Renewable energy

Renewable energy is produced using natural resources that are

constantly replaced and never run out.
Just as there are many natural sources of energy, there are
many renewable energy technologies. Solar is one of the
most well-known, wind power is one of the most
widespread, and hydropower is one of the oldest. Other
renewable technologies harness geothermal energy,
bioenergy or ocean energy to produce heat or electricity.
Advantages of Renewable energy:
1. One major advantage with the use of renewable energy is
that as it is renewable it is therefore sustainable and so will
never run out.
2. Renewable energy facilities generally require less
maintenance than traditional generators. Their fuel being
derived from natural and available resources reduces the
costs of operation.
3. Even more importantly, renewable energy produces little or
no waste products such as carbon dioxide or other chemical
pollutants, so has minimal impact on the environment.
4. Renewable energy projects can also bring economic
benefits to many regional areas, as most projects are located
away from large urban centers and suburbs of the capital
cities. These economic benefits may be from the increased
use of local services as well as tourism.
Disadvantages of Renewable energy:
1. It is difficult to generate the quantities of electricity that are
as large as those produced by traditional fossil fuel
generators. This may mean that we need to reduce the
amount of energy we use or simply build more energy
facilities.
2. Another disadvantage of renewable energy sources is the
reliability of supply. Renewable energy often relies on the
weather for its source of power. This can be unpredictable
and inconsistent.
Forms of renewable energy
 Solar Energy: This form of energy relies on the nuclear
fusion power from the core of the Sun. This energy can be
collected and converted in a few different ways. The range
is from solar water heating with solar collectors or attic
cooling with solar attic fans for domestic use to the complex
technologies of direct conversion of sunlight to electrical
energy using mirrors and boilers or photovoltaic cells.
Unfortunately, these are currently insufficient to fully
power our modern society.
 Wind Power: The movement of the atmosphere is driven
by differences of temperature at the Earth's surface due to
varying temperatures of the Earth's surface when lit by
sunlight. Wind energy can be used to pump water or
generate electricity, but requires extensive areal coverage to
produce significant amounts of energy.
 Hydroelectric energy: This form uses the gravitational
potential of elevated water. It is not strictly speaking
renewable since all reservoirs eventually fill up and require
very expensive excavation to become useful again. At this
time, most of the available locations for hydroelectric dams
are already used in the developed world.
 Biomass: is the term for energy from plants. Energy in this
form is very commonly used throughout the world.
Unfortunately, the most popular is the burning of trees for
cooking and warmth. This process releases copious
amounts of carbon dioxide gases into the atmosphere and is
a major contributor to unhealthy air in many areas. Some of
the more modern forms of biomass energy are methane
generation and production of alcohol for automobile fuel
and fueling electric power plants.
 Hydrogen and fuel cells: These are also not strictly
renewable energy resources but are very abundant in
availability and are very low in pollution when utilized.
 Hydrogen can be burned as a fuel, typically in a vehicle,
with only water as the combustion product. This clean
burning fuel can mean a significant reduction of pollution
in cities. Alternatively, the hydrogen can be used in fuel
cells, which are similar to batteries, to power an electric
motor.
 Geothermal power: In certain areas, the geothermal
gradient (increase in temperature with depth) is high enough
to exploit to generate electricity. This possibility is limited
to a few locations on Earth and many technical problems
exist that limit its utility.
 Other forms of energy: Energy from tides, the oceans and
hot hydrogen fusion are other forms that can be used to
generate electricity.
 Solar Energy
The Sun
The Sun, like all stars, is an enormous ball of extremely hot,
largely ionized gas, shining under its own power. The Sun could
fit 109 Earths side-by-side across its diameter, and it has enough
volume (takes up enough space) to hold about 1.3 million Earths.
The sun is a sphere of intensely hot gaseous with a diameter of
1.39*10^9 m and is, on the average, 1.5*10^11 from the earth.
The sun has an effective blackbody temperature of 5777 K. The
temperature in the central interior regions is variously estimated
at 8*106 to 40*106 K and the density is estimated to be about 100
times that of water. The sun is, in effect, a continuous fusion
reactor with its constituent gases as the "containing vessel"
retained by gravitational forces. Several fusion reactions have
been suggested to supply the energy radiated by the sun. The one
considered the most important is a process in which hydrogen
(i.e., four protons) combines to form helium (i.e., one helium
nucleus); the mass of the helium nucleus is less than that of the
four protons, mass having been lost in the reaction and converted
to energy.

Figure (1) Structure of the sun

A schematic structure of the sun is shown in Figure (1). It is
estimated that 90% of the energy is generated in the region of 0
to 0.23R (where R is the radius of the sun), which contains 40%
of the mass of the sun. At a distance 0.7R from the center, the
temperature has dropped to about 001111K and the density has
dropped to 70 kg/m3; here convection processes begin to become
important, and the zone from 0.7 to 1.0R is known as the
convective zone. Within this, zone the temperature drops to about
5000K and the density, to about 10-5 kg/m3.
Solar Energy
The Earth receives an incredible supply of solar energy. The sun
provides enough energy in one minute to supply the world's
energy needs for one year. In one day, it provides more energy
than our current population would consume in 27 years. In fact,
"The amount of solar radiation striking the earth over a three-day
period is equivalent to the energy stored in all fossil energy
sources."
Scientific History
The ability to use solar power for heat was the first discovery. A
Swiss scientist, Horace de Saussure, built the first thermal solar
collector in 1767, which was later used to heat water and cook
food. The first commercial patent for a solar water heater went to
Clarence Kemp of the US in 1891. This system was bought by
two California executives and installed in one-third of the homes
in Pasadena by 1897.
Producing electricity from solar energy was the second discovery.
In 1839 a French physicist named Edmund Becquerel realized
that the sun's energy could produce a "photovoltaic effect" (photo
= light, voltaic = electrical potential). In the 1880s, selenium
photovoltaic (PV) cells were developed that could convert light
into electricity with 1-2% efficiency, but how the conversion
happened was not understood. Photovoltaic power therefore
"remained a curiosity for many years, since it was very inefficient
at turning sunlight into electricity." It was not until Albert
Einstein proposed an explanation for the "photoelectric effect" in
the early 1900s, for which he won a Nobel Prize, which people
began to understand the related photovoltaic effect.
Why is Solar Energy
1. Reduced Dependence on Fossil Fuels. Solar energy
production does not require fossil fuels and is therefore less
dependent on this limited and expensive natural resource.
Although there is variability in the amount and timing of
sunlight over the day, season and year, a properly sized and
configured system can be designed to be highly reliable
while providing long-term, fixed price electricity supply.
2. Environmental Advantages. Solar power production
generates energy with a limited impact on the environment
as compared to other forms of electricity production.
3. Matching Peak Time Output with Peak Time
Demand. Solar energy can effectively supplement
electricity supply from an electricity transmission grid, such
as when electricity demand peaks in the summer
4. Modularity and Scalability. As the size and generating
capacity of a solar system are a function of the number of
solar modules installed, applications of solar technology are
readily scalable and versatile.
5. Flexible Locations. Solar power production facilities can
be installed at the customer site, which reduces required
investments in production and transportation infrastructure.
 Fundamentals of Solar Radiation /Solar Geometry
In order to track the sun throughout the day for every day of the
year, there are geometric relationships for the position of the
collector with respect to the time that is needed to be known.
Sun Earth Geometrical Relationship
The earth revolves around the sun every 365.25 day in an
elliptical orbital called ecliptic plane, and it completes a full
rotation about its axis every 24 hours. The earth – sun distance is
smallest on December 21 (perihelion, 1.47*1011 m) and highest
on June 21 (aphelion, 1.52*1011 m). The axis of rotation of the
earth is tilted at an angle of 23.45° with respect to its orbital plane,
as shown in figure. This tilt remains fixed and is the cause for the
seasons throughout the year.

Figure (2) Annual motion of the earth around the sun

Basic Earth – Sun Angles

Figure (3) Basic Earth-Sun Angles

The position of a point P as shown in figure (3) on the earth
surface with respect to the sun's ray is known at any instant by the
following angles:
Latitude angle (L): is the angular distance of the point p north or
south of the equator. It is the angle between the radius vector op
and its projection on the equator.
Hour angle (hs): is the angle measured in the earth's equatorial
plane between the projection of op and the projection of a line
from the center of the sun to center of the earth. The hour angle
can be written as follows:
hs = 15 (ST - 12) Degrees
Where ST is solar time in hours, as a result of the earth's rotation
hs varies at the rate of 15° per hour, that hs = 0 at solar noon. The
conversion between solar time and local time requires knowledge
of the location (longitude), the day of the year, and local standard
meridian as in the following equation:
ST = LST + 4(Lst - Lloc) + ET
Where:
LST is the local standard time.
Lst is the standard meridian for local time zone. (30o for
Khartoum).
Lloc is the longitude of location (32.56o for Khartoum)
ET is a corrector of time equation in minutes and equal to:
ET = 9.87 Sin(2B) – 7.35 Cos(B) - 1.5 Sin(B)
Where B, in degree is defined as:
B = 360 (N – 81)/364
Where N is the day number during the year. The values of the
hour angle east due south (morning) are negative; and the values
west of due south (afternoon) are positive.
Sun's declination angle 𝜹s is the angular distance of a sun's ray
north (or south) of the equator. It is the angle between a line
extending from the center of the sun to the center of the earth and
the projection of this line upon the earth's equatorial plane. The
angle of declination 𝜹s is estimated by use the following equation:
𝟐𝟖𝟒 + 𝑵
𝜹s = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟒𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝟑𝟔𝟎 )
𝟑𝟔𝟓
Derived Sun – Earth Angles
In addition to the three basic angles hour, latitude and sun's
declination angles, several other angles are used to define the
sun's position in relation to the surface as shown in figure (4).

Figure (4) Derived Sun-Earth Sun

Zenith angle 𝜽z: is the angle QOV between the sun's rays and a
line perpendicular to horizontal surface at O.
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽z = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹s 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑳 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒉s + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑳 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹s
Solar altitude angle 𝜶 : is the angle QOH on a vertical plane
between the sun's ray and its projection on the horizontal plane,
i.e. the complement of the zenith angle. It follows that:
𝜶 + 𝜽z = 𝟗𝟎°
Air Mass m: the ratio of the mass of the atmosphere through
which beam radiation passes to the mass it would pass through if
the sun were at the zenith .
𝟏
𝒎=
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽z

Kinds of Radiation
Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation
The amount of solar energy per unit time, at the mean distance of
the earth from the sun, received on a unit area of a surface normal
to the sun outside the atmosphere is called the Solar constant Gsc.
This quantity is difficult to measure from the surface of the earth
because of the effect of the atmosphere.
Throughout the year, the extraterrestrial radiation measured on
the plane normal to the radiation on the Nth day of the year, G on
varies in the range of 3.3% and can be calculated by Duffie
formula:
𝟑𝟔𝟎 𝑵
Gon = Gsc [𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( )]
𝟑𝟔𝟓
Where:
Gon = extraterrestrial radiation measured on the plane normal to
the radiation on the Nth day of the year (W/m2).
Gsc = Solar constant (W/m2). The latest value of Gsc is 1366.1
W/m2.
Terrestrial Solar Radiation
The total radiation incident on a surface (at earth's surface) is
comprised of two forms:
 1. Beam Radiation GB: The solar radiation received from the
sun without having been scattered by the atmosphere.
(Beam radiation is often referred to as direct solar radiation;
to avoid confusion between subscripts for direct and
diffuse; we use the term beam radiation). Its amount can be
calculated by Shah's formula:
𝑮𝑩 = 𝑮𝒐𝒏 [𝒂𝒐 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒆−(𝑲𝒎) ]
Where a0, a1 and k are constants:
𝒂𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟒[𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟑𝟕 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟏(𝟔 − 𝑨𝑳)𝟐 ]
𝒂𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖[𝟎. 𝟓𝟎𝟓𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟗𝟓(𝟔. 𝟓 − 𝑨𝑳)𝟐 ]
𝒌 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐[𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟏𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟓𝟖(𝟐. 𝟓 − 𝑨𝑳)𝟐 ]
m is the air mass.
AL is the altitude of location above mean sea level (km).
2. Diffuse Radiation GD: The solar radiation received from
the sun after its direction has been changed by scattering by
the atmosphere. (Diffuse radiation is referred to in some
meteorological literature as sky radiation or solar sky
radiation; the definition used here will distinguish the
diffuse solar radiation from infrared radiation emitted by the
atmosphere)
Its amount can be calculated by the formula:
𝑮𝑫 = 𝑮𝒐𝒏 [𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟑𝟗 (𝒂𝒐 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒆−(𝑲𝒎) )]
Total Solar Radiation GT: The sum of the beam and the diffuse
solar radiation on a surface. (The most common measurements of
solar radiation are total radiation on a horizontal surface, often
referred to as global radiation on the surface).
GT = GB + GD
 Solar Irradiance in Sudan.
Sudan has abundance of sunshine with an average duration
ranging between 8.5 to 11 hours per day. Where most regions in
the world exhibit annual average solar energy density ranging
between 100 to 250 W/m2, Sudan’s solar energy density ranges
between 436-639 W/m2.
The map below (Fig. 5) reflects Sudan’s Global Horizontal
Irradiation. It is quite indicative that both the northern and
western regions acquire relatively higher irradiance than
remaining areas of the county.

Figure (5) Global Horizontal Irradiation Map

 Solar thermal system vs. PV System
Photovoltaic (PV)
It is a term, which covers the conversion of light
into electricity using semiconducting materials that exhibit the
photovoltaic effect.
A typical photovoltaic system employs solar panels, each
comprising a number of solar cells, which generate electrical
power.
Solar PV has specific advantages as an energy source: once
installed, its operation generates no pollution and no greenhouse
gas emissions, it shows simple scalability in respect of power
needs and silicon has large availability in the Earth’s crust. PV
systems have the major disadvantage that the power output is
dependent on direct sunlight, so about 10-25% is lost if a tracking
system is not used, since the cell will not be directly facing the
sun at all times. Dust, clouds, and other things in the atmosphere
also diminish the power output.
Solar thermal system
Solar Thermal Technology
Solar thermal technology uses the sun’s energy, rather than fossil
fuels, to generate low-cost, environmentally friendly thermal
energy. This energy is used to heat water or other fluids, and
can power solar cooling systems.
Solar thermal power generation systems collect and concentrate
sunlight to produce the high temperature heat needed to generate
electricity. All solar thermal power systems have solar energy
collectors with two main components: reflectors (mirrors) that
capture and focus sunlight onto a receiver. In most types of
systems, a heat-transfer fluid is heated and circulated in the
receiver and used to produce steam. The steam is converted into
mechanical energy in a turbine, which powers a generator to
produce electricity. Solar thermal power systems have tracking
systems that keep sunlight focused onto the receiver throughout
the day as the sun changes position in the sky.
Solar thermal power systems may also have a thermal energy
storage system component that allows the solar collector system
to heat an energy storage system during the day, and the heat from
the storage system is used to produce electricity in the evening or
during cloudy weather. Solar thermal power plants may also be
hybrid systems that use other fuels (usually natural gas) to
supplement energy from the sun during periods of low solar
radiation.
Comparison between Solar thermal system and PV:
1. The Sudanese environment has particular weather
conditions such as dust spread for a long period each year.
The thermal solar energy utilization is less affected in
accordance to this type of environment than the utilization
of solar energy in direct generation of electricity by using
photovoltaic (PV) technology. Because the PV absorb the
visible part and little from NIR part of solar spectrum (range
400-1100 nm) the visible part intensity is influenced
obviously by dust atmosphere while the thermal system
works mainly on long wave-length infrared of spectrum
which is less affected by dust.
2. The Sudanese family's needs of energy is distributed
between (65-70%) for heating and cooling equipments per
a year and 30% for lighting and other electrical sets, so there
is a need for thermal system that has efficiency of
conversion the solar energy to thermal about (60-70%).
3. The cost of electrical production of PV system is about 20
Cent/kWh while it cost 10 Cent/kWh with thermal system.
4. The storage of energy of thermal system is better in
quantity, cost and age than PV system.
 Types of concentrating solar thermal power plants
There are four main types of concentrating solar thermal power
systems:
Parabolic troughs:
A parabolic trough collector has a long parabolic-shaped reflector
that focuses the sun's rays on a receiver pipe located at the focus
of the parabola. The collector tilts with the sun to keep sunlight
focused on the receiver as the sun moves from east to west during
the day.
Linear Fresnel reflectors
Linear Fresnel reflector (LFR) systems are similar to parabolic
trough systems in that mirrors (reflectors) concentrate sunlight
onto a receiver located above the mirrors. These reflectors use
the Fresnel lens effect, which allows for a concentrating mirror
with a large aperture and short focal length. These systems are
capable of concentrating the sun's energy to approximately 30
times its normal intensity.
Solar power towers
A solar power tower system uses a large field of flat, sun-tracking
mirrors called heliostats to reflect and concentrate sunlight onto a
receiver on the top of a tower. Sunlight can be concentrated as
much as 1,500 times. Some power towers use water as the heat-
transfer fluid. Advanced designs are experimenting with molten
nitrate salt because of its superior heat transfer and energy storage
capabilities.
Solar dish/engines
Solar dish/engine systems use a mirrored dish similar to a very
large satellite dish. To reduce costs, the mirrored dish is usually
composed of many smaller flat mirrors formed into a dish shape.
The dish-shaped surface directs and concentrates sunlight onto a
thermal receiver, which absorbs and collects the heat and
transfers it to an engine generator. The most common type of heat
engine used in dish/engine systems is the Stirling engine. This
system uses the fluid heated by the receiver to move pistons and
create mechanical power. The mechanical power runs a generator
or alternator to produce electricity.
The solar flux concentration ratio typically obtained is at the level
of 30 – 100, 100 – 1000, and 1000 – 10000 for trough, tower and
dish systems, respectively.