Vande Ur Zen 1996
Vande Ur Zen 1996
Vande Ur Zen 1996
4 GEOMETRIC PARAMETERS
1
W
w / lenticular one. The model does not take into account
W
the setting of the yarn crimp in the fabric, i.e. the
residual crimp of the yarn after it has been released
W*
from the fabric. Bending stiffness and torsional
n warp over weft stiffness of the yarn are also neglected. From a purely
textile point of view the model is acceptable; for the
c-7 weft over warp plain-woven fabric, formulae are presented that can
Fig. 2. Extended checkerboard pattern of a hybrid be useful when studying shrinkage effects of the
twill-weave unit cell. The w- and f-type yarns are natural flax textile, cloth extension, limits of setting, etc.
fibres, and the w*- and f*-type yarns are carbon fibres. Our analysis provides the basic description of the
microgeometry of a large range of 2D woven fabrics.
Not only standard weaves such as plain, twill or satin
describe the most complex material unit cells. Figure 2 weaves, but also more complex weaves with a special
shows an example of a checkerboard pattern for such yarn interlacing style and with different yarn types are
a complex fabric, namely a hybrid carbon/flax twill considered. The most detailed analysis would consider
weave. The hybrid fabrics of carbon fibre and natural the path of each single fibre in the unit cell. The
flax fibre are actually under study in our research greatest practical problem, however, is caused by the
group. The rows of the board represent the warp fact that the complete set of input data necessary for
yarns, while the columns are the filling or weft yarns. such a detailed geometric description is very large and
At an interlacing point, the square is coloured black if difficult to quantify. Therefore, the geometric analysis
the warp yarn runs over the weft yarn. The main is carried out on the yarn level. We assume that all
complexity arises from the fact that the fabrics fibres in the yarn run in the same direction as the
considered here can contain two different warp yarn yarn. For twisted yarns, the existence of the twist
types, labelled w and w*. The fibre mechanical angle could be taken into account by altering the
properties, the size, the shape and the inter-yarn elastic properties of the impregnated yarn. The
distances can vary. Moreover, two filling yarn types, f intra-yarn fibre volume fraction or packing factor,
and f*, can be present in the fabric unit cell. Although defined as fibre-to-yarn area ratio, is assumed to be a
they are equally sized and shaped, the fibre constant for the woven-fabric composite. From a
mechanical properties and the inter-yarn distances can textile point of view, the air-filled space trapped by
differ. Because of the possible existence of different the fibres affects the insulating and warmth properties
types of yarns in one fabric structure, an extra column of the fabric. It is clear that interlacing of the yarns
and row are added to the classic checkerboard. If a and processing of the composite leads to thread or
square in this extra row or column is marked, the yarn flattening. Therefore, the assumption of a
corresponding yarn is an asterisk-type yarn. First, the circular yarn cross-section is unrealistic. On the basis
extension is necessary to describe hybrid weave styles. of microscopic observations, a lenticular shape was
Next, the need for this refinement is based on selected to describe the cross-sectional shape of the
microstructural observations of woven-fabric compos- yarn (Fig. 3).
ites. Even when yarns are woven separately for the Figure 4 depicts the geometric parameters on a
construction of a fabric, they can unite to compose a cross-section of a woven composite. Three groups of
big yarn or super yarn in the composite. The geometric parameters are identified to describe a
existence of those super yarns in the skin of 3D woven general two-dimensional weave geometry (Table 1).
core sandwich composites was predicted theoretically The subscripts f, f*, w and w* distinguish quantities
and confirmed experimentally.? Of course, the associated with filling yarns, filling* yarns, warp yarns
extension is also needed when using special fibres in and warp* yarns, respectively. The first group- the
1306 Ph. Vandeurzen et al.
D/
DI
Fig. 4. Cross-section of a fabric composite along the warp Fig. 5. Influence of the crimp parameter h on the
direction. plain-weave fabric geometry: (a) h, = 0 and (b) h, = 0.
30 analysis of fabric composites: I
l!29
primary interest in studies of the porosity and the tw
permeability of fabrics to air, water and polymers.
tf
i
(cwcm
] FIWW
5 PARTITION OF THE UNIT CELL: MACRO- ffl2
AND MICRO-PARTITION
tw
There are two major motivations in creating a strictly
logical partitioning scheme for the unit cell. First, it
should be easy then to calculate the geometric
parameters which fully describe the yarn architecture, [p&J tf
Pff
only based on the presented know and measure
group. The bookkeeping of geometric data becomes a
;r=-
simple task. Second, to calculate the elastic properties A
of the woven-fabric composite, one needs a logical
and simple geometric meshing of the unit cell. tw
Basically, our meshing has the same purpose as the
meshing of elements over the geometry in the
well-known finite element analysis and, in this way, it
[FG] tf Pff
w* *
could be considered as an intelligent mesh generator
for woven-fabric composites. Fig. 6. Library of macro-cells: four exemplars.
The macro-partition of the unit cell consists of
discretising the unit cell into a number of rectangular construction pattern provided by the weaving
macro-cells. Each square of the checkerboard pattern company is sufficient to determine automatically the
is split up into four macro-cells. The macro-partition number of each type of macro-cell present in the unit
includes a split into two layers in the thickness cell. For this, the extended checkerboard pattern is
direction of the composite. That is, at each cross-over transformed into an algebraic matrix, where each
point of a warp and a weft yarn, one needs two matrix element is completely determined by the
macro-cells in one layer to define the path for the geometric positions and yarn types of the two
warp yarn and two in the other layer for the weft yarn.
Depending on the orientation of the yarn, we can
distinguish A-, B- and C-type cells for the warp yarns
Bd3
and D-, E- anf F-type cells for the weft yarns.
In order to describe a general weave geometry, a
library of 108 macro-cells has been put together. Even
the most complex 2D woven structures can be
composed with this library of rectangular macro-cells
or building blocks. Figure 6 shows examples of UPPER
macro-cells. Again the subscripts w, w*, f and f* are
LAYER
used, now to define a name for each cell; e.g. Bw$
describes the path of a w*-type warp yarn running
from an f-type yarn to an f-type yarn. Moreover,
special macro-cells containing pile yarns of 3D woven
core/sandwich composites7,2 were developed and LOWER
added to the library to extend the model. As can be LAYER
seen in Fig. 7, we need 16 macro-cells to compose the
unit cell of a simple plain-woven fabric composite.
It should be pointed out that only the weave Fig. 7. Macro-partition of the plain-weave fabric unit cell.
1308 Ph. Vandeurzen et al.
the macro-cell, namely in the top layer of the unit cell. The assumption of f 2 1 is implied in the
Finally, every cut made in every macro-cell is expressions above. The parameters h, w and t are
extended to the other layer of macro-cells of the linear measures and therefore positive numbers. Next,
woven fabric composite (C, and C,). As explained the orientation of the yarn in each micro-cell has to be
before, every single-ply woven-fabric composite has calculated. The orientation Pmax in eqns (2) and (4)
two layers of macro-cells because of the division in the can be expressed as a function of yarn spacing p,
thickness direction. This automated partitioning radius R, thickness t and crimp parameter h. The
procedure originates in a regular grid of micro-cells to following geometric relationships were calculated for
describe the unit cell. Fifty micro-cells compose one an Awfr-macro-cell (Fig. 4). Only these relationships
macro-cell. Not all of those micro-cells contain fibres, are given as an example:
i.e. some of the micro-cells are pure matrix material
cells. Each micro-cell is characterised by its local fibre
volume fraction, yarn orientation and fractional
arccos
(2%+ tw> cos[ _l+h,)]
arctan( 2Rf
Pmax =
volume relative to the unit cell. 2R,-t,+h,
S
6 MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS + arctan
2R,-t,+h,
A strategy for calculating the geometric output is or
presented in Fig. 9. First, the number of each type of
macro-cells is automatically determined from the P,..,,=arcsin(y] if 2R,-t,+h,=O
weave construction pattern, provided by the weaving
company, as explained in Section 5. The crimp In the expressions above the constraint eqn (8) is
parameters, and thus the undulation, of the warp implied. This important constraint symbolises that it
yarns are calculated as follows: must be geometrically possible for the warp yarn to
interlace with the filling yarns. That is, if the
h,=t,+t,-hf
(5) constraint is false then the fabric architecture cannot
h,* = t,.,* + tf - hf be created:
The width w and thickness t of each yarn cross-section
are computed as a function of the number of filaments
N,, the filament or fibre diameter d, the aspect ratio f
and the packing factor K: The orientation of the warp yarn in the four different
micro-cells of the Aw, macro-cell, considering the 1D
N,nd2
micro-partition, is then calculated as a function of the
j/*K[arcsin(&J f (fT)z - (f- 1). ([)I maximum orientation Pmax. In case of a 2D
micro-partition, the presented equations are still valid.
w=tXf (6) Pstraight cell = Pmax (9)
In eqn (11) K is the packing factor, ni is the number A custom Microsoft Excel@ application, called
of macro-cells of type i in the unit cell (i = l.lOS), Ai is TEXCOMP, has been developed to perform all
the area of the yarn cross-section, Ziis the length of the calculations.3 Dialogue boxes, which work and look
yarn in macro-cell i, and Vunit_,, is the volume of the like the built-in Excel@ dialogue boxes, were created
unit cell. to standardise the user interface. Different macro
The cover factor is important for permeability functions are included in the software to perform
properties of the fabric. Since this factor is defined as specialised tasks like drawing the orientation distribu-
the projected yarn area to unit cell area ratio, its value tion function for the warp and weft yarns or
is determined by the width of the yarn sections w and calculating the macro-cell composition for a given unit
the yarn spacings p: cell. One can choose standard weave styles such as
CF= plain, twill and satin weaves, but also self-designed
fabrics can be treated by the model. Because of the
use of a powerful spreadsheet program, it is easy to
add missing aspects or to exchange data with other
KnitcelllD applications. In this way the geometric model is
transformed into a useful design tool.
(12)
Certainly, the most important output of the
calculation procedure are the fibre volume fraction, 7 PARAMETRIC STUDY
the orientation of the yarn and the fractional volume
of each micro-cell. These data are the basis for a The TEXCOMP custom application was used to
further modelling of mechanical properties, discussed analyse different 2D woven fabric composites. A
in Part II of this paper. Moreover, the geometric parametric study has been conducted to evaluate the
model developed is most useful in determining some effect of various fabric parameters, i.e. the yarn aspect
textile properties such as cover factor and fabric ratio f and the crimp ratio H, on the global fabric
thickness, but also in determining the allowable geometry. The crimp ratio H of a fabric is herein
microstructural states of fabrics. Three possible facts defined as the ratio of the difference between the
that limit the fabric architecture can be distinguished fabric crimp parameters hf and h, to the maximum
(Fig. 10). First, the interlacing of the yarns must be crimp value h,,,. The maximum crimp value
possible. The conditions at which yarns jam each other corresponds to a maximum yarn undulation in either
are essential in identifying the processing windows of the warp or the weft direction:
fabric preforms. Second, interaction of the yarns
h--h,
(13)
H=---.-.-
should be avoided. This interaction error is due to a
h max
mistake in the input data or it indicates the formation
of a combined yarn or super yarn in the real fabric The presented example considers a plain woven-
composite. Finally, also the undulation of the yarns fabric composite. The yarn characteristics for this
has limits: the crimp parameters h, and h,, should be parametric study are given in Table 2. Notice that the
positive numbers. warp and weft yarns have the same size. A yarn fibre
packing density K or intra-yarn fibre volume fraction
of 041 was used in all calculations. For a given crimp
ratio H, the filling and the warp crimp parameters can
be calculated from:
L +6 H x hmx
h,=
60 2 2
(14)
t, + tf I H x k,ax
hf =
2 2
constant crimp ratio (H = 0). Then, for different yarn for different crimp ratios, the yarn spacing is lowered.
aspect ratios, the yarn spacing is lowered until the The range of values for the aspect ratio f and the
geometric limit of the fibre architecture is reached. crimp ratio H used in this study, together with the
This geometric limit is controlled by the condition of corresponding limiting yarn spacing p, are shown in
impossible interlacing of both yarn systems (Fig. 10). Table 3.
Next, the aspect ratio is kept constant (f = 10) and, Figures 11 and 12 show the fibre volume fraction,
100
s 90
; 80
3 70 4-f=l
2 60 -a- f=5
50 +f=lO
1 40
+ f=20
7 30
8 20
2 10
0
0 0.5 I 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
0.5
h
J 0.4
-c-f=1
z
8 0.3 + f=5
3 -t- f=lO
8 0.2
* f=20
II
[ 0.1
c;l
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
@)
Yarn spacing p (mm>
Fig. 11. Process windows (H = 0): (a) fibre volume fraction and (b) lamina thickness as a function of yarn spacing p.
1312 Ph. Vandeurzen et al.
1
0.9
0.8
8 0.7 +-f=l
-u- f=5
-A- f=lO
-A- f=20
u 0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 a 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
+f=l
-n- f=5
+f=lO
+ f=20
the lamina thickness, the cover factor and the equal. This is due to the strong influence of the crimp
maximum yarn orientation as a function of yarn ratio on lamina thickness (Fig. 13(b)). The lamina
spacing p for different yarn aspect ratios f. The limits thickness is minimum if both yarn systems have the
of these process windows are caused by the situation same undulation. The cover factor is not influenced by
of impossible yarn interlacing together with the the crimp ratio H, because this geometric parameter
situation of a yarn aspect ratio lower than 1. The was defined as the projected yarn area to unit cell area
maximum fibre volume fraction reached, even for very ratio. Therefore, its value is only a function of yarn
flat yarns, is about O-54. This is a rather low value, spacings p and yarn widths w. Figure 14 shows the
compared with the high intra-yarn fibre volume maximum yarn orientation of warp and weft yarns for
fraction. The large differences in fibre volume fraction different crimp ratios H as a function of yarn spacing
for the various aspect ratios can be attributed to the p. By definition, the filling yarns show no undulation
difference in composite thickness (Fig. 11). When the and the warp yarns a maximum undulation if H equals
yarns have a circular yarn cross-section, the maximum -1. By lowering the yarn spacing p, this maximum
cover factor is 0.81. However, when flattening the undulation will increase significantly until 12 is
yarns, it is easy to reach a cover factor of 1. The reached. If H = 0, both yarn systems have the same
maximum yarn orientation Pmax can reach as much as maximum yarn orientation. For the case of yarn
50 for a dense weave with circular yarn cross-sections. spacings close to the geometric limit of the woven
This value drops to 18 if the yarn aspect ratio is five. construction, small variations in yarn spacing result in
Figure 13(a) shows the influence of yarn spacing p and large variations in yarn orientation. Generally, the
crimp ratio H on the fibre volume fraction. The predicted geometric and elastic constants are very
presented process window is a narrow strip. Notice sensitive to the yarn spacing in the vicinity of the
that the case of H = 1 shows the same dependence as geometric limit of the fabric.14 Finally, Fig. 15 shows
H = - 1 for properties not related to warp or weft the allowable microstructural states of the fabric as a
direction, i.e. fibre volume fraction, lamina thickness function of the yarn aspect ratio f and the crimp ratio
and cover factor. The fibre volume fraction is H. That is, for different conditions of the yarn aspect
maximum if the undulation of both yarn systems is ratio f and the crimp ratio H, the yarn spacings in
30 analysis of fabric composites: I 1313
100
g 90 1Fibre nackina in yarn
80
B -m- IHI=l
T, 70
-u- IHW.75
8 60
50 + IHW.5
g 40 + IHI=O.25
2 30 + IHI=O
c 20
2 10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
0 a
Yarn spacing (mm)
0.25
1- 0.2 + IHI=l
n -n- IHI=0.75
B 0.15
+ IHl=O.5
4 + IHW.25
3 0.1
+ lHI=O
3
# 0.05
1 IHI=l 1 s
3
0
(b) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Yarn spacing p (mm)
Fig. l3. Process windows (f = 10): (a) fibre volume fraction and (b) lamina thickness as a function of yarn spacing p.
warp and weft direction are decreased until the different types of warp and weft yarns. Next, each
geometric limit is reached. This plot shows a very macro-cell itself is automatically partitioned in four or
different behaviour for low and high yarn aspect 50 micro-cells: the 1D or 2D micro-partition,
ratios, with a transition zone between fequals 1 and 5. respectively. The most important output of the model
This kind of parametric study shows the need for a is the fibre volume fraction, the orientation of the yarn
refined modelling of the yarn architecture and the and the fractional volume of each micro-cell.
yarn crimp to study the effects of fabric parameters on Moreover, the geometric model as such is most useful
overall mechanical properties, through the fibre in determining some textile properties as cover factor
volume fraction and the yarn orientation, and also on and fabric thickness, but also in determining the
textile properties, through the cover factor and the allowable microstructural states of fabrics. The above
fabric thickness. The geometric limit of the woven geometric concept and mathematical analysis was
fabric is strongly dependent on the microstructural implemented in a user-friendly custom application for
parameters. Microsoft Excel*, called TEXCOMP. The software
can treat self-designed fabric weave styles. It is easy to
change existing formulations, to include additional
8 CONCLUSIONS aspects, or to exchange data.
Certainly, geometric descriptions are never true
In this paper, a model describing the geometry of a representations of reality. They are based on
woven composite with arbitrary weaving architecture simplifying assumptions. A closer look at a fabric or
was presented. After carrying out an extensive fabric composite will show that our assumptions
geometric analysis, a library of macro-cells has been concerning the fabric geometry are not completely
put together to describe complex material unit cells. true. For example, the yarns do not follow totally
This partitioning of the unit cell in macro-cells is straight yarn paths in the warp and weft directions, the
called the macro-partition. The main complexity arises yarns do not have a perfect lenticular shape, and voids
from the fact that the weave considered can contain are always present in the composite. Also, pure
1314 Ph. Vandeurzen et al.
a-Hz-1
-o- H=-0.75
+ H=-0.5
- H=-0.25
-O-H=0
+H=l
0
0 3.5 4
(a > 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
14
+-Hz-l
-o- H=-0.75
-t H=-0.5
+ H=-0.25
- H=O
-o-H=1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
09
Yarn spacing p (mm)
Fig. 14. Process windows (f = 10): ( a ) maximum warp yarn orientation and (b) maximum weft yarn orientation as a function of
yarn spacing p.
geometry is not sufficient for the design of of the composite on the other hand. We shall
woven-fabric composites. A link should be established demonstrate that the geometric assumptions made are
between the weave geometry and material properties very useful for the translation of geometry into elastic
on one hand, and the resulting mechanical properties properties of the fabric composite in the second part
1.6
B 0.8
ii 0.6
pm (mm)
Fig. 15. Process window: allowable microstructural fabric states as a function of yarn aspect ratio f and crimp ratio H.
30 analysis of fabric composites: I 1315
of this paper, where an analytical model with the 5. Naik, N. K. & Ganesh, V. K., An analytical method for
plain weave fabric composites. Composites, 264 (1995)
potential to predict correct shear moduli for
281-289.
woven-fabric composites will be established. 6. Hahn, H. T. & Pandy, R., A micromechanics model for
Moreover, we shall indicate how the presented thermoeiastic properties of plain weave fabric compos-
geometric concept can serve as a solid basis for the ites. J. Engng Mater. Technol., 116 (1994) 517-523.
stress analysis problem. 7. Vandeurzen, Ph., Geometrische en elastische modellering
van drie-dimensionale weefsel-sandwichcomposieten.
Master thesis, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belguim,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1993.
8. Peirce, F. T., Geometry of cloth structure. J. Text. Inst.,
This paper presents research results of the Belgian
28 (1937) T45-96.
programme on Interuniversity Poles of Attraction, 9. Peirce, F. T., Geometrical principles applicable to the
funded by the Belgian state, Prime Ministers Office, design of functional fabrics. Text. Res. J., 173 (1947)
Science Policy Programming. The scientific respon- 123-147.
sibility is assumed by its authors. Ph. V. and J. I. are 10. Olofsson, B., A general model of a fabric as a geometric
mechanical structure. J. Text. Inst., 5511 (1964) T541.
financed through grants of the Flemish Institute for
11. Hoffmann, R. M., Some theoretical aspects of yarn and
the Promotion of the Scientific-Technological Re- fabric density. Text. Res. J., (1952) 170-178.
search in Industry (IWT). 12. Ivens, J., Vandeurzen, Ph., Van Vuure, A. W.,
Verpoest, I., Ko, F. K. & Meerding, K., Modeling of the
skin properties of 3D fabric sandwich composites In
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