Practice in Tesol Unit 4 Observing To Learn)

4
OBSERVING TO LEARN
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Under what are known as craft-based or apprenticeship approaches to education,
learning takes place almost exclusively through watching, learning, assimilating and
emulating what is observed. There are cultures where education is not institution-
alised but assimilated into other aspects of social and cultural activities. Singleton
(1989) details traditions of severe discipline, learning through unobtrusive observa-
tion, and a total absence of didactic instruction in Japanese folkcraft pottery appren-
ticeship, for example. In this context, ‘the master is seen as protecting his “secrets”
and the learner is expected to “steal” them’ (1989: 26). Many of you reading this will
probably be familiar with similar (possibly lingering, possibly former) practices in
some of your own cultural contexts. There was a time in Irish and other societies
when becoming a teacher exclusively meant observing and working with a more
experienced teacher for a period of time, until the relevant level of expertise was
deemed to have been reached, without any other type of training. While we now
have a broader approach to teacher education, which acknowledges that observation
is only one way in which the art and skill of teaching are acquired, it still occupies a
relatively important place in socio-cultural approaches. A socio-cultural approach
Copyright © 2015. Edinburgh University Press. All rights reserved.
in language teacher education provides a broad theoretical account to help under-

stand how scaffolded collaboration with more experienced teachers can be poten-
tially beneficial (Freeman 2004), and working with more experienced teachers in
observation cooperatives is a good example of this in practice. And of course, even
before you come to your teacher education programme you will have undergone
what Lortie (1975) has referred to as ‘an apprenticeship of observation’. This is the
time you have spent informally observing your own previous teachers’ practices
when you were a student.
The net result of this highly influential period of observation is that teacher
education courses are said by many to have a weak effect on student teachers.
This limited effect and the reported tendency for novice teachers, once they have
entered the profession, to revert to their default model can lead to teachers
teaching as they were taught, hence exerting a conservative pressure on the
profession. (Borg 2004: 275)
49
Farr, Fiona. Practice in TESOL, Edinburgh University Press, 2015. ProQuest Ebook Central,
http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/acggr/detail.action?docID=4306093.
Created from acggr on 2018-01-08 02:03:10.
50 practice in tesol
According to Kennedy (1990: 17), ‘Teachers acquire seemingly indelible imprints

from their own experiences as students and these imprints are tremendously difficult
to shake.’
Essentially, you have all had educational experiences in the classroom and therefore
come to the observation of teaching with a set of expectations, which need to be ques-
tioned and in many cases destabilised. According to Wajnryb (1992a: 5) these can be
‘conscious or subconscious, or a blend of the two; they might be positive or negative . . .
whatever the cargo of experiences and expectations that a trainee brings to a training
course, one thing is certain – that the classroom has primacy of place in the learning
and teaching experiences that lie ahead’. Some estimates suggest that on initial teacher
education programmes, student teachers can spend up to 60 per cent of their time in
schools acquiring teaching skills (Tilstone 1998: 2). This will generally consist of some
combination and often amalgamation of observation and practice teaching. Bearing
that in mind, consider the notion of teaching as an apprenticeship (Hawkins 2004) in
conjunction with the concept of legitimate peripheral participation as a stepping stone
to full professional membership. This framework is present in conceptualisations of
professionals operating within communities of practice (Lave and Wenger 1991) with
which observation aligns. Against these backdrops this chapter explores observation
as an approach to learning how to become a teacher. Given the value of observation
as a learning tool, we should not assume that it has a generally accepted meaning and
use. Like many terms, it has the potential to be interpreted in numerous ways, and
this will be explored in Section 4.2, centring on considerations for you to contemplate
in advance of actually doing an observation. You will then be introduced to suitable
approaches to classroom observations in Section 4.3, including some possible frame-
works that might be used. Here you will also be asked to deliberate the following:
learner variables as discussed in Chapter 2 and how these manifest themselves in the
classroom; the teacher in the classroom (classroom management, teaching skills and
strategies, language and metalanguage etc.); and the materials used in the context of the
teacher’s overall aims and learning outcomes for the lesson, as articulated in the lesson
plan. Section 4.4 address the post-observation period and what this could entail for you
as the observing teacher, and will explore some inherent drawbacks of observing as a
way of informing novice teachers’ practices.
4.2 PREPARING TO OBSERVE
4.2.1 CONCEPTS, FINDINGS AND TEXTS

Bearing in mind that you have already participated in teaching and learning contexts
since you began your education somewhere between the ages of 4 and 7, this section
will examine the reasons why you might want to be/have to be involved in more
formal observation as part of your teacher education programme and in your future
professional life. Consider the following scenarios:
1. A school inspector comes to observe teaching as part of an annual school mod-

eration scheme.
observing to learn 51
2. A teacher asks a colleague to come and peer observe as part of a personal initia-
tive to discuss and develop his teaching.
3. A principal goes to observe a teacher because of a complaint from a number of
students about inappropriate practices.
4. A teacher records his own lesson as the basis for a piece of action research (AR)
he plans to do on classroom interactions.
5. A student teacher sits in on a number of classes with a cooperating teacher as part
of the TP component of her teacher education programme.
6. A teacher/researcher seeks permission from a large number of teachers across
a region to observe lessons for the purposes of a large-scale funded research
project.
7. A materials developer observes a group of teenagers in class to inform the activi-
ties he plans for his next coursebook.
All of these scenarios involve observing teaching, yet their motives, approaches and
outcomes may be very varied. Scrivener (2011: 384–5) outlines five types of observa-
tion relating to the purpose in each case: training, developmental, assessment, data
collection, peer observation. It is possible that you will be involved in situations like
those described in scenarios 2, 4 and 5 during your time as a student teacher. We will
discuss professional developmental approaches relevant to scenario 2 in Chapter 8, and
research approaches in Chapter 9 (see also Park et al. 2010). In addition, the reverse
situation where you are being observed will be explored in Chapter 7. Therefore,
our attention will focus on a context like that described in scenario 5 in this chapter;
where you go to observe and learn from more experienced teachers. In this case, the
focus should be very much on gathering information in a non-judgemental way for
the purposes of your own learning and development, rather than on evaluating the
lesson. Admittedly, a type of critical evaluation is necessary in order to make informed
decisions and choices about which aspects of the teaching you might like to adopt and
adapt, but evaluation and judgement should not be the main purposes. I propose the
following working definition for the type of observation being discussed in this chapter:
The audiovisual collection of information and evidence during live classes for the
primary purpose of informing the improved considerations, judgements and
practices of the observer, based on what has been seen and understood.
It is also important to remember that although teachers report on the benefits of

observation (Crookes 2003: 29), it can influence their teaching behaviour (Zaare
2013) and it may be a daunting prospect, regardless of the degree of formality or the
relationship they have with the observer. The following accounts from Crookes (2003:
28) demonstrate some of the potential effects:
Patrick, an inexperienced male American teacher: Well, I say that I had thought I
wouldn’t be nervous, but . . . Monday morning before class I began thinking
about my lesson and about Lenny watching me, and I began to get extremely
self-conscious. I thought about my lesson plan, my assignments . . . I criticized
everything to myself, thinking about what Lenny may see and ‘discover’ about
me . . .
Karen, an experienced female American teacher: This week I had a number of
people in observing my classes . . . I feel the most pressure from wondering how
students will react.
As well as considering your own position and the predisposition of the observed
teacher, you will also need to be prepared for the level of activity and pace of a typical
classroom. Wragg (2012: 1) cautions that ‘classrooms are exceptionally busy places,
so observers need to be on their toes’. Tilstone (1998: 7–8, building on Jackson 1968)
suggests that teachers are involved with students in the following ways: giving and
exchanging information, making suggestions, requesting, reprimanding, praising,
greeting, answering questions, using non- verbal communication, differentiating,
counselling, facilitating and empowering. And given the ubiquitous nature of technol-
ogy and the generic and specific roles it can play in the classroom, this list could extend
to all aspects of being involved with pupils through computer-mediated communica-
tion (for example, through the use of interactive whiteboards; see Cutrim-Schmid
2016), mobile language learning (Stockwell 2016), and distance and blended learn-
ing (Sharma and Westbrook 2016). Preparation is therefore the key to avoid being
overwhelmed by the experience. Richards and Lockhart (1996: 22) offer the following
practical advice for achieving a positive experience:
1. Teachers are busy professionals. Classroom observations are not always a

welcome intrusion for the classroom teachers involved.
2. The observation of classroom teachers is serious business; it should not be
approached casually.
3. Learning how to observe in a manner acceptable to all parties takes time,
careful reflection, personal tact, and creativity.
4. An observer is a guest in the teacher’s and the students’ classroom. A guest in
the classroom is there thanks to the goodwill of the cooperating teacher.

5. A guest’s purpose for visiting is not to judge, evaluate or criticize the
classroom teacher, but simply to learn through observing.
A very good way to prepare for observing a live lesson is to do one or a number
of trial runs on pre-recorded classes. Some of the ELT publishers have produced
video-recorded lessons with observation tasks, which you can practise with; there
are many classroom clips and full lessons on YouTube; or your training institution
may have locally produced materials, which may be even better as they will reflect
more accurately the physical and cultural context in which your real observations will
take place. In any case, purposely watching some of these materials will help you to
appreciate the complexity of the classroom and to consider focal points for your live
observations. Wragg (2012: 79) suggests:
It is a useful exercise for trainees to watch a good video of one or more teachers
at work in their own classroom. The opportunity to stop and start . . . speculate
about consequences, or discuss outcomes . . . can raise important matters of

principle and practice. The development of various forms of interactive
technology is an extension of this, offering a high quality of picture, as well as the
ability to hold or ‘freeze’ a single frame and study a still life picture of the
classroom.
There is also a growing body of research on teaching interactions in face-to-face

and online environments. The dedicated journal Classroom Discourse, published by
Routledge, is an invaluable source of information, which gives glimpses into lan-
guage teaching and learning around specific research questions. Even a glance over
the journal’s contents for the last few years will help you to understand the kinds of
issues and investigations experienced teachers continue to have in their own contexts.
Ultimately, your live viewing might be based on what you perceive your own needs
to be or on what you have found interesting or intriguing in the video-recordings
and readings, or, most probably a combination of both. In any case, the time spent
watching video-recordings, discussing them and preparing for your live observations
will serve you well when it comes to learning from what you see, hear and assimilate.
TASK 4.1 OBSERVATION GUIDELINES

A. What is your reaction to the advisory guidelines listed at the end of the previous
section from Richards and Lockhart? Do you agree/disagree with any aspects?
B. Would you add any further guidelines to the list? Discuss what these might be.
TASK 4.2 OBSERVING FRAMES

A. Look at the frames in Figures 4.1a–4.1f for 30 seconds in total. Write down
everything you notice.
B. What assumptions can you make from what you have observed (context, emo-
tions, events etc.)?

C. Are there any other possible interpretations that could be equally valid?
TASK 4.3 THE PRE-O BSERVATION MEETING

Think about the pre-observation meeting with the cooperating teacher. Make a list of
what you think should be discussed (think about information you need, agreements
you need to make, permissions you need to seek, disclosures you need to make,
materials you need to share etc.).
4.3 DOING AN OBSERVATION: THE WHATS AND HOWS

Now that you have deliberated the reasons for observing and some of the preparatory
considerations, I would like to turn to a discussion of what actually happens when
Figure 4.1a (Image courtesy of Figure 4.1b (Image courtesy of Ambro

photostock at FreeDigitalPhotos.net) at FreeDigitalPhotos.net)
Figure 4.1c (Image courtesy of Figure 4.1d (Image courtesy of Paul

stockimages at FreeDigitalPhotos.net) Gooddy at FreeDigitalPhotos.net)
Figure 4.1e (Image courtesy of Paul Figure 4.1f (Image courtesy of

Gooddy at FreeDigitalPhotos.net) supakitmod at FreeDigitalPhotos.net)
you are embarking on one or a number of observations. There are a number of practi-
cal steps to follow:
• Contact the cooperating teacher for a briefing and orientation. Agree the details of
the class to be observed and the approach that will be taken.
• Keep the cooperating teacher informed of any change of plan, for example, if you
are unable to attend.
• Arrive at the class ahead of time.

• Try to be as unobtrusive as possible when in the classroom (before, during, and
after the observation). This will mean sitting where directed in advance by the
teacher (the side of the room may be best to make sure you can see what is going
on), collecting and recording data appropriately and only in ways that have been
agreed in advance (for example, do not record the lesson unless relevant agree-
ments are in place), and not participating in the lesson unless invited to do so by
the teacher (this should be agreed beforehand).
• Dress appropriately and behave professionally.
• Try to discuss the lesson with the cooperating teacher at the first possible oppor-
tunity after the observation, especially to interrogate further some of the motives
and methods apparent during the observation.
• Be appreciative and polite and thank the teacher for the opportunity.
• Keep any commentary about the class and the teacher anonymous in any follow-
up formal or informal accounts. Sensitivity and discretion are important.
The techniques and methods associated with classroom observations have been
discussed in some detail by experts such as Tilstone (1998). Wragg (2012) has dis-
cussed the use of quantitative and qualitative methods, many of which have been
associated with research orientations but also have potential for evaluation and
teacher learning (see also Chapter 9 in this volume, and Brown 2014 in this series).
Others, such as contributors to the Howard and Donaghue collection (2014), focus
on the various approaches to observation specifically for evaluation purposes in
teacher education programmes and ongoing teacher appraisal contexts. All of these
have something to offer a context where you are observing others teaching for the
purposes of learning and informing your own developing practices, but we can take
a somewhat simpler approach in the first instance. The remainder of this section
will use the broad framework proposed by Wajnryb (1992a), which focuses on
observing the following: the learner, language, learning, teaching skills and strate-
gies, classroom management, resources and materials. You may decide to direct
your attention to one or two of these during any one observation, and it may take
some time to be able to observe a number of them successfully at once. Even the
very skilled observer may have difficulty having a truly holistic orientation without
having recourse to a video-recording of the lesson to complete the picture post-
observation. The principle of the Wajnryb framework is to use it as part of a process
of reflective practice (see Chapter 8), in which you take what you see and critically
consider how you can learn from it, what you would like to exclude from and
include in your own developing model of teaching, and how. The principle is not
to assume that everything you observe is the ‘best’ model of teaching for you or for
other contexts. There are many good models of teaching from which we can all learn
and which we can potentially aspire to, and that may necessarily be different for
you and for others (Edge and Richards 1998). In the light of this, you are an active
participant and the observation experiences are part of your journey to becoming
a teacher, for which you are ultimately responsible. The following account does not
attempt a reproduction of the tasks from Wajnryb but includes a brief discussion of
the important variables and their components which you may want to consider as
part of your observations.
Observing the learner

The way in which the teacher attends to the learner can be of interest and can happen
in verbal and non-verbal ways. This has strong potential to influence the affective
learning environment and the creation of a positive atmosphere in which learners
feel comfortable enough to take risks which will help the learning process. Much has
been written about the importance of affect in language learning (Arnold 1999), with
some drawing heavily on counselling and other approaches from psychology such
as neuro-linguistic programming (Revell and Norman 1997). Overt indicators of
attending behaviour can be been found in eye contact and expression, touch, facial
and body expressions (nods, smiles, frowns, reprimanding looks, silly faces, hand
movements and gestures), response tokens, using students’ names etc. It may be
interesting to see if any attending patterns are influenced by variables such as seating
arrangements, student aptitude, age, sex, ethnicity, motivation and engagement, and
other factors. The nature of the attending behaviour of the teacher may be a strong
indicator of their methodological affiliation(s), as some teaching approaches within
the humanistic tradition in particular attribute much importance to this aspect of
teaching (see Spiro 2013: ch. 2).
Learner motivation has been found to be a complex phenomenon (Dörnyei 2001,
Dörnyei and Murphey 2003) but one which can influence classroom behaviour and
dynamics. The belief that instrumental motivation (wanting to learn to achieve a
particular goal such as getting a job, passing an exam etc.) is more effective than inte-
grative motivation (wanting to learn a language because of a desire to interact with its
people(s) and culture(s)) has been questioned. Some research now suggests that it is
the level of motivation rather than the type of motivation which is more influential:
‘what has emerged is that whatever the basis of the motivation of the learner, its level
(high/low) has an impact on expected learner roles. Highly motivated learners are
more likely to synchronise their roles willingly with the teacher’s role; and are more
likely to co-operate with the teacher in the various processes involved in classroom
learning’ (Wright 1987, cited in Wajnryb 1992a: 31). As individual student moti-
vation is not always readily apparent, it may be necessary to discuss this with the
cooperating teacher in advance or to focus on this aspect for students with whom
you are familiar. That way, learning behaviour might be correlated with motivation to
discern any emerging patterns. You might need to be careful about making too many
assumptions and may need to speak with the students directly to understand their
motivations and behaviour better.
Learner engagement in terms of being actively involved and doing things in the
lesson is worth observing. Problem-based, inquiry-based and task-based learning
(Bygate 2000) recognise that learning is more effective when students are active and
responsible for their own learning. This learner engagement can be cognitive, affec-
tive and physical, and patterns around all of the associated types of behaviours are
worth observing. Think about what the tasks ask of the students in terms of each of
these: what sort of thinking is required of the students; whether there are emotional
dimensions; and whether they are expected to engage physically in any way. The tasks
can then be linked with what you think the teacher’s intention is in each case in terms
of engagement and cognitive demands. We now consider learning outcomes in terms
of cognitive, affective and kinaesthetic as recognition of the importance of these three
realms of learner engagement.
Learner level and aptitude can have a strong influence on classroom interactions.
Language teachers recognise fully that even within a predetermined level such as
upper-intermediate there can be a wide range of mixed abilities. Homogeneity is
more a desirable than a reality for some teachers and learners. In addition, overt
signs of level can be problematic and enigmatic, as learners may strategically respond
or engage within their established comfort zones, making themselves appear better
than they may be in a less contrived environment. As well as trying to identify signs
of student ease or challenge, it might also be interesting to be aware of the teacher’s
strategies in accommodating students of apparently different levels. Such strate-
gies might include speed and complexity of language, wait time, student grouping
arrangements, using students as models, reformulating and echoing, differentiated
task assignment, scaffolding materials such as indexes, allowing mobile devices and
apps to be used etc.
Culture and its relationship with language is characterised by complexity (Kramsch
1998). It can be an influencing variable in language classrooms in numerous ways.
Wajnryb (1992a: 40) suggests at least four:
- when learning a language a learner is also learning (about) a culture

- a learner is a cultural being with a cultural perspective on the world,
including culture specific expectations of the classroom and learning process
- the cultural dimension of the learner has to be considered and respected
- a positive attitude towards the culture of the target language is a favourable
factor in language learning.
It is useful to consider if and how culture seems to have an influence in choice of

materials and how they are received, choice of topics and activities, interaction pat-
terns, modes of address, student attitude, levels of verbal engagement and contribu-
tion, seating arrangements, levels of cultural accommodation and integration. It is also
worth thinking about the different cultural representations of English and the place
of the teacher as a cultural artefact or otherwise, and how this influences the lesson.
Observing the language

Although you will have been thinking about certain facets of language when focusing
on the learner in the discussions in the previous section, it is worth contemplating
the language used specifically and strategically by the teacher for different purposes.
Teacher language is addressed in some detail in Chapter 6, and in Chapter 7 with
respect to classroom interactions and different teacher modes using Walsh’s SETT
(self-evaluation of teacher talk) framework (Walsh 2011, 2006) both of which might
usefully be read in conjunction with this section.
Teachers typically employ the use of a range of metalanguage when teaching. This
can be in the form of language used to organise the classroom and manage activities
(Wajnryb limits it to this in this context), as well as the language used to explain tech-
nical aspects of grammar or language use. It can include instructions, explanations,
responses to questions, corrections, echoing, instructions and directions, praise and
criticism etc. Your observation might focus on the actual words used by the teacher,
their communicative purpose, and how it differs from how one might communicate
the same message to native speakers in another context. It might be worth recording
precisely the words used by the teacher to ensure you have an accurate record on
which to base your awareness-raising reflections. Observing a wide range of levels,
student groups and ages allows a broader perspective on how this aspect of language
use can be appropriately modified for the different contexts. The question of how the
authenticity of language is balanced against the need for accessibility and comprehen-
sibility is an interesting one and worth some discussion with your peers.
Many questions are raised in language classes, the vast majority of which are typi-
cally initiated by the teacher. There are various lenses through which questions can
be examined. Extremely influential is the work of Bloom and colleagues. From 1949,
Benjamin Bloom co-ordinated a group of educational psychologists who developed
a hierarchical classification of intellectual behaviour important in learning contexts.
The original ‘taxonomy’, as it is known, was published in 1956 (Bloom et al. 1956)
and consisted of carefully developed definitions for each of the six major categories
in the cognitive domain: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis
and evaluation. These range from simple to more complex and from concrete to more
abstract in terms of cognitive demand. A revised taxonomy was published in 2001
(Anderson et al. 2001), in which the classification of cognitive process presents three
lower-order thinking (LOT) dimensions: remember, understand, apply; and three
higher-order thinking (HOT) dimensions: analyse, evaluate, create (see Figure 4.2).
The taxonomy can apply to tasks, activities, questions, assessments and other compo-
nents of teaching. LOT questions are generally easy, attainable in a short period and
not dependent on prior learning. HOT questions are more difficult and involve new
tasks, problems or situations, which are highly dependent on prior learning. They
take more time and effort but are more interesting, are academically relevant and
create deep learning.
The teacher has a number of options available in terms of the syntactic question
type: wh-questions, yes/no questions, alternative (either/or) questions, declarative
questions (declaration with rising intonation). From a functional perspective, in
terms of anticipated student response, questions can be classified into display and
referential. Display questions are those where the teacher typically knows the answer
in advance, and referential those where no such pre-knowledge exists. Narrow
display questions are those to which the teacher knows the answer and there is only
one anticipated response in terms of either content or form. Broad display questions
allow for student choice in terms of content or form from a range of possibilities
already known to the teacher (Banbrook and Skehan 1989). So, as well as aiming for
a particular cognitive demand, the teacher also has choices that can be made from
a range of question types and in relation to the anticipated answer. Of course, there
is likely to be a correlation between, for example, LOT demands and yes/no display
CREATING
Generating new ideas, products or ways of viewing things, designing,
HIGHER-ORDER THINKING
constructing, planning, producing, inventing
EVALUATING
Justifying a decision or course of action, checking, hypothesising,
critiquing, experimenting, judging
ANALYSING
Breaking information into parts to explore understanding and relationships,
comparing, organising, deconstructing, interrogating, finding
APPLYING
LOWER-ORDER THINKING
Using information in another familiar situation, implementing, carrying out,

using, executing
UNDERSTANDING
Explaining ideas or concepts, interpreting, summarising, paraphrasing,
classifying, explaining
REMEMBERING
Recognising, listing, describing, retrieving, naming, finding
Figure 4.2 Bloom’s revised taxonomy (based on Anderson et al. 2001)
questions, but this may not always be the case. You will need to think carefully and
devise/use some sort of classification system to observe questioning in the classroom
and the demands that different question types make of students. It is also interesting
to try to trace the relationship between question types and student response in terms
of quantity and quality.
Another aspect of language use is the way in which teachers follow up in relation
to students’ contributions. Here I depart slightly from Wajnryb’s classification around
feedback on errors and broaden the discussion to include a number of ways in which
teachers can follow up on the language and/or context of what a student has said.
The point of departure in many discussions on this topic will inevitably be the IRF
(initiation, response, feedback/follow-up) exchange structure first formally recorded
on the basis of the results of a large-scale study carried out by Sinclair and Coulthard
in 1975 examining classroom discourse. Teachers have a number of options, partially
determined by whether the student-produced content contains errors or not. If it
does contain errors, the way in which teachers respond will influence their progress,
but needs to be handled carefully so that it does not cause anxiety or embarrassment,
which can have a negative impact on motivation. It needs to be framed in a positive
way and as an incentive for students to improve. Error feedback is most effective
when it goes beyond highlighting the error to include opportunities for the student to
discover the correct answer from a narrow range of choices. It will also be interesting
for you to observe the teacher’s attitude to errors as apparent in facial and body ges-
tures, and to notice how errors may be approached during different types of activities
and at different stages in the lesson. The following extract from Cullen (2002: 120)
contains an example of an IRF exchange:
T: Now what kind of man is he? What do we call such men who have pistols and
point them at pilots? Yes, please?
Indicates S4. I
S: We call a robber. R
T: A robber? Yes. A thief you mean? Yes, if this was happening on the ground, it
could be a thief, but this man’s in a plane. F
This exchange shows us a linguistic correction (robber – thief), and a teacher echo,
which is a defining characteristic of teacher talk and can have many functions (error
correction, repetition for others to hear, clarification check etc.). The evaluation of
the content of the response as being incorrect (Yes, if . . .. but . . .) also performs a
discoursal function allowing the teacher to build on students’ contributions and
develop a meaning-focused dialogue. The F turn in this dialogue is a good example
of a multifaceted response which corrects, evaluates and negotiates meaning with the
individual and group of students involved. It would be a useful exercise for you to
record some of these IRF exchanges during a lesson you observe and use them as the
basis for some small-scale analysis and discussion.
Observing the learning

To say that learning is complex is absurdly simplistic. However, there are aspects of
the learning environment and process that can be observed to form the basis for some
inferences and assumptions, bearing in mind that these may not always be accurate, as
learning as a cognitive process cannot be directly witnessed. We spoke in earlier sec-
tions about the importance of affect in language learning, and the classroom context
can play a part in the creation of a positive environment. Factors external to the stu-
dents, such as the lighting, temperature and ventilation in a room, the seating arrange-
ments, the comfort levels (seating, flooring etc.), the acoustics, the visual attraction
(pictures, posters, shape, colour etc.), the teacher and other students (appearance,
voice tone and quality, physical movement etc.) and what can been seen through
windows, all contribute to the affective ambience of a lesson. Focusing on one student
over a sustained period of 10–15 minutes may provide insights into their affective
state at a particular time. Think about how they look, move, behave and respond, and
examine whether there are any potential links to any of the factors listed above.
There is no guarantee that because teaching is happening learning is taking place.
For this reason a core responsibility and role of the teacher is to check student learn-
ing. There are generally a number of reasons why a teacher engages in checking at
various stages during the lesson: students appearing not to understand, the end of
an activity or the transition to another, in response to a query from one student or
similar mistakes from a number of students. It is also worth considering what is
checked and how this is done, noticing also times when a teacher did not check but
you feel it might have been a good idea to do so. The students can also play a role,
either in checking with each other, or indeed by the way in which they respond either
emotionally or in terms of achievement and improved performance (immediately
and later in the lesson).
The lesson plan is the instrument through which the process of learning is clari-
fied and formulated, and as such is an effective yardstick against which to measure
what happens in the classroom, while bearing in mind that flexibility is a key com-
ponent of a good plan (see Chapter 5 for a full discussion of the lesson planning
process). The starting point for plans is usually the articulation of aims/objectives, or
what the teacher hopes to achieve during the lesson (for example, language learning
aims, task-based aims, social aims). Many now also use frameworks around ELOs
(expected learning outcomes). This is especially true in the European context of
higher education since the introduction of frameworks emanating from the Bologna
Process (see, for example, http://www.ehea.info/article-details.aspx?ArticleId=119)
and in my experience is trickling down to other educational arenas also. Essentially,
it is a move away from a focus on what students do during a programme of study to
looking at what they will be able to do at the end of it using what they have learned,
assimilated, applied, created etc. as part of their activities in and out of the class-
room. ELOs are generally categorised into three domains when planning individual
lessons or course components: cognitive (related to understanding and processing
information), affective (related to emotions and values) and kinaesthetic (related to

movement and touch) (for further discussion see Section 5.3 on the written lesson
plan). Irrespective of which mechanism is used by the teacher you are working with,
the aims and outcomes can be used as the basis for measuring student learning
throughout and at the end of the lesson. In other words, it is good to consider the
aims and outcomes, if and how they are made explicit to the students and whether
they are achieved (using evidence you observe from the lesson). This will necessar-
ily involve two discussions with the teacher – one before and one after the lesson.
These discussions can focus on a number of questions around the planning process,
such as:
• What is the teacher’s attitude towards planning and the implementation of the
plan?
• What part do individual student-related factors such as learning styles and apti-
tudes play in the overall scheme?
• Which components had been planned, such as vocabulary teaching, and which
emanated from the unpredicted but natural development of the lesson?
• To what extent are openings, closings, phases and transitions planned and in how
much detail?
• To what extent are instructions and classroom management aspects of the lesson
planned?
• How does the teacher measure the success or otherwise of the particular lesson
plan and its implementation?
It is a good idea to make some notes, based on your observation around the questions
you plan to discuss, and to reflect on how accurate your interpretations were and
why. The potential or eventuality of misunderstanding, breakdown and repair can
also be an interesting dimension to consider, even if it does not happen in a lesson
you observe. Consider the reasons why it might happen and reparation strategies that
might be useful to overcome an impasse and move forward with the group and the
lesson.
Observing teaching skills and strategies

The focus on observing skills and strategies relates to those parts of the lesson when
acquiring content is the specific aim. This may be around a specific point of grammar,
vocabulary or pronunciation and may be orchestrated in a teacher-centred way
(traditional presentation phase of a lesson) or in a student-centred way (inductive,
discovery-type tasks and problems to be completed). A simple way of approaching
the task of observing skills and strategies is by looking at what the teacher does and
what the students do in a specific instance of content-oriented teaching. Factors
such as the physical arrangement of the classroom, the teacher and the students as
well as those relating to their voices, audibility, clarity and comprehensibility are
important to notice. The context used to exemplify the language being presented can
determine how clear the forms and usage patterns are to the students as well as how
conducive to generating further practice. The medium or media used are related to
this; for example, is the language embedded in written, oral, online, visual, auditory,
kinaesthetic artefacts? How effective was this choice and what impact did it have?
Elicitation is a key strategy used by teachers to engage students and prompt active
learning. It can be used for a number of reasons: as part of a ‘warm-up’ to get stu-
dents thinking about the topic of the lesson, to check understanding, to encourage
peer interactions or to address disruptive behaviour, to name a few. The relationship
between the purpose and the elicitation prompt (question, calling by name, gesturing
etc.) is interesting to explore, as are the suitability and success of any strategy in spe-
cific contexts. The success might be evaluated from the student response, the teacher
follow-up (as discussed in the previous section on the language of questioning) and
completion of the specified activity or task.
Observing managerial modes

There are many times in the classroom when the teacher has to take a lead role in
setting up and managing various activities and student interactions. This increases
Table 4.1 Managerial mode in the SETT framework (based on Walsh 2003)
Mode Pedagogic goals Interactional features

Managerial To transmit information A single, extended teacher turn
To organise the physical learning which uses explanations and/ or
environment instructions
To refer lear ners to materials The use of transitional markers
To introduce or conclude an activity The use of confirmation checks
To change from one mode of An absence of learner contributions
learning to another
teacher talking time (TTT) and is therefore one of the contributory factors to
disapprovals around the quantity of TTT relative to STT (student talking time).
Researchers such as Walsh (2002: 3) have been critical of those who take a quantita-
tive approach to TTT:
Communication in the ELT classroom is a highly complex, complicated and

elusive phenomenon: a ‘problematic medium’ (Cazden 1986: 432). For many
years, educators and researchers have been concerned to analyse the
communicativeness of the classroom by comparing it to communication in the
‘real world’. Teachers have been criticized for their excessive TTT . . . and trainees
on initial and in-service courses have been advised of their need to reduce
talking time. Put simply, the focus has been on the quantity rather than quality of
teacher talk, a position which is clearly both simplistic and unrealistic.
In fact, he argues that the classroom is a unique social context which must be
investigated on its own terms. Walsh’s SETT framework is outlined in more detail in
Chapter 7, but I give in Table 4.1 a description of the types of talk he includes when
teachers are in managerial mode.
Teachers are usually in managerial mode when they are giving instructions and
directions (see Chapter 6 for further discussion); managing error, patterns of interac-
tion, pair and group work, time and pace, and teaching and learning roles. This is a
relatively diverse grouping, which comes with associated teacher power, and so may
need to be broken into more wieldy units for the purposes of observation.
Observing resources and materials

There are a number of useful learning resources that can be used in any teaching
context. Thinking of traditional classrooms, the black/whiteboard is an obvious
example, which has stood the test of time. Interactive whiteboards and other types
of technology (Farr and Murray 2016) now form the backdrop for many modern
classrooms, allowing access to a range of information and interactive resources not
previously available, although they bring with them their own limitations (see next
section for a fuller discussion). Another resource is the learner, and according to
Wajnryb (1992a: 124) ‘It has become a maxim of education to acknowledge that
the greatest resource the teacher has is the learners themselves.’ This is important as
the very nature of language learning demands active participation by the students,
drawing on their own and other resources. However, it is worth observing whether
there are times when the learners are not used as a resource, why this might be and
what the impact is.
Good materials are often considered a vital element of a successful lesson.
Mishan and Timmis (2015) emphasise the need for materials to be principled,
motivating, affectively and cognitively engaging, challenging, with suitable input
and opportunities for appropriate output. In the world of TESOL, the issue is more
often a question of evaluating and selecting appropriate materials rather than creat-
ing them from scratch. We work in a profession abounding with very high-quality
materials, both commercially available and some freely available as open educa-
tional resources. In this scenario, your observational role will most probably focus
on the suitability of the materials considering the following factors: goals, input,
activity, teacher and learner roles, context and setting. Notice also any adaptations
that the teacher may have made to the materials (to provide more choice, autonomy,
accessibility, challenge, or to remove inappropriate content etc.) and how they
worked. The expectations of students functioning in the digital age for the materials
they use in class are worth considering. The other side of that argument is that we
have become too focused and reliant on producing and using materials with high
production standards, to the detriment of good quality and a focus on the learners.
Thornbury (2000: 2), writing over fifteen years ago, makes a convincing argument
that we do not necessarily need materials to the same degree that we generally use
them. This may be even more convincing today if we consider the further explosion
of resources and materials offered in the era of Web 2.0 and soon to be Web 3.0
technologies:
Along with the quantity (I hesitate to use the word variety) of coursebooks in
print, there is an embarrassment of complementary riches in the form of videos,
CD-ROMs, photocopiable resource packs, pull-out word lists, and even web-
sites, not to mention the standard workbook, teacher’s book, and classroom and
home study cassettes. Then there is the vast battery of supplementary materials
available, as well as the authentic material easily downloadable from the Internet
or illegally photocopied from more conventional sources. There are the best-
selling self-study grammar books, personal vocabulary organisers, phrasal verb
dictionaries, concordancing software packages – you name it. However, where is
the story? Where is the inner life of the student in all this? Where is real
communication? More often as [sic] not, it is buried under an avalanche of
photocopies, visual aids, transparencies, MTV clips and Cuisenaire rods.
Somewhere in there, we lost the plot.
Observing technology-enhanced teaching and learning environments

The potential for online learning has exploded since the time of Wajnryb’s book
on observation. We now have many options around blended and online modes,
many interactive and live (Sharma and Westbrook 2016), and the expectation for
you to be able to teach in this technology-rich environment is very real. This will
most probably be part of your methodological induction included in your TESOL

programme (see Spiro 2013: ch. 8), and it is also highly advisable that you find the
opportunity to observe some technology-enhanced learning environments, either in
the classroom or in an online mode. All of the different aspects that we have dis-
cussed so far in this chapter can legitimately form the basis for these observations
but with the added question of how the online or blended environment influences
teaching and learning behaviours and outcomes. A basic principle should always
be an examination of how learning can be enhanced, rather than an assumption
that technology is globally better. Like any other tool or resource, technology has
a number of limitations and boundaries (Kern and Malinowski 2016), which need
to be judiciously considered as part of your observation agenda (see also Further
Reading Two below). The question of digital literacies and redefined roles is an
interesting one to consider in this context (Gillen 2014). In terms of observing
technology-enhanced learning environments, there are two options. The first is to
join the community live as an observer in a physical environment or as a lurker in
an online environment (this will need to be negotiated carefully with the teacher due
to potential intrusion or disturbance). The second is to examine the artefacts after
the live teaching, as a post-event observation (such as viewing the video-recordings,
examining the discourse produced in online chats or discussion forums; see, for
example, Farr and Riordan 2012, 2015). Options will need to be discussed in detail
with cooperating teachers to ensure agreed understandings and practices for obser-
vations in these emerging teaching environments.
TASK 4.4 STUDENT LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPACT

Consider the following quotations from Hashim, a North African student taking part
in an ESL course in the United States as reported in Kayi-Adar (2013). The following
extracts come from group work activities:
‘Hmm, pay attention. Pay attention.’ (addressed to a fellow student)

‘No, completely wrong.’ (addressed to a fellow student)
‘Just one minute. That’s not fair.’ (addressed to the teacher)
‘I’ve read that in the Physics before. The science.’ (addressed to the teacher)
A. What are your reactions to the various extracts?

B. What do you think are the influencing variables in Hashim’s choice of language?
C. Can you predict different ways in which the teacher could react in each case?
What might be the consequences of each?
D. Kayi-Adar categorises the extracts under the following functions: engaging in
teacher-like positions, displaying symbolic capital, confronting the teacher’s
methodological decisions. Can you attribute each extract to one of these
categories?
E. Read the full article and discuss in small groups.
TASK 4.5 CLASSROOM INTERROGATIONS

There are a number of online resources which exemplify and discuss the application
of Bloom’s taxonomy of questions in the classroom. Find a resource which could be
useful as a framework for observing and analysing questioning in the classes that you
observe and teach. Compare your findings within a small group.
TASK 4.6 ONLINE OBSERVATION RESOURCES

Critically evaluate an online observation resource site such as Education World
(http://www.educationworld.com/a_admin/admin/admin297.shtml) in terms of its
potential benefits and uses for teachers involved in observation at various stages in
their careers. Share your findings and impressions in a group and write a summary
report to be shared electronically.
4.4 POST-OBSERVATION: WHAT DOES IT MEAN FOR ME?

As outlined early in this chapter, the purpose of the types of observation we have
been discussing is to learn and to make discerning judgements about what this
learning means for your own teaching. Closing the observation loop requires a
detailed consideration of how you are going to allow or not allow what you have
seen to influence your own emerging teaching beliefs, styles, strategies and prac-
tices. There are some caveats around the process of observation that you should take
into account as part of your reflections. Firstly, you are a third-party observer in the
classroom and therefore your experiences will be a step removed from those who
are participants. Only they are first-hand players and you are, at best, attempting
an interpretation, which may or may not reflect their experiences. Secondly, every
teaching context and dynamic is different and activities may or may not transfer to
other teaching situations with the same level of success. In other words, what works
well for me today with one group may not work for me with the same or another
group tomorrow, and more importantly, may or may not work for you in your teach-
ing. Thirdly, the presence of an observer has the potential to change the dynamics
in any given situation and we cannot know how subtle this might be and how it has
influenced your perceptions of the lesson. Fourthly, teacher personality is pivotal
to the way in which a lesson unfolds. The teachers you have observed may have
very different characteristics from your own. You need to make careful decisions
around what will work for you and how this will work within your own developing
teacher identity (see Chapter 6 for further discussion). Finally, the samples of data
you collect in a classroom are limited and you should avoid making generalisations
based on one or two instances that you observe.
Bearing in mind the cautionary notes just mentioned, your first post-observation
task is to debrief with the cooperating teacher. You may have specific questions you
want to ask or aspects of the lesson you want to clarify and get an insider perspective
on. The teacher may also wish to comment on aspects of the lesson. The format and
formality of this debriefing will be decided by you and the teacher, and may be influ-
enced by institutional guidelines that operate on your teacher education programme.
This discussion will unavoidably be oriented by the fact that the teacher is personally
and subjectively involved and you have been a sort of witness to the event. It is impor-
tant not to enter or be drawn into any kind of critique of the lesson, remembering that
your purpose is to gather information and learn, and not to evaluate. It is also useful
to have another lens through which your observational outcomes can be interpreted.
This can be with peers or may be a more formal part of your teacher education pro-
gramme in plenary format with one or a number of your teacher educators. These are
all opportunities to start looking at the context more holistically and to link some of
the practices you have seen with the theoretical frameworks you have been learning
about on your programme. Additionally, it is a useful process to allow for other per-
spectives and to share yours in a safe learning environment.
The next stage in the process is to start to personalise your observational experi-
ences and discussions, and think about what you want them to mean for you. This
requires some principled reflection followed by an action and implementation plan.
This is the notion of learning as the construction of personal meaning.
In this view of learning, the teacher [you, in this case] does not learn solely by
acquiring new information or knowledge (such as procedures or techniques), but
through thinking about new ideas in the light of past experience, fitting new
ideas into her or his thinking, and reappraising old assumptions in the light of
new information. New information is therefore absorbed in a way that is creative,
dynamic and personal and that will mean something different to each person
receiving the information. (Wajnryb 1992a: 10)
Following on from transforming your observational experiences into personal

meaning, you are now in a position to be able to initiate your own development. You
are the one to determine this for yourself, using appropriate supports available to you.
An outsider cannot determine this, as the best teacher that you can be is very specific
to you. This is where you need to step up, take responsibility and take action for your
own development. There is no prescribed route here and you will probably need to
tolerate a little bit of trial and error along the way. The guidelines around reflective
practice and continuing professional development in Chapter 8 will be helpful in this
process.
TASK 4.7 OBSERVATION MATERIALS

Identify a focus for an observation that you are about to conduct from the contents
of this section. Find a published template with the same or a similar focus (based
on online materials or those available in Wajnryb 1992a). Discuss in a group how it
might need to be adapted to your specific needs and focus. Prepare a final version
ready to use during your observation.
TASK 4.8 DOING AN OBSERVATION

A. Follow the observation process outlined in this section (preparation of materials,
discussion with cooperating teacher, observation, debriefing with the teacher,
sharing experiences within your teacher education community). Reflect on what
this means for your own teaching and formulate an action plan for development.
Share with a colleague or a tutor to get further insights.
B. Conduct a small research project with your peers examining their experiences
following the observation cycle in (A). Share your findings in a group.
TASK 4.9 OBSERVATION IN OTHER DISCIPLINES

Gather some information (online, through interviews, discussions, reading etc.)
about the roles and procedures around observation in at least one other discipline
(for example, the healthcare professions). How does it compare with the frameworks
in language teacher education? Can we learn anything from other disciplines?
4.5 FURTHER READING ONE

Classroom Discourse (journal, published by Routledge).
In this case, I suggest picking any article from the journal since it began publishing
in 2010 and reading it from start to finish. It will give you a perspective on a practical
learning context, much like those you will observe. It will also highlight some of the
research questions teachers investigate for their own teaching contexts. This journal:
Focuses on research that considers discourse and interaction in settings where

activity is deliberately organised to promote learning. While most papers focus
on the discourse of classrooms, others report research in more informal,
naturalistic settings in which, while learning is certainly still taking place, it is not
occurring in the typical and ‘traditional’ space of a classroom. Examples might

include online tutorials, peer–peer interactions of work-in-progress, and
dialogues between ‘trainer and trainee’ in a workplace context. (taken from the
journal’s website, http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rcdi20)
FURTHER READING ONE TASK

1. Read an article from the journal and, based on the research focus, design an
observation task that you can use. Discuss, share and compare with others.
2. Adopt or adapt the task into a mini-research project that you can use to investi-
gate the same topic in a lesson that you teach.
4.6 FURTHER READING TWO

Kern, R. and Malinowski, D. (2016) ‘Limitations and boundaries in language
learning and technology’, in Farr, F. and Murray, L. (eds), The Routledge
Handbook of Language Learning and Technology, New York: Routledge.
The Kern and Malinowski chapter in this edited volume on language learning and
technology focuses on the limitations of technology compared with a traditional
face-to-face teaching context. As such, it will help you to identify any differences in
approach and focus you might want to make when observing a technology-enhanced
environment. The chapter begins with two short accounts of teachers using technol-
ogy. Nadia is a German teacher being confronted with an institutional change in
the learner management system which she will have to use. She is familiar with the
existing system and although the new system has added functionalities which have
potential for use in language learning contexts, she and her colleagues also have
some reservations about the change process they will have to work through. Ayo, the
second teacher, is a university instructor of Yoruba in face-to-face classroom settings.
He has recently been twinned with an African language programme at a neighbour-
ing institution to offer his class there synchronously with room-to-room video-
conferencing. The authors use these two case studies to explore the issues around
their new technology-based teaching challenges. They caution from the outset that:
In recent decades, with the advent of electronic devices and digital

communications tools of all sorts, theorists of technology remind us that it is
important not just to think about hardware and software but also the linguistic,
cognitive, social, and behavioral practices that evolve through, around, and with
the use of technologies.
The next section of the chapter seeks to explore definitions around the notions
of limitations and boundaries, and the authors suggest that these should be identi-
fied in a variety of domains – spatial, temporal, cultural, material, virtual, cultural,

and human (among others) – as they can be abstract and subtle as well as physical
and material. Examples of Ayo having difficulties with time delays on the oral/aural
channel, the inability to zoom in adequately on written materials, the lack of oppor-
tunity to distribute handouts in advance or in class, the fact that some parts of the
class are not seen within the zoom, the decisions around whether to face the camera
or the students in his own physical environment as the camera is mounted on the
wall behind him, and misinterpretations of eye movement all form the basis for an
exploration of the definition of boundaries. This grounds the following discussion,
where the authors:
Develop a model for visualizing how such boundaries might be dynamically

interrelated, with the goal of aiding educators to adopt a critical stance
(Feenberg, 2002) toward their technology use. In particular, we suggest that the
transcendence or blurring of a given boundary or boundaries needs to be seen in
relation to the creation or emergence of other boundaries.
They present a list of the boundaries which can be overcome by technology, including
spatial and temporal, linguistic, social and community and role-based limitations.
This is balanced against a list of those created by technology, including constraints
around the interface, mobility, user skills, the software, bandwidth, compatibility,
censorship and keyboard configuration. The authors suggest that the boundaries on
each side of the divide can appear and disappear in waves, and suggest a visual in the
form of a kaleidoscope to represent this evolution in which the size, shape and com-
plexity of patterns are not static.
It is precisely this kind of dynamic disappearance and emergence among patterns

of cultural, temporal, spatial, linguistic, and subjective relations that is brought
about through the introduction and use of various technologies for language
teaching and learning. Moreover, just as each person who picks up and views the
kaleidoscope will see something different from what others see, each language
learner will experience the use – and limitations – of any given technological
medium in a unique, personal way.
The chapter then moves to a discussion of the relational limitations of technol-

ogy, which we have probably all been aware of at some time. Some examples include
brevity in text messaging and chat rooms, limitations of onscreen keyboards in typing
email messages, and the ability to remain anonymous or to lurk in online environ-
ments. These all affect the relationship between those involved in the communication
in different ways. On the other hand, communication may be improved through the
ability to use gestures in video-conferencing, for instance. Access to languages is the
focus of a section examining the keyboard; availability of pedagogic materials in
various languages; and cultures, genres and styles. The chapter finishes by looking to
the future and offers the following advice:
What is crucial for language teachers and learners alike is to adopt a critical stance
with respect to the technologies they use and, specifically, to be attentive to:
• how technologies mediate language use and behavior in particular ways,

• what communicative consequences (in terms of understanding and learning)
might accompany that mediation, and
• what social consequences might follow the choice of using one form of
technology versus another (in terms of who is included or excluded, how
participant interactions might be reconfigured, how cultural processes and
products might be affected).
FURTHER READING TWO TASK

1. Familiarise yourself with the work of Professor Sugata Mitra in the ‘Hole-in-the-
wall’ project in India (TED talk and YouTube clips are readily available). Discuss
the boundaries and limitations blurred by technology in the context of this
project with schoolchildren in India.
2. Consider a context in which you were a participant. What were the affordances
and limitations of technology in this context? Design an observation task for
a TEL environment around one of the focuses discussed in Section 4.3, paying
particular attention to affordances and limitations.
4.7 SUMMARY
This chapter has discussed the practice of observing others teaching as a way to learn
and inform your own practices. The various purposes of observation along the con-
tinuum from research to evaluation to learning are outlined in Section 4.2, which
also addresses various types of cognitive and practical preparations needed. These
preparations are vital in advance of engaging in an observation for learning purposes
due to the complex, busy and fast-moving pace of the classroom, plus the nature of
the demands that you will be placing on yourselves in terms of watching, assimilat-
ing and gathering information for later reflection. ‘Trial runs’ by means of watching
videos of lessons and/or reading some research accounts of classrooms are suggested
as good preparation, as well as considering the process involved in communicating
with and working with the cooperating teacher, for which some guidelines are recom-
mended. Section 4.3 concentrates primarily on the options available to you in decid-
ing which aspects of a lesson you might choose to observe. The discussion focuses on
the following: observing the learner (affect, motivation, engagement, language level
and aptitude, and culture), observing the language (metalanguage, questions and
follow-up), observing the learning (environment, checking student learning, and the
lesson aims and outcomes), observing teaching skills and strategies (content teaching
and learning, and elicitation), observing managerial modes, observing resources and
materials, and observing technology-enhanced teaching and learning environments.
Finally, Section 4.4 considers the post-observation stages in terms of making the
learning experience personal to you as a way of making sense of it and informing
your own future teaching development.
4.8 ADDITIONAL READINGS

Harmer, J. (2007) How to Teach English, Harlow: Pearson.
Howard, A. and Donaghue, H. (eds) (2014) Teacher Evaluation in Second Language Education,
London: Bloomsbury.
Scrivener, J. (2011) Learning Teaching: The Essential Guide to English Language Teaching (3rd
edn), London: Macmillan.
Tilstone, C. (1998) Observing Learning and Teaching, Abingdon: David Fulton.
Wajnryb, R. (1992) Classroom Observation Tasks: A Resource Book for Language Teachers and
Trainers, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Walsh, S. (2011) Exploring Classroom Discourse: Language in Action, London and New York:
Routledge.
Wragg, E. C. (2012) An Introduction to Classroom Observation (classic edn), Abingdon:
Routledge.

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What are some of the approaches to teacher education discussed in the text?

What are some of the approaches to teacher education discussed in the text?

What is the 'apprenticeship of observation' concept mentioned in the text?

What is the 'apprenticeship of observation' concept mentioned in the text?

4

in language teacher education provides a broad theoretical account to help under-

According to Kennedy (1990: 17), ‘Teachers acquire seemingly indelible imprints

4.2 PREPARING TO OBSERVE

4.2.1 CONCEPTS, FINDINGS AND TEXTS

1. A school inspector comes to observe teaching as part of an annual school mod-

It is also important to remember that although teachers report on the benefits of

1. Teachers are busy professionals. Classroom observations are not always a

the classroom is there thanks to the goodwill of the cooperating teacher.

about consequences, or discuss outcomes . . . can raise important matters of

There is also a growing body of research on teaching interactions in face-­to-­face

TASK 4.1 OBSERVATION GUIDELINES

TASK 4.2 OBSERVING FRAMES

tions, events etc.)?

TASK 4.3 THE PRE-­O BSERVATION MEETING

4.3 DOING AN OBSERVATION: THE WHATS AND HOWS

4.3.1 CONCEPTS, FINDINGS AND TEXTS

Figure 4.1a (Image courtesy of Figure 4.1b (Image courtesy of Ambro

Figure 4.1c (Image courtesy of Figure 4.1d (Image courtesy of Paul

Figure 4.1e (Image courtesy of Paul Figure 4.1f (Image courtesy of

• Arrive at the class ahead of time.

Observing the learner

-­ when learning a language a learner is also learning (about) a culture

It is useful to consider if and how culture seems to have an influence in choice of

Observing the language

constructing, planning, producing, inventing

Using information in another familiar situation, implementing, carrying out,

Figure 4.2 Bloom’s revised taxonomy (based on Anderson et al. 2001)

Observing the learning

information), affective (related to emotions and values) and kinaesthetic (related to

Observing teaching skills and strategies

Observing managerial modes

Mode Pedagogic goals Interactional features

Communication in the ELT classroom is a highly complex, complicated and

Observing resources and materials

Observing technology-­enhanced teaching and learning environments

most ­probably be part of your methodological induction included in your TESOL

TASK 4.4 STUDENT LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPACT

‘Hmm, pay attention. Pay attention.’ (addressed to a fellow student)

A. What are your reactions to the various extracts?

TASK 4.5 CLASSROOM INTERROGATIONS

TASK 4.6 ONLINE OBSERVATION RESOURCES

4.4 POST-­OBSERVATION: WHAT DOES IT MEAN FOR ME?

4.4.1 CONCEPTS, FINDINGS AND TEXTS

Following on from transforming your observational experiences into personal

TASK 4.7 OBSERVATION MATERIALS

TASK 4.8 DOING AN OBSERVATION

TASK 4.9 OBSERVATION IN OTHER DISCIPLINES

4.5 FURTHER READING ONE

Focuses on research that considers discourse and interaction in settings where

occurring in the typical and ‘traditional’ space of a classroom. Examples might

FURTHER READING ONE TASK

4.6 FURTHER READING TWO

In recent decades, with the advent of electronic devices and digital

fied in a variety of domains – spatial, temporal, cultural, material, virtual, cultural,

1. Teachers are busy professionals. Classroom observations are not always a

There is also a growing body of research on teaching interactions in face-to-face

TASK 4.3 THE PRE-O BSERVATION MEETING

- when learning a language a learner is also learning (about) a culture

Observing technology-enhanced teaching and learning environments

most probably be part of your methodological induction included in your TESOL

4.4 POST-OBSERVATION: WHAT DOES IT MEAN FOR ME?