Philippine Journal of Psychology, 2014, 47(1), 145-161

Copyright @ 2014 Psychological Association of the Philippines

“Pampapayat, Para Lumakas,

To Be Healthy”:
Exploring Filipino Motives
For Exercise
Jonathan Cagas
Beatriz Torre
Eric Julian Manalastas
University of the Philippines Diliman

Although exercise motivation is a well-established research area in

exercise and sport psychology in the West, relatively little work on
this topic is available in the Philippines. This study explored motives
for exercise among Filipinos using an open-ended methodology. Five
hundred ninety-two Filipinos aged 15 to 69 were asked to free-list
possible motives for exercise participation. Two thousand ninety-five
responses (about four per participant) were coded by two independent
judges via direct content analysis and using themes derived from the
Exercise Motivation Inventory subscales (EMI-2; Markland & Ingledew,
1997). The most frequently identified motives for exercise were highly
extrinsic – Filipinos exercise for weight management, positive health,
and strength and endurance. Challenge, social recognition, and
competition were the least frequently cited motives. Results also surfaced
participation motives outside those in the EMI-2, such as exercising to
satisfy a requirement, to improve posture, and due to directed social
influence from peers and family.

Keywords: exercise motivation, participation motives, physical activity

With the rising prevalence of lifestyle related diseases around

the world (World Health Organization, 2014), there is an increased
interest in studying why people participate in exercise and physical

Correspondence concerning this article can be addressed to Jonathan Cagas, Department of Sports Science, College
of Human Kinetics, UP Diliman, Quezon City 1101. Email: [email protected] or [email protected]
146 Filipino Motives for Exercise

activity outside the competitive sports setting (Biddle & Mutrie, 2008).
The World Health Organization (2014) defines physical activity (PA)
as any bodily movement that results in increased energy expenditure
and is positively correlated with physical health. Physical activity has
four general categories: work-related PA (e.g., lifting office supplies),
nonwork-related PA (e.g., doing household chores), travel-related
PA (e.g., walking to a bus terminal), and leisure-related PA (e.g.,
going for a morning jog). As a form of leisure-related PA, exercise
refers to physical activity that is planned, structured, repetitive, and
which maintains or improves physical fitness (Caspersen, Powell, &
Christenson, 1985, as cited in Biddle & Mutrie, 2008). It can include
activities such as running, swimming, gym-based fitness activities,
and recreational sport.
The Philippines is currently facing major health issues with
alarming increases in the prevalence of hypertension, obesity, and
physical inactivity according to national data (Food and Nutrition
Research Institute, Department of Science and Technology [FNRI-
DOST], 2008). In a nationally representative sample of 7,700 Filipinos
ages 20 and older, FNRI-DOST reported that very few Filipino adults
– only 7% – had high levels of leisure-time physical activity. High
leisure-time PA was operationalized in this survey as exercising either
“every day” or “three to five times a week” at 30-45 minutes.
From an exercise psychology perspective, motivation to
participate in leisure-related PA is a critical area of research that
provides better understanding of exercise behavior and serves as basis
for interventions to promote physical activity and health. Intervention
messages can be developed to tap into people’s various participation
motives to promote exercise participation (Ingledew & Markland,
2008). Exercise motivation refers to reasons why people participate
in leisure-time PA at the level of health and recreation (Biddle, 2007;
Biddle & Mutrie, 2008). Previous research suggests that intrinsic
or self-determined motives such as stress management, health and
fitness, social affiliation, and challenge are better predictors of exercise
participation (Ingledew & Markland, 2008; Ingledew, Markland,
& Ferguson, 2009). Participation motives, or the specific reported
reasons why people engage in exercise, is an extensively studied
research area in exercise psychology in the West (Biddle & Mutrie,
 Cagas, Torre, & Manalastas 147

2008).
A recommended starting point for studying physical activity
motivation is a descriptive approach, a widely used method in early
baseline studies of exercise in specific communities (Biddle & Mutrie,
2008). Descriptive approaches using systematic techniques like free
listing and content analysis can be used to generate new understanding
of certain health behaviors (Dongre, Deshmukh, Kalaiselvan, &
Upadhyaya, 2009). According to Biddle and Mutrie (2008), although
they do not offer a theoretical explanation for physical activity
involvement, descriptive approaches are useful because they provide
a basis for understanding the wide range of people’s motivation for
exercise. Population-based studies conducted in Australia (Australian
Bureau of Statistics, 2007), Western Europe (Zunft et al., 1999), and
Singapore (Singapore Sports Council, 2005) point to motives that
appear to be shared across cultures. These are: to maintain good
health, to release tension, to get fit, for leisure, and for enjoyment.

Measures and Models of Exercise Motivation

Motivation to participate in exercise can be multifaceted and a

number of models and standardized instruments have been designed
to identify participation motives in exercise and physical activity.
Markland and Ingledew (2007) have identified four motives inventories
in the exercise psychology literature: the Reasons for Exercise
Inventory (REI; Silberstein, Striegel-Moore, Timko, & Rodin, 1988),
the Motivation for Physical Activities Measure (MPAM; Frederick
& Ryan, 1993; MPAM-Revised; Ryan, Frederick, Lepes, Rubio, &
Sheldon, 1997), the Personal Incentives for Exercise Questionnaire
(PIEQ; Duda & Tappe, 1989), and the Exercise Motivation Inventory-2
(EMI-2; Markland & Ingledew, 1997).
Of these four, the EMI-2 provides the broadest range of reasons
for exercise participation. It is also one of the most commonly used
measures of exercise participation motives in the research literature
(Kilpatrick, Hebert, & Bartholomew, 2005; Markland & Ingledew,
2007; Sanchez, 2008). An improved version of the original 12-subscale
Exercise Motivation Inventory (EMI; Markland & Hardy, 1993, as
cited in Markland & Ingledew, 1997), the EMI-2 has been factorially
148 Filipino Motives for Exercise

validated and shown to be a reliable measure of exercise motives that

can be used to evaluate participation motives of both habitual exercisers
and nonexercisers (Markland & Ingledew, 1997). Its 14 subscales have
also been classified into three higher order themes using factor analysis
(Ingledew & Markland, 2008): (a) health and fitness motives (i.e.,
health pressures, ill-health avoidance, nimbleness, positive health, and
stress management), (b) social engagement motives (i.e., affiliation,
challenge, competition, and social recognition), and (c) appearance
and weight motives (i.e., appearance, and weight management).

Filipino Participation Motives for Exercise and Physical

Activity

Though exercise and sport motivation is a well-established

research topic in the West, relatively little work is available in the
Philippines, particularly in the area of exercise. One exception is
an unpublished study by Sanchez (2008) comparing participation
motives for sport versus for exercise. She asked 291 Filipino university
students to answer sport and exercise versions of the EMI-2 and
compared their motives for participation in these two forms of physical
activity. Sanchez found that enjoyment, challenge, social recognition,
affiliation, and competition motives were more likely endorsed for
sport participation, whereas ill-health avoidance was reported as
the most important motive for exercise participation. In the said
study, the top five reasons for participating in exercise were ill-health
avoidance, pursuing health, weight management, developing strength
and endurance, and improving physical appearance. Additional
reasons for exercise participation such as fun and valuing the benefits
of regular exercise were also reported.
In another study (Polman, Pieter, Bercades, & Ntoumanis,
2004), three other factors that predict physical activity and exercise
behavior among Filipino youth were identified. These are self-
motivation, body weight, and body mass index (BMI). Polman et al.
(2004) found that self-motivation, an individual-difference variable
defined as the tendency to persist in habitual behavior regardless of
situational factors, was the best predictor for male university students’
exercise participation, whereas body weight and BMI best predicted
 Cagas, Torre, & Manalastas 149

exercise for female counterparts. However, the exact psychological

mechanisms through which physiological variables like body weight
and BMI influence exercise behavior were not investigated.
Further reasons for participating in sport and exercise include
challenge and competition (Markland & Ingledew, 1997). In a study
of adult Filipino runners participating in a local marathon, Martin
and Gill (1995) observed comparable levels of competitiveness, goal
orientation, and win orientation between Filipinos and their Taiwanese
and American counterparts. This suggests that competitiveness can
also be a salient motivator for Filipinos, at least in sport settings.
These three Philippine studies all relied on imported inventories
developed in Western settings with little or no cultural adaptation.
Although using existing instruments can be advantageous, aspects
of a phenomenon viewed as important by people of the target culture
may be disregarded (Brislin, 1986). Adaptation or validation of an
instrument developed for another culture to verify its meaning in the
target culture is recommended if development of a new instrument is
not an option (Brislin, 1986).

Cultural Differences in Exercise Participation Motives

While the idea of exercise motivation applies across cultures,

specific reasons for sport and exercise participation may be diverse, with
differential salience across different cultures (Jermsuravong, 2006;
Moreno, López de San Román, Martínez Galindo, Alonso, & González-
Cutre, 2008). For example, Yan and McCullagh (2004) investigated
participation motivation in physical activities among Chinese,
American-born Chinese, and American children and adolescents.
Results of their study suggested that American participants engage
in physical activity, sports in particular, primarily for competition
and skill development. In contrast, social affiliation and wellness
were the main participation motives of Chinese participants, whereas
opportunity to travel, equipment use, and having fun were the motives
endorsed by American-born Chinese participants.
More recently, Pan and Nigg (2011) used a qualitative approach
to examine motivations and barriers to physical activity participation
of Hawaiian, Japanese, and Filipino university students. Major
150 Filipino Motives for Exercise

motivation themes for Filipinos include appearance (“not for health,

it’s more like oh I can’t fit into this shirt anymore”), preferential
activity (“It’s convenient, simple, no need [for] a partner”), health
benefits (“Stay active for health”), and recreation (“Just for fun”).
Psychological benefits (e.g., “The need to refresh the mind”), which
emerged from the Hawaiian and Japanese sample, were not a major
theme reported by Filipino respondents. These findings demonstrate
the value of empirically examining exercise participation motives in
particular cultural contexts using descriptive means.

The Present Study

Research in exercise and sports psychology grounded in the

Philippine context is a small but emerging field (Madrigal, Reyes,
Pagaduan, & Espino, 2010). A cursory review of article titles published
in the Philippine Journal of Psychology from 1971 to 2012 indicated
that only a handful can be identified as studies related to exercise and
sport psychology [e.g., running as an adjunct to psychotherapy (Go
Singco-Holmes, 1989) and task and ego orientation in sport (Maculada,
2007)]. We sought to contribute to this literature through a first-step
empirical examination using an open-ended descriptive methodology
of the range of Filipino participation motives in exercise behavior.
The present study addresses the question, “What motivates
Filipinos to participate in exercise?” We investigated self-reported
motives for exercise behavior using an open-ended free-listing
methodology. We conducted a directed-approach content analysis, a
type of content analysis where prior research is used to formulate an
initial coding scheme (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005), to analyze the data.
Hsieh and Shannon (2005) explained that the strength of this approach
is that it can support or extend prior knowledge. We then used EMI-
2 subscales as themes to map out the range of exercise participation
motives in a local Filipino sample. The EMI-2 was chosen over other
standard exercise and physical activity motivation measures because
it represents the broadest range of reasons for exercise participation
(Markland & Ingledew, 1997). In contrast to the direct use of imported
structured inventories, this modified bottom-up method allows for
exploration of a wide range of reasons for exercise, including more
 Cagas, Torre, & Manalastas 151

culturally salient ones.

METHOD

Participants

Five hundred ninety-two self-reported exercisers (194 males,

339 females, 59 unspecified) from Metro Manila and Metro Davao,
recruited through purposive sampling, participated in this study. They
reported exercising at least once a week in the last six months. Many
of the participants were university students (24%), while the rest were
teachers (16%), medical and other health professionals (11%), regular
employees (9%), call center agents (6%), and others (35%). Age range
of the respondents was 15 to 69 years. Mean age was 32.2 years (SD =
11.4).
Half of the respondents (n = 298) engaged in exercise activities
two to three times a week in the last six months. One hundred thirty-
seven (23%) exercised four to five times a week, 44 (7%) reported that
they exercised regularly for six times or more per week, and 103 (17%)
exercised at least once a week. Ten respondents did not report their
exercise frequency.
In terms of exercise activities regularly participated in, 179 (31%)
respondents reported running as their most common exercise activity.
Others engaged in walking (18%), jogging (11%), weight lifting (8%),
and yoga (5%).

Instrument and Procedures

An open-ended free listing method was used to collect data for this
study. Free listing is an exploratory elicitation technique commonly
used in social sciences (Brewer, 2002; Gravlee, Bernard, Maxwell, &
Jacobsohn, 2013) which has been used recently in exercise psychology
research (e.g., Ebben & Brudzynski, 2008). This method was chosen
to explore and capture a wider variety of participation motives for
Filipino exercise behavior.
Using a one-page bilingual Filipino-English form, respondents
were asked to free-list all the possible reasons why they or people they
152 Filipino Motives for Exercise

know exercise or have exercised in the past. Participants were allowed

to name as many reasons as they could, in either Filipino or English.
Information on personal background information, types of exercise
activities participated in, and frequency of exercise participation were
also collected.
The respondents were approached either individually or as a group
by the researchers and were asked if they would voluntarily participate
in a survey on Filipino exercise motives. Those who voluntarily agreed
to participate were guaranteed confidentiality and were assured that
the data would be accessible only to the researchers and will be pooled
together for analysis.

Data Analysis

Responses were encoded verbatim and pooled together to

create a master list of all possible reasons for exercise. As mentioned
earlier, this dataset was then analyzed using directed content analysis
(Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). Most of the responses were simple and
clear phrases (e.g., “para maging healthy” [to become healthy])
and were coded immediately. Coding was performed by the first and
second authors using themes corresponding to the 14 subscales of
the EMI-2 (Markland & Ingledew, 1997). These codes were: (a) stress
management, (b) revitalization, (c) enjoyment, (d) challenge, (e) social
recognition, (f) affiliation, (g) competition, (h) health pressures, (i)
ill-health avoidance, (j) positive health, (k) weight management, (l)
appearance, (m) strength and endurance, and (n) nimbleness.
Some responses were compound (i.e., indicating two or more
participation motives in one response), thus were decomposed by
the three authors into phrases to represent only one motive each.
For example, the response “iwas sa sakit para maging malakas ang
katawan, higit sa lahat malakas ang energy” [avoiding illness in
order to have a strong body and most of all for lots of energy]) was
split into three motives: (a) iwas sa sakit [avoiding illness], (b) para
maging malakas ang katawan [in order to have a strong body], and
(c) malakas ang energy [for lots of energy]. After data cleaning, the
first and second authors continued coding independently. Responses
were also coded later on using the three higher-order factors of the
 Cagas, Torre, & Manalastas 153

EMI-2 to provide a broader picture of participation motives in the

dataset.
A number of responses did not fit any of the themes above and
were coded as “others.” In accordance with the procedure of directed
content analysis (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005), responses which could not
be coded using the predetermined categories were analyzed further by
the research team using an inductive approach and categorized into
new themes.
To ensure reliability and consistency of the analysis, coding
was conducted in stages. In the initial stage, responses from a small
subset (n = 50) were categorized. At this stage, analytical procedure
was refined. Coding disagreements were resolved by the third author.
Initial intercoder agreement (ICA) was 74%. Succeeding analyses
included larger subsets and ICA values were as follow: 71%, 76%, 74%,
and 75%. After coding, frequency analysis was conducted to identify
the most and least cited motives. Overall intercoder agreement was
76%, a level considered substantially acceptable for exploratory studies
(Dongre et al., 2009).

RESULTS

As expected, respondents listed a wide variety of motives for

exercise participation. Filipino exercisers cited as few as one to
as many as 12 participation motives. After decomposing complex
responses, we identified a total of 2,095 motives. One thousand seven
hundred nine (82%) of these motives were subsequently coded under
the EMI-2 themes.
Weight management (e.g., “para pumayat” [to lose weight]) was
the most frequently cited motive for exercise participation (15%).
Positive health (e.g., “para maging healthy” [to become healthy]),
strength and endurance (e.g., “to develop strength”), and appearance
(e.g., “to have a sexy body”) were the next most frequently mentioned
motives for exercising. On the other hand, exercising for social
recognition (e.g., “para magpakitang-gilas” [to show off ability])
and competition (e.g., “I have a competitive nature”) were the least
mentioned reasons for exercising. Table 1 summarizes the frequency
of responses under each EMI-2 theme, including sample responses.
154 Filipino Motives for Exercise

Table 1. Motives for Exercise Coded Using EMI-2 Subscales

Theme Frequency Percentage Examples

EMI-2 Themes

Weight Management 323 15.4% “to lose weight”

Strength & Endurance 290 13.8% “para lumakas [to increase strength]”

Positive Health 305 14.6% “para maging healthy [to become

healthy]”

Appearance 182 8.7% “to have a sexy body”

Health Pressures 126 6.0% “dahil sinabi ng doktor [because of

doctor’s advice]”

Affiliation 70 3.3% “barkada activity [peer group activity]”

Enjoyment 58 2.8% “because it’s fun”

Stress Management 109 5.2% “pampatanggal stress [to reduce

stress]”

Revitalisation 76 3.6% “to feel good”

Ill-Health Avoidance 105 5.0% “para maiwasan ang pagkakaroon ng

high blood pressure o iba pang sakit sa

katawan [to avoid high blood pressure

or other physical ailments]”

Nimbleness 36 1.7% “para tumaas ang talon [to increase

vertical jump]

Challenge 14 0.7% “to improve skill”

Social Recognition 11 0.5% “para magpakitang gilas [to show

off]”

Competition 4 0.2% “competitive nature”

Motives Falling Under General Fitness and Others

General Fitness 145 6.9% “para maging physically fit [to become

physically fit]”

Others 241 11.5% (see Table 2)

TOTAL 2095 100%

 Cagas, Torre, & Manalastas 155

The EMI-2 themes include two fitness motives: nimbleness,

and strength and endurance. However, a number of responses (7%)
referred to nonspecific overall fitness as a reason for exercising (e.g.,
“para maging physically fit” [to become physically fit]), thus were
coded separately. Combined, these three (nimbleness, strength and
endurance, and overall fitness) accounted for 471 responses (22%).
Thus, although weight management appeared to be the single most
central motive for participation among Filipino exercisers in the
sample, fitness motives were also a highly salient cluster of reasons
reported for exercise behavior.
Using the EMI-2’s three higher-order factors as superordinate
codes, the salient Filipino participation motives lay in two of the
three themes: health and fitness (33%) and weight management
and appearance (24%). Very few motives were coded under social
engagement (5%), indicating that these motives do not seem to be
particularly important for many Filipino exercisers.
Two hundred forty-one (12%) of the reported motives did not fall
under any of the EMI-2 themes or under general fitness. These motives
were analyzed inductively together by the three authors and clustered
under different subthemes based on similarity in meaning. Some of
the motives derived from this analysis were: participating in exercise
due to an academic or job-related requirement, for pure leisure, to
achieve athletic goals (i.e., training for a specific sport), as part of an
overall lifestyle of physical activity, and due to directed social influence
(e.g., being urged by friends, romantic partners, or family to exercise).
Table 2 shows the top five additional motives for participation in our
sample of Filipino exercisers.

DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was to explore exercise participation

motives of Filipinos using a free-listing methodology. Overall fitness
and weight management were the top two motives for exercising
reported by Filipino exercisers. This is in contrast to earlier findings
using the EMI-2 (Sanchez, 2008) which identified ill-health avoidance
as the primary reason for exercise participation in a Filipino university
student sample.
156 Filipino Motives for Exercise

Table 2. Top Additional Motives for Exercise

Theme Frequency Percentage Examples

Lifestyle 25 10% “bahagi ng lifestyle [part of lifestyle]”

Requirement 22 9% “As requirement in our job”

Social influence 22 9% “kasi forced by parents [because forced

by parents]”

Posture 20 8% “to improve my posture”

Athletic goals 19 8% “para gumaling sa sport [to improve

in sport]”

Leisure 19 8% “pampalipas oras [to pass the time]”

Self-esteem 19 8% “to feel good about myself”

While most of the reasons cited could be accounted for by themes

derived from the EMI-2 subscales, certain motives in the original
scale (i.e., challenge, social recognition and competition) were not
particularly salient, similar to previous local work using the EMI-2
(Sanchez, 2008). That is, very few Filipino exercisers reported doing
so for reasons of challenge and competition.
Results also point to reasons for exercising beyond those
identified in the EMI-2. Exercising in fulfillment of a requirement,
such as in physical education courses and fitness-related jobs, was
cited. In addition, although social factors such as affiliation and social
recognition were in the EMI-2 themes, Filipino respondents also
identified reasons involving normative social influence such as “inaya
ng kaibigan [invited by friend]” and “kasi forced by parents [because
forced by parents].” This suggests that motives not directly measured
by standard inventories such as the EMI-2, including those that involve
more directed interpersonal influence (e.g., urged by family), are also
meaningfully involved in Filipinos’ participation in exercise.
Despite these differences in specific exercise motives, the overall
predominance of extrinsic reasons for exercise is noteworthy. Extrinsic
reasons (i.e., exercising for overall fitness and weight management but
not for enjoyment or fun) appear to be the top motivation for exercise
 Cagas, Torre, & Manalastas 157

participation according to Filipino exercisers. And as the global

research literature in exercise psychology indicates, individuals do
participate in exercise activities primarily for instrumental purposes
(Kilpatrick et al., 2005). Exercising primarily for fitness is consistent
with findings from Ebben and Brudzynski’s (2008) open-ended survey
which showed that the top three exercise motives for USA-based
university students were general health, fitness, and stress reduction.
Similarly, health and fitness motives remain the main reason for
physical activity participation in other countries such as Australia
(Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2007).

Implications for Health Promotion

An important implication of the present study is in designing

effective intervention messages to increase exercise participation
among Filipinos. As Ingledew and Markland (2008) argued, PA
interventions can be more effective if messages are consistent with
motives endorsed by a particular target group. A variety of messages
that are appealing to individuals with different participation motives
can be included to improve intervention effectiveness (Ingledew &
Markland, 2008).

Limitation of the Study

Because of the broad, descriptive approach of this initial study,

correlates for exercise participation motives were not investigated;
however future research in Philippine settings can look into three
factors that have been found to have an impact on motives for exercise:
age, gender, and class. Some reviews have suggested different motives
for exercise among children, youth, and adults (e.g., Biddle, 2007),
while a number of empirical studies point to differences in both
participation levels and motives for physical activity across gender
(Ingledew, Markland, & Medley, 1998; Kilpatrick et al., 2005) and
based on socioeconomic status (Trost, Owen, Bauman, Sallis, &
Brown, 2002).
There was also no opportunity to supplement the free-listing
method with interview or probe. As mentioned by Brewer (2002),
158 Filipino Motives for Exercise

supplementary interview increases the number of responses from

the participants. Future works are encouraged to use more rigorous
qualitative methods.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this study is the first to empirically describe the

broad range of Filipino exercise participation motives using a free-
listing methodology. In spite of its descriptive approach, the findings
provide useful first-step information in understanding – and later on,
promoting – Filipino exercise behavior. With few Filipinos engaging
regularly in health-enhancing physical exercise, identifying which
exercise participation motives are particularly salient to Filipinos can
contribute valuable knowledge for physical activity promotion.

AUTHORS NOTES

The authors would like to thank Nikka Munion and Pia Villanueva
for helping in the data collection and data encoding.

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