Vol.4, No.

9B, 76-80 (2013) Agricultural Sciences

http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/as.2013.49B013

Insect oil and protein: Biochemistry, food and other

uses: Review
Abdalbasit Adam Mariod
College of Sciences and Arts-Alkamil, King Abdulaziz University, P.O BOX 110, ALKAMIL 21931 Alkamil, KSA;
[email protected], [email protected]

Received August 2013

ABSTRACT gelatin showed the finer structure with smaller

protein strands and voids than sorghum bug ge-
In searching for new sources of oil, protein and latin. Ice cream was made by using 0.5% insect’s
gelatin researchers have investigated many wild gelatine and compared with that made using
plants, but our research group took a different 0.5% commercial gelatine as stabilizing agent.
approach: We looked at insects as oil, protein The properties of the obtained ice cream pro-
and gelatin source for both nutritional and in- duced using insects gelatine were found to be
dustrial applications. According to Sudanese acceptable for the panelists, and no significant
indigenous knowledge, many insects have food differences between ice cream made using in-
and medicinal uses. We targeted two of these sect gelatine when compared with that made
insects for our research: Aspongopus vidiuatus using commercial gelatine in their general pre-
(melon bug) and Agonoscelis pubescens (sorg- ferences The behavior of the crude Sorghum
hum bug). The two insects showed 27.0% and bug oil during deep-frying of par-fried potatoes
28.2% crude protein, 45% and 60% oil, respec- was studied with regard to chemical, physical,
tively. The oils contained 46.5% and 40.9% oleic and sensory parameters, such as the content of
acid, 3.4% and 34.5% linoleic acid, 44.2% and FFA, tocopherols, polar compounds, oligomer TG,
12.1% palmitic acid and traces of linolenic acid, volatile compounds, oxidative stability, and total
respectively. The tocopherol content of these oils oxidation (TOTOX) value. The results showed that
amounted to 0.3 and 34.0 mg/100g oil, respec- the oil was suitable for deep-frying of potatoes.
tively. The total content of sterols in the two oils The oxidative stability of sunflower kernel oil
was 17 and 450 mg/100g oil, respectively, whe- was improved by blending with melon bug oil,
reas β-sitosterol was determined as the main the oxidative stability in the Rancimat test was
compound in all oils with about 60% of the total improved from 5% to 68% compared to the con-
sterol. The oxidative stability of the oils, as meas- trol, with increasing parts of MBO, respectively.
ured by the Rancimat test at 120˚C, was 38 and The insect oils were transesterified using me-
5.1 h, respectively. Edible gelatin was extracted thanol or ethanol in the presence of sulfuric acid
from the two insect using hot water and mild to obtain biodiesel. The obtained insect biodiesel
acid and distilled water. SDS-PAGE patterns of characteristics were studied in accordance with
the insect gelatins had very low molecular weight the DIN EN 14214 specifications for biodiesel. It
chains, and the two gelatins contained 40 kDa as was possible to prepare the methyl and ethyl
main component, differential scanning calorime- esters catalyzed by H2SO4 from the two insect
try results confirmed the difference between ex- oils.
traction methods concerning the extracted gela-
tin quality. FTIR spectra of melon and sorghum Keywords: Agonoscelis pubescens; Aspongopus
bug gelatins were similar and the absorption vidiuatus; Insects; Biochemistry; Food; Biodeisel;
bands were situated in more than 6 bands in Melon Bug; Sorghum Bug
melon bug gelatin and only 6 bands in sorghum
bug gelatin. Microstructures of the insect gelatin
examined with the scanning electron microscope
1. INTRODUCTION
showed that melon bug exhibited the finest ge- Grasshoppers, caterpillars, beetles, winged termites, bees,
latin network with very small voids. Melon bug wasps and a variety of aquatic insects are used somewhere

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 A. A. Mariod / Agricultural Sciences 4 (2013) 76-80 77

in the world as human food. Beetles, termites, caterpil- appreciable amounts of the essential fatty acids. Oils
lars, grasshoppers, crickets, bees, maggots and butterflies extracted from plants have been used since ancient times
are considered significant sources of food in Africa, with and in many cultures. Mariod et al. [7] exclusively in-
varying levels of proteins, fat, minerals and vitamins [1]. vestigated the oil from melon and sorghum bugs for their
During the past few years, there has been a new up- oil content and fatty acids. The oil content of melon and
surge of interest in insects as food. One factor that may sorghum bugs was very high which was amounted to 45%
be responsible is an increasing awareness in the western and 60% (dry matter), respectively. The major fatty acids
world that insects are traditionally and nutritionally im- of the two oils were palmitic, stearic, oleic and linoleic
portant foods for many non-western cultures (Foliart, 1992). acids. Compared with oils from cottonseed, peanut, se-
Mariod et al. [2] has reported that insects could be an same and sunflower seeds insect oils showed similar
important source of edible oil, protein, and gelatin, while amounts of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.
Zhou and Han [3] mentioned that insect’s proteins are of The fatty acid composition determined by gas chro-
good quality and high digestibility. matography in A. viduatus and A. pubescens oils is oleic
Many vegetable oils are consumed directly, or indirectly (45.53% and 41.15%), linoleic (4.90% and 35.21%) and
as ingredients in food, they serve a number of purposes palmitic (31.33% and 11.41%) acid, with 37.9% and
in texture, flavor and flavor base. Oils can be heated and 20.5% of saturated fatty acids, respectively [2]. For in-
used to cook other foods. Oils suitable for this objective stance the amounts of saturated and unsaturated fatty
must have a high flash point. Such oils include the major acids they contain are comparable with those of oils com-
cooking oils—soybean, canola, sunflower, safflower, pea- monly used in Sudan, such as sesame, groundnut, sun-
nut, cottonseed, etc. Tropical oils, such as coconut, palm, flower, and cottonseed [8].
and rice bran oils, are particularly valued in Asian cul- Aspongubus viduatus and A. pubescens have 37.9%
tures for high temperature cooking, because of their un- and 20.5% of saturated fatty acids (SFA), 56.8% and
usually high flash point [4] 43.0% of monounsaturated fatty acids and 5.3% and
(http://www.stonepages.com/news/archives/001708.html). 36.5% of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), respec-
According to their indigenous knowledge, Sudanese tively. The balanced ingestion of foods containing PU-
used many insects as food and medicine. In searching for FAs reduces cardiovascular disorders. The PUFA: SFA
new sources of oils, our research group has investigated ratio in the oil of A. viduatus is relatively lower (about
two insects: Aspongopus vidiuatus (Malone bug) and 0.14), while it is relatively high (about 1.78) in the case
Agonoscelis pubescens (sorghum bug). The group fo- of A. pubescens. This ratio is recommended to be 0.45
cused on insects as an oil source for both nutritional and for a healthy diet; so A. viduatus oil seems to be healthier
industrial applications [5]. than that of A. pubescens. In addition, the two insect oils
The melon bug is an insect belonging to family Penta- have a n-6/n-3 fatty acids ratio (10.8 and 27.5 for A. vi-
tomidae, is about 20 mm long. It is found in most African duatus and A. pubescens, respectively) that should be
countries, where it causes damage to watermelon and smaller than 4.0 as suggested by the UK Department of
other cucurbit shoots. The adult bugs can usually be Health [2].
found by lifting the young melon plants from the ground The low amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids such
and inspecting the undersides of the leaves. The nymphs as linoleic and linolenic acid in insect oils give them high
pierce the leaves, stems, and young fruits and suck the oxidative stability. The fatty acid composition has a much
sap, resulting in wilting, fruit drop, and the death of the higher influence on the stability of these oils than the
plant can be collected in infested fields [6]. minor components of antioxidants present in the oil.
The sorghum bug commonly known in Sudan as Dura Blending sunflower oil with melon bug oil resulted in
andat is belong to family Pentatomidae, shield-shaped, an increase of oleic and a decrease of linoleic acid and
about 11 - 13 mm long, and 6 - 7 mm wide. Both the improved the oxidative stability of sunflower oil. This
upper- and undersides of its body are covered with a fine stability increased with an increase of the percentage of
silvery pubescence after which it is named (Agonoscelis melon bug oil in blends [9]. When melon and sorghum
pubescens). In Sudan, the adults infest sorghum during bug oils stored at 30˚C ± 2˚C in the dark for 24 months,
the plant’s milky stage. In some areas of Sudan, the col- their fatty acid compositions remained almost unaltered.
lected bugs are pressed, and the expressed oil is used for The two oils showed slight changes in their oxidative
cooking and some medicinal purposes [7]. stability as indicated by the peroxide value (PV), and
when this stability was measured by Rancimat method as
2. BIOCHEMISTRY OF INSECT OIL an induction period, melon bug oil showed a slight de-
crease with loss of 10% of its induction period during
2.1. Fatty Acids
two years of storage. Sorghum bug oil showed a gradual
Edible oils are of nutritional value since they contain increase in the PV and a gradual loss of stability as

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78 A. A. Mariod / Agricultural Sciences 4 (2013) 76-80

measured by induction period IP during storage [9]. respectively, on a dry-matter basis). The total amino ac-
No change in the fatty acid composition of insect oils ids were 360.5 and 268.8 mg/g crude protein, respective-
was observed during processing using laboratory refining ly, which was less than the 864.2 mg/g crude protein in
equipment [10]. chicken egg that is considered as a main protein source
in the human diet [2].
2.2. Tocopherols and Sterols
3.2. Gelatin
The tocopherol content of foods is important to protect
food lipids against autoxidation and, thereby to increase Gelatine is a product obtained by the partial hydrolysis
their storage life and their value as wholesome foods [11]. of collagen derived from the skin, white connective tis-
Acting as chain-breaking antioxidants, tocopherols react sue and bones of animals. It is a gelling protein, which
with lipid radicals to convert them into more stable has widely been applied in the food and pharmaceutical
products (Wagner and Elmadfa, 1999). The sorghum bug industries. Most of commercial gelatine (95%) is made
oil had higher amounts of tocopherol content (Table 1) from hide of porcine and bovine and the remaining part
which was 34.0 mg/100g while melon bug oil had low (5%) comes from bones of porcine and bovine [13]. The
amounts of tocopherols about 0.30 mg/100g, respective- study of gelatine from fish by-products, such as skin and
ly. bone (Gudmundsson, 2002) and from insects of melon
The amount of sterols (Table 1) in the oils ranged and sorghum bugs [14] has increased for the replacement
from 17.5 (MBO) to 449.9 mg/100g (SBO) as general of mammalian resources.
saying the amounts of both tocopherols and sterols of Gelatin was extracted from the dried adult insects us-
insects oil were lower than most edible oils. ing hot, distilled water and mild acid. Extraction of insect
gelatin using hot water gave high yield (3.0%) followed
3. BIOCHEMSITRY OF INSECT PROTEIN by mild acid and distilled water (2.5% and 0.66%) ex-
traction, respectively. SDS-PAGE pattern showed low
3.1. Protein
molecular weight chains, and the two gelatins contained
The protein concentrations of Aspongubus viduatus protein with molecular weight of 40 kDa as main com-
and A. pubescens were reported to 27.0% and 28.2%, ponent. The differential scanning calorimetry thermo-
grams results confirm no difference between extraction
Table 1. Tocopherol and Sterol Content (mg/100g oil) of two methods concerning the extracted gelatin quality. FTIR
Insects Oil*. spectra of melon and sorghum bug gelatins were similar
Type of tocopherol Melon bug oil (MBO) Sorghum bug oil (SBO) and the absorption bands were situated in more than 6
bands in melon bug gelatin and only 6 bands in sorghum
α-T 0.17 0.88
bug gelatin. Amide II bands of gelatins from both melon
β-T 0.00 0.00 and sorghum bug appeared at around 1554 cm−1, while
γ-T 0.13 32.16 Amide I bands (1734 - 1632 cm−1) appeared only in me-
lon bug method 2 (MB2) and melon bug method3 (MB3)
P8 0.00 0.21
[14].
δ-T 0.00 0.78 Microstructures of the insect gelatin examined with
Total 0.30 34.03 the scanning electron microscope showed that melon bug
Type of sterol exhibited the finest gelatin network with very small voids.
Melon bug gelatin showed finer structure with smaller
Cholesterol 1.4 2.2
protein strands and voids than sorghum bug gelatin [14].
Campesterol 1.8 11.6
Stigmasterol 0.8 25.4 4. FOOD USES OF INSECTS
ß-sitosterol 10.6 268.8 In Mexico about seventy eight edible insect species are
∆5-avenasterol 0.5 16.3 used as food, the nutrient composition of these species
were reported and the protein content was found ranging
∆7-avenasterol 0.0 1.6
from 15% to 81%, fat content from 4.2% to 77.2%, with
∆7-stigmasterol 0.9 2.8 carbohydrates up to 77.7% on a dry-matter basis [15].
*
Others 1.5 121.2 Seventeen species of edible insects representing nine
Total 17.5 449.9
families were analyzed for their nutrient composition.
* *
These insect species constitute a significant component
Data are means of triplicate results. Others include 24-methylcholesterol,
campestanol, chlerosterol, sitostanol, 5,24-stigmastadienol. Source: rede-
of diet among the people of southwestern Nigeria [16].
signed from Mariod et al. [12]. These insects were found contained high crude protein

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 A. A. Mariod / Agricultural Sciences 4 (2013) 76-80 79

(27% - 30%). In Thailand, over 50 species of insects are in Indiana.

edible and can be consumed throughout the year; these http://www.stonepages.com/news/archives/001708.html
include silk worm pupae, bamboo caterpillars, locusts, [5] Mariod, A.A. (2011) Insects: New source of oil nutrition-
beetles and crickets [17]. al and industrial applications. INFORM, 22, 261-320.
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bug oils were suitable for deep-frying only for 6 to 12 h. acid, tocopherol and sterol composition as well as oxida-
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a laboratory refining experiments their phosphatide, pe- (2009) Study of fatty acids, tocopherol, sterols, phenolic
roxide, tocopherol, and sterol contents as well as oxida- compounds and oxidative stability of three unconven-
tional oils in comparison with four conventional ones.
tive stability fell during refining process, while their free Arab Journal for Food & Nutrition, 23, 50-55.
fatty acids were almost totally removed. The amounts of
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total volatiles as well as the amounts of hexanal were (2005) Improving the oxidative stability of sunflower oil
decreased during the different processing steps. The color by blending with Sclerocarya birrea and Aspongopus
decreased throughout the processing steps up to bleaching, viduatus oils. Journal of Food Lipids, 12, 150-158.
then in the deodorization step it darkened sharply in all http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4522.2005.00013.x
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tions (water content, iodine number, phosphorus). How- (2007) Fatty acids composition, oxidative stability and
transesterification of lipids recovered from melon and
ever, the kinematic viscosity values of all samples were
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can be reduced by blending with other low-viscosity bio-
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diesels [19]. Jang, D.H., Lee, Y.B. and Kim, S.B. (2005) Processing
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