Aircraft Structural

Considerations
Frank Sauer

J.B.Rogers/Structures
One of Many Considerations
What does a structural analyst do? 4 Questions
1. What is the load path?
– Where is load coming from, where does it “want” to
go? Perhaps more basic: What is the load?
2. How do structural members carry the load?
– Tension, compression, bending, shear, torsion. How
do you arrange the members efficiently?
3. How do those structural members, carrying those loads,
fail?
– Many different failure modes - strength, stability,
attachments, interactions…
4. How do you calculate the failing load for those
members, those loads?
• Getting the answer wrong on the first or third questions
is most common cause of unexpected structural failure
Engineering
One of the Great Laws of Engineering…and
Life

• Good Judgment comes from Experience

• Experience comes from Bad Judgment

– If We Are Clever, We Try To Learn From Other’s Experience

– The Aviation Community Has Tried To Codify Its Experience

Structural Considerations
• The Structure Will Not Fail!
- Not Under Any Static Design Ultimate Load Case
• Ultimate Load Is Typically 1.5 * Limit Load
• Limit Load Is Most Severe Condition Expected To Be Encountered In Life
Of The Fleet
• Safety Factor Covers Part Tolerances, Statistical Allowables, Load
Exceedance, Environmental Degradation
- Not After Repeated Loads Within The Lifetime Of The Vehicle
• The Structure Will Not Deflect Such That Something Does Not Work Anymore!
- Control Surfaces Will Move Through Expected Range
- Doors Will Open When They Are Supposed To
- Nothing Will Yield
- No Unexpected Shock Waves Will Form
• Structure Will Meet Specified Durability/ Damage Tolerance/ Fail Safety
Requirements.
- No Failures With Specified Damage Within Allowed Inspection Intervals
What Do You Need to Consider?
You are responsible for assuring that the vehicle complies with all structural
criteria and requirements. What would it take to convince you that the design
was safe and should be certified?
• Are The External Loads Accurate And Complete?
• Are Good Internal Load Paths Provided? Load Paths Control Weight Efficiency
of Structure
– Well Defined, Properly Placed Members Carry Load Efficiently
– Indirect, Poorly Defined Load Paths Not So Efficient
– Structural Arrangement (Load Paths) Are Not Always Optimum, Compromises
Necessary to Meet All Requirements
• Are The Internal Loads Balanced For Each Component And Part? (Free Body
Diagrams Are Best Way to Show This)
• Do The Material Allowables Meet The Criteria/Requirements? (Static Strength,
D&DT, Thermal, Manufacturing/Processing Considerations)
• Does The Certification Basis Demonstrate Compliance With Criteria &
Requirements
– Detail Analysis Notes
– Tests
– Reports

J. B. Rogers/Structures
 Aircraft Structural Considerations
Different Objectives - Different Configurations - Similar Process
• 400 passengers
Criteria
• 40 year service life Requirements
• All weather Objectives
• FAR’s
• Maintainable • MIL Specs
• SOW/PDS
• Reliable Configuration
• Damage Tolerant

External Loads
Environments
•Pressures
•Inertia
•Thermal
• Military Fighter/Attack •Acoustic
• Carrier Suitable
• Mach 2
•Methods
• nz = 7.5g •Internal Loads •Analysis
•Tests
•Load Paths Sizing
•Allowables

• RPV •Certification
• Long Range Reports

• Loiter XX Hours w/o refueling

Aircraft Loads, Conditions & Requirements
Requirements Have Evolved With Experience/Lessons Learned
Flight Loads: Ground Loads: Other Loads & Conditions:
• Maneuver • Vertical Load Factor • Jacking
• Gust • Braking • Pressurization
• Control Deflection • Bumps • Crash
• Buffet • Turns • Actuation
• Inertia • Catapult • Bird Strike
• Vibration • Arrested Landing • Lightning Strike
• Aborted Takeoff • Hail
• Spin-Up • Power Plant
• Spring Back • Thermal
• One Wheel/Two Wheel • Fatigue
• Towing • Damage Tolerance
• Ground Winds • Fail Safety
• Break Away • Acoustics
• Ground Handling
Specific Conditions are defined per:
• CFR14 Parts 23 and 25…(FAR)………….Commercial (Subpart C = Structures)
• Mil-A-8860-8870 and SD-24L……………. Military
Aircraft Loads, Conditions & Requirements
Requirement: Bird Strike (Parts 23, 25, 29, 91)
Commercial Transport
• Wings/Body/Windscreen-Windows
The airplane must be capable of successfully completing a flight during which likely structural
damage occurs as a result of - Impact with a 4-pound bird when the velocity of the airplane
relative to the bird along the airplane's flight path is equal to Vc at sea level or 0.85Vc at 8,000
feet, whichever is more critical;
• Empennage
The empennage structure must be designed to assure capability of continued safe flight and
landing of the airplane after impact with an 8-pound bird when the velocity of the airplane
(relative to the bird along the airplane's flight path) is equal to VC at sea level
Military
Specifications typically require that catastrophic structural failure or loss of control of aircraft be
prevented after a defined limit of structural damage has occurred as a result of in-flight bird
strike.
No penetration of cockpit
• Danger to crew
No penetration of fuel tanks: Is this really
• In-flight fire hazard necessary?
• Fuel loss
No damage to control surface actuation/controls
Aircraft Loads, Conditions & Requirements
Every Requirement and Condition is There for a Reason!

747/767/777 Daily Highlight Report

03 April 2001

Multiple Bird Strike - One Bird Entered Flight Deck 767 (L/N 447)
American Airlines reported that on April 2nd during climb from Paris,
at 12,000 feet, the reference airplane struck multiple birds impacting
various locations on the aircraft. One bird entered the flight deck
via the P1-1 panel on the captain's left side. All flight controls and
systems functioned normally. The crew elected to return to Paris where
an uneventful landing was made. The airplane is currently AOG in
Paris.
Aircraft Loads, Conditions & Requirements
Requirement: 8 lb. Bird Strike Empennage
Apparent
Pterodactyl Strike

RH Horizontal Stabilizer of Navy T-44A

aircraft out of Corpus Christi, TX
(October 2002)
Small Airplanes Hit Birds, Too
McKinney, TX, 8 July 2003
Aircraft Loads, Conditions & Requirements
Design Criteria Evolved with Performance/Goals and from Aircraft incidents

Uncontained Engine Engine Windmilling

Blade Failure
Lightning

Ballistic Damage In Flight Hail

Aircraft Loads, Conditions & Requirements
Design Criteria are Still Evolving
November 12, 2001 - Commercial transport lost vertical fin shortly after takeoff
from Kennedy International Airport. The airliner crashed into a neighborhood
in Belle Harbor, New York. 265 Fatalities. Pilot control input caused fin load to
exceed ultimate capability.

1 Center and 2 Aft Attach Points Right Side Forward and Center Attach Points
Aircraft Loads, Conditions & Requirements
Typical Commercial Transport Critical Static Load Conditions
Positive Dynamic
Gust
Rudder Kick, Yaw
Positive Maneuver Aileron Roll Maneuver and
and Static Gust Lateral Gust
Negative Maneuver
Negative Maneuver
and Braking Buffet
Positive Checked
Maneuver

Gust Negative Checked

Maneuver

Taxi Lateral Maneuver

Cabin Pressure Negative Gust

Different Load Conditions Engine Blade Out

are Critical for Different Areas

How Does a Load Get from Here to There?
• Structure Carries Load In:
– Tension
– Compression
– Shear
– Bending
– Or Combinations of The Above
• Typical Means To Carry Load
– Columns – Tension, Compression
– Beams – Bending, Shear, Tension, Compression
– Plates - All
– Shells - All
– Combinations of Those Types
• Structural Analysis – Idealize Structure
– Defines Loads in Member
– Determines Whether Member Can Carry Load Without Failing
– Comparison of Above Is Quantified as “Margin of Safety”
Aircraft Structure
• How Does Aircraft Structure Differ from Other Typical
Structure?
• Weight Efficiency
– Weight is Important to Everyone, Material Costs $
– But, In Flight Vehicles, Weight is $ & Performance,
We Usually Operate Structure Near Buckling or in
Post-Buckled Regime
• Columns, Beams, Plates, Shells Made From Thin
Members in Flight Vehicle Structure
– Buckling Due to Shear and/or Compression
Loading May Be Allowed at Very Low Load Levels
– Post-Buckled Behavior, Failure is the Realm of
Aircraft Stress Analysis
 Aircraft Loads, Conditions & Requirements
Typical Commercial Transport Jack Screw Ftg Center Box Rib 2
Rib 5
Critical Load Conditions Logo
Rib 8
Lights
Auxiliary Rib 10
Front Spar Rib 12
Surge Tank
Leading Rib 14
Edge
Fuel Vent
Tube/Return
Rear Line
Rib 1
Fixed Spar Surge Tank
Trailing Edge Vent Scoop
Wet Area

Lower Surface Skin/Stringers

9G Crash Stall Buffet Negative Maneuver

Bird Strike Upper Surface Skin/Stringers

Structural Considerations Balanced Maneuver
Durability/Damage Tolerance
Positive Maneuver
Abrupt Elevator
• External loads (pressures/inertia) Lightning Strike
Negative Maneuver minimum skin thickness
• Durability/Damage Tolerance
• Crash
• Failed Refueling Valve
• Hail and bird strike
• Lightning strike
Failed Refuel
• Material utilization Stall Buffet
Valve
Negative Gust
3G Side Load
Abrupt Up Elevator
Crash
Internal Loads/Load Paths
• Aircraft structure is designed to be light weight
=> Typically very thin gage
• Members are arranged to carry loads efficiently
(in-plane)
• shear webs
• axial members
• Out-of-plane loads are carried to redistribution
members where the loads are converted to in-
plane components

Stiffened Skin Panel

Built-Up Spar

Body Panel
 Internal Loads/Load Paths
So how do we get internal members to carry loads efficiently?

Lift

CG
Drag

Thrust
Balance Moment
Load
Weight
• Consider all load conditions and requirements
• Develop a static load balance for each critical condition
– Apply loads realistically Do this for local
loads as well as for
– Determine where they are going to be balanced general vehicle
• Cut sections to determine local internal loads loads
• Provide a path for the loads to follow
(Load will follow stiffest path!)
Note: Most members serve more than one function
Let’s Treat the Aircraft as an Assembly of Beams

• We can idealize the fuselage as a beam, e.g.:

Lift

Balance Moment Weight

Load
 Internal Loads/Load Paths - Fuselage
Consider fuselage to act as a beam
For a downward tail load, body will
Bending moment is carried carry a shear and a bending moment
based on Mc/I distribution

11.5" 11.5"
2000 2000 Crown longerons and skin
1 1'
2 2' carry tension loads due to
3 3' bending moment
4 4'
5 5'
z
6 6'
y
7 7'
8 8' Skins carry shear load in-
9 9' plane with VQ/I distribution
10 10'
11 11'
Lower longerons (with effective skin)
Bruhn Section 21.12 (Fig A21.62) carry compression axial loads due to
-16.57
0. 16.57
31.82
bending moment
-31.82
-57.22 57.22

-66.62 66.62

z
-71.32 71.32
y

-66.62 66.62
-57.22 57.22
-31.82
Keel Beam added to restore load path on lower
31.82
-16.57 0. 16.57
surface (wing carry through and wheel well areas)
Bruhn Figure A21.62
Trusses Work Well as Light Weight Beams
• Wires, Fabric, Thin Sheet Metal or Composite Webs
• Wood, Metal, or Composite Axial Members

Don’t Forget Landing Loads!

Internal Loads/Load Paths
• Primary Structural Components are fuselage, wing, and tail
(horizontal and vertical stabilizers)
• Fuselage consists of skins, longerons, and frames
• Wing and Stabilizers consist of covers, spars, and ribs

Ribs

What do these
members do?

Frames

Spars

Longerons
Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
Idealize Wing as a Beam:
Loaded by distributed pressure.
Shear (Lift, “V”), Moment (Lift * Arm,
“M”), and Torsion (Pitching Moment,
“T”) (all about elastic axis) are
beamed to fuselage and balance tail
load, inertia, and other side wing
load. T V
Elastic Axis

M
T
V
Typical VMT for Horizontal Stabilizer

250

Shear (10^3 lbs), Moment (10^5 in-

lbs), Torsion (10^5 in-lbs)
200

150
Shear (V)
100 Moment (M)
Torsion (T)
50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
-50
Percent Semispan
External Loads and Reactions
Example:
• Continuous Wing 360"

• Assume all Weight and

Inertia Supported at Wing
Elastic Axis (No Tail Loads)
• Elliptical Distribution 25"
• W = 40,000 lbs
• Load Factor = 6g’s

Determine:
• Maximum Ultimate Bending
Moment
W
• Ultimate Support Loads at
Fuselage attach Points
External Loads and Reactions
P/2
Centroid of Area

b Quarter Ellipse Properties:

y
M0 A =Area = 0.7854 ab
y = 0.4244a

a = 360"
25"

R = P/2

Total Wing Force (Ultimate):

P = 40,000 lbs (6g)(1.5) = 360,000 lbs

Each Fuselage Attach Must Resist ½ of the Total Load:

R = 360,000 lbs/2 = 180,000 lbs

Moment at BL 0.0 is
M0 = P/2 * y – R * 25” = 180,000 lbs * [0.4244*(360”)] – 180,000 lbs (25”)
= 20.0E+06 in-lbs
Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
• Covers and Spar Webs form a Closed Box to Resist Torsion
• Shear Carried Primarily by Spar Webs
• Bending Carried Primarily by Covers or Cover Stringers with Effective Skin

M
∆L

M T
 Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
Main Types of Wing Primary Structure

Thin Skin ( many stringers and ribs) Thick Skin ( many spars, few ribs)

Transports & Bombers Fighters

• Deep Sections • Thin Sections
• Skin Supported by • Unstiffened Skins
Stringers Carries • Skin and Spar
Bending Moments Chords Carry
Section Bending Moments Bending Moment

Stringers would
not be efficient
 Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
Pressures
• Plate Will Beam Pressure to Peripheral Supports
• Typically Assume All Load Beams to Sides or
Assume Load Pillows to All Sides (Both Maintain
Static Equilibrium)

Spar

Spar

Rib

Rib

Stringer
Stringer
Rib
Stringer
Stringer
Stringer
Rib
Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
External + Internal Pressures + Inertia
Effective Area
Stringer

Ribs Covers
bs

Rib

Pressure + Inertia Loads Effective Area for Pressure Loads

s = rib spacing
Pst g upr
bs = stringer spacing

HSRP

FRONT SPAR REAR SPAR

Pstg lwr

Ribs will Gather Loads and Beam to Spars

 Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
Prib i = Pseg i * (sin α 2 - sin α 1)i

Built-In Curvature Loads α2

α 1 , α 2 are the "as built" angles
Pseg i is load at ribi
• Gathered by Ribs and Pseg i

Beamed to Spars α1

Pseg i

Prib i

Rib

Mid-span
between ribs Rib
Mid-span
Rib
between ribs

Mid-span
between ribs Rib

Mid-span Rib
Rib between ribs

Prib i
Pseg i

α1
Pseg i α2
Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
Crushing Loads due to Wing Deflections (Brazier Loading)
• Reacted by Ribs
• Self Balancing (Do not Beam to Spars)
• Loads are Non-Linear

P P

L1 Q L2

P Q P

Q = PM (L1 + L2)
EI 2

Crushing Loads on a Rib

Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
External Pressure and Curvature Loads are Beamed to Ribs
Test Flex + Taper Loads (RBS161.5)

1112 1260 1402 1987 1594 1936

929 1169 1332 1995 1568 1931 653
927 645
789 657 681 655
729

FS RS

692
707 -1165 -1252
-1273 -1977 -1270 840 796 1094 877 948 972
762 984

14334 lbs
V

7882 lbs
408,000 in-lbs
Fixity is Not Known.
M Typical Approach
Pinned - Pinned to Assume Both
Simply Supported
205,500 in-lbs and Fully Fixed

-218,800 in-lbs Fixed - Fixed -179,200 in-lbs

Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
Internal + External Pressure, Inertia, Ribs redistribute pressure and inertia
Curvature, and Crushing Loads
1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.2 1.0 .8
loads into cellular box structure.
.7 1.0 1.3 1.6 .6 .4 qt
5" qv

V=19,200 #
15" 10"
18" 21"
T=47,000 in-#

6.67"
.1 .3 .3 .1
.6 .9 .9 .6 .6
60"
Loads at Shear Center Balanced by Shear Flows
a. Applied Rib Loads (Load in 103 lbs)

2.6 3.3 3.0 2.4 1.6 q=395 #/in

q=-435 #/in
1.2 .7

2.448"
T=47,000 in-#
S.C.
Q=9275#
Q=8554# q=475 #/in
V=19,200 # 19,200 #

q=-515 #/in
.2 .6 .2
.6 1.1 .9 .8 q=383 #/in
q=-423 #/in
b. Loads Resolved to Stiffeners and Reacted at Shear Center

Calculated Shear Flow Balance - Stiffened Skin

Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
Trailing Edge and Control Surface Shear and Moment
V
L
P = VL/h
Rshear-tie Rshear-tie = Ph/b
P VFS = -Rshear-tie b/a
b
VFS VRS h VRS = V + V FS
P
Rshear-tie
a

Leading Edge and Trailing Edge Moments Balanced into Box by Ribs
Pstg upr

RP

FRONT SPAR REAR SPAR

Pst g lwr
 Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
Emergency Landing (Crashworthy) Fuel Loads Rib 2

If the time ‘T’ for fuel to flow from the upstream

side of the barrier to fill a volume of air defined
in the 1g flight condition is greater that 0.5
second, the internal baffle can be considered to Rib 8
be a solid pressure barrier.

Conversely, an internal baffle may not be 136.3" 83.0"

considered as a pressure boundary if the
volume of air in the fuel cell downstream of the 219.3"
barrier is not adequate to meet the above P = 0.34 * K * L (6.5 pound/gallon fuel density)
criteria. In such cases, the pressures due to the
hydrostatic fuel head must be calculated Where: P = design pressure at location ‘a’; L = reference
without consideration of this internal baffle. distance, feet, between the point of pressure and the
farthest tank boundary in the direction of loading; K is
defined in the table.
Fuel Loading - Roll Rate Loading Condition
Forward
K
9
Aft 1.5
Inboard 1.5
Outboard 1.5
ω F = Mrω2 Downward 6
r Upward 3

α
F = Mrα

α = angular acceleration
ω = angular velocity
Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
Ribs redistribute concentrated loads into cellular box structure.

Concentrated Loads Engine Pylon

• Landing Gear Front Spar

• Power Plant Wing Elastic Axis

• Fuselage Attachments
• Ailerons
• Flaps PP C.G.

• Ordnance
 Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
Ribs
• React and distribute air/fuel pressure Shear Tied Rib
loads
FLOOR FITTING
FLOOR FITTING
• React panel crushing loads FLOOR FITTING FLOOR FITTING

• React curvature loads

• Maintain wing/stabilizer chordwise
contour
• Limit skin or skin/stringer column
AFT FITTING
MACHINED RIB
FORWARD FITTING
Up

length Aft

• React Local Concentrated Loads

• Landing gear Intermediate Rib
• Power plant Stringer Tie Front Spar
Rear Spar
• Fuselage attachments Spar Tie

• Ailerons
• Flaps
• Ordnance
• May Act as Fuel Boundaries
 Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
3 Basic Types of Spars
Spars are Primarily Shear Beams Fuel Loads Upright or Rib Post

Bird Strike
• Carry Wing Shear Loads Cost
• With Covers, Carry Torsion
• React Local Concentrated Loads Web

Chord

Stiffened Web
• May Also Act as Fuel Boundaries
Exception to Thin Section
in-plane Fuel Pressures
Fighter Wing
shear loading
Sine wave

Rib Post

L wmax = (bs1/2 + bs2/2) * p

bs1/2 + bs2/2 Strut

Chord

Truss Beam
Access
bs1
 Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
Web Type Spar
5.0" (5 PL)

Most Common Type

Chords: Struts/Posts:
(Usually Diagonal Tension) Area =0.6 in
2
Area =0.45 in
2

Light Weight/Low Cost q1 q2 q3 20.0" Iy =.20 in

4
Iy =.06 in
4

Simple Internal Loads Web: q1 = 200 lbs/in

Poor Access t =0.1 in q2 = 200 lbs/in

q3 = 500 lbs/in
Moderate to High Assembly Cost Example Geometry and Applied Loads

Upper Chord
13000 9500 6000 2500 0
17500
Upper Sill

L1

q = 900 q= 900 q= 700 q= 700 q= 700 q= 500

L2
Lower Sill

Lower Chord
q(applied) = 500
q(applied) = 200 q(applied) = 200

Framed Out Access Hole 17500 13000 9500 6000 2500 0

Web Type Spar

For a shear beam,

q = V/h (web shear flow)
P = M/h (chord load)
h = Distance between chord centroids
Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer

Stiffened Skin
(many ribs)

Shear Tied Ribs @

Concentrated Load
Locations
Internal Loads/Load Paths -Fuselage
Members and Load Paths in Fuselage have Wing/Stabilizer Counterparts

Wing Fuselage

Bending Skins and Stringers Skins and Stringers

Shear Spar Webs Skins

Torsion Skins and Spar Webs Skins

Concentrated Load Ribs Bulkheads

Introduction

Hold Contour & Ribs Frames

Support Stringers
Internal Loads/Load Paths - Fuselage
Crown Panel d
d

h
h

Stringer System
Longeron System
d>h
d<h

Longerons (stringers)
carry axial loads

Skins carry shear, torsion

and tension
Frames provided to reduce
longeron column length

Frames also support cargo floor and passenger Floor beams tied to frames
floor beams (react end loads into skins as shear)
(react vertical load) and to a
longitudinal beam to react
Seat rails run fore-aft and are supported by floor beams forward loads (landing and
crash)
Internal Loads/Load Paths - Fuselage

Body skins also carry

external and compartment
pressures as a membrane.

For duel-lobe configurations, longitudinal beam

(crease beam) and floor beams react out-of-plane
load component at lobe intersection
 Internal Loads/Load Paths - Arrangement

Frames @ Direction Longeron System

Changes in Load (d < h)
Carrying Members

High Stiffness Wing

Dielectric material

Multi-Spar
(unstiffened
skins, few ribs)

Stub Ribs
@ Spoiler
Hinges

Frames @ Concentrated
Load Points
Internal Loads/Load Paths - Arrangement
Longeron System
(d < h)
Wing Fold

Frames @ Direction
Changes in Load
Carrying Members

Multi-Spar
(unstiffened
skins, few ribs)

Frames @ Concentrated
Load Points
 Internal Loads/Load Paths - Arrangement
Longeron System
(d < h)

Wing Fold

Stub Ribs

Dielectric material

Multi-Spar
(unstiffened
skins, few ribs)

Frames @ Concentrated
Load Points
Internal Loads/Load Paths - Arrangement
No Fuselage, No Vertical Stabilizer

Ribs @ Concentrated Load Points

Deep Section
Stiffened Skins
(many ribs)
Internal Loads/Load Paths - Arrangement
Two Structural Boxes – Non-Optimum Arrangement Driven by Other Considerations
Forward
Structural
Box

Aft Structural Box

Big Hole in the Middle

 Preliminary Sizing
Considering How Little Time You Have, What Can You Do?
• Develop External Loads – Corners of V-N Diagram
z
• Provide Good Internal Load Paths y

• Develop the Internal Loads at a Few Locations

• 2 Body Cuts
• Mc/(Ad2)
• Vq/(Ad2) or V/(h)
• T/(2Aencl) h V/(2h)
z
y
V/(2h)

• 2 Wing Cuts Aencl is enclosed area

• M/h Cover/Spar Cap Axial Loads
• Split V between spars q = T/(2Aencl)

(balance about SC or centroid) T

S.C.
• T/2Aencl Assume covers and outer
spars carry all torsion V - Va/L V Va/L
• Other, Special Locations – e.g., Engine, LG, Payloads a
• Size to Cut-Off Ultimate Stress or Strain L

• Aluminum 40 ksi (compression)

40 ksi (tension) A encl h

25 ksi (shear)
• Advanced .004 in/in (compression)
Composites .0045 in/in (tension)
Some References
• Airframe Structural Design, Niu, Michael C.Y., Conmilit Press
LTD., 1988.
• Airplane Design, Roskam, Dr. Jan, Roskam Aviation and
Engineering Corporation, Ottawa, Kansas, 1985.
• Part I: Preliminary Sizing of Airplanes
• Part III: Layout Design of Cockpit, Fuselage, Wing and
Empennage: Cutaways and Inboard Profiles
• http://www.aoe.vt.edu/~mason/Mason_f/SD1L32pp.pdf
• http://www.theflightcollection.com/index.jsp
• FAA Regulations Online, Plug “CFR 14” Into Search Engine – Look
For “Part 23”
• Analysis & Design of Flight Vehicle Structures, Bruhn, E.F., Tri-
State Offset Company, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1965.
Where to get the regulations
Some Other Considerations?

Emergency Exits Aero-Elastic In-Flight Deliveries

Oversized Cargo

Short Runways Jacking