary movement of hazardous wastes
(Articles 4 and 6). Trade with non-parties is generally not permitted
(Article 4.5).
The Rotterdam Convention (Articles 10 to 12) established a Prior
Informed Consent Procedure based on the earlier voluntary guidelines.
The Stockholm Convention (Article 3.2) restricts the import and export of
POPs to cases where, for example, the purpose is not for environmentally
sound disposal. It also requires that POPs should not be transported
across international boundaries ignoring relevant international rules,
standards and guidelines (Article6.1).
Environmental Releases:
The Stockholm Convention requires Parties to take measures to reduce or
eliminate releases of POPs from intentional production and use
(Article 3), unintentional production (Article 5) and stockpiles and wastes
(Article 6). The principles of Best Available Techniques (BAT) and Best
Environmental Practices (BEP) are to be further elaborated for and on
behalf of the Conference of the Parties.
Hazard Communication:
Provision is made for the obligatory communication of hazard
information under the Basel Convention (Article 4.2 f), the Rotterdam
Convention (Article 5.1) and the Stockholm convention (Article 10).
388 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Technical Assistance:
All three Conventions address the technical assistance needs of
developing countries. The Basel Convention (Article 14) and the
Stockholm Convention (Article 12) provide for regional centers for
training and technology transfer, subject to views of Conferences of
Parties. Basel has a Technical Cooperation Trust Fund, while Stockholm
Convention (Articles 13 & 14) has a financial mechanism operated by
the Global Environment Facility (GEF) for the development of National
Implementation Plans.
ANNEXURE 7
389
390 Municipal Solid Waste Management
1. Balloon Plant:
A balloon plant consists of a plastic or rubber digester bag, in the
upper part of which the gas is stored. The inlet and outlet are attached
direct to the skin of the balloon. When the gas space is full, the plant
works like a fixed-dome plant, i.e., the balloon is not inflated; it is not
very elastic.
The fermentation slurry is agitated slightly by the movement of the
balloon skin. This is favourable to the digestion process. Even difficult
feed materials, such as water hyacinths, can be used in a balloon plant.
The balloon material must be UV-resistant. Materials which have been
used successfully include RMP (red mud plastic), Trevira and butyl.
Advantages: Low cost, ease of transportation, low construction
(important if the water table is high), high digester temperatures,
uncomplicated cleaning, emptying and maintenance.
Disadvantages: Short life (about five years), easily damaged, no
employment locally, little scope for self-help.
Balloon plants can be recommended wherever the balloon skin is not
likely to be damaged and where the temperature is even and high. One
variant of the balloon plant is the channel-type digester with folia and
sun.
2. Fixed dome Plant:
A fixed-dome plant (Figure) consists of an enclosed digester with a
fixed, non-movable gas space. The gas is stored in the upper part of
the digester. When gas production commences, the slurry is displaced
into the compensating tank. Gas pressure increases with the volume of
gas stored; therefore the volume of the digester should not exceed
20 m. If there is little gas in the holder, the gas pressure is low.
If the gas is required at constant pressure (e.g., for engines), a gas
pressure regulator or a floating gasholder is required. Engines require
a great deal of gas, and hence large gasholders. The gas pressure then
becomes too high if there is no floating gasholder.
Advantages: Low construction cost, no moving parts, no rusting steel
parts, hence long life (20 years or more), underground construction,
affording protection from winter cold and saving space, creates
employment locally.
Disadvantages: Plants often not gas light (porosity and cracks), gas
pressure fluctuates substantially and is often very high, low digester
temperatures.
Appendix 7 391
Fig: Floating-drum plant 1: Mixing tank with inlet pipe, 2: Digester, 3: Overflow
on outlet pipe, 4: Gasholder with braces for breaking up surface scum, 5: Gas
outlet with main cok, 6: Gas drum guide structure, 7: Difference in level = gas
pressure in cm WC, 8: Floating scum in the case of fibrous feed material,
9: Accumulation of thick sludge, 10: Accumulation of grit and stones, 11: Water
jacket with oil film.
Floating-drums made of glass-fibre reinforced plastic and highdensity
polyethylene have been used successfully, but the construction cost is
higher compared to the ones built with steel. Floating-drums made of
wire-mesh-reinforced concrete are liable to hairline cracking and are
intrinsically porous. They require a gas tight, elastic internal coating.
PVC drums are unsuitable because they are not resistant to UV.
The floating gas drum can be replaced by a balloon above the digester.
This reduces construction costs (channel type digester with folia), but in
practice problems always arise with the attachment of the balloon at the
edge. Such plants are still being tested under practical conditions.
(Source: Ludwig Sasse)
Nisarga-Runa Biogas Plant: The plant, developed by BARC, can use
vegetable and fruit market waste, fruit and food processing industries
waste, domestic and institutional kitchen waste, paper, garden waste,
animal and abattoir waste etc. However, wastes such as coconut shells,
egg shells, big bones, plastic/polythene, glass, metal, sand, silt, debris and
building materials, wood, cloth/clothes, ropes, nylon threads, batteries,
tyres/rubber, hazardous and chemical industries waste etc., cannot be
treated and to be strictly avoided. Municipal authorities, therefore, have
to ensure segregated waste before setting up the biogas plant.
Appendix 7 393
Methane Manure
Treatment
Installation Monthly O & M generation production
capacity
cost (Rs in lakhs) charges (tonnes/day)
(tonnes/day)
(Rs) (Cu m)
1 5-6 8000 100-120 0.1
2 9-10 12,000 200-240 0.2
4 20-22 15,000 400-480 0.3
5 28-30 22,000 500-600 0.5
6 65-70 50,000 1000-1200 2.5
Note: This is an approximate cost for biogas generation plant and may
increase by 1020 per cent depending on location, site, specific
parameters, cost of materials, labour cost etc., in different states/ cities.
Cost of additional infrastructure like office space, toilets, security,
compound wall, flood control measures etc., and for power generation
will be extra, if required (Asnani 2006).
ANNEXURE 8
Zero Waste programmes are the fastest and most cost effective ways that
local governments can utilize to reduce climate change, protect health,
create green jobs, and promote local sustainability. There are three
overarching goals needed for sustainable resource management.
1. Producer responsibility: industrial production and design.
2. Community responsibility: consumption, discard use and disposal.
3. Political responsibility to bring both community and industrial
responsibility together in a harmonious whole.
Zero Waste is a critical step to other necessary steps in the efforts to
protect health, improve equity and reach sustainability. Zero Waste can
be linked to sustainable agriculture, architecture, energy, industrial,
economic and community development. Every single person in the world
makes waste and as such is part of a non-sustainable society. However,
everyone could be engaged in the necessary shift towards a sustainable
society.
The only peer-reviewed internationally accepted definition of Zero
Waste is that adopted by the Zero Waste International Alliance:
Zero Waste is a goal that is ethical, economical, and efficient and
visionary, to guide people in changing their lifestyles and practices to
emulate sustainable natural cycles, where all discarded materials are
designed to become resources for others to use. Zero Waste means
designing and managing products and processes to systematically avoid
395
396 Municipal Solid Waste Management
and eliminate the volume and toxicity of waste and materials, conserve
and recover all resources, and not burn or bury them. Implementing Zero
Waste will eliminate all discharges to land, water or air that are a threat to
planetary, human, animal or plant health. If a product can't be reused,
repaired, rebuilt, refurbished, refinished, resold, recycled or composted,
then it should be restricted, redesigned, or removed from production.
Various concepts have been developed over the years to provide the basis
for improving the management of solid waste in developing cities.
Among these, the concept of Integrated Solid Waste Management
(ISWM) provides a framework of developing a sustainable MSW
management system, which has been very successful in various
industrialized countries.
ISWM is defined as the selection and application of appropriate
techniques, technologies and management programmes to achieve
specific waste management objectives and goals (UNEP, 2001b). In the
Integrated SWM, all aspects technical, legislative, economic, social/
cultural, institutional and environmental along with community
participation are considered, and the link between the stakeholders and
MSWM aspects to develop an integrated approach is provided.
Comprehensive in nature for managing MSW, ISWM is particularly
suited to developing countries where SWM services are of poor quality
and costs are high often with no effective means of recovering them.
397
398 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Externalities of ISWM
(Source: UNCHS 2000)
400 Municipal Solid Waste Management
Door to Door
Refuse/Garbage Collection
System in Surat Municipal
Corporation A project in
Best Practice
402
Appendix 10 403
Strategies adopted:
The strategies adopted for the success of this system are the following:
Selection of the right kind of vehicle based on width of road; Restricting
the number of units in each route to 1,000 to 3,000; Strengthening the
existing system of garbage collection; Providing with uniforms & identity
cards to Drivers and Swachchhta Mitra.; Allowing concession period of
this project to seven years keeping in mind the useful life of vehicle;
Equipping all garbage vehicles with proper alarm system to go to every
door step regularly at scheduled time; Facilitating second shift for
collecting waste from Commercial units during 4.00 pm to 11.00 pm
daily in all zones while maintaining first shift collection timing, 7.00 am
to 1.00 pm, for residential zone; Operating this system all the days in a
year; Creating Public awareness on garbage management through
campaign by the Contractor; Centralized complaint management system
at Head office at Mugalsarai and Contractors office with modern
communication facilities; and Provision for segregated waste collection
(Dry and Wet).
Procedure:
Normally Door to Door collection system vehicles reach to the concern
ward office early in the morning every day to get confirmation regarding
the route to be taken and receive information on complaints, if any. At
each ward office, there is provision to make a complaint regarding
noncoverage of any area / unit. Phone numbers of the supervisory staff is
communicated to the area in order to reach in case of a problem. Frequent
meetings with ward office are also held to effect improvements to the
collection system.
Centralised Co-digestion
of Multiple substrates
(CAD): Example of
Denmark
407
408 Municipal Solid Waste Management
manure from a single farm or a few farms, and the centralised co-
digestion plants, normally operated as cooperatives or as private limited
companies. A larger number of farmers supply manure to the centralised
plant. Moreover, significant amounts of suitable organic residues are
added to the process in order to enhance the biogas yield and thus
strengthen the economics. The economic performance of the centralised
biogas plants to a large extent dependent on the availability of high
quality organic residues.
At present, 21 centralised co-digestion plants and approximately
60 farm-scale plants are in operation in Denmark. Together, they treat
1.5 million tonnes of manure and 0,3 million tonnes of industrial organic
waste annually.
The Danish Centralised Co-digestion concept involves the agricultural
sector, the energy production-end distribution sector, the food industry
and agro-industry sector. The result is an optimized and integrated
biological production system, a bio refinery. The centralised biogas plant
concept is depicted in Figure.
The high-value products from the biogas plant constitute organic
fertiliser and biogas.
Some of the features of the centralised Danish concept are that
nutrients contained in pig and cattle manure produced by agricultural
activities can be re-distributed among crop cultivators. i.e., farmers
having many livestock units and too few hectares of farmland to apply
the manure on according to Danish law, can re-distribute nutrients
(nitrogen and phosphorous) via the centralised biogas plant to crop
farmers having plenty of land, but no livestock units. Moreover, the
anaerobic digestion process effectively reduces the offensive odor
traditionally associated with raw manure and it also eliminates pathogens,
weeds, and deceases.
Appendix 11 409
potential in manure is recalcitrant and leaves the biogas plant via the
effluent; the complex lignocellulosic structure of plant material is
difficult, practically impossible, to degrade biologically.
The centralised co-digestion plant is generally situated centrally, in a
high density manure area. Animal slurries and manure from several farms
around are supplied to the plant, to be co-digested with various types of
suitable organic wastes from agriculture and from food processing
industries. The biomass substrate is usually transported to and from the
centralized digestion plant (CAD) in vacuum trucks.
The substrate (slurry, manure, organic residues) is sanitised and
digested in anaerobic reactor tanks. The average retention time in the
digesters is of 15 days. The biomass substrate is continuously pumped in
the reactor, as the digestate is pumped out and transported to storage
tanks located next to the fields where digestate will be used as fertiliser.
The biogas produced is continuously collected and transported by
pipelines to the energy production unit, where it is converted into heat
and electricity in a combined heat and power unit. The electricity is sold
to the grid and the heat is used at the biogas plant as process heat, while
the main part is sold to heat consumers (housing or industry).
Benefits: The centralised co-digestion is a multifunctional technology
providing renewable energy and benefits for the agriculture and
environment. The environmental friendly renewable energy production is
used to substitute fossil fuels and thereby increases energy security,
reducing dependence on imported fossil fuels. The codigestion of manure
helps the farming sector to handle and to redistribute the surplus of
manure in other areas, where it could be used in environmentally friendly
ways. Co-digestion provides an economically attractive and sustainable
management of organic wastes and improves the fertilizer value of the
animal manure and slurries. CO2 emissions and losses of nitrogen to
water systems are reduced and the establishment and operation of the
biogas plant leads to creation of new local jobs and supports the rural
economies.
Digested manure is a valuable fertilizer:
In Denmark, digestion of slurry is recognized to contribute to a better
utilization of the slurry as fertilizer as documented from a large number
of field trials. It is also evident that digestion reduces the smell problems
after spreading the slurry.
Appendix 11 411
The physical and chemical process taking place in the biogas plant
changes the fertilizing effect of the slurry in the field. The high content of
ammonium is advantageous to the crops. In other words, it is often
possible to replace nitrogen from commercial fertiliser by digested slurry
and thus save money.
The thin, low-viscosity digested slurry seeps relatively quickly into
the soil. This reduces the normally very high risk of ammonia
volatilization. Trials have shown that the ammonia evaporation from
surface applied digested slurry actually is lower than from surface applied
pig slurry.
(Source: PROBIOGAS 2007)
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Glossary
413
414 Municipal Solid Waste Management
solid waste of less than one hundred (100) tons each working day, and
serves, or is expected to serve a population of less than forty thousand
(40,000) persons.
Class D Solid Waste Facility: Any commercial solid waste facility for the
disposal of only construction/demolition waste and does not include the
legitimate beneficial reuse of clean waste concrete/masonry substances
for the purpose of structural fill or road base material.
Co-incineration: The combustion of more than one category of fuel in
the same plant.
Co-composting: Simultaneous composting of two or more diverse waste
streams.
Cogeneration: Production of both electricity and heat from one facility,
from the same fuel source.
Combustion: Burning of materials in an incinerator in MSWM
Commercial Waste: Waste materials originating in wholesale, retail,
institutional, or service establishments such as office buildings, stores,
markets, theaters, hotels and warehouses.
Compactor: Power-driven device used to compress materials to a smaller
volume.
Composite liner: A liner system for a land-fill consisting of an
engineered soil layer and a synthetic sheet of material.
Compost: The relatively stable decomposed organic material resulting
from the composting process also referred to as humus.
Composting: Biological decomposition of solid organic materials by
bacteria, fungi, and other organisms under aerobic conditions into a soil-
like product.
Cullet: Clean, generally color-sorted, crushed glass used to make new
glass produced.
Curbside Collection: Programmes where recyclable materials are
collected at the curb, often from special containers, to be brought to
various processing facilities.
Decomposition: Breaking down into component parts or basic elements.
Detinning: Recovering tin from tin cans by a chemical process which
makes the remaining steel more easily recycled.
416 Municipal Solid Waste Management
423
424 Municipal Solid Waste Management
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436 Municipal Solid Waste Management
www.alfagy.com,
http://www.claverton-energy.com/38-hhv-caterpillar-bio-gas-engine-
fitted-to-long-reach-sewage-works.html
www.dmu.ac.uk/in/itc/ad.htm
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www.adelaide.edu.au,
http://www.teri.res.in/teriin/camps/delhi.htm 2007
http://www.environment.about.com
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http://www.unfpa.org
Reports from World Bank, OECD, ADB, JICA, US EPA, IIASA,
EEA and other International Agencies.
One of the big challenges that today's growing cities are coping with is the delivery of
effective and sustainable waste management, together with a good sanitation. This
volume provides a comprehensive presentation and overall picture of municipal
solid waste management, including waste generation and characterization, waste
reduction and recycling, waste collection and transfer and waste disposal. It
analyses how these aspects are practiced in developing and developed countries.
The traditional method of disposal composting at different scales is discussed,
including the benefits of compost. 'Energy-from-waste-technologies' are amply
discussed, with comparisons between developed and developing countries, and
with parameters and conditions for successful operation of these technologies.
Moreover, the construction and operational aspects of landfills to maintain
environmental safety and the health of the residents nearby are described in
depth. In addition to a chapter with case studies of several countries and cities in
every continent, a special chapter is dedicated to municipal solid waste
management in India, including legal provisions, financial resources, private
participation and citizens' rights and obligations, and the status in three major cities.
By presenting different elements that constitute a sustainable procedure, including
the recovery of clean energy, this volume will serve as a guide to students in science
and engineering and to key players in waste management services and policies.
ISBN: 978-0-415-69036-2