Deformation of Pure Metals II
Deformation of Pure Metals II
Lecture 9
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Keywords: Mechanisms of plastic deformation, Slip, Twin, Stress‐strain diagram of single crystal, Crystal
rotation during plastic deformation, Strength of an ideal crystal, Deformation of polycrystalline material,
Preferred orientation or texture
Introduction
Deformation of single crystal:
There are two ways a crystal can deform without any change in its crystal structure. These are slip and
twin. Figure 1 illustrates how deformation takes place on application of stress by slip. If the stress is less
than the yield strength of the metal the atoms are just pulled apart. The lattice parameter increases
along the direction of stress. When it exceeds the yield strength a part of the crystal slips over the other.
This takes place on a plane on which the shear stress is the maximum.
Elastic Elastic deformation Plastic deformation
Stress
Plastic
Strain
Fig 1: Illustrates the difference between elastic & plastic deformation. Atoms move apart along the
direction of stress but come closer along the direction perpendicular to the applied stress during elastic
deformation. When the stress is withdrawn the atoms come back to their previous positions. Whereas
2 during plastic deformation the atoms on either sides of a plane on which the shear stress is the
maximum slide over one another. Displacement occurs in multiples of atomic distance on the slip plane
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along the slip direction. The atoms do not come back to their initial positions when the stress is
withdrawn. The stress strain plot starts deviating from linearity when plastic deformation sets in.
Plastic deformation by slip can occur only on certain planes and along specific directions on the plane.
The combinations of slip planes and directions on which slip can take place are known as slip system. It
depends on the crystal structure. Usually the close packed planes are the slip planes since they happen
to be the most widely spaced planes. Slip directions are the close packed directions. Table 1 gives the
indices of slip planes and directions for the three most common crystal structures of metals.
Table 1: Lists of slip system for 3 most common crystal structures
It is worth noting that slip can occur only due to stress acting on the slip plane along the slip direction.
Even if the applied stress is tensile along a given direction one has to find its component along the slip
direction on the slip plane to know if it can induce plastic deformation. Such stresses are known as
resolved shear stress. Slip occurs when the magnitude of this resolved shear stress exceeds a critical
value. This is known as the critical resolved shear stress. Slip can also be visualized as a simple shear.
Fig 2: Illustrates atomic arrangement before and after deformation by slip (simple shear). The process
would leave a slip trace (step) on the surface. Atoms on both sides of the slip plane are arranged in
identical fashion. If the top surface is polished the sign of deformation is totally removed. The best way
to see the signs of deformation due to slip is to take a polished sample, deform and look under
microscope without tampering (or polishing the surface) the surface.
The bulk of plastic deformation takes place by slip. The main features of deformation by this mechanism
are (i) no change in crystal structures (ii) no change in volume or lattice parameter (iii) no change in
crystal orientation (iii) all the atoms above the slip plane move by identical distance on the slip plane
3 along the slip direction (iv) the net displacement is in multiples of atomic spacing.
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Polished sample under stress Polished sample after deformation
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Fig 3 Sketches showing the effect of stress on a polished polycrystalline sample under stress. When the
stress exceeds the yield stress the sample under goes permanent deformation. Note the change in the
[001]
B Fig 4: Sketch showing the location of atoms in an FCC
unit cell. Look at the close packed plane (111) and the
indices of the lines joining atoms at face centers with
(111)
those at the corners. All of these are close packed
[010] directions. There are 3 close packed directions in one
C
slip plane. Since there are 4 close packed planes in FCC
A
crystal the total number of slip planes = 4 x 3 =12.
[110]
[100]
Problem 1: Figure 4 shows one (111) plane. What are the indices of the directions AB, BC & CD?
[001]
C Fig 5: Sketch showing the location of atoms in a BCC
B unit cell. Look at the close packed plane (110) and the
indices of the line joining atoms at the body centre with
(110) those at the corners [111]. All of these are close packed
[010] directions. There are 2 close packed directions in one
D
A slip plane. Since there are 6 close packed planes in BCC
crystal the total number of slip planes = 2 x 6 =12.
[110]
[100]
Problem 2: What are the indices of the directions AC & BD?
Problem 3: Show that the number of slip system in BCC metal is 48.
Answer: Note that on each (112) there is only one close packed direction [111]. There are 12 planes
having similar indices (packing density). Thus the number of slip system of type {112} <111> is 12.
Number of planes of type {123} is 24 and the number of <111> direction lying on it is one. Thus the
number of slip system of type {123} <111> is 24. Add all the three to get 48.
1120 0001
1210
Fig 6: Sketch showing atomic arrangement in an HCP crystal.
Basal plane (0001) is the slip plane. There is only one basal plane.
2110 The slip direction is 2110 . There are 3 such directions in one
basal plane. There are only 3 slip systems. Out of these only two
are independent.
Numbers of independent slip systems:
Changes in shape or deformation can only take place by shear or slip (both are same). A polycrystalline
metal is known to have excellent ability to deform into any desired shape. This is possible if all the
crystals of which this is made can undergo any arbitrary deformation. How many slip systems a crystal
must possess to satisfy this? To answer this we need to know about various possible components of
strains. The total strain ( ij) is made of elastic ( ije) and plastic ( ijp) components.
(1)
Let us consider the plastic strain only since we are looking at large deformation. The magnitude of
elastic strain is always negligibly small in comparison to that of plastic strain. Strain is a second rank
symmetric tensor. It has 6 components as shown by equation (2). .
(2)
5 The sum of the diagonal element represents total volume strain. This is an invariant. It means that the
volume strain does not depend on the choice of reference axes used to represent the strain at a point.
However there is no change in volume during plastic deformation. This suggests that:
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0 (4)
The number of independent strain components is therefore 5. Each of these can occur due to slip on a
slip specific system. This is why 5 independent slip systems are necessary for any arbitrary deformation.
Since both FCC & BCC metals have several slip systems to choose from they have excellent ductility.
Gold, silver & aluminum can be rolled down to extremely thin foils. All of them have FCC structure.
Problem arises in the case of metals having HCP structure (Zn, Mg, Zr, Ti). Slip takes place only on the
basal plane along any of the three close packed directions. It may be noted that vector addition of the
two slip directions gives the third. Thus only two of the 3 slip systems can be considered to be
independent. In fact ideal HCP structures have relatively poor ductility. In case of deviations from ideal
HCP structure slip is known to occur on prism & pyramid planes. However the slip direction is still the
same. This provides additional choice of slip systems from which selection of 5 independent slip systems
becomes possible.
Apart from slip there is an altogether different mechanism of plastic deformation. This is called
twinning. This too occurs on a specific crystal plane in such a fashion that the deformed part becomes a
mirror image of the parent crystal. Unlike slip the movement or atomic displacement is a function of its
distance from the twinning plane. Like slip this too occurs due to shear stress.
T P
Arrangement of atoms before twinning Twin plane
P
Arrangement of atoms after twinning
Fig 7 Sketch illustrating how the atomic arrangement changes on either sides of a twin plane after
deformation. Left hand figure shows the positions of atoms before twinning. The right hand figure
shows the positions of atoms after twinning. This also shows previous locations of atoms by dotted
circles. These are the locations where there are no atoms now. Note the arrangement of atoms on
either side of the twin planes. It exhibits reflection symmetry. Dotted lines indicate one of the close
packed directions. These are differently oriented within the twin. This shows that twinning is
accompanied by a change in crystal orientation. Therefore on polishing the sign of twin still remains.
6
Table 2 gives a list of twin plane and direction for the 3 most common crystal structures of metals. The
twin plane and direction remain undistorted. However there is a change in the orientations of the other
planes and directions within the twin.
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Table 2: List of twin planes & directions
Deformation during twinning takes place only within the twinned part of the crystal. However the
magnitude of deformation is large. For example the magnitude of displacement in FCC crystal
is 112 over a distance of 111 . Therefore the magnitude of shear strain is given by:
√
0.707 (5)
√
Unlike slip twinning is noisy and fast. One of the best examples of such a feature is that of tin cry (It has
BCT structure). You can hear the noise it makes tin makes during deformation. The stress strain plot also
shows serration. It is not smooth. HCP crystal has limited slip system. It needs additional deformation
modes. The orientation of the deformed region is different from the matrix. As a result it may now be
favorably oriented to undergo slip. Therefore twinning is very common in HCP crystal. Twinning
(deformation) also takes place in metals having BCC structure. However it is not so common during
plastic deformation of FCC crystal. Table 3 gives a comparison between the two modes of plastic
deformation.
Table 3: A comparison of slip & twin the two modes of plastic deformation
Single crystal deformation by slip (glide): The slide 1 illustrates how slip takes place in a crystal when it is
pulled in tension. The left hand side of this illustration shows that if the crystal glides on a plane the
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tensile axis is likely to shift. However the the grips of the testing machine will not allow it to happen. The
crystal would therefore rotate. The indices of the tensile axis would change. How does this happen?
Does it depend on the orientation of the crystal? We shall learn about it now.
Uniaxial tension
[n1 n2 n3] P [t1 t2 t3]
A0
x3
x2
[b1 b2 b3]
A
x1
Slide 1
Critical resolve shear stress (CRSS):
The sketch on the right hand side of slide 1 illustrates how the tensile axis P [t1 t2 t3] is oriented with
respect to the slip plane A whose normal [n1 n2 n3] subtends an angle with P and is the angle
between P and the slip direction [b1 b2 b3]. Note the orientation of the orthogonal reference axes x1 x2
x3. The direction x3 points along {n1 n2 n3] and x2 is along [b1 b2 b3]. A0 denotes the cross section area of
the crystal. The driving force for glide (slip) is the resolved stress acting along the slip direction on the
slip plane. The expression for this can be derived as follows:
(6)
/
Note that is the applied tensile stress and A is the cross section area of the slip plane. Slip or
permanent deformation takes place when exceeds a critical value c. This is known as Critical Resolved
Shear Stress. The equation 6 provides a relation between tensile and shear yield stress of a crystal. Note
that CRSS is a material property of the crystal. This does not depend on the size geometry and
orientation of the crystal. However the tensile yield strength of the crystal depends on its orientation.
8 This is given by:
/ (7)
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The term (cos cos represents the orientation relationship of the slip system with respect to the
tensile axis. It is commonly known as Schimd’s factor. It can have a maximum value of 0.5. Figure 8
shows a sketch of resolved stress versus resolved shear strain. It has several distinct stages. Glide occurs
when > c. Initially when slip takes place on a single system there is little work hardening. This is
known as the period of easy glide. With deformation the tensile axis would rotate. The orientation
factor would change so does the resolved shear stress. When the orientation factor on another slip
system becomes equally favorable glide occurs simultaneously on the two slip system. This stage is
known as duplex slip. As a result strain hardening rate becomes much higher. At a later stage when as
result of changing orientation factor several other slip planes become operative there is strain softening
(the slope of the stress strain plot decreases). This stage is known as cross slip.
Cross slip
Duplex slip
Elastic Fig 8: Sketch showing different stages of
deformation of a single crystal. Barring
, RSS
Shear strain
Slide 2 shows the nature of stress strain plot of a single crystal along with 001 standard projection where
the location of the tensile axis is shown with respect to a specific slip system. In this case underline
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denotes bar. For example 110 has been represented as 110 on the standard projection. The projection
includes the locations of the poles of {111} planes and the slip directions <110>. They constitute the slip
system of FCC crystal. There are 12 slip systems. The standard projection in slide 2 indicates the angles
& with respect to slip plane normal 111 & slip direction [101]. The slip system for which the
Schmid’s factor is the highest is the most favorable slip system. While comparing its values consider its
magnitude only (ignore its sign). The sign would help identify the direction in which it glide is likely to
take place. For example if Schmid’s factor is positive when slip occurs along [101] whereas it would slip
along 101 if it is negative. The expression for the estimation of Schmid’s factor on the basis of the
notations used to denote tensile axis, slip plane and slip direction can be written as follows:
(8)
The above procedure to find the slip system for a cubic close packed crystal loaded along a direction
[UVW] may look a bit complicated. It involves estimation of Schmids factor (SF) for a large number of
slip systems. Some of these may be negative as well. The most favorably oriented slip system has the
highest absolute value for SF (ignore the sign). There is a simple rule that may help one to find this
quickly. It is known as OILS rule. The mnemonics is derived from the phrase ‘zerO Intermediate Lowest
Sign’. The first two letters help decide the location of 0 within the indices of the slip direction <110> in
case of FCC crystal (slip plane in the case of BCC). Let us use this to find the indices for the slip direction
10 if the tensile axis is oriented along [213]. The intermediate Miller index for this direction is 2. Therefore
the slip direction is [011]. Lowest Sign helps identify which index for the slip plane (slip direction in the
case of BCC crystal) should have a negative sign. In this case the lowest index of the tensile axis is
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1.Therefore the slip plane is 111 . You may use this procedure to show that the most favorable slip
system if [123] is the tensile axis is 111 101 .
Slide 4: A 001 standard projection showing
100
the locations of the poles of slip planes
110 110
{111} and slip directions <110>. Symbols A,
3 101 111
111 C B, C & D have been used to denote four slip
B2 C1 B
D5 planes and numbers 1‐6 have been used for
2 D3 A3 1
010
011 011
010 6 slip directions. Consider the locations
C4 B4
A2 D1 within the stereographic triangle joining the
B2 D
111 A 111 poles 001, 111 & 011. Slip system having
6 4 101
A4 5 the highest SF for any crystal whose tensile
110 110
axis lies within this is B4.
100
The standard projection shown in slide 4 indicates the choice of slip systems depending on the location
of the tensile axis within various stereographic triangles. Only a few of these are shown. You may try to
find out the slip system for the rest of the stereographic triangles.
What is the slip system for tensile axes (poles); lying along one of the sides of the stereographic
triangles? Consider a pole lying on the line joining 001 with 011. In this case SF for two slip systems A3 &
B4 are identical. Therefore slip is likely to occur on both of these. This is known as duplex slip. If 001 is
the tensile axis then there are eight slip systems having identical SF. All of them are favorably oriented
for slip.
Mechanistic representation of slip:
Slip is a process of simple shear. This results in a change in the shape of the object without any change in
its volume. Let the cross section of a crystal be a rectangle before slip. After slip it becomes a
parallelogram. This is illustrated in slide 5.
Slide 5: Note that the magnitude of shear
Mechanistic representation of slip displacement along the slip direction (b) on plane
[n1 n2 n3] u1
[b1 b2 b3] x2 (n) is u1 over a distance x2. Thus the shear strain is
Mechanistic representation of slip
[n1 n2 n3]
[b1 b2 b3]
u1 xx2 given by . This may be taken to be the
2
x1
x2
x1
Before slip Before slipAfter Afterslip
slip displacement gradient. It represented as eij. For
u
u1
Slip is a simple shear or
e 1
Slip is gradient
a simple shear or
e12 shear components the subscripts are different (i≠j).
x
12 displacement
2
0 0
displacement gradient
x2 e
u
x
i j : slip
ij
i
0 0 0
: not symmetric
0 0 Displacement gradient matrix has only one nonzero
j
0 0 0
11 ui u
eij i i j : normal strain
eij i j : slip
x j
x j 0 0 0 : not symmetric term when represented with respect to an axes ox
ui
0 0 0
eij i j : normal strain as shown. OX1 points along b the slip vector & OX2
x j
points along plane normal n.
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Simple shear represented by a non‐symmetric matrix in slide 5 can be visualized to be made of two parts
of which one is symmetric strain matrix and the other an anti‐symmetric matrix representing rotation.
This is illustrated in slide 6.
Therefore during tensile test on a single crystal the indices of the tensile axis may change due to slip.
The introduction of matrix notations helps one find out the indices of the new axis. This will now be
illustrated in the next paragraph.
Effect of plastic deformation due to glide on a given slip system on the orientation of the
crystal axis:
We have just seen that if slip takes place on a given plane (n) along a given direction (b) the magnitude
of shear can be represented by a matrix having only one nonzero term. In this case the reference frame
consists of the unit vector along b and the slip plane normal n. However crystal indices are denoted with
respect to the crystal reference axes. The direction cosines of the slip vector b and slip plane normal n
are shown in Fig 9 along with the sketch of a single crystal. The tensile axis is given by vector l.
l
X3 Fig 9: Sketch showing the orientation of a
n single crystal and its slip plane & slip
b Crystal axes direction (b). Unit vector n denotes slip
OX1 OX2 OX3
plane normal. Crystal axes are OX1, OX2 &
b OX1’ b1 b2 b3
OX3. The direction cosines of the reference
X2 n OX2’ n1 n2 n3
axes OX1’ & OX2’ with respect to crystal
OX3’ z1 z2 Z3
X1 axes are indicated in a tabular form.
12
The displacement gradient matrix with respect to the slip vector (b) as axis OX1’ and slip plane normal
(n) as axis OX2’ is a 3x3 matrix with only one nonzero term. If this is represented by a matrix eij’ the only
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nonzero term is e12’= . This can be converted to displacement gradient with respect to the crystal
reference axes using the following expression.
′ ′
(9)
Therefore the components of eij with respect to the crystal reference axes can be represented as:
(10)
Equation 10 defines the change that occurs as a result of unit slip on one slip system. If you multiply this
with the magnitude of slip ( ) add a unit matrix to it you would get the transformation matrix, given in
equation 11.
1
1 (11)
1
If [l] & [L] denote the indices of the tensile axis (vector) before and after slip of magnitude ; then the
relation between two is given by equation 12.
1
1 (12)
1
This means that where the repeated index j denotes summation from 1 to 3. Often
this is represented as vector multiplication for brevity. The relation between the tensile axes before and
after deformation can therefore be represented by the set of equations given in slide 7.
L2 L .L l .l 2 n .l b .b 2 n .l b .l
2
l0 axis
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Slide 7: This displays the relation between tensile axes before and after slip. Note that the indices of the
slip system described with respect to the crystal axes remain unchanged. The subscript 0 has been used
to represent the values before deformation. See text for the details about the symbols.
P l sin 0 2 2
cos 0 1 0
A0 L
Slide 8: This displays the expressions that could be derived to show how the shear stress on the slip
plane changes with increasing strain. For a given P shear stress increases as L increases.
Geometrical softening
1
P l sin 0 2 2
cos 0 1 0 As L increases shear
A0 L stress increases. If
there is no work
d ln l 2 sin 2
2 0 2 20 hardening material
dL L l0 sin 0 would exhibit softening.
14
Slide 8: Illustrates the concept of geometric softening. The magnitude of softening is a function of the
orientation of the tensile axis. Since the magnitude of resolved shear stress ( ) increases with increasing
L often the crystal may continue to deform at constant P once the CRSS is reached if there is some
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amount of work hardening. In case there is no work hardening load required to sustain deformation may
drop with increasing strain. This phenomenon is known as geometric softening. The sketch at the
bottom of the slide shows 3 cases (i) crystal continues to deform at constant P (ii) shows a drop in the
magnitude of P needed to sustain glide (iii) a case where there is significant softening.
Crystal rotation
Rotation: r = L x l
100
L l n .l b
110 110
101 111
111
L l l cos 0 b l
010 011 011 010
111 111
101
110 110
Rotation axis is perpendicular to 100
both tensile axis & slip direction
Slide 9: Illustrates how to find the indices of the axis about which the tensile axis is expected to rotate.
The axis of rotation is perpendicular to both the initial and final orientations of the tensile axis.
Therefore the axis of rotation should be given by the cross product of the two. It means that the axis of
rotation is perpendicular to both tensile axis and slip direction.
Crystal rotation
III
101
111
II
I
001 011
15
Slide 10: This shows a typical resolved shear stress versus shear strain plot of a crystal whose tensile axis
lies with the stereographic triangle. Let the indices of the axis before deformation be 123 . With
deformation it would tend to move along the great circle joining the poles 123 & 101 as shown.
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Clearly this is 111 . As long as glide takes place only on one slip system there is little work hardening.
As the tensile axis moves to point on the line (great circle) joining the poles [001] & 111 it would start
gliding on another slip system. This consists of 111 011 . This stage is known as duplex slip. This is
characterized by significant work hardening. Now it would tend to rotate about another axis. As a result
the pole (tensile axis) would move along the great circle joining [001] & 111 .
C
111
A
B C
RSS
A B
001 011
RSS
Slide 11: Shows sketches illustrating the effect of crystal orientation on the nature of resolved shear
stress versus resolved shear strain plot. The one located near <011> pole would exhibit significant
period of easy glide. However this may be very short for A & C where these are very close to the line
joining 001 & 111 .
What is the strength of an ideal crystal?
We have just seen how extensive plastic deformation could take place in crystals by glide. This happens
on application of shear stress higher than its CRSS. Since atoms in a crystal are arranged in a periodic
fashion as these are forced to move away from their mean position of rest there will be opposing
restoring force acting on the atoms. In view of the periodic arrangement of atoms the restoring shear
stress may be represented as a sine function. The following slide illustrates how with this simple
assumption it is possible to derive an expression an expression for the shear strength of an ideal crystal.
16
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Strength of an ideal crystal
x
2 x 2 x m
a m sin if x small
b b
b x 2 x m
a b
b
b
m
x 2 a 2
Slide 12: The top figure shows the location of atoms on either sides of the slip plane displaced by a small
distance x. Note that <a> denotes the distance between the planes and <b> is distance between two
nearest atoms on the slip plane. The restoring stress ( ) has been represented by a periodic sine
function (see the first equation). The second figure gives a graphical representation of how varies with
displacement. Note that is 0 at three points 0, b/2 & b. The maximum restoring shear stress is m. This
occurs at x=b/4. Let us try to relate this to the magnitude of shear modulus. Assume x to be very small.
The first equation gives an approximate magnitude of as a function of x. Shear stress is directly
proportional to shear strain. In this case shear strain is x/a. Thus an alternative expression for has been
obtained. See the second equation. Equating the two an expression for m has been derived. Note the
last equation. Since the maximum shear strength of the crystal is given by /2π. More refined
calculations using better description of the periodic nature of the restoring stress as shown by the
dotted line is possible. Still the estimate remains two orders of magnitude lower than the of the real
strength of crystal.
Deformation of poly crystalline material:
Metals we use are rarely made of single crystal. They consist of numerous grains (crystals) arranged at
random. This means that the orientation of a particular grain is independent of its neighbors. These are
separated by boundaries. Across the boundary there is no relation between the atomic arrays. However
when deformation occurs there must be continuity all along the boundaries. This is possible if all the
components of deformations of all the grains are identical. This is schematically shown in slide 13.
17
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Plastic deformation of poly crystal
After deformation
Before deformation
Slide 13: Shows schematic microstructures of polycrystalline metal before and after plastic deformation.
Note that the strains in each grain are identical. There is continuity across the boundary. This is possible
when all the components of strains in individual grains are identical. It can be expressed mathematically
by the sets of equations given above. Note that is one of the components of deformation (change
in shape) of the polycrystalline metal. The symbol denotes components of deformation of grain
<G1>. Recall that deformation due to slip is made of strain and rotation. In matrix form it is written as
for the kth grain of the metal. The rotation too has two components. One we have
discussed is associated with slip. Apart from this there can be lattice rotation of individual grains.
Additional modes of deformation are needed to maintain continuity. Grain rotation and sliding are some
of these.
Random orientation
Slide 14: Shows a schematic microstructure of a polycrystalline sample. The cube in each grain denotes
its orientation. The stereographic projection that is shown alongside displays positions of cube poles as
18 points. They are scattered randomly. In this case cubes poles of only a few grains are shown. If there are
n such grains each will have 3 cube poles. The number of such points will be 3n.
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Preferred orientation: 001 texture
Slide 15: This shows a case where the grains are so oriented that the cubes planes are parallel to the top
surface. Note the way the cubes are placed within the grains. The figure on the right is a stereographic
projection of the sample displaying the locations of cube poles. These are located within the small circles
shown on the stereographic projection. Such projections displaying locations of specific poles are known
as pole figures.
The constraints mentioned in slide 13 require that slip in each grain must take place simultaneously on 5
slip systems. This is why the stress strain diagram of a polycrystalline metal does not exhibit stages of
easy glide or duplex slip as in a single crystal. The deformation results in changes in the shapes of grains
and their orientations.
Summary
In this module the main features of plastic deformation have been explained. Metals we use are mostly
polycrystalline. Its deformation behavior therefore depends not only on its crystal structure but also on
the ways these arranged in the metal. Deformation in a crystal takes place by slip and twin. Both occur
due to shear on specific planes along specific directions. The basic difference between the two has been
brought out. Importance of multiple slip to allow arbitrary deformation in crystals has been explained.
An attempt has been made to give some amount of quantitative insight to help compute the change in
the orientation of a crystal due to plastic deformation using mathematical techniques.
Exercise:
1. In which mode of plastic deformation atomic displacement could be less than inter atomic spacing?
2. Estimate the magnitude of shear strain for (111) 112 twin in fcc lattice.
3. What is the effect of tensile stress on lattice spacing?
4. Show schematic resolved shear stress versus shear strain diagrams of fcc crystal if the tensile axes
were (a) [123] (b) [001]
19 5. What is the difference between simple shear & pure shear? Under which category will you place
plastic deformation by slip?
6. What is the effect of plastic deformation on lattice parameter?
NPTEL Phase II : IIT Kharagpur : Prof. R. N. Ghosh, Dept of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering || |
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7. Draw a standard [001] projection showing all possible slip planes & directions for a bcc crystal.
Assume slip can take place only on {110} planes.
8. When does a polycrystalline material have same yield strength along all possible direction?
9. Estimate the ideal cleavage strength and shear strength of pure iron. Given E = 211 GPa and G = 83
GPa.
Answer:
1. Twin.
2. The distance between twin plane = and the magnitude of slip = 112
√ √
5. Simple shear represents displacement or slip on a plane along a specified direction. This is
schematically represented as follow:
/2
x
x
/2
20 Simple shear: x is normal to plane on Pure shear: simple shear (eij) is equal to sum of pure shear
which shear has taken place & y is ( ) and rotation ( ) as shown above. This makes the
ij ij
displacement. Displacement gradient is: strain matrix symmetric.
. Using the notation used it
0 0 0 ⁄2 0 0 ⁄2 0
is e12. All other components are zero.
NPTEL Phase II : IIT Kharagpur : Prof. R. N. Ghosh, Dept of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering || |
0 0 0 ⁄2 0 0 ⁄2 0 0
| | The matrix is not symmetric. Slip is a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
simple shear
6. Plastic deformation does not alter crystal structure or its dimension. Lattice parameter after
deformation is still the same.
7.
100
110 110 Slip systems of bcc crystal are {101} 111 There
101 are 12 such system. These are shown in standard
111 111
projection. For a pole lying within a stereographic
triangle slip plane & direction having maximum
010 011 001 01 010 resolved shear stress lie in the adjacent triangle. This
is shown for one case where the pole is marked as a
circle. The slip plane is 101 and slip direction is
111 111
101 [111].
110 110
100
8. Strength of a crystal may vary with the direction of loading. Polycrystalline metals may have a
large number of grains. Its properties will be a function of the entire group. If these are
randomly oriented then one would expect its properties to be isotropic.
9. Ideal shear strength 13.21 . For estimating cleavage strength please see
a0. Thus 67 . These are nearly two orders of magnitude higher
√ .
than the real strength of iron.
21
NPTEL Phase II : IIT Kharagpur : Prof. R. N. Ghosh, Dept of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering || |
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