Introduction to Electronics and Communication Engineering (BESCK104C)

Module 3
Boolean algebra and logic Circuits
Binary Number:
The binary numbering system is a base system of 2 where only the digital 0 and 1 are used. Using
numbering system, all numbers are represented by a series of 0’s and 1’s.
With only two digits number 0 and 1 can be represented. To represent the number 2 we must use the
next position and initialize the unit position 0. Thus 10 is binary or base 2.
Decimal Binary
0 000
1 001
2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
8 1000
9 1001
10 1010
Number Base Conversion:
A binary number can be converted to decimal by forming the sum of powers of 2 of those co-efficients
whose value 1.
Problem 1: Convert (101010)2 = (?)10

= 0 + 2 + 0 + 8 + 0 + 32 = 42
Problem: 1010.011

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1010.011 = (1 ∗ 23 ) + (0 ∗ 22 ) + (1 ∗ 21 ) + (0 ∗ 20 ). (0 ∗ 2−1 ) + (1 ∗ 2−2 ) + (1 ∗ 2−3 )

1 1
= 8 + 0 + 2 + 0.0 + +
4 8
(10.375)10
Conversion Of Binary To Decimal Number:
a) Whole numbers:
The procedure is successive division by the base, keeping the remainder from each division, the
string of remainders reading from bottom is desired number.
Problem 1: convert 186 to binary

Division by 2 Quotient reminder

186/2 93 0
93/2 46 1
46/2 23 0
23/2 11 1
11/2 5 1
5/2 2 1
2/2 1 0
½ 0 1

Consider the reminder value from lower end to higher: 10111010

b) Fraction: to convert decimal to another numerical system the fraction is multiplied by base 2
and saving at each multiplication the integral digit resulting from the multiplication. The process
is continued until the fraction becomes zero or until sufficient accuracy is obtained.

Problem: convert decimal 0.75 to binary.

Multiply by 2 Value Carry
0.75*2 0.50 1
0.5*2 0.0 1

Consider the carry value from up to down :0.11

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Octal And Hexa Decimal :

• Conversion from binary to octal and hexadecimal are to plays a important part.
• Since 23 =8 and 24=16, each octal digital corresponding to three binary digits and each hexadecimal
digit corresponding to four binary digits.
• The conversion from binary to octal is easily accomplished by partitioning the binary number into
group of three digits each starting from the binary point and proceeding to left and to right.
• The corresponding octal digit is then assigned to each group.
Eg: 10110001101011.111100000110
= (10 /110/ 001/ 101/ 011.111/ 100/ 000/ 110)2
=(26153.7406)8

Conversion from binary to hexadecimal is similar to octal but group 4 binary digits.
Eg: 10110001101011.111100000110
=10/1100/0110/1011.1111/0000/0110
=2C6B.F2

Conversion from octal or hexadecimal to binary is done procedure sever to above. Each octal
digit is converted to its three digit binary equivalent then hexa decimal conversion is performed.

Compliments
• Compliments are used in digital for simplifying the subtraction operation and for logical
manipulation.
• These are two types of compliments for each base r- system. The radix complement and diminished
radix complement.
i) Diminished Radix Complements
Given a nuber N in baser having n digits the (r-1)’ s compliment of N is define as (rn-1)-N
Eg : for dec imal number r=10 and r-1=9
If n=4 we have 104=10000 and 104-1=9999
9’s complement of 546700 is
999999-546700=453299

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ii) Radix Compliment:

The r’s complement of n digit number N is base r is defined as rn-N for N≠0 and 0 for N=0
Comparing with (r-1)’s complement, the r’s complement is obtained y adding 1 to the (r-1)’ s
complement since rn-N= [(rn-1)-N]+1
10’s complement of 012398
N=6 106-1=1000000-1=999999
9’s compliment: 999999
012398
987601
10’s compliment: +1
987602

Subtraction With Complement:

The subtraction of two n digit unsigned number M-N is base r can be done as follow
i) Add the minuend M to the r’s complement f the subtrahend N. this performs M+(rn=N)
M-N+rn
ii) If M≥N, the sum will produce an end carry rn, which is discarded ; what is left is result M-N.
iii) 3) if M˂N, the sum does not produce an end carry and is equal to rn-(N-M) which is the r’s complement
of (N-M). to obtain the answer in familiar form, take the r’s complement of the sum & place a negative
sign in front.

Problems:
1. Using 10’s complement subtract 72532-3250.
M=72532
N=3250
10’s complement of N: 99999
- 3250
96749
+1
96750

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M : 72532
10’s Complement of N:+96750
169282
Discard end carry

Hence Answer is 69282

2. Using 10’s Compliment subtrsct 3250-72532

M=3250
N=72532
10’s complement of N: 99999
72532
27467
+1
27468

M : 03250
10’s Complement of N:+ 27468
30718

10 ‘s compliment of 30718
99999
30718
69281
+1
-69282

3. Using 9’s complement subtract 72532-3250.

M=72532
N=3250

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10’s complement of N: 99999

- 3250
96749

M : 72532
9’s Complement of N: +96749
169281
+1
69282
Discard end carry

Hence Answer is 69282

4. Using 9’s Compliment subtrsct 3250-72532

M=3250
N=72532
9’s complement of N: 99999
72532
27467

M : 03250
9’s Complement of N:+ 27467
30717
+1
30718
10 ‘s compliment of 30718
99999
30718
69282
+1

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-69282

5. Using 2’s complement subtract 11001-1010.

M=11001
N=1010
2’s complement of N: 11111
- 1010
10101
+1
10110

M : 11001
2’s Complement of N:+ 10110
101111
Discard end carry

Hence Answer is 01111

6. Using 10’s Compliment subtract 1010-11001

M=1010
N=11001
2’s complement of N: 11111
11001
00110
+1
00111

M : 1010
2’s Complement of N:+ 00111
10001

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2 ‘s compliment of 30718
11111
10001
01110
+1
-01111

7. Using 1’s compliments subtract 11001-1010.

M=11001
N=1010
1’s complement of N: 11111
- 1010
10101

M : 11001
9’s Complement of N: + 10101
101110 discard end 1 and add 1
+1
01111
Hence Answer is 01111

8. Using 1’s Compliment subtract 1010-11001

M=1010
N=11001
10’s complement of N: 11111
11001
00110

M : 1010

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9’s Complement of N:+ 00110

10001
+1
10010
9 ‘s compliment of 10010
11111
10010
01111

Basic Definitions:
1. Closure: A set S is closed with respect to binary operator if for every pair of element of S, the
binary operator specifies a rule for obtaining a unique element of S.
2. Associative law: A binary operator * on a set S is said to associative whenever
(x*y)*z=x*(y*z) for all x,y,z €S
3. Cumulative law: A binary operator * can a set S is said to be commutative whenever
X*y=y*x for all x,y €S
4. Identity element: A set S is said to have a identity element withb respect to binary operator * on
S if there exists an element e€S with property
E*x=x*e=x for every x€S
5. Inverse: A set S having the identity element e with respect to a binary operator * is said to have
an inverse whenever for every x€S there exist an element y€S such that
X*y=e
6. Distributive law: If * and . are two binary operator on the set S * is said to be distributive over .
whenever
X*(y.z)=(x*y).(x*z)
X+(yz)=(x+y)(x+z)

Axiomatic Definition Of Boolean Algebra:

1 (a): Closure with respect to the operator +.

(b) Closure with respect to the operator -.

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2(a) An identity element with respect to +, designated by O; X+0=0+X=X

(b) An identity element with respect to ‘.’ , designated by 1,X.1=1.X=X

3(a) Commutative with respect to +; X+Y=Y+X

(b) Commutative with respect to ‘.’ ;X.Y=Y.X

4(a) ‘.’ Is distributive over +; X.(Y+Z)=(X.Y)+(X.Z)

(b) ‘+’ is distributive over ‘.’ ; X+(Y.Z)=(X+Y).(X+Z)

5. For every element x€B, there exists an element X’€B ( called compliment of X) such that
(a) X+X’=1 (b) X.X’=0

6.There exist at least two element X,Y€B such that X≠Y

Basic Theorem And Properties Of Boolean Algebra :

Duality: It states that every algebraic expression deducible from the postulates of Boolean algebra
remains valid if the operators and identity element are interchanged.

1. X+0=X
X 0 X+0
0 0 0
1 0 1

2. X.1=X
X 1 X.1

0 1 0

1 1 1

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3. X+X’=1
X X’ X+X’

0 1 1

1 0 1

4. X.X’=0
X X’ X.X’
0 1 0
1 0 0

5. X+X=X
X X X+X
0 0 0
1 1 1

6. X.X=X
X X X
0 0 0
1 1 1
7. X+Y=Y+X
X Y X+Y Y+X
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1

8. XY=YX
X Y XY YX
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0

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1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1

9. X+(Y+Z)=(X+Y)+Z
X Y Z Y+Z X+(Y+Z) (X+Y) (X+Y)+Z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

10. X(YZ)=(XY)Z
X Y Z YZ X(YZ) XY (XY)Z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

11. X(Y+Z)=XY+XZ
X Y Z Y+Z X(Y+Z) XY XZ XY+XZ
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

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1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

12. X+YZ=(X+Y)(X+Z)
X Y Z YZ X+YZ X+Y X+Z (X+Y)(X+Z)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

DE MORGANS LAW:
First law: Compliment of sum of two elements is equal to product of compliment of each element.
(X+Y)’=X’+Y’
X Y X+Y (X+Y)’ X’ Y’ X’Y’
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
13. Second law: Compliment of product of two elements is equal to sum of compliment of each
element.
X Y XY (XY)’ X’ Y’ X’+Y’
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1

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1 1 1 0 0 0 0

Simplification of Boolean algebra:

1. A+AC
SOLN: A+AC
=A(1+C) 1+C=1
=A
2. A+A’B+ABC’
=A(1+BC’)+A’B
=A+A’B
=(A+A’)(A+B)
=A+B
3. 𝐴̅𝐶 + ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶
̅𝐴𝐶 + 𝐴′ + 𝐶′

𝐴̅(𝐶 + 1) + 𝐶′ C+C’=1
𝐴′ + 𝐶′

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
4. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶̅
̿̿̿̿̿̿̿̿
= (𝐴 + 𝐵). 𝐶̅
=(𝐴 + 𝐵). 𝐶

5. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 + ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴
= ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵. ̿̿̿̿
𝐴𝐵. 𝐴̅
= ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵. 𝐴𝐵. 𝐴̅
=0
6. 𝑋𝑌𝑍 + 𝑋 ′ 𝑌 + 𝑋𝑌𝑍 ′
= 𝑋𝑌(𝑍 + 𝑍 ′ ) + 𝑋𝑌 ′
= 𝑋𝑌 + 𝑋 ′ 𝑌
= 𝑌(𝑋 + 𝑋 ′ )
=𝑌

Compliment of function:

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Find the compliment of the functions

1. F1=X’YZ’+X’Y’Z
= (𝑋 ′ 𝑌𝑍 ′ + 𝑋 ′ 𝑌 ′ 𝑍)′
= (𝑋 ′ 𝑌𝑍 ′ )′ . (𝑋 ′ 𝑌 ′ 𝑍)′
= (𝑋 ′′ + 𝑌 ′ + 𝑍 ′′ ). (𝑋 ′′ + 𝑌 ′′ + 𝑍 ′ )
= (𝑋 + 𝑌 ′ + 𝑍). (𝑋 + 𝑌 + 𝑍 ′ )

2. F=X(Y’Z’+YZ)
′
= (𝑋(𝑌 ′ 𝑍 ′ + 𝑌𝑍))
= 𝑋 ′ + (𝑌 ′ 𝑍 ′ + 𝑌𝑍)′
= 𝑋 ′ + ((𝑌 ′ 𝑍 ′ )′ . (𝑌𝑍)′ )
= 𝑋 ′ + ((𝑌 ′′ + 𝑍 ′′ ). (𝑌 ′ + 𝑍 ′ ))
= 𝑋 ′ + (𝑌 + 𝑍)(𝑌 ′ + 𝑍 ′ )

Canonical and standard forms:

Minterms and Maxterms:
A binary variable may appear either its normal form (x) or in its compliment form (x’)
Minterm: A minterm is a special case product term. A minterm is a product term that contains
all of input variable that make up a Boolean expression.
Maxterm: A maxterm is a special case sumterm. A maxterm is a sum term that contains all input
variable that make up a Boolean expression.

For combinational logic circuit with n input variable there will be the 2n possibilities.
X Y Z Min term Max term

0 0 0 A’B’C’ m0 A+B+C M0
0 0 1 A’B’C m1 A+B+C’ M1
0 1 0 A’BC’ m2 A+B’+C M2
0 1 1 A’BC m3 A+B’+C’ M3
1 0 0 AB’C’ m4 A’+B+C M4
1 0 1 AB’C m5 A’+B+C’ M5

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1 1 0 ABC’ m6 A’+B’+C M6
1 1 1 ABC m7 A’+B’+C’ M7

Sum Of Minterm:
• For n binary variable , 2n distinct minterm can be obtain and any Boolean function can
be expressed as the sum of minterm.
• For expressing Boolean function of minterm sun of 1’s function in truth table is
considered
• If given Boolean function is not in minterm it can be made by expanding the expression
into a sum of AND term. Then each term is inspected that all term are contained.
• For expanding misses one or more variable it is AND’ed with an expression (a+a’) of
missed one
Problem:
Express the Boolean function F=a+b’c in Sum of minterm

Sol: F=a+b’c
=a(b+b’)(c+c’)+(a+a’)b’c
=(ab+ab’)(c+c’)+ab’c+a’b’c
=abc+abc’+ab’c+ab’c’+ab’c+a’b’c

Sum of Minterm is expressed in short notation

𝑓(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = ∑(1,5,4,6,7)

Product of Maxterm:
• Each of 2n function n binary variable can also be expressed as product of maxterm
• To express Boolean function as product of maxterms, it must be brought into a form of OR
term.
• For this distribution law must be used first then missing variable in each OR term is ORed with
aa’

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Problem:
Express Boolean function F=xy+x’z
Sol: F=xy+x’z
=(xy+x’)(xy+z)
=(x+x’)(y+x’)(x+z)(y+z)
=(y+x’+zz’)(x+z+yy’)(y+z+xx’)
=(y+x’+z)(y+x’+z’)(x+z+y)(x+z+y’)(y+z+x)(y+z+x’)
=(x+y+z)(y+x’+z’)(y+x’+z’)(x+z+y’)(x’+y+z)

𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = ∏(0,2,4,5)

Standard Form:
The two canonical form of Boolean algebra are basic form that obtain from reading a function from
truthtable.
There are two type of standard form:
*The Sum Of Product: is Boolean expression containing AND term called product terms of one or more
literal term. The sum denotes the OR ing of these terms.
F=y’+xy+x’yz’
*Product of Sum: is Boolean expresson containing OR term called terms. Each term may have any
number of literals. The product denotes the AND ing of these term.
F=x(y+z’)(x’+y’+z)

Other logic operation:

There are 2n functions for binary variable. For two variable n=2 and the number of possible Boolean
functions is 16.
The truth table for the 16 function formed two binary variable x & Y is listed in table.
In below table each of 16 column F0 to F15 represents a truth table of one possible function for the two
given variable x & Y

X Y F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 F11 F12 F13 F14 F15

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

The 16 function listed thruthtable form can be expressed algebraically by means of Boolean function.this
is showed in below table
The 16 function listed can be subdivided into 3 categories:
1) Two function that produced a constant 0 & 1.
2) Four function with binary operation : complement and transfer
3) Ten function with binary operators that defines eight different operation :
AND,OR,NAND,NOR,XOR, equivalence inhibition and emplication.
Boolean Function Operation Symbol Name Comment
F0=0 Null Binary constant 0
F1=xy X*Y AND X AND Y
F2=XY’ X/Y INHIBITION X BUT NOT Y
F3=X TRANSFER X
F4=X’Y Y/X INHIBITION Y BUT NOT X
F5=Y TRANSFER Y
F6=XY’+X’Y x®Y XOR X OR Y BUT BOTH
F7=X+Y X+Y OR X OR Y
F8=(X+Y)’ X Y NOR NOT OR
F9=XY+X’Y’ X Y EQUIVQLENCE X EQUAL Y
F10=Y’ Y’ COMPLIMENT NOT Y
F11=X+Y’ XʗY IMPLICATION IF Y THEN X
F12=X’ X’ COMPLIMENT NOT X
F13=X’+Y X Y IMPLICATION IF X THEN Y
F14=(XY)’ X Y NANAD NOT AND
F15=1 IDENTITY BINARY CONATANT

DIGITAL LOGICAL GATES:

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Boolean function are expressed in term OF AND OR NOT operation. It is easer to implement a Boolean
function with these type of gate
The graphic symbols and truthtable of eight gate are shown listed:

COMBINATION LOGICS:
Introduction:
• Logic circuits for digital system may be combinational or sequential.
• A combinational circuit consists of logic gate whose output at any time is determined directly
from te present combination of input without regard to previous inputs.
• A combinational circuits perform a specific information processing operation by a set of Boolean
function.
• It consist of input variable logic gates and output variables.
• For n input variables, there are 2n possible combination of binary input values. For each possible
input combination there is one & only one possible output combination

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Design Procedure:
The design of combinational circuit start from verbal outline of the problem and ends in logic circuit
diagram
The procedure involve the following steps:
• The problem is stated
• The number of available input variable are required output variable is determined.
• The input and output variable are assigned letter symbol.
• The truthtable that define the required relationship between input and output is derived
• The simplified Boolean function for each output is obtained
• The logic diagram is drawn.

A practical design method would have to considered following constraints:

• Minimum number of gates
• Minimum number of inputs to gates
• Minimum propagation time of the signal through circuit
• Minimum number of interconnection
• Limitation of the driving capabilities of each gate.

Adders:
• The most basic arithmetic operation is addition of two binary digits.
• The simple addition consists of four possible elementary operation namely 0+0=0 and 0+1=1
1+0=1 and 1+1=10. The first three operation a sum whose length is one digit but when both
assigned and added bit are equal 1. The binary sum consists of two digits the higher significant
bit is called carry.
• A combinational circuit that performs the addition of two bits are called half adder.
• A combinational circuit that perform the addition of three bits ( two significant bit and previous
carry ) is a full adder.
Half Adder:
• A combinational circuit that performs the addition of two bits are called half adder
• The input variable designate the assigned and added bits; output produce the sum and carry.
• The variable for augends and addend X&Y. the sum and carry is S & C.

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Truth table

Simplified Boolean function for the two output can be obtain directly from truthtable
S=X’Y+XY’
C=XY
The logic diagram for this implementations are:

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