008 Process
008 Process
008 Process
TO CALCU
ULATE NP
PSH AVAIILABLE:
a. Vapo
our pressuree
b. Staticc head
c. Frictiion .
d. Strain
ner drop
e. Suction pressuree
The em
mpirical form
mula to calcculate NPSH
H is
1. Assum
me some lin
ne configurration to gett total equivvalent leng
gths and con
nvert that
in to friiction drop..
LS1 –LS
S2 LEVEL HIGH
H ALA
ARM
LS3-LS4 LEVEL L
LOW ALARM
M
LS5-LS6 LEVEL L
LOW ALARM
M & TRIP O
OF PUMP
LEVEL SWITCH IIS OF DISPLALER TY
YPE.
SETTIN
NG IS 70 M
MM BELOW
W THE LEVE
EL.
Re
ead More
Recom
mmended
d For You
u
Piping Design
D Data B
Book by Hyu
undai
Fiberglaass Reinforceed Piping Sysstems Guide
Mechaniical Design oof Process Systems-Vol 1 by A.Keith E
Escoe (Pipingg & Pressuree Vessels)
[PDF] D
Design Guidellines for Safeety in Piping Networks
Overview
w of Process Plant Pipingg System Dessign by Carm
magen Engineering
Engineerring Specificcation of Pipiing Design By Toyo Engin
neering
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS - 1
Posted b
by Ankit Chug
gh on 10:51 AM3
A Comme
ents
Sizing
g of centriifugal pum
mp:
The cen
ntrifugal is llike the ‘WO
ORK HORS
SE’ in a pro
ocess industtry. The folllowing figu
ure shows
major ccomponentss in a centriifugal pump
p.
Liquid is
i pressured
d in to the suction
s of pump
p wherre the impelller impartss a centrifugal
velocityy to the fluid
d. As the liq
quid dischaarges from tthe pump itts velocity h
head conveerts to
pressurre head becaause of typiical shape o
of the casin
ng.
A comp
plex relation
nship existss between th
he system h
head, Pump
p head and valve drop
charactteristics .Meethods of seelecting con
ntrol valve d
drop and im
mpeller perrformance aare not
readily Systematizzed .API-610
0 fixed man
ny mechaniical and pro
ocedural deetails and itt is often
includeed in all Reffinery/Petro
ol chemicall industriess when pum
mps are speccified.
A Desig
gn Engineerr must conssider two ch
haracteristiics of a centtrifugal pum
mp., their d
discharge
pressurre and volum
metric flow
w rate throu
ugh them. T
The designerr’s heat and
d material b
balance
will givee the requirred flow ratte hydraulicc Calculatio
ons will dicttate the heaad.
1. HOW
W TO CALCU
ULATE FLO
OW REQUIR
RED?
Case-11
HCL+ NaOH
N = = > NaCL + H
H2O
= = => (1 mole + 1 mole = = =
=> 1 mole + 1 mole ) Mol.
M wts
= = => 36.5 kg + 4
40 kg = = => 58.5 kg+18 kg .
Case –
–2
Some tiimes to takee away the reaction heeat , you’ve to add exceess reactantt .It may bee as high
as 5 to 6 times the actual requ
uirement .
Case – 3
For som
me reactions , we have to keep som
me excess rreactant to ensure
complettion of (100
0 %) reactio
on.
Case – 4
Hence d
designed flo
ow rate shaall be 20% more
m than tthe actual fl
flow rate. Frrom
above p
pump flow rratio is calcculated by fo
following eq
quation.
For exa
ample , if on
ne has to pu
ump 1000 kg/hr
k of H2
2SO4 (whicch has speciific gravity
1.8 (98%
% H2SO4 ) , the required m3/hr is
II. HO
OW TO CA
ALCULATE HEAD?
?
The figu
ure on nextt page show
ws a typical process app
plication.
COMP
PONENTS
S CALCUL
LATION
Where S
Sp gr. is thee specific grravity of the liquid pum
mped at thee process
temperaature.
(b) He
ead to lift tthe liquid
d
This is simply
s the difference between
b th
he liquid levvel in the firrst & second
d vessels.
Actuallyy a design E
Engineer do
oes not lay the piping .Just consid
der that he can allow
0.3kg/ccm2 Pr. dro
op for each other 100m
m of piping and estimaate the apprroximate diistance
the pipiing will run
n . Double th
he calculateed pr.drop to allow forr elbows, beends, valves and
other piipe fittings.. Convert th
he friction p
pressure drrop in to head by samee formula.
(d) Con
ntrol valv
ves / instru
uments:
As a thu
umb rule , tthe loss acrross a control valve is eequivalent tto half the ffriction losss of pipe
line or 11.50 kg/cm
m whicheverr is greater .
(e) NP
PSH requir
red by pum
mp:
As in th
he case of tu
urbines , sp
pecific speed d design basis for a tecchnical
d is a sound
classificcation of ceentrifugal pu
umps .
Specificc speed is d
defined as th
he speed off geometrica
ally similarr impeller (p
pump)
when delivering on
ne m3./sec against a h
head of 1 m..
Depend
ding on the specific speeed , the typ
pe of impelller can be selected
s fro
om the follo
owing
table:
Pumps having a sp
pecific speeed less than
n 12 are geneerally not rrecommend
ded. Infect tthe
efficiency falls draastically if th
he specific speed
s is lesss than 20. T
This is becaause impelller
becomees disproportionate, th
he dia. being too large relative to width.
It resultts in leakag
ge and higher disc fricttion and flu
uid friction losses owin
ng to narrow
w
passagee of fluid . It is therefore advisable to use impellers of small diameeters conseq
quently
high specific speed
d.
Depend
ding on the blade shap
pe, the efficiiency chang
ges and it can have one of the folllowing
differen
nt shapes.
In order to have hiigh efficien
ncy, the blad
des bent baackward sha
all be selectted. Straigh
ht blades
can be u
used for sm
mall pumps where econ
nomy is imp
portant. Blaades bent fo
orward yielld very
low efficiency and hence rareely used.
Selectiing a pum
mp’s impelller
The encclosed figurre shows the typical seet of curves,, representiing characteristic of an
n
individu
ual impelleer .The top ccurve is for the largestt size impelller that can
n physicallyy fit in to
the pum
mp. Impelleers are easilly machined
d for any in
ntermediatee size betweeen those in
ndicated
on pum
mp curves.
Selectiing a Pum
mp motor
Otherw
wise the mottor shall be selected att the end off the curve p with the following
power OR w
correlattions as perr normal prractice depeend on the aabsorbed p
power .
CONCEPT OF SHUT
S IN P
PRESSUR
RE
If opera
ator acciden
ntally closes this valvee , the shell of heat of h
heat exchan
nger shall bee
subjecteed to shut iin pr. of thee pump . In case HE sh
hell is not designed
d forr shut in prr. , we get
three op
ptions.
c. Elimiinate valve
1. Redu
uce down strream pr. drrop
1. Redu
uce down
nstream pr
ressure dr
rop :
The typ
pical causes of excessivve pr. drop and suggessted remediies are listed below , id
dentified
by man
ny practical experimen
nts .
b. High
h shell side p
pr. drop in a S/T HE
d. Excesssive piping
g Losses –
- Increa
ase diameteer of piping
g or parallell piping run
ns .
2. Larg
ge impelle
er :
The cha
anging of th
he dia . of im
mpeller is d
done thro’ fo
following em
mpirical rellations .
IMPOR
RTANCE OF LOW DISCHAR
RGE FLO
OW
When d
discharge off pump is cllosed .pum
mp will overh
heat . The m
motor’s elecctric powerr is
convertted to heat as
a the pum
mp churns th
he trapped lliquid . Thee pump’s caase and bea
arings
becomee hotter and
d hotter and
d eventuallyy the bearin
ngs will burrn out also damage thee pump
seal .
IMPOR
RTANCE OF LOW NPSH
a) Locatte coolers o
on suction sside of pum
mps .The deccreased pum
mp suction
n pressure w
will be
usually more than offset by th
he reductio
on in the flu
uid’s bubblee point .
b) Provvide vortex b
breakers in
n bottom of all vessels rregardless of the anticcipated liqu
uid level
in vesseel .
Contin
nued to Centrifuga
al Pumps - 2
Re
ead More
Recom
mmended
d For You
u
Selection
n and Limitaations of Pipiing Componeents
Downloaad PDS Equiipment Modeelling Trainin
ng Guide
Samsungg Piping Desiign Manual oof Pump Pip
ping
Engineerring Specificcation of Pipiing Design By Toyo Engin
neering
[PPT] Download Dessign & Consttruction of Piping System
ms
Overview
w of Process Plant Pipingg System Dessign by Carm
magen Engineering
Design of C
Cross – Coun
ntry Pip
pe Line
e-1
Posted b
by Ankit Chug
gh on 10:11 A
AM4 Comme
ents
Introduction:
In the modern age of Industrial word, the Oil refineries, petroleum products, and
petrochemicals form the major part of the industrial set-up all over the world. It is often
economical and practical to carry the liquid and Gaseous products through pipe-lines rather
than by Tankers over ling distance. When a pipe-line has to carry such products like crude
oil, refined oil, chemicals like naphtha, ethylene, propylene etc. over long distance ranging
from 10 km to even 1000 km,. Passing through land, rivers, sea, mountains, marshy areas,
private and public land and land, rivers, sea, mountains, marshy areas, private and public
land and crossing other services like roads, railways, transmission lines, underground
Pipes/Cables etc, such a pipeline is called “Cross-Country Pipe-Line”. As the name suggests
it transfers the liquid/Gas products from one place to another at far distance.
This write-up highlights the main features of the eng ineering and construction of Cross-
Country Pipe-Lines. The objective of this note is to make the reader familiar with the broad
perspective of the Cross-Country Pipe-Line Work and the pipe-lines which are already
installed in India. These also include the submarine lines and en-land pipe-lines.
The most common modes of transport known to all include Trucks running over Roads,
Railway goods train and Ships/Launches/Boats/Barges on waterways. The transport by
Airway be cargo Air-crafts is also another way of bulk-transport. These modes of Transport
have following limitations.
a) Availability of sufficient roads, rail-tracks and port-harbour facilities to take
up the traffic load.
h) Effect of Nature on the system like rains, storms, earthquakes, thundering, mist etc.
While transportation by roads, railways, water and air-ways is widely used all over the
world, it has its own limitations due to the features used all over the world, it has its own
limitations due to the features (a) to (m) mentioned above. These limitations especially
restrict or forbid their use when large quantities of Oil, petroleum, water, chemicals are to
be continuously supplied from the source to the consumption point at users’ end. Hence the
most reliable and efficient system can be provided only be Cross-Country pipe-lines.
d) No hindrances on way due to any reasons which are listed in problems (a) to (m) for
surface transport, air/water ways.
e) Possibility of crossing any odd areas like seas, oceans, rivers, mountains and
underground space.
f) Safety & purity of the product is ensured. The product reaches exactly in the same
condition from source to the supply point, with minimal loss of quality or quantity.
g) Once laid down, the system works automatically especially with the help of modern
instrumentation, safety devices, interlocks, communication system and remote control
devices.
h) Cost of Transport per Unit of the product conveyed is far less than the transport by
Trucks/railways/ water/ Airways.
k) Comparatively much less hazardous than surface transport & minimum dependence on
human factors.
There are of course certain disadvantages but they are offset by the advantages, to a large
extent, so as to make them ignorable as far as safety & techno-economic aspects are
concerned. They are listed as given below :
a) Right of way Acquisition to run the pipeline, especially thru’ private & agricultural land
& habituated areas.
e) Possibility of laying other services in future (like other pipe-lines due to ignorance of
its existence, among other agencies) causing damage.
f) Special Techniques & Agencies are required to design, engineer, install & operate the
pipe- line system.
g) Expensive cathodic protection required for the protection of u/g lines running in close
proximity of overhead High Tension electrical Transmission lines which induce the currents
in the metallic pipelines, causing the corrosion by stray-currents.
The modern techniques are well developed to offset the effects of the above disadvantages.
Even if a line has to shut-off for a day or two, the storage facilities at the users end take care
of such stoppages even for 15 days to 1 month.
There may be many alternatives for routing the pipe line from supplier to the consumer. It is
necessary to study the techno-economic comparison of the alternative routes. This survey
includes the following activities :
a) Spot-level survey at every 50 to 100 metres & at least over 10 m on either side of the
probable route.
b) Soil Conditions in the form of bore-logs, trial pits, chemical tests on subsoil & ground
water etc.
c) Alignment Map With lengths, bearings, angles etc. to know the exact route & the total
length of the pipe-line.
d) Details on the route and their locations dimensions etc sea, roads (crossing and along
side the route) rivers, Nallas, pipe-lines, bridges, rail-tracks, transmission lines,
underground services including cables/pipes etc, Hills and mountains, buildings,
plantation, forests, agricultural land etc.
e) Cadestral Survey –The route may be passing thru’ so many lands belonging to private
owners, farmers, govt. authorities, defence wings etc. En-route information and data has to
be collected for such land pieces. Such data will include :
- Survey maps for the land available from the local Land Authorities (such as collector,
Tahasildar, Gram-Panchayat etc.)
- Land records regarding the title and ownership of the land
- Similar information of the adjacent plots on 50 to 100 m on either side of the route.
- Plans for future installations by others on the proposed route and/ or in the vicinity such
as roads/ rail-tracks/ buildings/pipe-lines etc.
Since the pipe-line has to pass thru’ different areas and over a long distance, it is essential
to know the availability of construction Labour and Materials on the way. Such as
excavation labour, transport facilities, access roads, construction material like stones,
aggregates, sand, cement, steel, structurals, etc., workshop facilities. This information will
be useful in working out project schedule and cost estimates and assessing the problems in
construction.
Names and addresses of the statutory and public bodies required to be contacted for
acquiring ROW, construction permission, blasting licences, excavating the public facilities
(Roads, rivers, rail-tracks etc.) and cathodic protection work, power supply/water supply
etc.
Such authorities include the following but not limited to the listed ones.
Project Schedule
Base on various data collected as in 3.1 and the cost Estimates, over all project schedule
has to be prepared based on past experience, and specific problems unique to the project
under consideration. This schedule should cover only broad activities to serve as a guide
line for preparation of detail activity schedule.
h) Testing/Flushing/Pigging.
Finalis
sing the m
most optim
mum route
e
Under p
parameter columns,
c fo
ollowing miinimum iteems should be included
d:
1. Estim
mated Cost
- Row A
Acquisition
- Land Acquisition
A n
- Statuttory Permisssion
- Basic Engineerin
ng
- Detaill Engineerin
ng
- Constrruction Cosst
- Civil
- Piping
g
- Mechaanical
- Electrical
- Cathodic Protection
- On line buildings
- Testing Commissioning
- Cathodic Protection
3. Total length
5. Other features
- Pipe-line dia.
8. Hazard Classifications
9. Risk-Factor
Value analysis should be done for each alternative routes considering appropriate
weightages assigned to these parameters and costs of the same. Thus final and most
optimum route can be selected.
After deciding the final route, cost estimates, broad project schedule and engineering. The
detail engineering will involve following main steps.
§ Civil works including trenching, sand filling, back filling, buildings, concreting, river-
weights, valve-chambers, Test points, markers and construction infrastructure like site
office, construction water, power, site godown/open yards etc.
§ Construction Equipment required for transport, laying, welding, erection testing etc.
§ Inventory-control-planning
§ Safety/Security Guidelines
Pipe-P
Preparatio
on in Yard
d
- Inspecction/Testin
ng/Stackin
ng of Pipes//Numbering
g
- Edge-Preparation
n for weldin
ng
- Wrapp
ping/Coatin
ng (generallly reinf. bittiminous) aand its testing
- Testin
ng/Stacking
g bends/elb
bows/Tees
- Pipe-S
Sleeves for rroad crossiing
- Valve--testing/staacking/num
mbering
After trenching is ready over substantial length pipe-lines made ready in the yard as in 5.2
are transported to the site and lined up over sleepers placed across the trench for welding
and lined up over sleepers placed across the trench for welding the joints. The joints are
welded continuously in 2 or 3 shifts. They are subject to inspection by D.P. check and
Radiography. Wrapping/ coating is completed over portions about the weld.
Lowering
Once a fairly long length say 100 m to 150 m is welded/Tested, then if is lowered into trench
over sand-bed already laid-Necessary small/big cranes, lifting tackles are used for lowering
the line. Back filling with soft earth free from stones is done after lowering.
Hydrotesting
A long length after lowering a back filling is hydrotested for the test-pressure which is
generally 1.5 times the operation pressure or as stipulated for specific service.
After each 100 to 150 m length is lowered, tested, then they have to be welded to form a
continuous pipeline.
Testing of entire line is then taken up by filling the whole or section of line with water &
pressuring. Any leaks found are repaired and tested.
Pigging
For flushing and cleaning the entire length of all muck, dirt, welding rod bits etc, a pig is
passed thru the line, from one end, and it is pushed by water pressure. The pig travels
through the pipe, scrapping the muck and pushing it forward. At intermediate points
flanged joints are left to pass-out the muck. If a pig gets stuckup, its location is detected by
passing an ‘ISOTOPE’ and detecting its location by external instruments which tracks the
isotope as it is travelling through the pipe. The pipe line is cut, pig removed, pipe cleaned
and rew
welded. Thee pig is passsed through
h from that point onwaards to flush the rema
aining
portion
n in the forw
ward directiion.
Comm
missioning
g
It is don
ne as per th
he procedurre laid down
n for the sp
pecific prod
duct to be caarried throu
ugh the
pipelinee.
Cathod
dic Protection
This pro
ovides the p
protection tto the undeerground piipe from th
he corrosion
n by electrollytic
processs in subsoil water, wheenever in e--m-f is indu
uced’ in it (w
when pipe m
material is a good
conducttor e.g. carb
bon. Steel)
Basic Principal
P l and Phen
nomena
u/g pipeline of meetal (viz. carrbon steel) is a conducctor of electtricity. If it lies within the
magnettic field of eelectricity. If
I is lies witthin the magnetic field H. lines, then it
d of the O.H
developes a potential higher than the ‘Ground’ potential. As we know, earth i.e. ground is at
‘Zero’ potential. When the u/g pipe is subjected to an induced e.m.f. if is supposed to be
higher potential than the surrounding ground. The subsoil water always contains many
dissolved salts of sodium, potassium and other elements. This makes the subsoil also a
conductor of electricity. Thus the current flows from the pipe at flow of current depends on
the resistivity of the subsoil. This phenomenon sets up an ‘Electrolytic’ process between the
pipe which acts as ‘ANODE’ and the ground which acts as ‘CATHODE’. Once this process
starts, pipe starts losing the positively charges ions say Fe++ or Fe++ into the subsoil
around the pipe. This is the corrosion process by which the pipe. This is the corrosion
process by which the pipe gives up its material & develops a hole or a reduction in
thickness.
Sacrifi
ficial Anod
de
Norma
al Subsoiil Corrosion
Ever of there is no
o presence o
of Electric O
O.H. lines, o
or ‘Traction
n’ lines, anyy conductin
ng metal
buried in
i the ground gets corrroded by th
he similar p
phenomenaa. The subso
oil water wh
hich itself
is a ‘solu
ution’ of so
o many saltss, contains +ve and –vve ions. Thee presence of
o metal conductor
such as ‘pipe causees movements of theree ions and o
often the cu
urrent from
m pipe to gro
ound.
This cau
uses corrossion of the p
pipes which
h get electro
ostatically ccharged duee to friction
n between
pipe an
nd the fluid flowing thrrough it. Heence the saccrificial Ano
odes are reequired to be
b
provideed (Ref. fig
g. 6)
On-Lin
ne installlations
a) Testt Points: O
Once the system of app
plying imprressed curreent into gro
ound to keeep the
pipe at –ve potenttial, it is neccessary to ccheck the po
otential diffference bettween the pipe and
the grou
und at regu
ular intervalls, say at evvery 500 m. ‘Test poin
nts’ are instaalled close tto the
pipe. (s
se fig. 7) T.P. Box ind
dicating volttage betweeen ground aand the pip
pe. Ground sshould be
at least 1.5 v abovee pipe poten
ntial Volt-m
meter is carrried by the inspector aand the volttage
between
n Terminals inside thee T.P. Box is checked and
a recordeed.
b) Insu
ulating Fla
anges : If aany portion
n of the pipe is above g
ground, theen the samee has to
be ‘Elecctrically Iso
olated’ from
m the under ground porrtion. This is required
d so as to prrevent the
flow of any other ccurrents fro
om sources outside and
d also the p
path of leastt resistancee which
the currrent may fin
nd through
h above grou
und pipe reesting on steel or metaal supports.. (see
fig. 8 o
on next pa
age)
All insta
allations an
nd systems described iin section 5
5.10.1 to 5.10.6 from th
he Total Sysstem of
Cathodiic Protectio
on.
Additio
onal Infor
rmation o
on Cathod
dic Protecttion (C.P.)
1.Nece
essity of ca
athodic pr
rotection is establis
shed on fo
ollowing c
criteria
b) Soil rresistivity w
which deterrmines corrrosion level.
c) Impo
ortance of liine(s) to bee protected..
d) Stud
dy of stray currents i.e. induction from EHV//HV lines, rrail lines.
e) Dis-similar metals structures in the vicinity
a) Sacrificial
Sacrificial is adopted for less important object & remotely located objects where electric
supply is not available early. Zinc, Aluminium & Magnesium are used as anode material.
b) Impressed current
Impressed current system is used for important objects and is dependent on electric power
supply. Hi-silicon coast iron graphite are normally used as anode material for impressed
current system.
d) Reference cell/electrode
e) Backfill material
f) Cables.
Generally pipe lines which are buried, are buried, are coated and wrapped. This brings down
the current level (and potential level) which is required to be provided. Generally 10 mA/sq.
meter current criteria is used. For Pipe lines which are in sea water higher current upto 110
mA/sq. meter are used.
5. Following Data is necessary for engineering of C.P.
c) Material of construction
d) Type of coating.
Contin
nued to D
Design of C
Cross – Country
C Piipe Line - 2
Re
ead More
Recom
mmended
d For You
u
Fiberglaass Reinforceed Piping Sysstems Guide
Downloaad PDS Equiipment Modeelling Trainin
ng Guide
Engineerring Specificcation of Pipiing Design By Toyo Engin
neering
[PDF] D
Design Guidellines for Safeety in Piping Networks
Samsungg Piping Desiign Manual oof Pump Pip
ping
Piping Design
D Data B
Book by Hyu
undai
Design of C
Cross – Coun
ntry Pip
pe Line
e-2
Posted b
by Ankit Chug
gh on 10:08 A
AM0 Comments
Contin
nued from
m Design of Cross – Country
y Pipe Lin
ne - 1
Pipe Th
hickness : The thickness is calcculated in acccordance with
w the staandard metthods and
codes fo
or differentt services an
nd duty, inccluding duee corrosion allowance..
Ancho
or blocks aat change off direction, made of co
oncrete sho
ould be used
d to counterract the
effects o
of outward thrust due to change iin direction
n of fluid veelocity.
0 mm or
(b) 600
(c) as sttipulated fo
or specific rrequiremen
nt like workiing spacer for
f excavatiion/repairss,
restrictiions due to
o ROW spacce, adjacentt features liike road edg
ge, building
g etc.
Surge Effect : W
Whenever th
he valve at o
or near the rreceiving en
nd is shut-o
off, there may
m be
surge pressure effeect on the p
pipeline as w
well as Pum
mps/Valves at the supp
ply end. It iis
thereforre necessarry to decidee the time-p
period for vvalve closing
g with apprropriate
commu
unication beetween supp
plier and reeceiver. At times
t it maay be advisaable to intro
oduce a
surge taank or vesseel at both th
he ends. Th
his avoids th
he effects of
o ‘Fluid-Haammer in th
he
system..
Piping
g : When a m
multipurpo
ose pipelinee is used forr carrying d
different pro
oducts periiodically,
pigging
g has to be done
d in add
dition to flu
ushing and m
making thee line ready for new flu
uid.
WHILE
E DESIGNIN
NG THE PIIPE THICK
KNESS, THE
E FOLOWIING ADDIT
TIONAL FA
ACTORE
SHOUL
LD BE CON
NSIDERED SPECIFIC TO CROSS
S COUNTRY
Y PIPELIN
NES
PIPE-LINE supported on Brackets attached to a Road or Railway Bridge :
When a line runs along-side a bridge, the vibrations of the bridge due to Traffic Movement,
are also transmitted to the Pipe-line. It is necessary to estimate the vibration-levels
(frequency and Amplitudes) of the bridge. Generally these data will be available with the
respective authorities or designers of the bridge. We have to check and prevent the natural
frequencies of the pipe-line, matching with the exciting frequencies of the bridge, to avoid
resonance effects. It is advisable to provide lateral spring-loaded supports at random
intervals, to get damping effect and random frequencies. In case of railway-bridges, regular
patterns of vibrations are more probable when the train is passing.
As the line is exposed to out-side atmosphere, whenever it runs along the bridge-side,
thermal expansion and contraction take place due to Temperature variations. Generally a
long and wide loop is provided under the bridge as shown in fig. 10 structural behaviour of
short and long arms of the Loop will depend on the deflections and the stiffness of the arms.
Due analysis should be made to calculate the stresses induced in the pipe. Also note the
supporting arrangement of the pipe as shown in fig. 10. which has following main features.
§ The rollers are provided to allow free longitudinal movement of the pipe due to
expansion and contraction
§ Loose clamps are provided over pipe-line at intervals with 25 to 30mm gap allaround,
to prevent possibility of the line slipping off the supports due to long-length. (Long pipe-line
behaves like a flexible wire and when expanded, may tend to moveout from the supports.
Erection Stresses
The handling of pipes may induce local and excessive stresses in following conditions.
a) When cranes are used for lowering long lengths in position, local deformation/bending
may take place.
b) When pipe is pulled along the trench or through the sleeve laid across the road.
c) When the sub-marine portion of the line is gradually lowered from water level to below
the sea or river bed, it undergoes deformations at local points.
d) When long un-supported (un-back filled Trenches) lengths are hydrotested, the flexibility
of long lengths, sometimes causes vibrating movements on micro-scale and
are more predominant than in case of small in-plant piping. These have to be correctly
assessed or damped by intermediate Temporary and / or permenant supports, thrust
blocks, anchors, backfilled portions etc.
e) When the pipe-line crosses a Hillock, it goes up the inclined plane and from peak runs
down the slope. The up-going line is subjected to a sort of compression due its own weight
due to sliding tendency or tension due to pulling effect, down the plane. The stresses due to
any of these effects should be estimated and provided for.
CORROSION ALLOWANCE
In normal in-Plant piping, standard corrosion allowances are specified for various duties in
different design codes. Cross-Country pipe-lines run over a long distance and the leaks on
any account cannot be permitted. Hence extra corrosion allowance is specified for cross
country pipelines. In any case minimum of 3mm or as specified, whichever is greater, is
provided as corrosion allowance.
Design codes generally followed for cross-country piping (in addition to normal codes for all
piping)
§ API – 1104 for welding and related tests specifically on cross-country Gas and Oil
lines.
Generally, in non-hazardous fluid line, say water-lines. Breather valves (pressure and
Vacuums) are provided at he highest points, say on Bill-top, to prevent ‘Air-lock’ or to suck-
in Air in case vacuum or cavitation takes place. But in pipelines carrying Gas or Hydro-
carbon liquids like crude oil, refined oil, naptha, ethylene, propylene etc. No BRATHER
VALVE is PERMITED any where on the line. This is because the hazardous liquid cannot be
allowed to come out into the atmosphere and Air (which contains oxygen) cannot be allowed
to be sucked-in as the fluid may combine with atmospheric oxygen and catch fire. Anytime
the line is to be commissioned, the fluid to be carried is filled into the pipeline by first
passing the pig from supply end. There are no chances of Air-Lock. In this case.
SPECIFICATION FOR COATING AND WRAPPING OVER UNDERGROUND
PIPESß
2 REGULATION
3. LIMITATIONS
Coal-Tar enamel based coating-wrapping should withstand the liquids carried upto
Temperature of 60 deg C
The pipes already coated/wrapped should be carefully using special strap-type lifting
clamps to prevent concentrated loads and forming dents or depressions. The straps shall be
of flexible but strong and soft rubber sheet wide-enough to distribute the self weight of lifted
pipes within the intensity which coating/wrapping can withstand without getting damaged
or depressed.
ABSTRACT
Like the selection of pipe materials, coating materials for• protection of pipes vary
depending upon various factors. The paper summarizes the basic needs for selection of
coating material for the long in service life of gas and liquid transmission system.
INTRODUCTION
It is most important to recognise that the coating material by itself will not result in
optimum corrosion protection of the pipeline. A total pipeline protection system includes
consideration of steel quality, coating application, surface condition and treatments, design
of coating and Cathodic protection system.
Practical experience, as well as soil corrosion •studies has led to the conclusion that the
properties of soil are more important than the composition of metallic material in
determining the character and rate of corrosion. Soil corrosion tests are for this reason
concerned largely with determining the nature and predominance’s of the corrosive and
protective factors of those environments.
The elements of soil may be classified roughly as corrosive or accelerative and protective
or repressive. Relative concentration and composition of these two types of elements are
the determining factors for selection of pipe coating materials. The physical texture and
drainage of soils affects the concentration and availability of oxygen. Contact of soil
particles with metal surfaces gives rise to oxygen concentration cells and it is mainly by
means of the operation of cells of this type that metal corrodes in soils. Pores and holidays
and other imperfections comprise an important source of corrosion cells.
Abrasive cleaning of the pipe surfaces to a white or near white blast quality is not
sufficient for a good coating operation as ill effects of chloride contamination is not
removed by this process. It has been established that most harm is done by the
presence of ferrous salts which is not removed by abrasive cleaning process or by
high pressure water’ blasting. The steel surface energy plays a critical role for
accepting coating material A non contaminated steel surface has a surface energy
higher than 73 dynes/cm2.
In normal condition even after blast cleaning the surface energy of steel surfaces
varies from 45 to 50 dynes/cm2 . In order to have a good wet ability the coating material
should have a surface energy well below 45 dynes/cm2 (As per ASTM D
2578)., Another criteria for steel surface which is to be considered for selection of
coating material is its mixed surface potential (micro anodes arid cathode). In order
to overcome the surface anomaly it is necessary to treat the blast cleaned surface.
A chemically cleaned surface by removing the contaminants help wetting of the
coating effectively. Treatments with chromates and silicates or by using adhesion
promoter the surface potential of the steel surface can he made more uniform which reduces
the driving force between anode and cathode, increasing resistances to electron flow and
passivating the surface.
Adhesion:
Adhesion of the coating material is the most important factor while selecting a
proper material for steel pipes.
The adhesion is based on three mechanism~ mechanical polar and chemical adhesion.
Polar adhesion is most widely occurring mechanism of coatings. The bond strength depend
on the availability of polar sites on both the substrates and the coatings. Adhesion achieves
the highest value when polar groups are in close molecular proximity. A good wetting of the
coating satisfies this condition.
Though chemical adhesion gives the strongest bond, it is rarely used for protective
coatings of Pipe Lines, Chemical bond is achieved by functional groups on the substrate and
coating interacting chemically; This is focused for Pipe Lines other than steel. Adhesion is
extremely important against resistance to Cathodic disbondment. It has been found that the
effects of electrolytes particularly, if sodium and potassium ions are present, can be very
destructive in the interfacial bond under the Cathodic protection influence. This can lead to
ineffective Cathodic Protection.
Type of Coatings:
Coatings can be classified as organic and inorganic and in many cases a combination of the
two is used.
Coatings provide corrosion protection through passivation, barrier and sacrificial ways.
Most pipeline coatings are based on barrier concept. Three types of organic coatings are in
use for giving barrier properties Thermoplasts, Thermosets and Elastomers.
Thermoplast coatings are generally applied by hot melt technique and solvent evaporation
technique. Examples are Polyethylene, Polypropylene, Nylon, PVC, Coal Tar Enamel and
Asphalts. Common characteristics of these polymers are good mechanical properties and
resistance to moisture but sensitive to exposure to high temperature.
Thermosets costing are formed through cross linking induced chemicals by hear, chemicals
or radiation. Examples are Epoxy, Polyester, Phenolics which have generally good heat but
resistance but relatively poor in mechanical properties.
In selecting a coating material the nature of the soil corrosion and the soil movement are of
prime importance. Many materials pass the basic properties for the control of corrosion but
only a limited number meet the overall needs of pipeline protection.
Correct selection of the products most suitable for the required duty from the range
available is equally important taking into account the size of the pipeline, operating
temperature, comprehensive site survey information relating to soil condition including
resistivities, acidity, redox potential, presence of a sulphate reducing bacteria and the nature
of the terrain through which the pipeline, route passes.
In the design of corrosion protection system for a burned pipeline and its subsidiary
components, both coating and Cathodic protection system must be considered together.
As the coating for a pipeline is considered to be the primary method of corrosion control
then it is to be decided which coating should be used for most effective method of protection
in the environmental conditions appertaining along the total pipeline route. Essentially the
Sating material must be stable for the required length of service for the pipeline under
consideration and due regard must be given at th! planning stages to the choice of coating
that will meet all the conditions of service.
In addition the coating must be totally compatible with the micro environment surrounding
and with the Cathodic protection system.
Whatever may be the nature of the coating material, the effectiveness is corelated
with a number of technical characteristics which the protective coating must possess to a
satisfactory degree. These may be classified as follows:
2. Be resistant to the action of any micro-organism and bacterial degradation present in the
environment in which the pipeline is laid, both aerobic and anaerobic.
3. Be resistant to marine organism for submarine pipelines, coating should not be easily
penetrable by marine life such boners, barnacles.
5. Be highly impermeable to water and water vapour and shows negligible water absorption.
6. Be closely bonded to the metal, in order both to prevent the spreading of corrosion
under the coating in the case of local faults and to oppose the forming of moisture
containing pockets at the metal coating interface, due to parting by mechanical actions or
electrolytic effect of the cathodic protection.
7. Possess an adequate impact resistance, so as to allow the pipes to be transported
and handled without undue deterioration of the coating.
8. Be capable of withstanding the stresses induced by the soil in which the pipe is laid
and due to its physical and chemical nature and . resistance to considerable stress from soil
movement such as contraction by clay during prolonged dry spell.
9. Have a service life atleast as long as that expected of the pipe to be protected, retaining
unchanged its chemical & physical characteristics.
10. Suffer no alteration under the condition created by Cathodic protection (high
alkalinity, nascent hydrogen and nascent chlorine)
11. Be very easy to apply, avoiding the use of sophisticated technological processes,
complicated machinery and high cost, hard to replace skill labour.
Moreover, in the choice of coating two economic conditions will have to be made:
ease of application and repair and an acceptable overall cost. The matter will include the
cost of the coating material, of its application and repairs of any damage incurred in
transportation and handling.
Among the recent development of coating materials the hybrid system of Coal Tar Epoxy,
Coal Tar Polyurethane and rigid Polyurethane are in consideration. The hybrid system is
aimed to reduce the shortcoming of both the individual material without increasing cost.
Coal Tar Epoxy and Coal Tar Urethane are specially suitable for lower dia steel pipes below
12” where costly Fusion bonded Epoxy is mostly being used in some countries. Rigid PU
system can go to coat bigger dia pipes but it is costlier than Coal Tar Enamel which is
normally preferred material for pipes above 12” dia.
In FRE system also instead of using straight epoxy hybrid epoxy polyester system is under
study.This hybrid system improves the short comings of straight epoxy system viz impact
strength and mechanical resistance.