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A P P E N D I X A
POWE RS OF TE N AN D SCI E NTI FIC NOTATION
In science, very large and very small decimal numbers are conveniently the left to obtain the radius as a number without powers of ten.
expressed in terms of powers of ten, some of which are listed below: Numbers expressed with the aid of powers of ten are said to be in
1 scientific notation.
103  10  10  10  1000 103 
10  10  10 Calculations that involve the multiplication and division of
 0.001 powers of ten are carried out as in the following examples:
1
102  10  10  100 102   0.01 (2.0  106)(3.5  103)  (2.0  3.5)  1063  7.0  109
10  10

10  10
1
101 
1
 0.1
9.0  107
2.0  104
 冢 9.0
2.0 冣
 10  10
7 4

10
冢
2.0 冣
9.0
100  1  10  4.5  10
74 3

Using powers of ten, we can write the radius of the earth in the fol-
lowing way, for example: The general rules for such calculations are
Earth radius  6 380 000 m  6.38  106 m
1
The factor of ten raised to the sixth power is ten multiplied by itself  10n (A-1)
10 n
six times, or one million, so the earth’s radius is 6.38 million meters.
10 n  10 m  10 nm (Exponents added) (A-2)
Alternatively, the factor of ten raised to the sixth power indicates that
n
the decimal point in the term 6.38 is to be moved six places to the 10
 10 nm (Exponents subtracted) (A-3)
right to obtain the radius as a number without powers of ten. 10 m
For numbers less than one, negative powers of ten are used. For
instance, the Bohr radius of the hydrogen atom is where n and m are any positive or negative number.
Scientific notation is convenient because of the ease with which it
Bohr radius  0.000 000 000 0529 m  5.29  1011 m can be used in calculations. Moreover, scientific notation provides a
The factor of ten raised to the minus eleventh power indicates that convenient way to express the significant figures in a number, as
the decimal point in the term 5.29 is to be moved eleven places to Appendix B discusses.

A P P E N D I X B
SIG N I FICANT FIG U R ES
The number of significant figures in a number is the number of dig- is known only to two significant figures, so the final answer is limited
its whose values are known with certainty. For instance, a person’s to only two significant figures and should be rounded off to 170 m2.
height is measured to be 1.78 m, with the measurement error being In general, when numbers are multiplied or divided, the number of
in the third decimal place. All three digits are known with certainty, significant figures in the final answer equals the smallest number of
so that the number contains three significant figures. If a zero is significant figures in any of the original factors.
given as the last digit to the right of the decimal point, the zero is The number of significant figures in the answer to an addition or
presumed to be significant. Thus, the number 1.780 m contains four a subtraction is also limited by the original data. Consider the total
significant figures. As another example, consider a distance of distance along a biker’s trail that consists of three segments with the
1500 m. This number contains only two significant figures, the one distances shown as follows:
and the five. The zeros immediately to the left of the unexpressed 2.5 km
decimal point are not counted as significant figures. However, zeros 11 km
located between significant figures are significant, so a distance of 5.26 km
1502 m contains four significant figures.
Total 18.76 km
Scientific notation is particularly convenient from the point of
view of significant figures. Suppose it is known that a certain dis- The distance of 11 km contains no significant figures to the right of the
tance is fifteen hundred meters, to four significant figures. Writing decimal point. Therefore, neither does the sum of the three distances,
the number as 1500 m presents a problem because it implies that and the total distance should not be reported as 18.76 km. Instead, the
only two significant figures are known. In contrast, the scientific no- answer is rounded off to 19 km. In general, when numbers are added or
tation of 1.500  103 m has the advantage of indicating that the dis- subtracted, the last significant figure in the answer occurs in the last
tance is known to four significant figures. column (counting from left to right) containing a number that results
When two or more numbers are used in a calculation, the number of from a combination of digits that are all significant. In the answer of
significant figures in the answer is limited by the number of significant 18.76 km, the eight is the sum of 2  1  5, each digit being significant.
figures in the original data. For instance, a rectangular garden with However, the seven is the sum of 5  0  2, and the zero is not signifi-
sides of 9.8 m and 17.1 m has an area of (9.8 m)(17.1 m). A calculator cant, since it comes from the 11-km distance, which contains no signifi-
gives 167.58 m2 for this product. However, one of the original lengths cant figures to the right of the decimal point.

A-1
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A-2 APPE N DIXES

A P P E N D I X C
ALG E B RA
PROPORTIONS AND EQUATIONS
冢 v a v 冣  v  (v  v )  v
C.1

v  v0  a 0
0 0

Physics deals with physical variables and the relations be-

The result v  v implies that our algebraic manipulations were done
tween them. Typically, variables are represented by the letters of the
correctly.
English and Greek alphabets. Sometimes, the relation between vari-
Algebraic manipulations other than addition, subtraction, multi-
ables is expressed as a proportion or inverse proportion. Other times,
plication, and division may play a role in solving an equation. The
however, it is more convenient or necessary to express the relation
same basic rule applies, however: Whatever is done to the left side of
by means of an equation, which is governed by the rules of algebra.
an equation must also be done to the right side. As another example,
If two variables are directly proportional and one of them dou-
suppose it is necessary to express v0 in terms of v, a, and x, where
bles, then the other variable also doubles. Similarly, if one variable is
v2  v02  2ax. By subtracting 2ax from both sides, we isolate v02 on
reduced to one-half its original value, then the other is also reduced
the right:
to one-half its original value. In general, if x is directly proportional
v2  v02  2ax
to y, then increasing or decreasing one variable by a given factor
causes the other variable to change in the same way by the same fac- 2ax  2ax
tor. This kind of relation is expressed as x  y, where the symbol  v2  2ax  v02
means “is proportional to.” To solve for v0, we take the positive and negative square root of
Since the proportional variables x and y always increase and both sides of v2  2ax  v02:
decrease by the same factor, the ratio of x to y must have a constant
value, or x/y  k, where k is a constant, independent of the values for v0  ± vv 2  2ax
x and y. Consequently, a proportionality such as x  y can also be
expressed in the form of an equation: x  ky. The constant k is
referred to as a proportionality constant. SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
C.3

If two variables are inversely proportional and one of them in-

creases by a given factor, then the other decreases by the same factor. When more than one variable in a single equation is un-
An inverse proportion is written as x  1/y. This kind of proportion- known, additional equations are needed if solutions are to be found
ality is equivalent to the following equation: xy  k, where k is a pro- for all of the unknown quantities. Thus, the equation 3x  2y  7
portionality constant, independent of x and y. cannot be solved by itself to give unique values for both x and y.
However, if x and y also (i.e., simultaneously) obey the equation
x  3y  6, then both unknowns can be found.
SOLVING EQUATIONS
C.2

There are a number of methods by which such simultaneous

equations can be solved. One method is to solve one equation for x
Some of the variables in an equation typically have known in terms of y and substitute the result into the other equation to obtain
values, and some do not. It is often necessary to solve the equation an expression containing only the single unknown variable y. The
so that a variable whose value is unknown is expressed in terms of equation x  3y  6, for instance, can be solved for x by adding 3y
the known quantities. In the process of solving an equation, it is to each side, with the result that x  6  3y. The substitution of this
permissible to manipulate the equation in any way, as long as a expression for x into the equation 3x  2y  7 is shown below:
change made on one side of the equals sign is also made on the
other side. For example, consider the equation v  v0  at. Suppose 3x  2y  7
values for v, v0, and a are available, and the value of t is required. To 3(6  3y)  2y  7
solve the equation for t, we begin by subtracting v0 from both sides:
18  9y  2y  7
v  v0  at
v0  v0 We find, then, that 18  11y  7, a result that can be solved
v  v0  at for y:
18  11y  7
Next, we divide both sides of v  v0  at by the quantity a: 18 18
v  v0 at 11y  11
  (1)t
a a
Dividing both sides of this result by 11 shows that y  1. The
On the right side, the a in the numerator divided by the a in the value of y  1 can be substituted in either of the original equations
denominator equals one, so that to obtain a value for x:
v  v0
t x  3y  6
a
x  3(1)  6
It is always possible to check the correctness of the algebraic
x3  6
manipulations performed in solving an equation by substituting the
answer back into the original equation. In the previous example, 3 3
we substitute the answer for t into v  v0  at: x  3
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APPE N DIX D EXPON E NTS AN D LOGAR ITH M S A-3

THE QUADRATIC FORMULA b  vb2  4ac

C.4
Solution 1:
x
Plus sign 2a
Equations occur in physics that include the square of a vari-
(5)  v(5)2  4(2)(3)
able. Such equations are said to be quadratic in that variable, and 
often can be put into the following form: 2(2)
5  v1 3
ax 2  bx  c  0 (C-1)  
4 2
where a, b, and c are constants independent of x. This equation can
be solved to give the quadratic formula, which is Solution 2: b  vb2  4ac
x
b ± vb2  4ac Minus sign 2a
x (C-2) (5)  v(5)2  4(2)(3)
2a 
2(2)
The ± in the quadratic formula indicates that there are two solutions.
For instance, if 2x2  5x  3  0, then a  2, b  5, and c  3. 5  v1
 1
The quadratic formula gives the two solutions as follows: 4

A P P E N D I X D
EXPON E NTS AN D LOGAR ITH MS
Appendix A discusses powers of ten, such as 103, which means ten multiplied by itself five times, gives back y. As shown below, the
multiplied by itself three times, or 10  10  10. The three is re- term y1/5 satisfies this definition:
ferred to as an exponent. The use of exponents extends beyond pow- ( y 1/5)( y 1/5)( y 1/5)( y 1/5)( y 1/5)  ( y 1/5)5  y (1/5)5  y
ers of ten. In general, the term yn means the factor y is multiplied by
itself n times. For example, y2, or y squared, is familiar and means Logarithms are closely related to exponents. To see the connec-
y  y. Similarly, y5 means y  y  y  y  y. tion between the two, note that it is possible to express any number y
The rules that govern algebraic manipulations of exponents are as another number B raised to the exponent x. In other words,
the same as those given in Appendix A (see Equations A-1, A-2, and y  Bx (D-7)
A-3) for powers of ten:
The exponent x is called the logarithm of the number y. The number
1 B is called the base number. One of two choices for the base number
 y n (D-1)
yn is usually used. If B  10, the logarithm is known as the common
y ny m  y nm (Exponents added) (D-2) logarithm, for which the notation “log” applies:
y n Common logarithm y  10x or x  log y (D-8)
 ynm (Exponents subtracted) (D-3)
ym If B  e  2.718 . . . , the logarithm is referred to as the natural
To the three rules above we add two more that are useful. One of logarithm, and the notation “ln” is used:
these is Natural logarithm y  ez or z  ln y (D-9)
y nz n  ( yz)n (D-4)
The two kinds of logarithms are related by
The following example helps to clarify the reasoning behind this
ln y  2.3026 log y (D-10)
rule:
3252  (3  3)(5  5)  (3  5)(3  5)  (3  5)2 Both kinds of logarithms are often given on calculators.
The logarithm of the product or quotient of two numbers A and C
The other additional rule is can be obtained from the logarithms of the individual numbers ac-
( y n)m  y nm (Exponents multiplied) (D-5) cording to the rules below. These rules are illustrated here for natural
logarithms, but they are the same for any kind of logarithm.
To see why this rule applies, consider the following example:
ln (AC )  ln A  ln C (D-11)
(52)3  (52)(52)(52)  5222  523
Roots, such as a square root or a cube root, can be represented
ln 冢 CA 冣  ln A  ln C (D-12)
with fractional exponents. For instance, Thus, the logarithm of the product of two numbers is the sum of the
vy  y1/2 and 3
vy  y1/3 individual logarithms, and the logarithm of the quotient of two num-
bers is the difference between the individual logarithms. Another use-
In general, the nth root of y is given by ful rule concerns the logarithm of a number A raised to an exponent n:
n
vy  y1/n (D-6) ln An  n ln A (D-13)
The rationale for Equation D-6 can be explained using the fact that Rules D-11, D-12, and D-13 can be derived from the definition of
(y n)m  y nm. For instance, the fifth root of y is the number that, when the logarithm and the rules governing exponents.
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A-4 APPE N DIXES

A P P E N D I X E
G EOM ETRY AN D TR IGONOM ETRY
GEOMETRY
E.1

b1 a1
α β
ANGLES c1

Two angles are equal if

1. They are vertical angles (see Figure E1).
2. Their sides are parallel (see Figure E2). b2
a2

α β
c2

Figure E5
θ

6. Two similar triangles are congruent if they can be placed on top

of one another to make an exact fit.
θ θ
CIRCUMFERENCES, AREAS, AND VOLUMES
θ
OF SOME COMMON SHAPES
1. Triangle of base b and altitude h (see Figure E6):
Figure E1 Figure E2
Area  12 bh
3. Their sides are mutually perpendicular (see Figure E3).

90° h

90°

90°
θ b

Figure E6

Figure E3 2. Circle of radius r:

Circumference  2 r
TRIANGLES
Area   r 2
1. The sum of the angles of any triangle is 180° (see Figure E4).
3. Sphere of radius r:
Surface area  4 r 2
β
α + β + γ = 180° Volume  43  r 3

α γ 4. Right circular cylinder of radius r and height h (see Figure E7):

Figure E4 Surface area  2 r 2  2 rh
Volume   r 2h
2. A right triangle has one angle that is 90°.
3. An isosceles triangle has two sides that are equal. r
4. An equilateral triangle has three sides that are equal. Each angle
of an equilateral triangle is 60°.
5. Two triangles are similar if two of their angles are equal (see Fig- h
ure E5). The corresponding sides of similar triangles are propor-
tional to each other:
a1 b c
 1  1
a2 b2 c2 Figure E7
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APPE N DIX F SE LECTE D ISOTOPES A-5

TRIGONOMETRY 2. The law of cosines and the law of sines apply to any triangle, not

E.2
just a right triangle, and they relate the angles and the lengths of
the sides (see Figure E9):
BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
1. For a right triangle, the sine, cosine, and tangent of an angle  are
defined as follows (see Figure E8): β
c a
Side opposite  h
sin    o α γ
Hypotenuse h
b
Side adjacent to  ha Figure E9
cos   
Hypotenuse h
Side opposite  h
tan    o Law of cosines c 2  a2  b 2  2ab cos 
Side adjacent to  ha
a b c
Law of sines  
sin sin
sin 
h
ho

θ 90°
OTHER TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
ha
1. sin ()  sin 
Figure E8 2. cos ()  cos 
3. tan ()  tan 
2. The secant (sec ), cosecant (csc ), and cotangent (cot ) of an
4. (sin ) / (cos )  tan 
angle  are defined as follows:
5. sin2   cos2   1
1 1 1 6. sin ( ±
)  sin cos
± cos sin

sec   csc   cot  

cos  sin  tan 
If  90°, sin (90° ±
)  cos

TRIANGLES AND TRIGONOMETRY If 

, sin 2
 2 sin
cos

1. The Pythagorean theorem states that the square of the hy- ±

7. cos ( ±
)  cos cos
sin sin

potenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of

the other two sides (see Figure E8): ±
If  90°, cos (90° ±
)  sin

h 2  h o2  h a2 If 
, cos 2
 cos2
 sin2
 1  2 sin2

A P P E N D I X F
SE LECTE D ISOTOPESa
Atomic % Abundance,
Atomic Mass Atomic or Decay Mode Half-Life (if
No. Z Element Symbol No. A Mass u If Radioactive Radioactive)

0 (Neutron) n 1 1.008 665

 10.37 min
1 Hydrogen H 1 1.007 825 99.985
Deuterium D 2 2.014 102 0.015
Tritium T 3 3.016 050
 12.33 yr
2 Helium He 3 3.016 030 0.000 138
4 4.002 603 ⬇100
3 Lithium Li 6 6.015 121 7.5
7 7.016 003 92.5
4 Beryllium Be 7 7.016 928 EC,  53.29 days
9 9.012 182 100
5 Boron B 10 10.012 937 19.9
11 11.009 305 80.1

a
Data for atomic masses are taken from Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 66th ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. The masses are those for the neutral atom,
including the Z electrons. Data for percent abundance, decay mode, and half-life are taken from E. Browne and R. Firestone, Table of Radioactive Isotopes,
V. Shirley, Ed., Wiley, New York, 1986.  alpha particle emission,
  negative beta emission,
  positron emission,   -ray emission, EC  electron
capture.