1.

Stress and Strain of

Mechanical materials (chap 6.2
Properties p225)
2. Hardness of materials
of Materials (chap 6.4 p239)
Chapter 6 and 7 3. Fracture of materials
Mc Graw Hill (chap 7.1 p283)
4. Fatigue of materials
(chap 7.2 p293)
5. Creep of materials (chap
7.4 p 306)
Mechanical Properties
Strength
These properties
Hardness
are described in
Toughness terms of the types of
force or stress that
Elasticity and plasticity
the metal must
Brittleness withstand and
resisted.
Ductility and malleability
 This is the ability of a material to withstand
shatter. A material which easily shatters is
Toughness
brittle. Toughness indicates the ability of a
material to absorb energy
The ability of a material to stretch under the
application of tensile load and retain the
deformed shape on the removal of the load.
Ductility A ductile material combines the properties of
plasticity and tensile strength. All materials
which are formed by drawing are required to
be ductile
 This is the property of a material to deform
permanently under the application of a load.
Plasticity Plastacine is plastic. This is the exact opposite to
elasticity.
This is the ability of a material to deform under
load and return to its original size and shape
Elasticity
when the load is removed. The property is
required for springs.

This is the property of a material to deform

permanently under the application of a
compressive load. A material which is forged to
Malleabili
its final shape is required to be malleable.
ty
Copper is malleable, because it can be beaten
and shaped easily.
 Hardness is a measure of the resistance of a
metal to permanent (plastic) deformation.
Hardness This is the property of a material to withstand
(p239 indentation and surface abrasion (scratch) by
McGraw another hard object.
Hills) It is an indication of the wear resistance of a material. The
harder the material, the greater the wear resistance. e.g
Diamonds are very hard.
Methods of testing (By indentation –
depth or size of indentation)

Rockwell, Vickers, Knoop or Brinell

Rockwell is the one most frequently

used.

In Rockwell test, a hard material

penetrate a softer one and the amount
of penetration is compared to a scale.
The Vickers test (table 6.2 p 241)
- easier to use than other hardness tests
- required calculations are independent of the size of the indenter
- indenter can be used for all materials irrespective of hardness.

The Knoop hardness test

A microhardness test - used particularly for very brittle materials
or thin sheets, where only a small indentation may be made for
testing purposes.

Methods of testing (By scratch)

The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of
one natural sample of matter to scratch another. The samples of
matter used by Mohs are all minerals.
Brinell / Rockwell hardness test (p241)
For ferrous metals, which are usually harder than nonferrous
metals, a diamond tip is used and the hardness is indicated
by a Rockwell "C" number.
On nonferrous metals, that are softer, a metal ball is used
and the hardness is indicated by a Rockwell "B" number.

Hardness of lead as compared to steel. Lead can be

scratched with a pointed wooden stick but steel cannot
because it is harder than lead.
 Typical Hardness Values for Common Materials

Microhardness – test of hardness

with load not exceeding 1 kgf
 Press the indenter that
is harder than the metal
Advantages of Into metal surface.
performing hardness
test:
Withdraw the indenter
1. Hardness test is
simple and inexpensive
2. The test is Measure hardness by
measuring depth or
nondestructive
width of indentation.
3. Provide estimation
for other mechanical
properties such as
tensile strength
Stress and Strain (p225 McGraw Hill)
stress is the cause strain is the effect

Stress (σ) is define as force acting on the unit area over

which force is applied
, F= applied force
σ = F/A A = original cross section area

and is typically expressed in psi (pounds per square inch) or Pa

(Pascals)

Strain (ε ) is defined as the change in dimension per unit

length: Io = original distance between gage mark
I
ε= I = change in length after F is applied
Io
Strain has no dimensions and is often expressed as
inch/inch or cm/cm
 F (Average uniaxial tensile force)
Engineering stress σ =
A0 (Original cross-sectional area)

Units of Stress are PSI or N/M2 (Pascals)

A0 Δl
1 PSI = 6.89 x 103 Pa
 Change in length
0 Engineering strain = ε =
Original length
0
A   0 
 
0 
Units of strain are in/in or m/m.

13
 Tensile test
• Strength of materials can be tested by pulling the
metal to failure.

Load Cell

Specimen
Extensometer

Force data is obtained from Load cell

Strain data is obtained from Extensometer.
 In many materials, elastic stress and elastic strain (fully
recoverable strain) are linearly related.

The slope of a tensile stress-strain

curve in the linear regime define the
Young’s Modulus or Modulus of
elasticity (E) of a material (Hooks Law)
–page 233

stress 
E  Elastic material
strain 

the higher the Examples:

modulus of elasticity, Modulus of Elasticity of steel is 207
bonding strength Gpa.
increases – Table 6.1 Modulus of elasticity of Aluminum is 76
p229 Gpa
Nonlinear
material –
plastic

Fracture
 Types of stress
Compression
Compressive Strength This is the ability of
a material to withstand Compressive
(squeezing) loads without being crushed when
the material is in compression
Compression stresses develop within a
material when forces compress or crush the
material.
Tension
Tensile Strength This is the ability of a
material to withstand tensile loads without
rupture when the material is in tension
Tension (or tensile) stresses develop when a
material is subject to a pulling load. Example,
when using a wire rope to lift a load.
Shear

Shear Strength This is the ability of a

material to withstand offset or
traverse loads without rupture
occurring .

Shearing stresses occur within a

material when external forces are
applied along parallel lines in
opposite directions.

Torsion
Shearing stresses occur within a
material due to an applied torque
(force that twist an object)
Thermoplastic
• Metals undergo deformation under uniaxial tensile
force.

• Elastic deformation: Metal

returns to its original
dimension after tensile
force is removed.

• Plastic deformation: The

metal is deformed to
such an extent such
that it cannot return
to its original dimension
  of polymer ca. 10% that of metals

brittle polymer

plastic
elastomer
Plastic deformation

elastic modulus
All elastic
– less than metal
deformation
Time dependency and permanency of materials:

Type of Time Permanency

deformation dependency
Elastic independent Non-
permanent
Anelastic dependent Non-
(for metallic) permanent
Viscoelastic Instantaneous Some
(for polymer) and recovery but
dependent not total
Plastic Not applicable permanent
 More ductile the metal is, more
is the necking before failure.

Permanent
deformation
No permanent
deformation
1-2 or a combination of the stresses, resulted in fatigue.

Fatigue Strength

This is the property of a material to withstand continuously

varying and alternating loads

Fatigue = failure under repeated and constant stress.

causes ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures
Fracture mechanisms in materials
A piece of material subjected to uniaxial tensile force,
resulted in deformation.
Two types of deformation:
1.Plastic deformation
2.Elastic deformation

Brittle
– Occurs with little or no plastic deformation.
Catastrophic if resulted in fracture (extensively
plastically deformed)
Ductile
– Occurs with plastic deformation. Metals can only
undergo small amount of elastic deformation unlike
elastomers.
 Ductile vs Brittle Failure
• Classification:
Fracture Very Moderately
Brittle
behavior: Ductile Ductile

%EL (elongation) Large Moderate Small

Ductile Ductile: Brittle:
fracture is usually warning before No
desirable! fracture warning
 Example: Failure of a Pipe
• Ductile failure:
--one piece
--large deformation

• Brittle failure:
--many pieces
--small deformation
 Moderately Ductile Failure
• Evolution to failure:
void void growth shearing
necking and linkage fracture
nucleation at surface


• Resulting 50
50mm
mm
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
100 mm
particles
serve as void Fracture surface of
nucleation tire cord wire loaded
sites. in tension.
 Ductile vs. Brittle Failure

cup-and-cone fracture brittle fracture

Creep
Applying stress to a material at elevated temperature caused
the material to stretch and eventually fail. A time dependent
permanent deformation under a constant load or constant
stress and at high temperature is known as “creep”.
A large number of components failure at high temperature is
due to creep or a combination of creep and fatigue.
Example :
A titanium pipe used to transport a corrosive material at 400oC is found to
fail after several months. What is the cause for the failure?
Run microscopic examination on the material near the fracture surface,
tiny branched cracks leading away from the surface showed that stress
related failure. However if many voids (due to high T) are visible among
elongated grains near fracture surface, this shows creep related failure.
 ,

0 t

Primary Creep: slope (creep rate)

decreases with time.
Secondary Creep: steady-state
i.e., constant slope.
Tertiary Creep: slope (creep rate)
increases with time, i.e. acceleration of rate.
 Questions example
a) The strength of ceramic (engineering) is higher than
metal, however ceramic does not absorb stress as good
as metal. Explain.

b) What is materials hardness and how it is generally

tested? Compare the hardness of metals, ceramic and
polymer.

c) Place these materials in the order of increasing modulus

of elasticity? Aluminum, diamond, steel, copper. Explain
your answer.

d) If a material is very elastic, it will easily fracture as it’s

very brittle. True or False and justify your answer.
a) Strength of ceramic higher because of its ionic bonding
which is stronger than metallic bonding. However, ionic
bonding very rigid and does not permit slip under stress.

b) Hardness of materials is defined as its resistance to

permanent indentation, scratching and wear.
The test is the measure of indentation depth under load.
Hardness in engineeering ceramic>metal>polymer

c) Modulus of elasticity = . Modulas of elasticity is measured

at linear part of the stress vs strain graph.
Higher value of modulas of elasticity means the materials are
stiff, and have plasticity nature (high stress but low strain).
Materials that are elastic in nature (such as rubber) will have
low value of modulas of elasticity (small stress gives to high
strain). Diamond>steel>copper>aluminum

d) False