Forestry Commission Booklet No. 15 H M S O : 55. 0 d.

n e t

Know Your Conifers Forestry Commission

ARCHIVE
Cover picture by c. F. t u n n i c l i f f e
Text drawings by d a v id w a l k e r
Key drawings by m a r c s a l e
Photographs from the Forestry Commission Collection
 FORESTRY COM M ISSIO N
Booklet No. 15

Know Your Conifers

b y H E R B E R T L. E D L I N , B.SC.
Forestry Commission

L O N D O N : HER M A JEST Y ’S STATIO N ER Y OFFICE

1966
First published January 1966
Reprinted with amendments June 1967
Key to Cover Picture
Contents

PAGE 5 Introduction PAGE 30 Sitka spruce

7 How to tell the Genera by their Foliage 33 Douglas fir
10 Scots pine 37 Grand fir
14 Corsican pine 40 Noble fir
17 Lodgepole pine 43 Western red cedar and Lawson cypress
20 European larch 48 Yew and Juniper
23 Japanese larch and Hybrid larch 52 Western hemlock
26 Norway spruce 55 Conifer seeds

4
Introduction

Conifers, or softwood trees, form a distinct group which has ture cones or female flowers. These ovules are fertilised, as
become very important in the world’s economy because they with other plants, by pollen carried from male flowers. As
grow fast on poor soils even under harsh climates, and the cones develop, their scales become tightly shut to
yield timbers that are very suitable for industry. They are protect the seeds within. But when once they are ripe the
now being planted and tended on a growing scale in most cone-scales open in dry weather, and then the winged seeds
countries as a source of wealth, and this booklet shows you drift away. Most conifers flower in spring; their cones may
how to identify those most commonly found in Britain. ripen during the following autumn, the following spring, or
By comparison with the broadleaved trees or hardwoods, in some species eighteen months after pollination.
the conifers have a simple structure and pattern of growth. If the seeds alight on suitable ground, and are not eaten up
Because they vary so little, one must look closely at their by squirrels, mice, birds, or insects, they germinate and
foliage before one can say which kind is which. Further, produce a little whorl of seed-leaves, only two or three for
their names can be confusing unless one follows the simple some species but numerous in others. These are followed by
rules that foresters, both in Britain and America, have an upright shoot that bears solitary needles, forming what
adopted for the main groups called genera; or else the closely is called “juvenile” foliage. Such solitary needles are found
allied system of Latin scientific names, which is used inter­ at the tops or tips of most sorts of conifers, and as they all
nationally and also classifies trees by their genera. look much alike they give little help towards identification.
First of all, you must make sure that the tree you are looking But the shoots formed in the seedling’s second year, and on
at is in fact a conifer, and not some unusual broadleaved side or secondary branches in the foliage generally, have an
tree. Distinctive characters of the conifers include: “adult” pattern of leaves. This is very distinctive for each
(a) Narrow, needle-like or scale-like leaves. genus of tree, and the following section shows how the
(b) Foliage usually evergreen (the only common exception genera can be sorted out with its aid.
being the larches). In natural forests throughout the temperature zones of the
(c) Scaly buds. world, and on mountain ranges in the tropics, conifers grow
(id) Regular, almost geometrical, branching habit. readily from seed, unaided by man. In cultivation they are
(e) Resinous fragrance of foliage, buds, bark and timber. raised in nurseries, nearly always from a seed, since most
kinds are very hard to grow from cuttings. So our pictures
(/) Male and female flowers always borne separately, though illustrate two important nursery stages—the one-year-old
usually on the same tree. seedling and the transplant, a tree that has been grown to a
(g) Flowers always wind-pollinated, and therefore catkin­ larger size after moving (lining-out) into a transplant bed.
like, lacking showy petals or nectar. One object of these pictures is to show foresters a good type
(h) Fruit in the form of a woody cone (rarely, as in yezo and of seedling raised in one year, and a suitable young trans­
juniper, a fleshy berry). plant, two or three years old in all, for planting out in the
(i) Seeds usually winged. forest.
(;) Seedlings of most kinds have numerous seed-leaves or The timber of conifers is always called softwood, though in
cotyledons. a few species it is quite hard. On the whole, however, it is
Only one common broadleaved tree, the alder, has a fruit- softer and easier to work than the hardwood yielded by
body at all like a cone. But the alder is a deciduous tree with broadleaved trees. This explains its much greater demand
an irregular branching habit and curious stalked buds, so at and value for most everyday uses, even though selected
no season of the year are you at all likely to mistake it for hardwoods, in small quantities suited to special purposes
a conifer. such as furniture-making, may fetch higher prices. Today
Botanically, the conifers are classed as Gymnosperms, or the great bulk of timber used in house building, fencing,
“naked seeded” plants, because their ovules, which later packing cases and boxes of all kinds, and as railway sleepers,
become seeds, are borne exposed on the scales of the imma­ telegraph poles, or pitprops, is softwood. For paper-making,
5
which uses about half of the output of wood in the main Larix leptolepis, though both belong to the same genus,
timber-growing countries, softwood is more suitable than Larix the larches.
hardwood because, amongst other features, its fibres are The differences between species are quite small, and call for
substantially longer. Softwood is also very suitable for the close observation of form and colour, as explained in the
manufacture of most kinds of artificial board, an expanding general text. But these small differences are very important
industry that gives us wood chipboard, hardboard, and to the forester, because one species may thrive where a
insulation board. At the present time about nine-tenths of very similar one fails. For example, Sitka spruce grows well
all the timber used in Britain, whether in the unaltered state under exposure to salt winds along the west coast, but
or made up into paper or manufactured board, comes from Norway spruce will not thrive there. Nowadays foresters
coniferous trees. often study even finer differences within a single species,
We have only three native conifers, the Scots pine, the yew, such as the provenance, or original homeland of a particular
and the juniper, and only the first of these ranks as a strain, but these precise distinctions are seldom obvious to
timber-yielding tree. Foresters have therefore brought in a the eye, and they are not dealt with here.
large number of other kinds from Europe, North and South Because several botanists may have given Latin names and
America, and the temperate parts of Asia. Many of these are descriptions to the same tree at different times, and only
grown only for ornament, in parks, gardens, and pleasure one such name is now accepted, it is necessary to add, in the
grounds. Repeated trials over the past hundred years have full citation of each specific name, the name or initials of
shown that about a dozen of these exotic or introduced the “authority” for it. For example the Scots pine is called
conifers are very suitable for timber production in the Pinus sylvestris L., after the great Swedish botanist Linnaeus,
British Isles, and these kinds are now planted on a large who first called it that and published a full botanical
scale. Only these twelve, together with the three native description of it.
kinds, are featured here, as a very much longer book would All this may sound complex at first, but with a specimen of
be needed to describe all the ornamental sorts. the tree before you, and these pictures and text as a guide,
Except for the yew tree, which has its own family called the you should soon be able to name most conifers planted on a
Taxaceae, all these conifers belong to one large botanical large scale for their timber. Descriptions of rarer kinds
group, the pine family or Pinaceae. So the first helpful stage must be sought in larger textbooks but it is worth noting
in classifying them is not their family, but their genus, and that most of them, too, belong to the ten genera whose
the fifteen kinds described here fall in 10 genera. Each of foliage features are described below.
these has quite distinct features, and all can be told apart by
foliage alone. Footnote for Foresters
But do not rely on a single feature when naming your trees. Our sketches of one-year seedlings illustrate—except for
Look at the pictures and the main text before reaching a the yew and the juniper—the amount of shoot and root
decision. Often some simple but unmistakable detail, such growth that a good nurseryman should expect to get in one
as the three-pointed bracts found on the cones of Douglas season.
fir, will clear up all doubts very quickly. Even more important, our sketches of transplants show,
The next subdivision of trees is the species, which is shown for each kind of tree, the desirable size, sturdiness, and
by the second word in each scientific name, for example, the balance of shoot and root growth that are most likely to
European larch is Larix decidua, while the Japanese larch is prove successful for forest planting.

6
How to tell the Genera
by their Foliage

Botanists have classified the conifers by genera which are, round woody knob, technically a “short-shoot” . As the
fortunately, very useful to foresters who wish to name any larches are deciduous and lose their leaves in winter, all
kind. For example, all the spruces belong to a genus with the you can find at that time of the year will be the woody
Latin name of Picea. All our commonly grown genera show knobs, but these too are quite distinctive. See pages 20 to 25.
quite distinctive leaf, or needle, arrangements on their The remaining conifers have their needles in groups of two
normal, or “adult”, side branches. So, to discover the genus or three, or else set singly. The junipers of the genus
to which any conifer belongs, all you need do is to examine Juniperus bear sharp-pointed needles in groups of three, set
a side branch carefully, ignoring the youngest bit nearest to all round the stem. The common form is a small shrub with
its tip. a resinous scent. See pages 48 to 51.
Note, however, that the characteristic leaf patterns cannot Next, the pines of the genus Pinus, which are very com­
be found on the upright leading shoots, nor on young seed­ monly planted. These have their needles grouped in two’s,
lings, nor on many of the ornamental strains grown in three’s or five’s. The three common kinds featured here all
gardens. Such branches often bear “juvenile” foliage with a have their needles in two’s, that is in pairs that spring from
different pattern. a basal sheath. See pages 10 to 19.
Having selected your side branch, note whether the needles This leaves a group of conifers with isolated needles set
are set in an open arrangement, so that you can clearly see singly. On all of these, the needles on side shoots appear to
the twig that bears them, or whether they hug the twig so form two ranks, though they actually arise all around the
closely that neither it nor the buds can be seen. In the latter twigs.
event, the foliage as a whole will resemble the flattish One genus is easily known because the needles are very
fronds of a fern, and the tree probably belongs to the genus variable in length, shorter ones being interspersed with
Chamaecyparis, which includes Lawson cypress, or to the longer ones. This is the hemlock, or Tsuga genus, de­
genus Thuja, which includes W estern red cedar. Turn to scribed on pages 52 to 54.
pages 43 to 47 to see which. Another genus, Taxus, the yews, can be told by the leafy
All our other common conifers have needles which stand character of the buds at the tip of the twigs (pages 48 to 51).
clear of the twigs. In the genus Larix, the larches, they are This leaves us with three common genera that need rather
set in clusters of twenty to thirty, all springing from a little more examination. Look closely at the foot of each needle
W ES T E R N RED CED AR

LAR CH
L a rix sp e cie s

LAW SO N CYPR ES S
keedlis in
C h a m a e c yp a ris clusters on
la w so n ia n a short shoots
eiseuhere

Freud-like
foliage
tilth buds
concealed

Roundish cone leafless in uinter

Fern-like foliage with buds and twigs Fern-like foliage with buds and twigs Needles in clusters on woody knobs:
hidden; rounded cone: Lawson cypress' hidden; slender cone: Western red cedar. Larch.
7
to see whether it is springing directly from the flat surface either a Silver fir of the genus Abies or else a Douglas fir
of the twig,' or whether it stands upon a little woody peg. of the genus Pseudotsuga. Check by looking at an older twig
If a peg is present, then the tree is a spruce, of the genus from which needles have fallen, and you will find that its
Picea. Check this by gently pulling a needle away; the peg surface is smooth, without projections.
will be drawn away also, leaving an irregular scar when it The Douglas fir can easily be told apart from the commonly
breaks off. Look further down the twig, to the point where grown Silver firs by its slender, brown papery buds. The
older needles have fallen away; you will see that when the buds of the Silver firs are blunter, and often resinous. The
needles fall naturally, the pegs are always left behind, Douglas fir is described on pages 33 to 36, and the Silver
standing out like tiny hat-pegs. See pages 26 to 31. firs on pages 37 to 42.
If no pegs can be seen, then check as before by pulling
away a needle. If it leaves a small round scar, then the tree is

Needles intoo's, fhree’s or five's

according io species
Needles in pairs (as here), threes, or
fives, with a sheath at the base: Pine. HEM LOCK
Tsuga
sp ecies

Needles of
markedly
varying
lengths

Needles in three’s, all round stem, blue Solitary needles, irregular in length:
berries: Juniper. Hemlock.

8
 YE W Ifneedle pulled
away—peg
comes too -

After needles fall

naturallyJ
-peg remainsp

Leafy bud; red berries: Yew. Needles on pegs: Spruce.

Blunt bud

Needle arising from a flat, round base;

blunt bud: Silver fir.

Needles leave a
round flat scar-*o Nopeg at base

Oval brown D O U G L A S FIR

papery bud Pseudotsuga
sp ecies
Nopey at

Needle arising from a flat, round base;

papery, pointed bud: Douglas fir.
Needles leave round -
scars when pulled off

9
Scots Pine
P inus sylvestris Linnaeus

The Scots pine, our only native timber-producing conifer, years in a transplant bed after “lining out”. All its early
is now found in its wild state only in Scotland and—very solitary needles have fallen, and only paired needles remain.
locally—northern England. But it has been planted every­ This example shows a sturdy stem and a good “balance”
where and it grows readily from self-sown seed on heaths between shoot growth and bushy fibrous roots.
in many southern counties. It can at once be recognised as a Though the Scots pine can be grown nearly anywhere in the
pine because, except on the youngest seedlings, all its British Isles, it is most successful as a timber tree in the
needles are set in pairs (see sketch, page 8). You can tell it warmer and drier districts towards the south and east. Its
apart from our other common pines by the colour and timber has a distinct reddish heartwood surrounded by
length of these needles; they are blue-green and relatively pale-brown sapwood; it is resinous, but not naturally
short—about H- inches long. Another key feature is the durable. In addition to the home-grown supply, very large
bark; Scots pine is the only common tree to develop a quantities are imported from northern Europe, and this
distinctively orange-red coloration (cover picture). As each material is known in the timber trade as “redwood” or
portion of the trunk branches reaches an age of about ten “red deal” . Scots pine timber can readily be treated with
years, the grey outer bark falls away and this striking red creosote or similar preservatives, and is then well suited to
shade is exposed. On old trunks the bark, now pinkish grey, use out of doors as telegraph poles, railway sleepers, and
is often divided up by irregular cracks into broad flat plates. fencing. Under the cover of a roof, it serves as a leading
Male flowers, illustrated on page 11, consist of clusters of building timber being used for joists, rafters, and flooring;
golden anthers, set some way back from the tips of the twigs; other uses include sheds, pit props, box making, wood wool,
they shed clouds of pollen in May, and then wither. The wallboard, and paper pulp.
female flowers appear at the same time, at the very tip of a The timber of pines can usually be told apart from that of
newly expanded shoot; they are tiny, crimson tinted globes. other conifers by the absence of small knots between the
After fertilisation, they grow slowly during the next year main knot groups; this is because pines bear all their
into brown structures no larger than a pea; they need two branches in simple whorls, usually one whorl a year, without
years for full ripening. Mature cones, which are always small intermediate shoots.
found “one whorl back” from the tip of the shoot, owing to
its continued growth, are at first green with tightly-shut Old Scots pine trees, but not young ones, can usually be
scales. When seed is needed, they are gathered in this state picked out by their rugged, irregular upper branches,
during the winter. Their symmetrical, “pointed-cone” resembling in outline a broadleaved tree.
shape helps the tree’s identification; each scale bears a knob, The natural range of the Scots pine includes all northern
but no points. In spring they turn brown and the scales Europe, northern Asia, Spain and Asia Minor. Seed of
open, to release the winged seeds shown on page 56. As in native Scottish strains, from either the west or the east of
all pines, the seed is lightly held in a curved “claw” at the Scotland according to local climate, is preferred for present-
base of the wing. day planting in Britain. The Forestry Commission has
When the seed sprouts, the seed case is raised above ground within its care some remarkably fine expanses of the old
on a long stalk; it soon falls off and exposes a whorl of about native Caledonian pine forest, notably at Glen Affric and
a dozen seed-leaves, which are just visible at the base of the the Glen More Forest Park in Inverness-shire, and at
foliage in our seedling sketch. As the shoot develops, Rannoch Forest in Perthshire. Younger plantations of
solitary needles are borne, during the first season only. Our impressive extent will be found at Thetford Chase in East
transplant picture shows a tree three years old; it is a “ 1 + 2 ” Anglia, in the New Forest, and at Cannock Chase in
transplant that has spent one year in a seedbed and two Staffordshire.

10
FIGURE 1
One-year-old seedling of Scots pine. Winter. ( x i)

FIGURE 2 (above)
Scots pine transplant, aged three years (1 + 2)
suitable for forest planting. Winter. ( x i)

f ig u r e 3
Male flowers (clusters of anthers, left) and
female flowers (small spheres at right branch
tip), on a Scots pine branch that is just ex­
panding new needles in May. ( x J)

11
FIGURE 4
Scots pine foliage, with a one-year-old, unripe cone at the
branch tip, and a two-year-old, ripe cone, one whorl further
back. March. ( x
PLATE I
Scots pines in winter, Castle Grant Estate, Morayshire, Scotland.
Aged 181 years; 83 feet tall; 81 inches in girth at breast height.
Corsican Pine
Pinus nigra Arnold variety calabrica Schneider

The Corsican pine is one of a number of local races of the during the cold winter months, such as February, when the
Black pine, Pinus nigra, a tree with a wide distribution over ground is moist and water loss from transpiration is low.
the south and east of Europe. It has been selected for timber Once established, Corsican pine can withstand severe
production in Britain because it grows fast and has a drought, as is shown by its success on dry sandy soils in
remarkably straight trunk, with light branches. Another regions of low rainfall.
local race, the Austrian pine, variety austriaca Asch. and The timber resembles that of Scots pine, but where the two
Graeb, which has straight needles, was planted at one time are grown under similar conditions the Corsican pine grows
but was found to grow too slowly and to produce too large faster and forms wider annual rings; while in logs of com­
and coarse branches; nowadays it is only used as a shelter- parable sizes the Corsican pine shows less heartwood. It is
belt tree, especially along the coast, where it resists salt used for the same purposes as Scots pine.
winds well.
The true Corsican pine is native only to the Mediterranean
island of Corsica, where it reaches great size and age. It is \
only satisfactory as a timber crop in the south and the I Y
Midlands of England, the coastal fringe of South Wales,
and along the east coast right up to the north of Scotland.
These are all districts of low summer rainfall, with corre­
spondingly high summer temperatures and duration of
sunshine; in the wetter, cloudier districts of the north and
west this Mediterranean tree does not really thrive. Our
most extensive plantations are in East Anglia, especially at
Thetford Chase and at Aldewood near Ipswich, but Corsican
pine also grows well at Culbin Forest near Nairn on the
Moray Firth.
Corsican pine is easily known by the length of its needles,
commonly three inches long, by their distinctive twist which
is well shown in our foliage sketch, and by their colour,
which is a greyish-green or sage-green. Another key point
is the shape of the terminal bud, which is broad at the base
but narrows suddenly to a sharp point (Scots and Lodgepole
pines bear long, blunt buds). The cones are larger than those
of other common pines, shining mid-brown when ripe, and
always one-sided or oblique in shape (cover picture). The
seeds are about twice as big as those of Scots pine. The bark
is always grey, never red, and this explains the name of
“black” pine; it is thick and fibrous, and is broken up by
deep furrows on old trees.
Our pictures of a one-year-old seedling and a three-year-
old (2 + 1) transplant show a feature that causes much con­
cern to the forester. Corsican pine roots are remarkably long
and slender, and hence they cannot readily take up enough
moisture when the young trees are transplanted. For this FIGURE5
reason foresters prefer to move young Corsican pine trees One-year-old seedling of Corsican pine. Winter. ( x 2)
*4
FIGURE 6 ( above)
Corsican pine transplant, aged three years (2+ 1). Winter. ( x £)

7
f ig u r e
Foliage and cones of Corsican pine. ( X I)
 PLATE II
Corsican pines, 100 years old, in the New Forest, Hampshire.

16
Lodgepole Pine
Pinus contorta Loudon

Many kinds of introduced pines have been grown on an

experimental scale to see if they would thrive on poor soil in
the west of Britain, where both the native Scots pine and the
Corsican pine are unsatisfactory as timber crops. The one
that has proved most useful, in Wales, western Scotland,
north-west England, and also throughout Ireland, is the
Lodgepole pine. As a wild tree this grows in western North
America, from Alaska down to California, both along the
coast and on the inland mountain ranges; it is important in
practice to choose a provenance or local strain well suited to
the climate where the plantations will be established. It is
called Lodgepole pine because the Indians chose its straight
stems to support their lodges or wigwams.
In appearance the foliage of Lodgepole pine is rather like
that of Scots pine, but its needles have a mid-green tint, not
a blue-green one. The bark is quite different to that of other
pines; it never shows any red tint, but remains a dull
brownish-black and it eventually breaks up into small, thin,
squarish plates, divided by shallow furrows. The cone, is
our picture shows, is somewhat egg-shaped, and each scale
carries a small, sharp, prickle.
The foliage, as our pictures show, tends to be dense, with
much overlapping of needles. The timber resembles that of
Scots pine and has similar uses. Because of its remarkable
tolerance of poor soils, including peaty moorlands, in our
wetter and cloudier western districts, Lodgepole pine is
now very widely planted there. Under comparable con­
ditions it grows somewhat faster than does Scot pine.

f ig u r e 8
One-year-old seedling of Lodgepole pine. Winter. ( x 1)
17
FIGURE9 (left)
Lodgepole pine transplant aged three years (1 + 2). Winter, ( x i )

(below)
f i g u r e 10
Cones and foliage of Lodgepole pine. Winter. ( x {-)
PLATE III
Lodgepole pines in Allerston Forest, Yorkshire.
European Larch
Larix decidua Miller

Larches differ from other common conifers in being whole has, moreover, better strength properties than most
deciduous. Each spring they put forth fresh foliage, at first other conifers. For these reasons it is widely grown and
a bright emerald green but becoming duller later. Each used for fencing, gates, and estate repair work, and also in
autumn their needles fade to a pale straw colour before they shipbuilding; the sturdy wooden fishing boats that are still
fall. But the needles on first-year seedlings, and at the tips built along the east coast of Scotland always have their
only of other very young trees, are often evergreen, as our outer planking made of a special grade of “boat-skin” larch.
pictures show. Larch is a very adaptable tree which grows quickly in
On larches of all ages, the needles at the tips of twigs, that youth, but each separate tree needs ample light and space,
is on shoots not over one year old, are always solitary. But and so the total timber crop is rather light. It has often been
everywhere else they grow in tufts or bunches, which are grown in mixture with broadleaved trees, to help “nurse”
actually “short shoots” that never grow longer. The presence or shelter them in their early stages. Sometimes you will
of these little knobs makes the larches easy to identify, both find that a crop of larch has been thinned out and under-
in summer and also when they are leafless in winter. The planted with conifers of another kind, which will take its
male flowers, borne in spring just as the delicate needles place later on, and yield more timber; this is possible be­
open, are clusters of golden anthers. The female flowers, cause it casts only a light shade.
often called “larch roses”, are pretty flower-like clusters of Because larch starts growth so quickly, it is usually planted
scales, and may be green, white, or deep pink in colour. out when only two years old, and our transplant picture
They ripen within one year to rather cylindrical cones shows a “ 1 + 1” transplant. The bark on old trees is fibrous,
(cover picture). These cones only slowly expand their broken up by shallow cracks or fissures.
scales, and when the forester wishes to extract larch seed
he has to break them apart. The little seeds which event­
ually fall out and drift away are winged, the wing being
firmly fixed to one side and lightly attached to the other.
The European larch, which is still the commonest kind
though no longer that most frequently planted, can be told
apart from other larches by its straw-coloured twigs, its
true-green needles, and its straight cone-scales. It is native
to the Alps and neighbouring mountain ranges of Central
Europe, and has been cultivated in Britain since the seven­
teenth century. Because strains or provenances from high
in the mountains are not well suited to the British climate,
many foresters prefer to get their seed from Scotland,
where strains exist that are known to do well in the British
Isles.
Larch timber has a pale creamy-brown sapwood and a
distinctly reddish-brown, or terra cotta coloured, heart-
wood. This heartwood is naturally durable, and though
nowadays people can easily treat most softwoods—and also
the sapwood of larch if necessary, to make them last just as f ig u r e 11
long, this was formerly a great advantage. Larch timber as a European larch seedling, one-year-old. Winter. ( x i )

20
FIGURE 12
European larch transplant, aged two years (1 + 1), suitable for
forest planting. Note evergreen needles on certain branch tips,
although it is winter. ( x i )

FIGURE 13 {below)
Young foliage and male flowers (above), female flowers (below),
of European larch, with a straight-scaled cone. Spring. ( x J)

21
 PLATE IV
A European larch plantation at Hampden, Buckinghamshire.
Summer.

22
Japanese Larch and Hybrid Larch
Larix leptolepis Gordon and Larix eurolepis Henry

This tree, which grows wild on the mountains of Japan,

was introduced to Britain in 1861, and began to attract
attention as a plantation tree about 1910. Nowadays it is
more widely planted than the European kind because it
grows faster and seems better adapted to our variable
climate. It is easily known by its russet or rust-red twigs,
which look very striking during the winter months. Its
needles are bluish green in summer, fading to orange in
autumn. The cone scales are bent back or reflexed at the tip,
so that each cone looks like a little rosette.
The timber of Japanese larch is similar to that of the
European kind, and recent tests have shown that it has
comparable strength properties. This tree is often planted
on old woodlands, particularly cleared coppices, where it is
required to get a timber crop established quickly, ahead of
the re-growth from the stumps of felled trees or cleared
bushes. The transplant illustrated here is aged two years,
or “ 1 + 1” . Note the reflexed scales in the cone picture.
The hybrid Larch, Larix eurolepis Henry, first arose
through the chance cross-pollination of female flowers of
Japanese larch by male flowers of the European kind. This
happened on the estate of the Duke of Atholl, at Dunkeld
in Perthshire, about 1904. Nowadays most of the seed for
raising it comes from seed orchards set up by the Forestry
Commission, in which selected parent trees of each kind are
grown in alternate rows, to increase the probability of
cross-fertilisation.
This “first-cross” shows to a remarkable degree the property
called hybrid vigour. It grows faster than either parent, and
will do reasonably well under poorer conditions of infertile
soil or greater exposure than its parents can stand. It is not
illustrated here because its characters are variable, but
intermediate between those of the Japanese and the Euro­
pean kinds. A whole plantation can often be picked out from
this circumstance, but it is less easy to be sure of any one FIGURE 14
individual tree. Japanese larch seedling, one-year-old. Winter, ( x s )
FIGURE 15
A sturdy two-year-old (1 + 1) Japanese larch transplant.
Winter. ( x £)
 Japanese larches in Coed Morgannwg^ a Commission forest in Glamorgan.

25
Norway Spruce
Picea abies Karsten

Everybody knows the Norway spruce as the Christmas tree, growth is slow, but eventually the trees grow taller rapidly,
used for winter decoration, but it is also one of the world’s and their stems bulk out fast, so that the total yield of tim­
leading timber producers. It grows wild over most of ber is high.
northern Europe, north-east Asia, and on mountain ranges The timbers of all the spruces are much alike and their
further south, but it is not native to Britain. It was intro­ properties are further described under “ Sitka spruce”,
duced at some unknown date, certainly by the mid­ on page 30. Much Norway spruce timber is imported from
sixteenth century, and has been planted on a growing scale Scandinavia and Russia under the trade name of “white-
ever since. Though self-sown seedlings are sometimes wood” or “white deal”, and it is widely used in the building,
found, nearly all our spruces are raised artificially from seed box-making and joinery industries.
in nursery beds.
All the spruces are easily known because their needles stand
on tiny pegs (see page 9). The Norway spruce is readily
told apart from others by its soft mid-green needles, which
are pointed but not sharply so. Spruce trees have a thin bark
which appears smooth in general outline, not fibrous or
furrowed, but has a roughish surface due to small irregular­
ities. In the Norway spruce this bark, though greyish-brown
in general colour, always has a reddish or rusty tint that aids
identification; in fact the Germans call it the “red-spruce” .
The base of the trunk often spreads out in ridges or but­
tresses. The male flowers are clusters of yellow anthers,
borne in May, which soon fall. The female flowers are
greenish, oval structures that ripen rapidly, between spring
and autumn, into very distinctive long, cylindrical brown
cones, which have straight scales and always hang down­
wards (see cover picture).
The seeds that fall from these cones in spring are very small;
each seed sits in a little cup at the base of its wing, to which
it is only lightly attached. The resulting seedling is quite
tiny also, rarely growing over three inches in its first year;
so the forester leaves it for two years in the seedbed. It then
spends one or two years more in a transplant bed before going
to the forest. A good root system is needed because spruces
are always planted with their roots spread out in a shallow
fashion, justbelowthegroundsurface, beneath an overturned
turf, or beneath the slice of turf turned over by a plough. f ig u r e 17
Roots set more deeply would make no progress. Early Norway spruce seedling, one-year-old. Winter. ( Xi )

26
FIGURE 18
Norway spruce transplant, aged three years (2+ 1). Winter. ( x £)

27
FIGURE21
Norway spruce cone and foliage. Autumn. ( x J)

28
29
Sitka Spruce
Picea sitchensis Carriere

Many spruces from Asia and America have been grown soon increases in height by as much as three feet a year. At
experimentally in Britain, as possible timber trees, but only the same time its girth grows rapidly, and as a rule it yields
one has proved a marked success. This is the Sitka spruce, a greater volume of timber, in a given tree, than any other
named after the small seaport of Sitka in southern Alaska. tree. Further, it grows upright despite severe exposure, even
Its natural range extends down the western seaboard of to salt-laden winds blowing straight in from the sea.
North America, from mid-Alaska to California. The seed
needed for raising trees in the British Isles is often im­ The timber yielded so readily by Sitka spruce is very like
ported from the Queen Charlotte Islands in British Col­ that of the Norway spruce or “whitewood”. As the name
umbia, as that provenance grows vigorously in our climate. suggests, it is pale creamy brown, or almost white in colour.
Sitka spruce is fairly easily known because all its needles No colour difference can be seen between sapwood and
have a bluish or slatey-grey tint. They end in a really sharp heartwood, and only a slight one between the paler spring-
point, which makes the foliage rough to the touch, and rules wood and darker summerwood of each annual ring. It is
it right out for use as a Christmas tree. The cones are very even in texture, easily worked and holds nails well, and it is
distinctive, being quite short and pale brown in colour; strong in relation to its size and weight. It has no natural
each of the thin scales has a crinkly edge, unlike that on any durability out-of-doors, but the sapwood takes preservative
other conifer. The winged seeds are remarkably small, and and so it can be used for fencing or small telegraph poles.
the resulting seedlings are usually kept for two years in the A good deal goes to the mines as pit props. Much is used for
seedbeds. The transplant illustrated is four years old, and making boxes and packing cases, while there is an even
has the good root system needed for shallow planting. Sitka greater demand in house-building, as joists, rafters and
spruce bark is thin and appears smooth to the eye, but is flooring. Selected material is used for joinery and ladder-
rough to the touch. It is greyish-brown in colour, and often making.
breaks away in shallow plates. The base of the trunk is often Spruce timber has proved very suitable for making various
buttressed. kinds of manufactured board, such as wood chipboard,
For many years the Forestry Commission has planted more insulation board, and hardboard, and much home-grown
Sitka spruce than any other individual kind of tree. This is stuff goes to the board factories. The greatest world demand,
because it is well suited to the peaty hills and moors in however, now comes from the paper makers, who prefer
Scotland, Wales and the north and the west of England spruce to all other timbers, no matter what process they
where most poor grazing land has become available for use for making their paper pulp. It is also preferred by the
afforestation. It enjoys a high rainfall, but in the south and makers of cellulose, cellophane and rayon fabrics. Much
east of Britain, where rainfall drops below forty inches a home-grown spruce wood now goes to newsprint mills at
year, it is not really at home, so there it is seldom planted. Ellesmere Port in Cheshire, or to the big semi-chemical
On good ground in the west it starts growth slowly, but paper mill recently opened at Fort William in west Scotland.

3°
FIGURE22 (left)
One-year-old Sitka spruce seedling. ( x 1)

FIGURE23 (right)
Four-year-old (2 + 2) Sitka spruce transplant. (

24 (below)
f ig u r e
Spray of Sitka spruce foliage, with drooping,
crinkly-scaled, cones. ( x I)
 VNrt V,.-’

PLATE VII
Sitka spruce in Loch Ard Forest, Perthshire.

32
Douglas Fir
Pseudotsuga m enziesii Franco

This beautiful conifer is named after David Douglas, the stout green shoots bearing leafy bracts; they ripen rapidly
Scottish botanist who, in 1827, sent the first seed home to to brown cones, which start to drop their winged seeds
Britain. Its scientific name commemorates another Scottish during the following autumn. Seedlings grow rapidly and
botanist, Archibald Menzies, who discovered the tree in are occasionally transplanted when one year old. Our
1791. Its homeland extends down the western side of North picture shows a three-year-old (2 + 1) transplant.
America, from Alaska to California; most of the seed we Douglas fir is widely planted, but usually on the better
sow in Britain comes from the neighbourhood of Van­ ground, not in extreme exposure or on very poor soil. It is
couver Island in British Columbia. There it forms magnific­ often used in the replanting of felled woodland; it stands
ent forests, outgrowing other conifers and often reaching light shade in youth so is sometimes given the protection of
250 feet in height. Here in Britain it has already become our a light cover of birch trees. On good ground it grows fast,
tallest tree, with one specimen scaling 181 feet at Powis right from the start, and produces timber at a rate which
Castle near Welshpool in Montgomeryshire. rivals the spruces.
A few simple features enable you to identify the foliage of The timber of Douglas fir is marketed under that name in
Douglas fir. The solitary needles do not stand on pegs, and Canada and America, but when it is imported into Britain
if they are pulled away they leave a smooth round scar on it is sold under the trade names of “Oregon pine” and
the twig’s surface. The buds are brown, scaly, and taper to “Columbian pine”, probably because it bears a strong re­
a point; they resemble the buds of a beech tree, but are not semblance to true pine timbers. It has a well-marked
so thin; these buds mark the Douglas fir out from the Silver reddish-brown heartwood that contrasts strongly with its
firs, described later. The cone is very distinctive; it is egg- pale creamy-brown sapwood. The annual rings are always
shaped and hangs downwards, and outside every scale there clearly visible, for broad zones of dark brown summerwood
is a three-pointed bract such as is found on no other tree alternate with the paler springwood. The timber works well
(cover picture). The bark is at first greyish-black and smooth, and has good strength properties. It is used in building and
and bears resin blisters; later it becomes very thick and general construction work, just as pine would be, and also
deeply fissured, and shows orange-brown tints in the cracks. in engineering as imported material is available in large
sizes. Strong plywood is obtained from the big logs avail­
The male flowers of Douglas fir are clusters of yellow able in North America. Our home-grown trees are used
stamens which open in May and soon wither thereafter. for fencing, pit props, telegraph poles, sawmill timber, and
The female flowers, borne near the branch tips, look like paper pulp.

33
FIGURE25 FIGURE 26
One-year-old seedling of Douglas fir. Winter. ( x l ) Douglas fir transplant aged three years (2+ 1). Note the slender
pointed buds. Winter. ( x J)

34
FIGURE 27
Foliage spray of Douglas fir, with female flower near the tip.
May. ( x i)

fig u re28 (below)

Douglas fir cones ripening in autumn. Note three-pointed
bracts and the position of the cones, one whorl back from the
branch tips. ( x j )
 M ill

PLATE VIII
Douglas firs in Parkhill Enclosure, Forest of Dean, Gloucester­
shire. Note figure at foot.

36
Grand Fir
Abies grandis Lindley

The Silver firs which make up the genus Abies are easily 1900 a tiny insect, the aphid Adelges nusslini C.B., which
known by their needles, which are always solitary, and occurs on the Continent but does little harm there, began to
which leave a neat round scar on the twig when they are damage the younger trees growing in Britain; it has proved
pulled away. A glance at the buds will distinguish them from so serious in our milder climate that the European species
two rather similar conifers; in the Douglas fir the buds are is no longer planted for timber.
slender with brown papery scales, while in the yew the buds In its place foresters use the Grand fir from western
are small, with leafy scales free at the tips. No common North America, which is shown here. Though it resembles
Silver fir has buds quite like those; Silver fir buds are short, the European kind closely, it suffers no serious harm from
plump, and often resinous. insect pests. Its needles lie in very flat planes, and are
Silver firs always form erect stems and show a regular somewhat variable in length; its buds are resinous, a feature
branching pattern.. _For many years their bark remains that distinguishes it from the European sort. Because it
smooth, except for resin blisters, though old trees show stands shade when young, it is often planted below birch,
shallow plates or fissures. The male flowers are like those larch, or other trees giving only a light overhead cover. A
of many other conifers, being simply clusters of yellow
stamens, but the female flowers and cones are distinctive
(see page 41). The female flower, an upright, green, oval
structure which opens near the tips of side branches in May,
expands rapidly during the summer, and is ripe by late
August. Unlike other common cones, it remains upright,
but only remains intact for a few weeks. Each scale has a
bract below it, and once the cone turns brown both bract
and scale break away and fall, releasing a pair of winged
seeds. The central spike or axis of the cone remains standing
for a year or so; it is called the “fir candle” and is a sure
recognition sign. All this means that the forester who needs
Silver fir seed must be quick off the mark, and collect his
cones by climbing the tree as soon as they are ripe. It also
means that intact cones are hard to store as specimens, even
if held together by wires.
Silver fir seeds are rather large, and have a triangular wing
firmly attached to both sides of the seed. They are hard to
store, and in practice are sown in the spring after they ripen.
The seedlings have few seed-leaves, only three to six or so,
and these are followed by normal foliage. The start growth
slowly and are usually kept for two years in the seedbed;
after transplanting they take another two years to reach the
plantable size illustrated here.
People who have visited Central Europe will be familiar
with the European Silver fir, Abies alba Miller, which
flourishes on the Vosges, the Jura, the Alps and many other
mountain ranges. During the nineteenth century this species
was widely planted in the British Isles and some fine FIGURE29
specimen trees still survive. Unfortunately, about the year One-year-old seedling of Grand fir, Abies grandis. Winter. ( x 2)
37
good crop of Grand fir yields a great volume of timber in a
relatively sfiort time, and for this reason this tree is now
being planted on a growing, though still small, scale.
The timber of the Silver firs is very like that of the spruces
(page 30); in fact it is sometimes imported from Europe
under the same trade name of “whitewood” . It is pale cream
or brown in colour, without apparent heartwood, and is
suitable for joinery, house-building, box-making, and paper
pulp; though not naturally durable out of doors, it is
readily treated with preservatives.

FIGURE 30 {right)
Grand fir transplant, aged three years (2 + 1); the buds are
blunt. Winter. ( x J)

fig u re31 {below)

Spray of Grand fir foliage, with needles flatly disposed in two
ranks. ( x J)
PLATE IX
Grand firs in Bedgebury Pinetum near Hawkhurst in Kent.

39
Noble Fir
Abies procera Rehder

This handsome conifer, which formerly bore the scientific

name of A. nobilis Lindley, is readily known by the upswept
form of the needles on its side twigs. These needles are a
shining bluish-green in colour, and the whole tree is re­
markably decorative; in Denmark it is preferred to all other
conifers as a Christmas tree. Its native land, however, is the
western coast of North America, where it grows to great
size in vast forests. The growth habit is remarkably regular,
but the trunk tends to taper more markedly than do most
other trees; the bark is pale grey.
Noble fir cones are remarkable for their large bracts, which
are bent downwards and give each cone a feathery outline;
in America it is sometimes called “feathercone fir” (cover
picture). In the west of Scotland the Noble fir has shown
good resistance to gales off the sea, and also to harsh winters,
and as it can give high yields of timber it is now being planted
on a small scale in western districts generally. You are most
likely to find it, however, as an ornamental tree. The timber
resembles that of other Silver firs.

FIGURE 33 (above)
Transplant of Noble fir, aged three years (2+ 1); foliage is upswept.
Winter. ( x i)
32 (left)
f ig u r e
One-year-old seedling of Noble fir, Abies procera. Winter. ( x 1)
 (left)
f i g u r e 34
Female flower and foliage of Noble fir. Spring. ( x i)

f i g u r e 35 (right)
Male flowers and foliage of Noble fir. Spring ( x £)

(below)
f i g u r e 36
‘Feathercone’ of Noble fir; note reflexed bracts and also the
upswept foliage. September. ( x £)
PLATE X
Noble firs in Bedgebury Pinetum, Kent.

42
Western Red Cedar
Thuja plicata D. Don, and

Lawson Cypress
Chamaecyparis lawsoniana Parlatore

These two trees are described together because they look so drooping leading shoot.
much alike that they are often confused, but only the Thuja
is commonly planted for timber. Both come from western Western red cedar, on the other hand, is usually grown from
North America, and both have foliage that grows in seed as a forest crop. In its seedling stage it is rather prone
flat plates or fronds, rather like those of a fern. The to suffer from the serious Keithia disease, caused by the
needles, though actually separate, hug the twigs so closely fungus Didymascella thujina which can wipe out whole beds
that they completely hide them, while the buds are also of young plants; but a fungicide has now been found which
concealed. may check this. Foresters often use Western red cedar for
planting below crops of other trees, such as larch or birch,
One way to know the Thuja is by feeling the tips of the that cast only a light shade. It grows fast when started off
leafy twigs, which are stout and fleshy, whereas those of the in this way and can yield heavy crops of timber. Several
cypress are thin. Another way is by colour, for the Thuja is kinds of tree yield timbers known in commerce as “cedar” ;
yellowish-green, with sometimes a hint of red, whereas this particular one provides the very durable and strong
the cypress tends to be bluish-green; but in an ornamental wood used for cedar bungalows, sheds, greenhouses, and
collection other colours will be seen. Thuja foliage has a roofing shingles; when first cut it is bright orange-brown,
peculiar acrid scent when crushed, while cypress smells but it soon weathers to an attractive silvery grey. As the
more resinous. When the cones appear the two trees are young stems are light, strong, and straight, they are often
easily distinguished. The Thuja has small, brown, slender used for ladders, while because of its natural durability the
cones each consisting of a few scales that separate close to Indians of western North America always chose this cedar
their base. The cypress bears globular cones, each with a for carving their totem poles.
short stalk and a broad, rough-surfaced head; at first they
are coloured cream, with bluish-grey knobs at the top of The foliage of both Lawson cypress and Western red cedar
each scale, but when fully ripe they are blue-grey and brown is widely used by florists, for wreaths and displays, and when
(cover picture). foresters prune away the side branches they are able to sell
Lawson cypress is rarely planted for its timber, because it them at a profit. Both trees have thin, fibrous bark.
has no particular merits and one serious fault: its main stem The tiny seeds that fall from Lawson cypress or Western
is very apt to fork and this greatly reduces its value to the red cedar cones are very much alike; each has a thin brown
timber merchant. But it has become one of our most popular wing, about the same width as the actual seed, on both
trees for garden hedges and ornamental planting; for it is sides. When these seeds sprout, they first of all put out
hardy, evergreen, has a neat growth habit, and holds its only two seed-leaves, which contrasts with the numerous
foliage well down the stem. A large number of garden seed-leaves found in other conifers. Then, during their first
varieties are available, so nurserymen are able to say just season of growth, the seedlings bear solitary needles around
how each specimen is likely to develop. Some sorts have their first upright shoot, as shown in Figure 37. Whenever
blue foliage, others bright green, and still others yellow, side shoots arise, and also when growth is resumed by the
and some are dwarf and others tall yet compact. Certain main shoot in the second year, the familiar fern-like pattern
kinds have leaf and twig patterns quite unlike the type. All of foliage appears. But one has to remember that, when they
these rarities are increased by cuttings or grafting. The bear only “juvenile” foliage in the seedbed, these trees look
typical race, though not all the varieties, usually bears a quite unlike their parents.

43
 FIGURE 37
One-year-old seedling of Western red cedar; showing solitary
juvenile needles on upright main shoot, and adult foliage on side
shoot. Winter. ( X 1)

38
f ig u r e
Transplant of Western red cedar, aged three years (2+ 1); only
adult, fern-like foliage is now seen. Winter ( X J)

44
FIGURE 39 {above)
Foliage spray of Western red cedar, showing slender
cones opening towards the tip. Autumn. ( x £)

40
f ig u r e
Foliage spray of Lawson cypress, showing
globular cones. Autumn. ( x £)

45
PLATE XI
Western red cedars in Friston Forest, near Eastbourne, Sussex.

46
PLATE XII
An avenue of Lawson cypress in Bedgebury Pinetum, Kent.

47
Yew
Taxus baccata Linnaeus, and

Juniper
Juniperus com m unis Linnaeus

These two trees are included here because they are native, but stock. The bark and the seed are poisonous too, but not the
they are never planted for timber. Each is easy to recognise pink flesh of the berry. The timber is naturally durable,
and both, though classed as conifers, bear berry-like fruits. with a red-brown heartwood and a thin layer of white
The yew is easily known by its sombre appearance, with sapwood. It was formerly used for long-bows but now serves
leaves that are dark green above, lighter below; an isolated only for decorative furniture, turned bowls and ornaments.
spray looks rather like a Silver fir, but the small buds have The association of yews with churchyards goes back to early
leafy scales. The bark is a typical rust-red, and breaks away Christian times, and some of these veterans are well over
in long flakes, while the trunk and branches are ribbed or one thousand years old.
fluted; this makes them of little value as timber. Yews By contrast the juniper is a shrub, of very local distribution.
flower in February or March, and the male flowers, which You can find it on some of the chalk downs in southern
are tiny clusters of pale yellow stamens, usually appear on England, and plentifully in certain Scottish Highland
different trees from the female ones. The female flowers forests, but only in scattered patches elsewhere. You can
seldom attract attention, being small, oval, green structures easily recognise it by the peculiar scent of the sharp blue-
set in the leaf axils. These ripen by October to the bright green needles, which are always grouped in threes; this
crimson berries, each holding a greenish-black seed within a scent recalls that of gin, which is in fact flavoured with an
cup, or aril, of pink flesh (cover picture). Birds eat the berries, oil distilled from juniper berries. Juniper bushes bear
and void the seeds; seedlings, each bearing two deciduous yellow male flowers and small green female flowers that
seed-leaves, spring up freely below trees where they roost. ripen to fleshy berries, green at first but ripening by late
Yews form natural woodlands on soils of many kinds, and autumn to purple globes with a silvery sheen. The birds
are planted in gardens as hedges or ornamental specimens. scatter these, giving rise to tiny seedlings, each with two
Though animals rarely suffer harm from nibbling growing seed-leaves. Occasionally junipers assume a pyramidal,
foliage, yew clippings are deadly poisonous to farm live­ tree-like form, but they never yield really useful timber.

48
 r

FIGURE 41 (right)
Seedling of yew, aged six months. The two lowest leaves are
seed-leaves, which last one season only; evergreen solitary
leaves follow. Autumn. ( x 1)

42 (below)
fig u re
Spray of yew foliage, bearing berries. Autumn. ( x |)

49
 (left)
f i g u r e 43
One-year-old seedling of juniper. Winter. ( x 1)

(below)
f i g u r e 44
Spray of juniper foliage, bearing berries. Autumn. ( x £)
PLATE XIII{above)
The famous yew in Selborne churchyard, Hampshire, 26 feet
round at 4} feet above ground.

plate xiv {below)

Juniper bushes on the South Downs of West Sussex.

51
Western Hemlock
Tsuga heterophylla Sargent

This beautiful evergreen conifer owes its curious name to a borne on the same tree, are green. The brown, egg-shaped
supposed resemblance between the earthy smell of its cones are very numerous, and look quite decorative on a
crushed foliage and that of the hemlock plant, a tall, white- specimen tree.
flowered poisonous perennial that grows beside rivers in The timber, which is imported in large quantity from
southern England. The hemlocks, however, come from British Columbia, is pale brown, and is used for building,
North America, where several species are found, and this box-making, and paper pulp.
one grows near the western seaboard. It is now being
extensively planted in Britain because it starts growth well
in the light shade of other trees, and eventually yields a very
heavy timber crop.
Hemlock is easily recognised by an odd feature of its foliage:
needles of various lengths are crowded together along the
twigs in a random fashion. The seedling has three seed-
leaves, an unusual number in conifers, and needs shading
in the seedbed. Transplants grow in an oblique or sideways
manner at first, but eventually the plant forms a straight
stem with a characteristic drooping leading shoot. The small
male flowers are yellow in colour, while the female flowers,

FIGURE 45 (left)
One-year-old seedling of
Western hemlock. The three
seed-leaves are followed by
typical needles of uneven
lengths. Winter. ( x 1)

f ig u r e 46 (right)
Three-year-old transplant of
Western hemlock (2+ 1). The
oblique growth is typical, and
the leading shoot may even
droop; but the trunk always
grows upright. Winter. ( x J)

52
FIGURE 47
Foliage spray and cones of Western hemlock.
Autumn. ( X f )
PLATE XV
Western hemlocks in Bedgebury Forest, Kent.

54
Conifer Seeds

The seeds of conifers show remarkable variations in size firmly fixed to one side of the wing, less firmly on the other.
and form, which are of considerable scientific interest and Japanese larch seeds and wings are distinctly larger than
may help people to tell the different kinds apart. Seeds are those of the European kind.
fairly easily obtained by shaking newly ripened cones, or by In the spruces, the seed sits in a little cup at the base of the
cutting such cones through the centre, lengthwise, with a wing—and is lightly attached on one side only; Sitka spruce
stout penknife. seeds are exceptionally small. In Douglas fir, the seed is
In most species the seeds are borne two per scale, though firmly fixed to one side of the wing and lightly to the other,
not every scale carries well-filled and useful seeds. Most but the oval shape prevents any confusion with the larches.
kinds bear wings, which are always removed by the forester The Noble fir and the Grand fir are easily known by the
later on, for convenience when storing or sowing seed. Our large size and wedge shape of both wing and seed, the two
drawings, reproduced at about twice natural size, show the parts being firmly fixed together on both sides. Western
seeds from various aspects. In the pines, for example, the hemlock is also fixed on both sides, but the seed is very
front view of the seed—plus its wing—differs from the back small and the wing is oval.
view. In the cone, the seed always lies towards the central In Western red cedar we find quite another pattern; there
axis, with the wing outside it, immediately against the scale. are two wings, extending equally on both sides of the seed,
each about the same width as the seed itself. Lawson
Pines have rather slender wings, which hold the oval seed cypress bears similar seeds. Yew seeds are wingless, and
in a little “claw”, made of two slender prongs. Scots pine oval in outline; they are borne within a pink fleshy cup,
has seeds of intermediate size, Corsican pine larger ones, which is not illustrated; there is only one seed in each berry.
and Lodgepole pine very small ones. Larches have rather The juniper berries, drawn in full, hold several small, hard,
triangular wings and also triangular seeds which are very wingless, triangular seeds, which are also shown.

55
 S C O T S P IN E C O R S IC A N LODGEPOLE
P IN E P IN E

EU ROPEAN JA P A N E S E NORW AY S IT K A
LARCH LARCH SPRU CE SPRUCE

DOUGLAS
F IR F IR F IR

W ESTERN W ESTERN YEW JU N IP E R

HEM LOCK RED CEDAR

Printed in England for H er M ajesty’s Stationery Office

D d. 135536 K.92 by Eyre and Spottiswoode Limited, Portsmouth
56
 FORESTRY COMMISSION PUBLICATIONS

B U L L E T IN
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G U ID E S
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The New Forests of Dartmoor (Booklet No. 10) 2s. 6d. (2s. 1Id.)
Dean Forest and Wye Valley (Forest Park) 6s. Od. (6s. Id.)
Glamorgan Forests 5s. Od. (5s. 7 d.)
Glen More Forest Park (Cairngorms) 8s. 6 d. (9s. 2d.)
Glen Trool Forest Park (Galloway) 6s. Od. (6s. 7d.)
New Forest (Hampshire) 5s. Od. (5s. 7d.)
Forests of North-East Scotland 5s. Od. (5s. 8d.)
North Yorkshire Forests 7s. 6 d. (8s. 2d.)
Queen Elizabeth Forest Park (Ben Lomond, Loch Ard and
the Trossachs). 3s. 6d. (4s. Id.)
Snowdonia Forest Park 5s. Od. (5s. 7 d.)
Westonbirt Arboretum (Gloucestershire) 1963 9d. (Is. Od.)
Forest Parks (Booklet No. 6) 2s. 6 d. (2s. lid .)

PR IC E S IN BRACKETS IN C L U D E POSTAGE

F R E E IS S U E S
Publications List No. 31, booklets ‘Forestry in Scotland’, ‘Forestry in England’, ‘Forestry
in Wales’, ‘Britain’s New Forests’, ‘Camping in the Forest Parks’ and a list of ‘Books and
Periodicals on Forestry and Allied Subjects’ will be sent post free by the Forestry Commission,
25 Savile Row, London W .l

Government publications can be purchased from the Government Bookshops

in London (post orders to P.O. Box 569, S.E.l), Edinburgh, Cardiff, Belfast,
Manchester, Birmingham and Bristol, or through any bookseller
 © Crown copyright 1966
Published by
H er M a j e s t y ’s S ta tio n er y O ffice
To be purchased from
49 High Holborn, London w.c.l
4-23 Oxford Street, London w.l
13 a Castle Street, Edinburgh 2
109 St. Mary Street, Cardiff
Brazennose Street, Manchester 2
50 Fairfax Street, Bristol 1
35 Smallbrook, Ringway, Birmingham 5
7-11 Linenhall Street, Belfast 2
or through any bookseller