Table of contents

1 Simple declarations and expressions .......................................................................3

1.1 Simple declarations..............................................................................................................3
1.2 Numeric expressions and assignments.................................................................................3
1.3 Type conversion (casting) ....................................................................................................4
2 Statements ................................................................................................................4
2.1 If statements and boolean expressions .................................................................................5
2.2 While and for statements .....................................................................................................6
3 Classes and objects ..................................................................................................6
3.1 Classes..................................................................................................................................7
3.2 Methods................................................................................................................................7
3.3 Using objects........................................................................................................................8
3.4 Parameters to classes: constructors ......................................................................................8
3.5 The main method .................................................................................................................9
3.6 Inheritance............................................................................................................................9
3.7 Interfaces and listeners.......................................................................................................10
4 Exceptions..............................................................................................................11
4.1 Catching exceptions ...........................................................................................................11
4.2 Throwing exceptions..........................................................................................................12
4.3 Declaring new exceptions ..................................................................................................12
4.4 Unchecked exceptions........................................................................................................13
5 Miscellaneous ........................................................................................................13
5.1 Comments ..........................................................................................................................13
5.2 Using packages ..................................................................................................................13
5.3 Arrays.................................................................................................................................14
5.4 Writing to the terminal.......................................................................................................14
6 A complete Java program ......................................................................................15

Teach Yourself Java in 21 Minutes 1

What is Java, and why?

The Java programming language was developed at Sun Microsystems and originally
became popular as a language for Internet applications (applets). Such applets are embed-
ded within WWW pages and executed in the users browser. A special format called byte
code is used instead of ordinary machine code, and by using a special Java interpreter pro-
gram that code can be executed on any computer. Such an interpreter is called a Java Vir-
tual Machine (JVM) and is available for most modern computer systems.

(There is nothing about the Java language itself that enforces the byte code technique
there are actually some compilers who generate real machine code, known as native code,
directly.)

The Java language is not limited to Internet applications. It is a complete general object-
oriented language and can be used to develop many kinds of applications. Although the
syntax of Java is very similar to that of C++, many complicated and error-prone features of
C++ have been removed. The result can be described as a Simula with C++ syntax.

Sun Microsystems (who created the Java language) provide free tools for developing Java
software. The Java home page <http://java.sun.com> has links to Java compilers for
most computer systems (such as Unix and Microsoft Windows), as well as a lot of docu-
mentation. It is possible to download a Java compiler and use it for free.

Compiling and running Java programs

In Java, every source file usually contains exactly one class. The file must have the same
name as the class; a class named TurtleMaze would be stored in the source file
TurtleMaze.java. This source file can then be compiled using the javac compiler:

% javac TurtleMaze.java

The output of the compiler is a file with the same name as the source file, but with the
extension .class instead of .java (i.e., TurtleMaze.class in the above example). That
class file contains the byte code mentioned earlier, so it cannot be executed right away.
Instead it is executed using the JVM (byte code interpreter) as follows:
% java TurtleMaze

This command loads the TurtleMaze class and executes its main method (that is, starts
the program). If the TurtleMaze class in turn uses other classes, these are loaded automat-
ically when needed.

Since every class should be in its own file, several files can need to be recompiled at the
same time. The javac compiler has a special option -depend to compile all files that
depend on a particular file. The command
% javac -depend TurtleMaze.java

will compile not only TurtleMaze.java, but also all changed files it depends upon.

Teach Yourself Java in 21 Minutes 2

Finding out more about Java

Many details of the Java language have been left out in this tutorial. If you want to know
more about the Java programming language, refer to one of the following sources:
Per Holm: Objektorienterad programmering och Java. Studentlitteratur, 1998.
Mary Campione and Kathy Walrath: The Java Tutorial (second edition). Addison-Wes-
ley, 1998. Also available on WWW:
<http://java.sun.com/docs/books/tutorial/index.html>.

Ken Arnold and James Gosling: The Java Programming Language (second edition).
Addison-Wesley, 1998.
Sun Microsystems: Java Technology Home Page: <http://java.sun.com>. Includes
detailed documentation about the Java class libraries.

If you have a question about Java which this short tutorial does not answer, feel free to ask
any of the teachers in your course.

1 Simple declarations and expressions

This section shows how to declare and use variables of the simple types, such as integers
or booleans. Declarations and uses of object references are shown in Section 3 on page 6.

Note that declarations and statements can be mixed freely (in contrast to Simula and
Pascal).

1.1 Simple declarations

Java supports the usual set of simple types, such as integer, boolean, and real variables.
Here are a few of the most common ones:
int m, n; // Two integer variables
double x, y; // Two real coordinates
boolean b; // Either true or false
char ch; // A character, such as P or @

1.2 Numeric expressions and assignments

Numeric expressions are written in much the same way as in other languages.
n = 3 * (5 + 2);
x = y / 3.141592653;
n = m % 8; // Modulo, i.e. n is now (m mod 8)
b = true;
ch = x;

Note: the assignment is written using = as opposed to := in many other languages.

Another symbol, ==, is used to compare two values to each other (see Section 2.1 on
page 5). If you try to compare two values using = you will get an error.

Teach Yourself Java in 21 Minutes 3

It is possible to assign a variable an initial value directly when declaring it. Example:
double f = 0.57;
boolean flag = true;

Unlike Simula, the initial value of a local variable is undefined (unless, of course, an initial
value is explicitly given as just shown).

Pitfall: differences between integer and real division

The Java division operator (/) can actually mean two different things: real division for
real numbers, and integer division for integers. Usually this is not a problem, but it can
occasionally lead to some surprising results:
double f;
f = 1 / 3; // f is now 0.0
f = 1.0 / 3.0; // f is now 0.33333333...

In the first case an integer division is performed, giving an integer result (0). To get the
result 0.33333, the 1 and 3 are expressed as real values (1.0 and 3.0), which means the
division becomes a real division.

1.3 Type conversion (casting)

In some languages it is possible to assign, for instance, a real value to an integer variable.
The value is then automatically converted (in this case, rounded) to the right type.

Java does not perform all such conversions automatically. Instead the programmer must
indicate where the conversions must be made by writing the desired type in parentheses
before the expression. In Java, such a conversion is called a cast. Example:
double radians;
int degrees;
...
degrees = radians * 180 / 3.141592653; // Error
degrees = (int) (radians * 180 / 3.141592653); // OK
It is, however, possible to assign an integer value to a real variable without casting. In gen-
eral, no cast is necessary as long as the conversion can be made without any loss of infor-
mation.

2 Statements
Java statements are written in much the same way as in other languages. Just like in Sim-
ula or Pascal, statements can be grouped together in blocks using { and } (correspond-
ing to begin and end in these languages).

Teach Yourself Java in 21 Minutes 4

2.1 If statements and boolean expressions
A simple if statement is written as follows:
if (n == 3)
x = 3.2;

Note:
There is no then keyword
The condition must be of boolean type and written within parentheses
Comparison is made using ==

There are of course a number of other comparison operators, such as <, >, <=, >=,
and so on. The only one that looks different from Simula and Pascal is the not equals
operator !=, which is used in the example below.
if (x != 0)
y = 3.0 / x; // Executed when x is non-zero
else
y = 1; // Executed when x is zero

Pitfall: semicolons and else statements

Note that, unlike Simula and Pascal, there should be a semicolon before the else key-
word in the example above.

However, when one uses braces ({ and }) to form a block of statements, the right
brace should NOT be followed by a semicolon. (In fact, a right brace is never followed
by a semicolon in Java.)
if (x != 0) {
y = 3.0 / x;
x = x + 1;
} else // <--- Note: no semicolon
y = 1;

It is common practice to always include the braces, even if they only contain a single state-
ment. This avoids forgetting them whenever another statement is added.

More about boolean expressions

For boolean expressions, one needs to use logical operators corresponding to and, or,
and not. In Java, they are written as follows:

and &&
or ||
not !

Teach Yourself Java in 21 Minutes 5

For example:
int x, y;
boolean b;
...
if ((x <= 9 || y > 3) && !b) {
b = true;
}

2.2 While and for statements

// Calculate exp(1). End when the term is less than 0.00001
double sum = 0.0;
double term = 1.0;
int k = 1;
while (term >= 0.00001) {
sum = sum + term;
term = term / k;
k++; // Shortcut for k = k + 1
}

As the example shows, there is nothing special about Javas while statement. The for state-
ment is quite general and can be used in some very advanced ways. However, the most
common use is to repeat some statement a known number of times:
// Calculate 1 + (1/2) + (1/3) + ... + (1/100)
int i;
double sum = 0.0;
for (i = 1; i <= 100; i++) {
sum = sum + 1.0 / i;
}

As indicated in these examples, the statement i++ is a shortcut for i = i + 1. Actually,

there are at least four ways to increment an integer variable1:
i = i + 1;
i++;
++i;
i += 1;

As long as these statements are not used as parts of a larger expression, they mean exactly
the same thing. There corresponding operators for decrementing variables are -- and -=.

3 Classes and objects

As already mentioned, one file normally contains one class.

1. Supporting several ways to write essentially the same thing has historical reasons it is a heritage from
the C programming language.

Teach Yourself Java in 21 Minutes 6

3.1 Classes
A class declaration typically contains a set of attributes (sometimes called instance vari-
ables) and functions (called methods in Java). So far a Java class declaration is very simi-
lar to one in Simula. Attributes are declared almost as usual:
class Turtle {
private boolean penDown;
protected int x, y;

// Declare some more stuff

}

The private and protected keywords require some explanation. The private declara-
tion means that those attributes cannot be accessed outside of the class. In general,
attributes should be kept private to prevent other classes from accessing them directly.

There are two other related keywords: public and protected. The public keyword is
used to declare that something can be accessed from other classes. The protected key-
word specifies that something can be accessed from within the class and all its subclasses,
but not from the outside.

3.2 Methods
In Java, functions and procedures are called methods. Methods are declared as follows:
class Turtle {
// Attribute declarations, as above

public void jumpTo(int newX, int newY) {

x = newX;
y = newY;
}

public int getX() {

return x;
}
}

This example contains two methods. The first is called jumpTo and has two integer param-
eters, newX and newY.

The second method is called getX, has no parameters, and returns an integer. Note that the
empty pair of parentheses must be present.

Both method declarations begin with the keyword public, to make sure they can be
accessed from other classes. (It is however possible to declare methods private or pro-
tected, which can be useful for internal methods which should not be used from other
classes.)

Teach Yourself Java in 21 Minutes 7

Before the methods name, a type is written to indicate the methods return type. The
jumpTo method does not return a value (i.e., it is a procedure, not a function). For this rea-
son, it is declared as void (meaning nothing). The getX method returns an integer, so it
is declared as int.

3.3 Using objects

The new operator is used to create objects in much the same way as in other languages. If
we assume the Turtle class requires two integer parameters (say, X and Y coordinates) a
Turtle object can be created as follows:

Turtle t;
t = new Turtle(100, 100);

The first line is a declaration of a reference variable to a Turtle object, just like a
ref(Turtle) declaration in Simula. The second line creates a new Turtle object and sets
the t variable to refer to it.

Theres nothing strange about calling methods in objects, as the following examples show.
int a = t.getX();
t.jumpTo(300, 200);

Java has garbage collection, so there is no need to destroy objects manually.

3.4 Parameters to classes: constructors

In the example above, the Turtle class was assumed to take two parameters. This must of
course be specified in the class in some way, and in Java this is done in a special method
called the constructor. The constructor is automatically called when an object is created,
and the parameters of the constructor match those given when an object is created.

The constructor is written just like any ordinary method but with the same name as the
class, and no return type (not even void).

The Turtle constructor could, for instance, look like this:

public Turtle(int initX, int initY) {
x = initX;
y = initY;
penDown = false;
}

Unlike Simula class parameters, the constructors parameters are not attributes. Instead
they are used to give initial values to the attributes.

Teach Yourself Java in 21 Minutes 8

3.5 The main method
In Java, statements can only be written within methods in classes. This means that there
must be some method which is called by the system when the program starts executing.
This method is called main and must be declared in the class which is started from the
command line (for example, in the TurtleMaze class if one runs java TurtleMaze).

A main method usually creates a few objects and does some small work to get things
going. For Turtle a simple main method may look as follows:
public static void main(String[] args) {
Turtle t = new Turtle(100, 200);
t.right(90);
while (t.getX() < 150) {
t.forward(2);
}
}

There are two new things about main, which can both safely be ignored for now. The first
is the static keyword. It means that when the main method is called, it is not associated
with an object, but with the class. (This implies that the method cannot access any
attributes.)

The other new thing is the parameter named args. If the Java interpreter is given any more
information than the class name, this data is passed on to the main method in this parame-
ter.

3.6 Inheritance
To declare a subclass of another class, use the extends keyword in the class declaration:
class NinjaTurtle extends Turtle {
// Declarations for Ninja turtles
}

So far, this works in exactly the same way as subclasses in Simula. If the superclass con-
structor has any parameters, it must be called first using the keyword super. The construc-
tor for NinjaTurtle might look like this:
public NinjaTurtle(int initX, int initY, String name) {
super(initX, initY); // Call superclass constructor
// ... do some more initialization stuff...
}

Virtual methods

In Java, all methods are virtual, so there is no need for any special syntax for virtual meth-
ods. A method in a class automatically overrides any method with the same name and
parameters in any superclass.

Teach Yourself Java in 21 Minutes 9

It is possible to declare abstract methods. Such methods are really just declarations with-
out any associated implementation, meaning that the method must be implemented in
some subclass. Consider, for example, a class for graphic figures: Figure. That class is
then specialized into Circle, Square and so on. All figures can be drawn, but the imple-
mentation is left to subclasses. The draw method in Figure could be declared as follows:
public abstract void draw();

A class with one or more abstract methods is itself called abstract, and must be declared as
such by writing abstract class instead of class. It is not possible to create objects
from abstract classes.

3.7 Interfaces and listeners

An interface can be used to specify that a class has to provide a certain set of methods.
This can be useful in a number of situations and is perhaps best shown with an example as
follows.

Programs with graphical user interfaces often need to be informed whenever the mouse is
clicked. Usually the program has some method which should be automatically called by
the system whenever the user clicks the mouse.

Java provides a very flexible way of specifying an object and a method to call in such situ-
ations. Suppose the window system declares an interface, written as follows:
interface MouseListener {
void processMouseClick(int x, int y);
}

This declaration essentially says that if an object should be used to handle mouse clicks,
its class should contain a processMouseClick method with two integer parameters.

A class can then be declared to implement that interface:

class SomeClass extends SomeOtherClass implements MouseListener {
// ...declarations...

public void processMouseClick(int x, int y) {

// Do something sensible here
}
}

Finally, the window system should have some method to register MouseListener objects
to inform whenever a mouse is clicked. Such a method might look like as follows:
class WindowSystem {
public void addMouseListener(MouseListener m) {
// Insert m into some clever data structure
}
// ... and loads of more stuff...
}

Teach Yourself Java in 21 Minutes 10

Note that the type of the parameter m is not a class, but an interface. In other words, it does
not matter of which class the listener is, as long as that class implements the MouseLis-
tener interface. This turns out to be a quite flexible technique in practice, since the differ-
ent components need very little information about each other.

4 Exceptions
Many things can go wrong during the execution of a program. These run-time errors can
be divided into two broad categories:
Faults introduced by the programmer, such as division by zero or calling a method with
a null reference.
Things out of the programs control, such as a user entering a garbage on the keyboard
when the program expects a positive integer.

The latter category is the one that programmers usually take care of. The traditional way
of handling these errors is to put the code in question in some method which returns a
value to indicate whether whings went well or not. A method to read a positive integer
from the keyboard could, for instance, look like this:
public int getNatural() { ... }

Suppose the special value -1 is used to indicate that an invalid number was entered by the
user. The code that calls this method would then have to check the return value with an if
statement. If that code is part of some method, that method may in turn have to return
some value to indicate that things went wrong. This kind of programming can easily turn
into a lot of if statements and special return values, and very few statements that actually
do something.

4.1 Catching exceptions

Using Java exceptions, the method above could be declared as follows:
public int getNatural() throws IOException { ... }

This method is said to throw an exception (more specifically, an IOException) when

something else than a natural number is entered on the keyboard. The code that calls the
method could look like this:
int m, n;
try {
n = getNatural();
m = n * 2; // If an exception is thrown, this is not executed
}
catch (IOException e) {
// The user entered something wrong. Use 1 as default.
n = 1;
m = 2;
}

Teach Yourself Java in 21 Minutes 11

The statement(s) within the try clause are executed as usual, but whenever an exception
occurs, the try clause is interrupted and the statements within the corresponding catch
clause are executed. The execution then continues after the try/catch clauses.

The try clause can contain many statements that throw exceptions, and there can be sev-
eral different catch clauses. This means that the error handling is separated from the code
that actually does the work. It often also helps in reducing the complexity of the error han-
dling code.

If a method does not handle an exception (for instance, if it uses the getNatural()
method without any try/catch clauses), the exception must be passed on to the calling
method. This is done using a throws declaration as indicated above:
public void doStuff() throws IOException {
int n = getNatural(); // May throw an exception
// Clever calculations using n...
}

The method that calls doStuff() must in turn either catch the exception or pass it on. If
the exception is not caught (even the main method passes it on), the execution is aborted
with an error message.

4.2 Throwing exceptions

It is of course also possible to throw exceptions yourself when things go wrong. The
getNatural() method could look as follows (in Java-pseudo-code):

public int getNatural() throws IOException {

char ch;
while (more input) {
ch = (read character);
if (ch < 0 || ch > 9) {
throw new IOException(bad natural number);
}
...
}
...
}

Note the new keyword in the throw statement above. This reveals that the exception is
actually an object which can contain information. In particular, it contains a string describ-
ing the error, as indicated above.

4.3 Declaring new exceptions

Although there are a number of pre-defined exception classes in Java, you may occasion-
ally need to declare your own exceptions. This can be done by creating a subclass of the
existing Exception class. Suppose we want to throw an exception when some external
equipment is overheating. Such an exception could hold information about the current
temperature, as follows:

Teach Yourself Java in 21 Minutes 12

 class OverheatedException extends Exception {
public OverheatedException(String s, double temp) {
super(s);
myTemperature = temp;
}

public double getTemperature() {

return myTemperature;
}

private double myTemperature;

}

4.4 Unchecked exceptions

Some exceptions do not have to be caught: the so-called unchecked exceptions which are
thrown by the run-time system in some cases. For instance, when an integer division by
zero occurs, an ArithmeticException is thrown by the system. This exception is nor-
mally not caught anywhere, so when it is thrown the execution of the program is aborted
with an error message (just like in most other languages).

It is possible to catch these unchecked exceptions, which can occasionally be useful.

5 Miscellaneous
This section contains a few details about Java that might be useful to know when writing
Java programs.

5.1 Comments
One kind of comments has already been shown: the line comment, which starts with //
and extends to the end of a line. Multi-line comments are written using /* and */ as
follows:
/* This is a comment
which continues on to a second line */

(A special case of such multi-line comments are the documentation comments. They are
written immediately before classes and methods and begin with /** (two asterisks) and
end, as usual, with */ (one asterisk). Such comments are used by a special tool, java-
doc, to automatically generate low-level documentation of the program.)

5.2 Using packages

Some of the library classes, as well as some of the help classes for the laboratories, are
provided in packages. To use the classes from a package, they must be imported.

Teach Yourself Java in 21 Minutes 13

For instance, many of the classes used for graphical user interfaces in Java (AWT, or
Abstract Window Toolkit) belong to the java.awt package. To use these classes, the fol-
lowing must be written first in the source file:
import java.awt.*;

5.3 Arrays
A Java array is similar to an object in some ways. It is for example accessed using refer-
ence variables. Array references can be declared as follows:
int[] someInts; // An integer array
Turtle[] turtleFarm; // An array of references to Turtles

Since these variables are only references to arrays, the array sizes are not given in the dec-
larations, but when the arrays are actually created.
someInts = new int[30];
turtleFarm = new Turtle[100];

The array elements can then be used as any simple scalar variables. (Note that indices
always start at 0 and end at the size minus one, so the elements of the someInts array
have the indices 0 to 29.)
int i;
for (i = 0; i < someInts.length; i = i + 1) {
someInts[i] = i * i;
}

The expression someInts.length means in the length of the vector, 30 in this case.

5.4 Writing to the terminal

To write something to the terminal, call one of the methods print and println in the
object System.out. They both write the argument (a String) to the terminal. The latter
method, println, also ends the line. Example:
System.out.print(Jag vill bo );
System.out.println(i en svamp);
System.out.println(Annars fr jag kramp);

The resulting output is:

Jag vill bo i en svamp
Annars fr jag kramp

Variable values can be printed like this:

int a;
a = 6 * 7;
System.out.println(6 * 7 = + a);

Teach Yourself Java in 21 Minutes 14

6 A complete Java program
The following example program displays a window with graphical figures (squares and
circles). The program is not intended to be useful in any way except as an example of a
complete Java program.

Figure.java
import java.awt.*;

/**
* Simple abstract class for graphic figures that can be drawn in windows.
*/
abstract class Figure {

/**
* Constructor: takes two parameters, the X and Y coordinates.
*/
public Figure(int inX, int inY) {
x = inX;
y = inY;
}

/**
* Abstract method for drawing this thing.
*
* The g parameter is a pen that can be used to draw things
* in the window.
*/
public abstract void draw(Graphics g);

/**
* Move the figure to (newX, newY).
*/
public void move(int newX, int newY) {
x = newX;
y = newY;
}

protected int x, y; // X and Y coordinates

}

Teach Yourself Java in 21 Minutes 15

Square.java
import java.awt.*;

/**
* A square that can be drawn in a window. The coordinates represent the
* upper left corner of the square.
*/
class Square extends Figure {

/**
* Constructor: first two parameters are the coordinates, the third is
* the side.
*/
public Square(int inX, int inY, int inSide) {
super(inX, inY);
side = inSide;
}

/**
* Drawing method for squares.
*/
public void draw(Graphics g) {
g.drawRect(x, y, side, side);
}

private int side; // Square side

}

Circle.java
import java.awt.*;

/**
* Circle class. The coordinates represent the circles center.
*/
class Circle extends Figure {

/**
* Constructor: the first two parameters are the coordinates,
* the third is the diameter.
*/
public Circle(int inX, int inY, int inDiam) {
super(inX, inY);
d = inDiam;

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 }

/**
* Drawing method for circles.
*/
public void draw(Graphics g) {
g.drawOval(x, y, d, d);
}

private int d; // Circle diameter

}

FigureWindow.java
import java.awt.*;

/**
* A simple window to display graphic figures in. The window is a subclass
* of the Java Frame class, which describes graphic windows. The window
* keeps its figures in an array.
*
* The Java window system (AWT) automatically calls the paint method in
* the Frame class whenever the windows contents need to be redrawn. A
* new implementation of paint is provided in FigureWindow to handle the
* drawing.
*/
class FigureWindow extends Frame {

/**
* Constructor: the parameter indicates the maximal number of figures.
*/
public FigureWindow(int max) {
super("Fabulous Figures); // Window title
figures = new Figure[max];
nbrOfFigures = 0;
}

/**
* Add the figure f to the window. If the maximal number of figures has
* been reached, nothing happens.
*/
public void addFigure(Figure f) {
if (nbrOfFigures < figures.length) {
figures[nbrOfFigures] = f;
nbrOfFigures++;
}
}

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 /**
* This method is called automatically by the system. Draws the
* raphic figures associated with the window.
*
* The g parameter is a drawing pen provided by the system.
*/
public void paint(Graphics g) {
int i;
for(i = 0; i < nbrOfFigures; i++) {
figures[i].draw(g);
}
}

// Array of graphic figures

private Figure[] figures;

// Current number of figures

private int nbrOfFigures;

/**
* Main method: creates a FigureWindow and a few figures inside it.
*/
public static void main(String[] args) {
FigureWindow w = new FigureWindow(10);
w.setSize(400, 300);
w.addFigure(new Square(50, 50, 200));
w.addFigure(new Circle(200, 100, 150));
w.addFigure(new Circle(300, 200, 200));
w.show();
}
}

Teach Yourself Java in 21 Minutes 18