A Romp Tour of Trigonometry Romp
A Romp Tour of Trigonometry Romp
A Romp Tour of Trigonometry Romp
Trigonometry (Sample)
Charles Rambo
Preface
Escondido, California
Charles Rambo
August 2018
Contents
i
7 Using Identities 99
7.1 Sum and Difference Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.1.1 Proof of Theorem 7.1 (ii) . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.2 Other Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.2.1 The Cofunction Identities . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.2.2 Double Angle Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7.2.3 Half Angle Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7.2.4 Product to Sum and Difference Identities . . 118
7.3 Verifying Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Appendices 129
F Answers 139
F.1 Right Triangle Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
F.2 Trigonometry of General Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
F.3 Graphing Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . 146
F.4 Using Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
ii
Chapter 4
Right Triangle
Trigonometry
respectively.
1
For the time being, we will rely on our calculators, instead of a
definition, for the correspondence between angle measures and the
outputs of each trigonometric function.
Solution Make sure your calculate is set to degree mode when you
evaluate.
Our next theorem, Theorem 4.1, is very powerful because it relates
the values obtained from evaluation of trigonometric functions to
ratios of a right triangle’s side lengths. As a result of Theorem 4.1,
when given a side length and an angle measure of a right triangle,
we can find the other two side lengths using only a bit of algebra.
B
•
c a
• •
A b C
2
Theorem 4.1 For any 4ABC where ∠C is right, the following
trigonometric ratios hold.
a b
sin A = and sin B =
c c
b a
cos A = cos B =
c c
a b
tan A = tan B = .
b a
Q
15◦ r •
p
• •
P 25 R
Example 4.2 Find the lengths of the remaining sides of the tri-
angle.
3
Notice that we could have used tangent to find r, but that would
require the value of p which we had previously found. This is a
mathematically legitimate strategy. However, using p to find r
would result in a less accurate value of r, due to rounding error.
We recommend using the given information as much as possible.
X
•
56◦
y z
• •
Z 3 Y
All that is left is to find z. We know the length of the side oppo-
site ∠X, and we want to find the hypotenuse. The trigonometric
function which relates these sides is sine. In particular,
3 3
sin 56◦ = implies z = ≈ 3.619.
z sin 56◦
4
Y
•
70◦
z
15
• •
X y Z
Example 4.4 Find (a) the area and (b) the perimeter of 4XY Z.
Solution
(a) Recall that the area of a triangle is
1
bh,
2
where b is the base and h is the height. If we treat x as the
length of the height, then y is the length of the base. As
result, our task is to find y. Notice
y
tan 70◦ = implies y = 15 tan 70◦ .
15
5
U
•
30◦ 50◦
• • •
T 20 W u V
Since U V = U V , we have
6
Because there is a correspondence between radian measures and
degree measures, evaluation of trigonometric functions at radian
measures makes sense. The value of a trigonometric function at
a radian measure is simply equal to the trigonometric function
evaluated at the corresponding degree measure.
As a practical matter, evaluation of trigonometric functions at ra-
dian measures is simply a matter of adjusting your calculator to
the correct mode.
Solution
π π
(a) sin ≈ 0.588 (c) 5 tan ≈ 1.468
5 11
3π
(b) 12 cos ≈ 2.670 (d) sin 1 ≈ 0.841
7
In Example 6 (d), there was no π in the expression. However, we
know that we are evaluating a radian measure because there is no
degree symbol.
In general, we advise readers to be mindful of the units. Using the
incorrect setting changes the output. For example,
7
4.1.1 Trigonometric Functions and Special Right
Triangles
We can use special right triangles to find the exact values of our
three trigonometric functions evaluated at 30◦ , 45◦ , and 60◦ .
Proposition 4.1
Proof We will prove the first column, and leave the rest as exer-
cises. Consider the 30◦ -60◦ -90◦ special right triangle.
2t 60◦
t
30◦
√
t 3
Then
√
t t 3 t
sin 30◦ = , cos 30◦ = , and tan 30◦ = √
2t 2t t 3
√ √
1 3 1 3
= = =√ ·√
2 2 3 3
√
3
= .
3
8
This leads us to make a corresponding radian version of Proposition
4.1.
Proposition 4.2
π π π
θ
6 4 3
√ √
1 2 3
sin θ
2 2 2
√ √
3 2 1
cos θ
2 2 2
√
3 √
tan θ 1 3
3
9
denote these functions evaluated at x, we write
respectively.
We will introduce a partial definition of arc sine, arc cosine, and
arc tangent here. A more robust definition is contained in Chapter
??.
1 (c) arctan 2
(a) arcsin
2
2
(b) arccos 5 (d) cos−1
3
10
Solution
1
(a) arcsin = 30◦
2
(b) arccos 5 is undefined because 5 is not in the interval [−1, 1].
(c) arctan 2 ≈ 63.435◦
2
(d) cos−1 ≈ 48.190◦
3
Solution
(a) sin−1 7 is undefined because 7 is no in the interval [−1, 1].
2
(b) arccos ≈ 1.159 rad
5
√
(c) tan−1 3 ≈ 1.047 rad
6
(d) arcsin ≈ 0.577 rad
11
Solution We will utilize Definition 4.1 for (a), (b), and (c).
(a) Because sin x = 0.7, we have x = arcsin 0.7 ≈ 44.427◦ .
(b) Due to the fact that cos y = 8/11, the definition of arc cosine
tells us y = arccos (8/11) ≈ 43.342◦ .
(c) Since tan z = 3, we conclude z = arctan 3 ≈ 71.565◦ .
11
Problems like those in Example 10 could require radian measures
as well. However, the only change in procedure is to convert your
calculator to radian mode.
Example 4.11 Let cos A = 5/7. Find the radian measure of ∠A.
Y
•
2.5
• •
X 4 Z
12
Q
•
√
2 5
27◦
• • •
R 1.5 S P
Solution Once we find QS, we can use arc tangent to find m∠R.
We know √
QS = 2 5 sin 27◦ ≈ 2.030.
It follows that
2.030 2.030
tan R = implies m∠R ≈ arctan ≈ 53.543◦ .
1.5 1.5
Definition 4.2
• An angle of depression is formed by a horizontal ray and
another ray below it.
• An angle of elevation is formed by a horizontal ray and
another ray above it.
13
In the diagram on page 13, α is an angle of depression and β is an
angle of elevation.
Example 4.14 A man is standing 500 feet away from a tall build-
ing. If the angle of elevation to the top of the build from his
perspective is 63◦ , how tall is the building?
63◦
500 ft
14
Example 4.15 A canoe is tethered to the floor of a dock by a rope
of length 1.5 meters. The canoe is 1 meter below the floor of the
dock. Calculate the angle of depression of the rope.
θ
1.5 m
1m
Example 4.16 Tom, Jim, and Gwen are hiking in a steep canyon
195 meters deep. Tom is just starting, Jim has been hiking for
awhile but has not reached the bottom, and Gwen is already at
the bottom. Tom looks down at an angle of depression of 45◦ to
see Jim. Gwen looks up to see Jim at an angle of elevation of 58◦ .
What is Jim’s vertical distance from Tom, if Tom and Gwen are
a horizontal distance of 150 meters apart and Jim is horizontally
between Gwen and Tom?
15
Tom
45◦
y
Jim
195 m
Gwen 58◦
150 m
16
us the following triangle.
Jim
•
195 − y
58◦
Gwen •
150 − y
17
4.4 Exercises
* Exercise 1 * Exercise 3
Consider Figure 1. Suppose a =
Evaluate. Round to three deci-
3, b = 4, and c = 5. Find the
mal places.
following.
(a) tan 47◦ (d) 5 cos 42◦ (a) cos B (d) sin A
(c) sin 83◦ (f) 4 cos 15◦ (c) sin B (f) cos A
* Exercise 4
* Exercise 2
Repeat Exercise 3, but
√ assume
a = 2, b = 3, and c = 13.
Evaluate. Round to three deci-
mal places.
* Exercise 5
8π (d) tan 1.5 In Figure 1, say m∠A = 34◦ .
(a) sin
9 Use a calculator and the given
π 7π side length to find the length of
(b) tan (e) 2 sin
7 9 the remaining two sides.
3π
(c) 4 cos (f) 5 cos 0.2 (a) a = 7 (c) c = 20
10 √
(b) b = 11 (d) a = 7
* Exercise 6
B
• Consider Figure 1. Suppose
m∠B = 50◦ . Use a calculator
c and the given side length to find
a
the length of the remaining two
sides.
• •
A b C
Figure 1 (a) a = 18 (c) c = 102
7
(b) b = 5 (d) b =
5
18
** Exercise 7 BC is parallel to EG. What are
each of the following?
Use Figure 1 and the given infor-
mation to find (i) the area and (a) DG (c) EF
(ii) the perimeter of of 4ABC.
(b) DH (d) DE
(a) Suppose m∠A = 25◦ and
c = 19.
(b) Assume m∠B = 40◦ and
a = 25.
(c) Say m∠A = 35◦ and a =
10.
•G
H• •B
Figure 3
D•
•F *** Exercise 10
• • •
A E C
Figure 2 In Figure 3, suppose the radius
of the large circle is 12, and the
five gray circles have the same
** Exercise 8 radius. Find the total area of
the gray circles. Hint: Tangent
In Figure 2, assume m∠A = lines of circles are perpendicular
40◦ , DE = 2, DF = DH, and to radii at points of tangency.
BC is parallel to EG. Find each
of the following.
(a) DF (c) GH
(b) EF (d) DG
** Exercise 9
19
*** Exercise 11
T
Consider Figure 4. Say the ra- •
dius of the large circle is 10, and
the radii of the nine gray circles
are equal. Calculate the ratio of
the gray area to the white area.
Hint: Tangent lines of circles are • • •
U V S
perpendicular to radii at points
of tangency. Figure 5
* Exercise 12
*** Exercise 15
Find the exact value. In Figure 5, let m∠U = 40◦ and
m∠SV T = 63◦ .
(a) sin 60◦ (d) cos 30◦ (a) What is U V if SV = 5?
◦ ◦
(b) cos 45 (e) sin 30 (b) Say ST = 12. Find U V .
(c) tan 30◦ (f) tan 60◦ (c) Assume T U = 21. What
is T V ?
(d) Find ST supposing U V =
* Exercise 13
8.
20
(c) Let WX = 80,
X
•
W
• m∠Y XZ = 28◦ , and
m∠V W Z = 41◦ . Then
the length XY is what?
(d) Suppose the area of
• • • 4XY Z is 4.807. If
Y Z V m∠Y XZ = 31◦ and
Figure 6 m∠XW Z = 44◦ , calcu-
late the area of 4W XZ.
*** Exercise 17
Consider Figure 6. Sup- D
•
pose m∠V W Z = 40◦ and
m∠Y XZ = 27◦ E
•
(a) Assume W X = 15. Then
XZ is equal to what? •C
(b) Find V Y when XY = 10.
(c) Let the area of 4V W Z be 15◦
33.984. What is the area
of 4XY Z? 30◦
• •
(d) Suppose the area of rect- A B
angle V W XY is 113.962. Figure 7
Calculate the length W Z.
21
* Exercise 20 * Exercise 23
Find the degree measure. Some
expressions are undefined. Compute the radian measure of
β. Assume that β is an acute
(a) arcsin 0.2 (d) sin−1 4 angle.
r
−1 1 (e) arccos 0.25 √
(b) cos 2
7 (a) sin β =
−1 1 5
(c) arctan 5 (f) tan
3
5
(b) cos β = √
* Exercise 21 3 7
22
√
* Exercise 25 • tan γ =
3
.
3
Consider Figure 1. Find the ra-
dian measure of ∠B, using the
given information.
(a) a = 2 and c = 5 A D B
• • •
(b) a = 7 and b = 15
(c) b = 5 and c = 10
•
(d) a = 2 and b = 3 C
Figure 8
* Exercise 26
23
Suppose his back is bent to an
angle of depression of 60◦ , and
the yogi is 168 cm tall. The
yogi’s back and head comprise
3
• 50% of his total height.
A yogi bends at the waist and (a) Find the slant length of
has a straight back and neck. the ramp.
24
(b) What is the angle of eleva- the ground. What is the angle
tion of the ramp? of depression from the branch to
the tire? Assume the rope is
** Exercise 34 taut.
25
26
Chapter 5
Trigonometry of
General Angles
27
5.1 The Six Trigonometric Functions
The xy-coordinate system develops a correspondence between points
and ordered pairs (x, y).
y
QII QI
QIV QV
28
each coordinate is positive, negative, or zero is enough to find the
quadrant or axis in which the point lies.
y U
•
T
• Z 2
•
1
W
• x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1 •
V
−2
X
• −3 • Y
Definition 5.1 The unit circle is the set of points (x, y) of dis-
tance 1 from the origin. In other words, the unit circle is the set
of points (x, y) such that
x2 + y 2 = 1.
29
Let us make the following convention:
Assume all angles are in standard position when they
are used within the context of trigonometric functions
unless there is a reason to suppose otherwise.
Because of this convention, we can be sloppy with our language.
We often refer to angles simply by their measures, e.g. we say
things like “angle 30◦ ”. We often say an angle “lies” in a particular
quadrant; when we do this, it is understood that we are referring
to the terminal side of a standard position angle.
We are ready to formulate our correspondence between standard
position angles and points on the unit circle: Let the angle θ cor-
respond to the point (x, y) where the terminal side of θ intersects
the unit circle.
y
(x, y)
•
θ
• x
Solution
y
(0, 1)
•
90◦
x
(a) As can be seen from the diagram above, the point correspond-
ing to θ = 90◦ is (0, 1).
30
y
180◦
(−1, 0)
• x
√
t 3, t
•
2t
t
30◦
√ x
t 3
31
Then symmetry gives us points in the other three quadrants.
y
√ √
− 12 , 23 (0, 1) 1 3
• 2, 2
√ √ √ √
− 2
, 2 • 90◦ • 2
, 2
2 2 2 2
• 120◦ 60◦ •
√ √
3 1 ◦ π ◦ 3 1
− 2 , 2 135 2 π
45 2 , 2
2π
• 3 3
π
•
◦ 3π
150 4 4 30◦
5π π
6 6
(−1, 0) (1, 0)
• 180◦ π 0 0◦ • x
7π 11π
6 6
5π 7π
210◦ 4 4 330◦
√ • 4π 5π • √
3 1 3 3π 3 3 1
− 2 , −2 225◦ 2 315◦ 2 , −2
• 240◦ 300◦ •
√ √ √ √
2 2 2 2
− 2 ,− 2 • 270◦ • 2 ,− 2
√ √
•
3 3
− 12 , − 2 (0, −1)
1
2 , − 2
Example 5.3 Find sin θ, cos θ, and tan θ for (a) θ = 0, (b) θ = π/2,
and (c) θ = 3π/2 using the unit circle. When tangent is undefined
say so.
32
y
cos π2 , sin π2
•
(cos 0, sin 0)
• x
•
cos 3π 3π
2 , sin 2
Solution
(a) We know θ = 0 corresponds to the point (1, 0). Therefore,
0
sin 0 = 0, cos 0 = 1 and tan 0 = = 0.
1
33
Example 5.4 Find the exact value of each of the following.
5π
(a) sin 120◦ , (b) cos , and (c) tan 330◦ .
4
Solution
√
(a) We see that the point corresponding to 120◦ is −1/2, 3/2 .
34
35
(b)
1
csc 150◦ =
sin 150◦
1
=
1/2
= 2.
(c)
5π cos(5π/6)
cot =
6 sin(5π/6)
√
− 3/2
=
1/2
√
= − 3.
Solve for ϕ.
ϕ = 150◦ or ϕ = 330◦ .
36
5.2 Reference Angles
Committing the entire unit circle to memory is a challenge for many
students. In this section, we will develop techniques to dramatically
reduce the necessary amount of memorization.
Let us begin with a discussion of the sign of sine, cosine, and tan-
gent. Cosine and sine correspond to the x- and y-coordinates on
the unit circle, respectively, so their signs depend on the quadrant
in which the terminal side of the angle lies.
QII QI
QIII QIV
The following table lists the quadrants in which sine, cosine, and
tangent are positive and negative.
37
Example 5.8 Determine in which quadrant θ lies via the signs of
the given trigonometric functions.
(a) cos θ > 0 and sin θ < 0
(b) tan θ > 0 and csc θ < 0
(c) cot θ < 0 and sec θ > 0
Solution
(a) Since cos θ > 0, we know θ lies in quadrant I or IV. Because
sin θ < 0, we conclude θ lies in quadrant III or IV. The only
quadrant held in common is quadrant IV. Hence, θ lies in
quadrant IV.
(b) Since tan θ > 0, it follows that θ lies in quadrant I or III.
Due to the fact that csc θ < 0 implies sin θ < 0, it must be
the case that θ lies in quadrant III or IV. By the process of
elimination, θ lies in quadrant III.
(c) If cot θ < 0, then tan θ < 0, which means that θ lies in
quadrant II or IV. Because sec θ > 0 is the same as saying
cos θ > 0, we know θ lies in quadrant I or IV. Thus, θ must
lie in quadrant IV.
θR = θ.
38
The other three quadrants are a bit more complicated.
y
θ
θR
x
θ
x
θR
θ x
θR
39
Proposition 5.2 For an angle θ of radian measure between 0 and
2π or of degree measure between 0 and 360◦ , the following table
provides the measure of the reference angle.
Solution
(a) Since
3π 7π
< < 2π,
2 4
7π/4 lies in quadrant IV. This implies that tangent is nega-
tive. Furthermore, the reference angle is
7π π
θR = 2π − = .
4 4
Since tan(π/4) = 1, we have
7π π
tan = − tan = −1.
4 4
40
(b) Due to the fact that
90◦ < 120◦ < 180◦ ,
120◦ lies in quadrant II. Sine is positive in quadrant II. Fur-
thermore, the reference angle is
θR = 180◦ − 120◦ = 60◦ .
√
We know sin 60◦ = 3/2. Therefore,
√
◦ ◦ 3
sin 120 = sin 60 = .
2
41
5.3 More Evaluation Techniques
In this section, we will learn to evaluate trigonometric functions
for θ ≥ 360◦ and θ < 0.
f (x + p) = f (x)
cos x 360◦ 2π
sin x 360◦ 2π
tan x 180◦ π
sec x 360◦ 2π
csc x 360◦ 2π
cot x 180◦ π
42
Example 5.10 Evaluate.
(a) cot(−1710◦ ) 4π
(c) tan −
3
(b) cos 5π (d) csc 585◦
Solution
(a) Cotangent has period 180◦ when evaluated using degrees, and
−1710 ÷ 180 = −9 12 . So, we will add 180◦ (10) = 1800◦ to the
input:
(c) Cosecant has period 360◦ when evaluated using degrees, and
585◦ ÷360◦ = 1 58 . Subtracting 360◦ (1) = 360◦ from the input
makes the computation more tractable:
43
Using reference angles, we have
Therefore, √
csc 585◦ = − 2.
Because trigonometric functions are periodic, if θ is a solution then
so is θ plus or minus an integer multiple of the period. With this
in mind, we are ready to handle general solutions of trigonometric
equations.
sec θ = 2.
Solution We know
1
sec θ = 2 implies cos θ = .
2
Because cos(π/3) = 1/2, the reference angle is π/3. Cosine is
positive when θ lies in quadrant I or IV. Hence, the solutions for
0 ≤ θ < 2π are
π 5π
θ= and θ = .
3 3
Since secant is periodic with period 2π, any integer multiple of 2π
added to either result will produce 1/2. Thus, the solutions are
π 5π
θ= + 2πn and θ = + 2πn
3 3
44
for n = 0, 1, −1, 2, −2, . . ..
Definition 5.8
• The function f is even if
f (−x) = f (x).
f (−x) = −f (x).
45
Proposition 5.4 (Even and Odd Identities)
(i) The function sin θ is odd, so
sin(−θ) = − sin θ.
y
cos θ, sin θ
•
θ
x
−θ
•
cos(−θ), sin(−θ)
46
(iii) (iv)
sin(−x) 1
tan(−x) = sec(−x) =
cos(−x) cos(−x)
− sin x 1
= =
cos x cos x
= − tan x. = sec x.
5π
Example 5.13 Evaluate (a) sin (−30◦ ) and (b) sec − .
6
Solution
(a) Because sine is odd,
1
sin (−30◦ ) = − sin 30◦ = − .
2
47
5.4 Finding the Values of Trigonometric
Functions
In this section, we will study how to use the value of one trigono-
metric function to find the values of the other five, e.g. we are
given sin θ and we will study how to find cos θ, tan θ, sec θ, etc.
Surprisingly, a helpful approach to solving this type of problem
is to consider where the terminal side of θ intersects a particular
circle.
Our next theorem will be of great utility throughout the rest of
this book. To understand the theorem, recall that a circle centered
at (0, 0) and of radius r > 0 has equation
x2 + y 2 = r 2 .
x2 + y 2 = r 2
48
y
x2 + y 2 = r2
B(x, y)
•
•A
1 y
r
θ x
x
r
Proof A quick check shows that the identities hold for (x, y) on the
x- or y-axis. Suppose the point (x, y) is contained in a quadrant.
Then construct right triangles like in the diagram above. Using
similar triangles, we have that the sides of the right triangle with
a hypotenuse of length 1 are 1/r times the lengths of the sides of
the right triangle with a hypotenuse of length r. Furthermore, the
signs in each coordinate of A and B agree because both points lie
in the same quadrant. We conclude that the terminal side of θ
intersects the unit circle at (x/r, y/r). Hence, the definitions of
sine, cosine, and tangent tell us that
y x y
sin θ = , cos θ = , and tan θ = .
r r x
The other ratios follow from Proposition 5.1.
49
Example 5.14 Suppose
3
sin θ = and sec θ < 0.
5
Find the values of the remaining five trigonometric functions.
Solution Because sin θ > 0 and sec θ < 0, the angle θ is in quadrant
II. Let us suppose that we have a circle of radius 5.
5
3
θ
θR
x
x
x2 + 32 = 52 ,
50
Example 5.15 Suppose
12
tan ϕ = − and cos ϕ > 0.
5
Find the values of the remaining five trigonometric functions.
Solution Since tan ϕ < 0 and cos ϕ > 0, the terminal side of ϕ lies
in quadrant IV. Suppose the signed length of the side opposite ϕ
is −12. Then the side adjacent has length 5.
y
5
x
ϕ ϕR
−12
r
51
5.5 Pythagorean Identities
Let us introduce some important notation. When we write
we mean
2 2 2
(sin θ) , (cos θ) , (tan θ) , etc.,
2
respectively. That is, the notation sin θ, cos θ, tan2 θ, etc. means
2
Solution
π π 2
tan2 = tan
3 3
√ 2
= 3
=3
and π 2 π2
tan = tan ≈ 1.948.
3 9
Theorem 5.2 (Pythagorean Identities)
For any real number θ the following equations hold whenever they
are defined.
(i) cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1
(ii) 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ
(iii) 1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ
52
Proof
(i) Since the equation x2 + y 2 = 1 is the unit circle, x = cos θ,
and y = sin θ, the identity
cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1
sin2 θ 1
1+ =
cos2 θ cos2 θ
2 2
sin θ 1
⇒ 1+ =
cos θ cos θ
⇒ 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ.
cos2 θ 1
+1 =
sin2 θ sin2 θ
2 2
cos θ 1
⇒ 1+ =
sin θ sin θ
⇒ 1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ.
53
Example 5.17 Solve
5 sin x − 2 cos2 x = 1.
cos2 θ = 1 − sin2 θ.
It follows that
So,
1
sin x = or sin x = −3.
2
The latter is an impossibility because sine is the y-coordinate on
the unit circle and points on the unit circle have a y-coordinates
between −1 and 1, inclusive. The equation
1
sin x =
2
has solutions x = π/6 and x = 5π/6 for 0 ≤ x < 2π. Since sine is
periodic with period 2π any integer multiple of 2π added to either
result is also a solution. Thus,
π 5π
x= + 2πn or x = + 2πn
6 6
for n = 0, 1, −1, 2, −2, . . ..
54
5.6 Verifying Identities
In this section, we will verify trigonometric identities. This requires
knowledge of the identities we have already discussed. We suggest
readers review the Reciprocal Identities (Proposition 5.1), the peri-
ods of the trigonometric functions (Proposition 5.3), the Even and
Odd Identities (Proposition 5.4), and the Pythagorean Identities
(Theorem 5.2). They will be used frequently within this section
and the corresponding exercises.
When you are asked to verify an identity consider one side of the
equation and perform operations on it until the expression is iden-
tical to the other side of the equation.
sin θ
tan θ = .
cos θ
Let us start with the left side and work our way to the right.
cos(−θ) tan(−θ) = cos θ − tan θ
sin θ
= − cos θ ·
cos θ
cos θ sin θ
=− ·
1 cos θ
sin θ
=−
1
= − sin θ.
55
Example 5.19 Verify the identity.
cos2 x
= 1 + sin x.
1 − sin x
Solution We will start on the left side, and use the Pythagorean
Identity
cos2 x = 1 − sin2 x.
To do this we will multiply the top and bottom of the ratio by
1 + sin x and use the difference of two squares formula:
56
Example 5.20 Verify the identity.
Solution
1
cos α + sec α sin2 α = cos α + sin2 α
cos α
sin2 α
= cos α +
cos α
cos2 α sin2 α
= +
cos α cos α
cos2 α + sin2 α
=
cos α
1
=
cos α
= sec α.
57
5.7 Exercises
* Exercise 1 ** Exercise 3
√ !
Determine the quadrant or axis 1 3
(b) ,
in which each standard position 2 2
angle lies.
(c) (0, 1)
√ √ !
◦ ◦ 2 2
(a) 45 (e) 150 (d) − ,−
2 2
4π π
(b) (f)
3 2 (e) (0, −1)
(c) 300 ◦ √ !
(g) 315◦ 3 1
7π (f) ,−
(d) 2 2
6 (h) π
58
π
** Exercise 5 (a) sin (e) tan π
3
3π π
Find the radian measure of the (b) tan (f) sec
2 6
standard position angle β corre-
sponding to each point on the π π
(c) cos (g) csc
unit circle. Suppose 0 ≤ β < 2π. 3 3
√ √ ! π
2 2 (d) sec (h) cot π
(a) , 4
2 2
59
** Exercise 10 ** Exercise 13
Determine the quadrant in Find the reference angle.
which the terminal side of θ lies.
5π 11π
(a) sin θ > 0 and cos θ > 0 (a) (f)
6 6
(b) cos θ > 0 and tan θ < 0 11π 4π
(b) (g)
12 3
(c) sin θ < 0 and sec θ < 0
19π
(d) csc θ > 0 and sec θ < 0 (c) 13π
10 (h)
9
(e) sin θ < 0 and cot θ < 0 3π
(d)
4 (i) 5
(f) sec θ < 0 and cot θ > 0
9π
(e) (j) 1
** Exercise 11 8
60
** Exercise 17 (b) What are the values of
the six trigonometric func-
Use reference angles to evaluate. tions at 360◦ − α?
Some expressions are undefined.
(c) Compute the values of
5π 2π the six trigonometric func-
(a) tan (f) cot
6 3 tions at α + 180◦ .
3π 7π (d) Evaluate the six trigono-
(b) cos (g) csc
2 6 metric functions at 180◦ −
11π 3π α.
(c) sin (h) cot
6 4
π 5π ** Exercise 20
(d) tan (i) sin
2 4
Assume β is an acute angle
7π 2π of radian measure such that
(e) csc (j) cos
4 3 the terminal side of β inter-
sects the unit circle at the point
** Exercise 18 (5/13, 12/13).
Use reference angles to evaluate. (a) Find the values of the six
Some expressions are undefined. trigonometric functions at
β.
(a) sin 120◦ (f) sec 210◦
(b) What are the values of
(b) tan 315◦ (g) cos 150◦ the six trigonometric func-
tions at π − β?
(c) csc 315◦ (h) tan 330◦
(c) Compute the values of
(d) cos 270◦ (i) sin 225◦
the six trigonometric func-
(e) csc 240◦ (j) cos 120◦ tions at 2π − β.
(d) Evaluate the six trigono-
** Exercise 19 metric functions at β + π.
61
(b) cot θ ** Exercise 25
(c) cos(2π − θ)
The domain of a function is the
(d) sec(θ − π) set of inputs of a function, and
(e) csc(θ − π) the range of a function is the set
of outputs of the function. De-
(f) cos(3π − θ) termine the domain and range of
f.
** Exercise 22
(a) f (x) = sin x
Compute each of the following.
(b) f (x) = cos x
Some expressions are undefined.
(c) f (x) = tan x
(a) cot(−180◦ ) (e) tan(−135◦ )
(d) f (x) = csc x
(b) tan 870◦ (f) sin(−810◦ )
(e) f (x) = sec x
(c) csc 585◦ (g) cot(−510◦ )
(f) f (x) = cot x
(d) sin 630◦ (h) sec(−1050◦ )
** Exercise 26
** Exercise 23
Determine the values of θ which
Calculate each of the following. satisfy the equation.
Some expressions are undefined.
(a) tan θ = 0
(a) cos 2π 23π
(e) sin (b) −2 cos θ = 1
6
2
9π 13π (c) 3 cot θ = 1
(b) cos − (f) csc −
2 4 (d) sin2 θ − 2 sin θ = −1
11π 5π
(c) csc − (g) sec − ** Exercise 27
3 6
7π 9π Solve for ϕ.
(d) sin (h) cot −
2 4
(a) 2 sin 3ϕ = 1
62
** Exercise 28 ** Exercise 31
63
** Exercise 34 ** Exercise 37
** Exercise 38
Match the expressions above
with the equivalent expressions Verify each identity.
below. Some options may be
used more than once. sin2 θ
(a) = 1 − cos θ
1 + cos θ
sec2 x − 1
(a) cos2 α
tan x (b) = 1 − sin α
1 + sin α
(b) sin(x) sec(−x)
sec2 ϕ − 1
(c) cos(−x) csc(−x) (c) = tan ϕ
tan ϕ
(d) cos x sec x (d) tan β = sec β csc β+csc β
1−cos β
(e) sin(−x) csc(−x)
tan x ** Exercise 39
(f)
sin x
Verify each identity.
2
** Exercise 35 (a) cos x−sin x(− cos x)
cos2 x = sec2 x
− sin2 (−x)−cos2 x
(b) sin2 x
= − csc2 x
Verify each identity.
(a) sin (2π − α) = − sin α
** Exercise 40
(b) cos (360◦ − β) = cos β Verify each identity.
1
(c) tan (2π − γ) = − tan γ (a) sec x + tan x =
sec x − tan x
1
** Exercise 36 (b) csc x + cot x =
csc x − cot x
64
Chapter 6
Graphing
Trigonometric
Functions
65
We like to think of f (x) = sin x and g(x) = cos x as the parent func-
tions of their respective family of functions. From this perspective,
the constants A, B, C, and D modify the parent functions. As
a result, it is helpful to obtain an understanding of the graphs of
f (x) = sin x and g(x) = cos x.
f (x) = sin x
y
1
1/2
x
π π 3π 2π
−1/2 2 2
−1
g(x) = cos x
y
1/2
x
π π 3π 2π
−1/2 2 2
−1
Proposition 5.3 tells us that sine and cosine are periodic with period
2π. This means that the behavior of f (x) = sin x and g(x) =
cos x, within the interval [0, 2π], is repeated in subsequent intervals,
so graphing more periods of either function is simply a matter of
recognizing the pattern.
Definition 6.2
• The amplitude of f is
66
• The phase shift of a periodic function f is how much its
principal period is shifted left or right on a graph relative to
the parent function of f .
67
• Stop after you have found the point whose x-coordinate
is equal to the phase shift plus the period. That
is, stop after the point corresponding to
C 2π
x=− + .
B B
f (x) = 2 sin(3x − π) + 1.
Amplitude: |2| = 2
2π
Period:
3
Vertical shift: 1
(−π) π
Phase shift: − =
3 3
68
x f (x)
π
2 sin(0) + 1 = 1
3
3π π π
= 2 sin +1 = 3
6 2 2
4π 2π
= 2 sin(π) + 1 = 1
6 3
5π 3π
2 sin +1 = −1
6 2
π 2 sin(2π) + 1 = 1
3 •
• • • y=1
x
π π π 2π 5π π
6 3 2 3 6
−1 •
69
Example 6.2 Graph two periods of
1 3πx + π
g(x) = −2 − cos .
2 4
1 1
Amplitude: − =
2 2
2π 8
Period: =
3π/4 3
Vertical shift: −2
π/4 1
Phase shift: − =−
3π/4 3
8/3 2
= .
4 3
70
x g(x)
1 1
− − cos(0) − 2 = −2 21
3 2
1 1 π
− cos − 2 = −2
3 2 2
3 1
=1 − cos(π) − 2 = −1 21
3 2
5 1 3π
− cos −2 = −2
3 2 2
7 1
− cos (2π) − 2 = −2 21
3 2
After we plot the points and graph the first period, we use the
pattern to graph the second period.
y
x
− 13 1 1 5 7 3 11 13 5
3 3 3 3 3
−1
• • y = −2
• • •
−3
Proposition 6.1 assumes that B > 0. For B < 0, we can utilize
Proposition 5.4 which says that sine is odd and cosine is even.
This allows us to change the sign of the coefficient in front of x.
71
Example 6.3 Graph one period of
Amplitude: |−2| = 2
360◦
Period: = 360◦
1
Vertical shift: 0
−45◦
Phase shift: − = 45◦
1
x h(x)
45◦ −2 sin 0 = 0
72
y
2 •
• • • x
90◦ 180◦ 270◦ 360◦
−1
−2 •
73
6.2.1 Graphing Tangent
x = − π2 y x= π
2
−1
−2
where B > 0.
(i) The graph has period
π
.
B
74
(iv) The function f has vertical asymptotes at the solutions of
π π
Bx + C = − and Bx + C = .
2 2
Notice that we did not mentioned amplitude. The value of |A| ver-
tically compresses or stretches the graph of tangent, but it has no
maximum or minimum value. This makes the concept of amplitude
nonsensical.
Example 6.4 Determine the period, vertical shift, phase shift, and
asymptotes of the function.
f (x) = −3 tan (15◦ x + 45◦ ) − 7
75
• Add one-fourth the period to the x-value of the
left asymptote. That is, add
π
4B
to the solution of Bx + C = −π/2. This gives the
x-coordinate of the first point. Evaluate f at the
x-value to find the y-coordinate.
• To find the next x-coordinate, add one-fourth the
period to the previous x-coordinate. Evaluate f
at the x-value to find the y-coordinate.
• Stop before you reach the solution of
π
Bx + C = .
2
Using the above, and some other parts of Proposition 6.2 give us
our table.
76
Vertical shift: −4
π
Period: = 2π
1/2
π/3 2π
Phase shift: − =−
1/2 3
5π π
Asymptotes: x=− and x =
3 3
7π π
− 2 tan − −4 = −6
6 4
4π 2π
− =− 2 tan 0 − 4 = −4
6 3
π π
− 2 tan −4 = −2
6 4
77
We have obtained enough information to graph one period of g.
y
1
− 7π
6 − 2π
3 − π6
x
−1
−3
−5
−7
π
x = − 5π
3
x= 3
78
6.2.2 Graphing Cotangent
1
π
2
x
−1
−2
79
We will use some point plotting, along with Proposition 6.3, to
graph cotangent. This makes a protocol for finding points neces-
sary. Ours gives three useful points.
Let f (x) = A cot (Bx + C) + D, where B > 0. Propo-
sition 6.3 tells us that f has vertical asymptotes at
Bx + C = 0 and Bx + C = π.
80
The period is
180◦
= 1.
180◦
We need another asymptote, because we want to graph two peri-
ods of cotangent. Using the fact that cotangent has period 1, we
conclude
1 5
x= +1=
4 4
is another asymptote.
We have the following table.
180◦
Period: =1
180◦
Vertical shift: −1
135◦ 3
Phase shift: − =−
180◦ 4
3 1 5
Asymptotes: x=− , x= , and x =
4 4 4
x f (x)
− 24 = − 12 1
2 cot (45◦ ) − 1 = − 12
− 14 1
2 cot (90◦ ) − 1 = −1
0 1
2 cot (135◦ ) − 1 = −1 12
81
5/4 and we can determine the behavior of the graph by analyzing
the previous period.
x = − 34 y x=
1
4 x= 5
4
2
1
− 12 − 14 1
2
3
4 1
x
•
• −1
•
−2
−3
Solution Suppose
g(x) = A cot (Bx + C) + D
is the function. There is no vertical shift which implies D = 0.
Since x = 1 and x = 7 are vertical asymptotes, the period is
7 − 1 = 6.
Hence, Proposition 6.3 tells us
π π
= 6 implies B = .
B 6
For cotangent functions, the phase shift is the same as the left
asymptote within the principal period. So, it must be 1. Using
Proposition 6.3 again, it follows that
C π
− =1 implies C = − .
π/6 6
82
As of now, we have
π π
g(x) = A cot x− .
6 6
To find A, we will plug in 5/2, because we know g(5/2) = 4:
5 π 5 π
g = A cot · −
2 6 2 6
π
= A cot
4
= A(1)
= A.
We conclude A = 4.
Thus, our function is
π π
g(x) = 4 cot x− .
6 6
83
6.3.1 Graphing Secant
y=1
x
π 2π
y = −1
−2
−3
84
This strategy is based on the fact that secant is the reciprocal
function of cosine.
y y
1 2 1 2
x x
−1 −1
y = − 32
• • • • y = − 52
−3 −3
1 5
x= 3 x= 3
(a) (b)
85
All that is left is to draw secant’s branches. The branches have ver-
tices of (−1/3, −5/2), (1, −3/2), and (−7/3, −5/2), because those
are the points where cosine intersects the dashed lines. The rest of
each U-shape follows due to the position of the asymptotes.
− 31 1
7
3
x
−1
• y = − 23
• • y = − 25
−3
1 5
x= 3 x= 3
86
6.3.2 Graphing Cosecant
y x=π x = 2π
3
y=1
π
x
3π
2 2
y = −1
−2
−3
87
for π/3 ≤ x ≤ π, which was one period.
We need two periods of the sine graph to obtain two periods of
cosecant’s graph. To keep the graph close to the y-axis, we will
graph y = 2 sin(3x − π) + 1 for the period corresponding −π/3 ≤
x ≤ π/3. The result is (a).
We draw dashed horizontal lines at
y y x= π
3 x=π
3 y=3
2 2
• 1 • • 1 •
x x
− π3 π 2π π
3 3
−1 y = −1
x= − π3 x= 2π
3
(a) (b)
We are ready to graph cosecant. The vertices for the branches are
at (−π/6, 3), (π/6, −1), (π/2, 3), and (5π/6, −1). The U-shaped
branches follow from the asymptotes.
88
x = − π3 y x= π
3 x= 2π
3 x=π
5
• • y=3
• 1 •
x
− π6 π
6
π
2
5π
6
• • y = −1
−2
−3
f (x) = x sin x.
Solution Since
89
Plotting points for x in the interval [−π, π] is helpful because sine
has period 2π and the sign change of x at x = 0 affects the look
of the graph. We can then use the behavior we observe from our
points to graph more of f .
Our first point will have an x-coordinate of −π and subsequent
x-coordinates will be 2π/4 = π/2 greater than their previous x-
coordinate.
x f (x)
−π −π sin(−π) = 0
π π π π
− − sin − =
2 2 2 2
0 0 sin 0 = 0
π π π π
sin =
2 2 2 2
π π sin π = 0
y y = |x|
3π
2
π
π
• 2 •
• • • x
− 3π −π − π2 π π 3π
2 2 2
− π2
−π
f (x) = x sin x
− 3π
2
y = −|x|
90
Example 6.11 Graph two periods of
g(x) = |tan x| .
y
4
3
2
1
x
π
−1
−2
−3
−4
x = − π2 x= π
2 x= 3π
2
91
Example 6.12 Determine the number of times y = x intersects
y = cos 35x for x > 0.
x
2π
35
During the first quarter of each period cosine goes from 1 to 0, and
in the fourth quarter cosine goes from 0 to 1. When 0 ≤ x ≤ 1,
this implies that the graphs of y = cos 35x and y = x intersect once
in the first and fourth quarter of each period. When x > 1, y = x
will never intersect y = cos 35x, because −1 ≤ cos 35x ≤ 1.
As a result, we can find the number of positive intersects by com-
puting the number of periods of y = cos 35x within the interval
[0, 1]. The period of y = cos 35x is 2π/35. It follows that there are
1 35
= ≈ 5.570
2π/35 2π
2(5) + 1 = 11
times.
92
6.5 Exercises
* Exercise 1 ** Exercise 3
Determine the amplitude, pe- Graph one period.
riod, vertical shift, and phase
shift. (a) y = 2 sin πx
(a) y = 3 sin πx (b) y = 1 − cos (180◦ x − 30◦ ).
1 3 π
(b) y = − cos(x − 30◦ ) + 1 (c) y = − sin (x − 2) −
2 4 6
5
(c) y = −2 sin (2π (x − 1)) − π x π
(d) y = 1 − cos (x − π) (d) y = −6 cos + +1
4 10
x
(e) y = −2 sin +π (e) y = − sin (90◦ + x) + 1
2
π−x
x+π (f) y = 2 cos
3 cos −7 6
3
(f) y =
4 π − 2x
(g) y = sin +1
3
** Exercise 2
(h) y = 7 − cos(−πx)
Write a corresponding function.
** Exercise 4
(a) A sine function begins
each period by decreasing
from its neutral position. Graph two periods.
(a) y = −3 sin 60◦ x
Amplitude: 3
Period: 6 (b) y = 5 − 1
cos 5x
2
Vertical shift: 0
Phase shift: 2 x−π
(c) y = 2 − sin
3
(b) A cosine function begins
x + 18◦
each period at its maxi- (d) y = 6 cos
5
mum. π
Amplitude: π (e) y = − sin −x + +1
4
Period: π/2
3 π−x
Vertical shift: −2 (f) y = − cos
Phase shift: −π/6 4 4
93
** Exercise 5 shift is −3, and it contains
the point (5π/4, −7).
Find A, B, and C such that . . .
** Exercise 8
(a) . . . cos x = A sin(Bx + C).
(b) . . . sin x = A cos(Bx + C). Graph one period.
(a) y = −2 tan 60◦ x
* Exercise 6 π
(b) y = − π cot 2x
2
Determine the period, vertical π
shift, phase shift, and asymp- (c) y = −3 tan (x − 7) −
10
totes. 5
x x
(a) y = −3 tan + 45◦ (d) y = −3 cot − 20◦ + 1
2 5
◦
3π (e) y = − tan (60 − x) + 1
(b) y = − cot (17◦ x)
2
π−x
(f) y = π cot
x+π 3
5 tan +2
3 ◦
(g) y = tan (15 − 3x) − 1
(c) y =
π
2π
(d) y = −3 cot(18◦ x + 15◦ ) + 1 (h) y = − cot (2 − x) +
3
3 2
(e) y = − tan (x − π)
4
** Exercise 9
πx − 3
(f) y = −4 cot +1
2 Graph two periods.
πx
** Exercise 7 (a) y = −π tan
6
3
Write a corresponding function. (b) y = 2 − cot 10◦ x
4
(a) A tangent function has
1 2x − π
vertical asymptotes of x = (c) y = 1 − 2 tan
4
−1 and x = 9. Its vertical
shift is 1, and it contains (d) y = − cot (20◦ (x + 2)) + 3
the point (3/2, −2).
π
(e) y = − tan −x + +2
8
(b) A cotangent function with
vertical asymptotes x = 0 π−x
(f) y = cot +1
and x = 5π. Its vertical 6
94
** Exercise 10 ** Exercise 13
95
** Exercise 15 ** Exercise 17
96
y y
• 1 • 5
x
−2 2
• • x
−2π 2π
−3 −5
(a) (b)
y
y
3 • •
x
2 −8 −4
− 12
1
• •
x
π π 5π
6 2 6 − 32
(c) (d)
y x=3 x = −135◦ y
3 • 1
•
• • x
x •
−1 • −1
x=1 x = 45◦
(e) (f)
97
y x = 10
x = − π2 y
2π •
1•
x
• π •
• −5 • x
π
x= 6 x=2
(g) (h)
3π
y x= 4
y x=6
y=π
• • y=6 x
x
y = −3π
x=2 x = − π4
(i) (j)
y x=4
7
y x= 4 x
• • y= 3π y = −1
2
π y = −2
y= 2
x
1
x= 4 x=2 x=6
(k) (l)
98
Chapter 7
Using Identities
99
for the reader.
Solution Since
π π π
= − ,
12 3 4
Theorem 7.1 (i) tells us
π π π
sin = sin −
12 3 4
π π π π
= sin cos − cos sin
√ √ 3 4 √ 3 4
3 2 1 2
= · − ·
√2 2√ 2 2
6 2
= −
√ 4 √ 4
6− 2
= .
4
cos 195◦ cos 15◦ + sin 195◦ sin 15◦ = cos(195◦ − 15◦ )
= cos 180◦
= −1.
100
Compute (a) cos(α + β) and (b) tan(α − β).
Solution This will require Theorem 7.1 (ii) and (iii). However,
in addition to the given information, the identities require cos α,
tan α, sin β, and cos β. To find these values we will build triangles
using the techniques outlined in Section 5.4.
Say the side opposite the reference angle of α is 3. Then the hy-
potenuse must be 5. The side adjacent the reference angle has
signed length −4 due to the Pythagorean Theorem and the fact
that the terminal side of α lies in quadrant II.
5
3
α
x
−4
Let us say the side opposite β’s reference angle has length 5. Then
the side adjacent must have length 12. Because terminal side of
β lies in quadrant III, these sides’ signed lengths are −5 and −12,
respectively. The Pythagorean Theorem tells us the length of the
hypotenuse is 13.
y
−12 β
x
−5
13
101
We are ready to answer the questions.
(a)
(b)
tan α − tan β
tan(α − β) =
1 + tan α tan β
−3/4 − 5/12
=
1 + (−3/4)(5/12)
−14/12
=
11/16
56
=− .
33
Solution Our goal is to use Theorem 7.1 (i) to rewrite the expres-
sion into the form
y = A sin (Bx + C) + D,
and then use the techniques discussed in Section 6.1 to graph the
function. To do this, we will find a length r and a standard position
angle θ such that
√
2 3 sin x − 2 cos x = r (cos θ sin x − sin θ cos x) = r sin (x − θ) .
102
√
The terminal side of θ contains the point 2 3, 2 , because
√
r cos θ = 2 3 and r sin θ = 2.
This allows us to build a triangle.
y
√
2 3, 2
•
r
2
θ x
√
2 3
It follow that
√ √
2 3 3 2 1
cos θ = = and sin θ = = .
4 2 4 2
From here, we see that θ = π/6 satisfies the necessary criteria.
√
Then Theorem 7.1 (i) allows us to rewrite y = 2 3 sin x − 2 cos x:
√
y = 2 3 sin x − 2 cos x
√ !
3 1
=4 sin x − cos x
2 2
!
π π
= 4 cos sin x − sin cos x
6 6
!
π π
= 4 sin x cos − cos x sin
6 6
π
= 4 sin x − .
6
103
All that is left is to graph the result.
y
4
x
π π 5π 7π 3π 11π 13π
6 2 6 6 2 6 6
−2
−4
respectively.
A (cos α, sin α)
• B (cos β, sin β)
α •
β x
O
104
Rotate 4OBA measure β clockwise, so OB lies on the positive
x-axis. Call the images of A and B under
rotation A0 and B0
respectively. Then A0 has coordinates cos (α − β) , sin (α − β)
and B 0 has coordinates (1, 0).
y
0
A cos (α − β) , sin (α − β)
•
α−β
B 0 (1, 0)
• x
Let us simplify each side separately. On the left side of the equa-
tion, we have
2
cos(α − β) − 1 + sin2 (α − β)
= cos2 (α − β) − 2 cos(α − β) + 1 + sin2 (α − β)
= cos2 (α − β) + sin2 (α − β) −2 cos(α − β) + 1
| {z }
1
= 2 − 2 cos(α − β).
105
On the right side, we have
2 2
cos α − cos β + sin α − sin β
= cos2 α − 2 cos α cos β + cos2 β + sin2 α − 2 sin α sin β + sin2 β
= cos2 α + sin2 α −2 cos α cos β − 2 sin α sin β + cos2 β + sin2 β
| {z } | {z }
1 1
= 2 − 2 cos α cos β − 2 sin α sin β.
Hence,
Now to prove
Using Proposition 5.4, we know sine and cosine are odd and even,
respectively. Thus,
106
Proposition 7.1 (Cofunction Identities) Let θ be a standard
position angle.
sin(90◦ − θ)
tan(90◦ − θ) =
cos(90◦ − θ)
cos θ
=
sin θ
= cot θ.
Solution Since
we conclude that
cot 50◦ ≈ 0.839.
107
Example 7.6 Use the Cofunction Identities (i) and (ii) as well as
Theorem 7.1 (ii) to prove
2 tan θ
(iii) tan 2θ =
1 − tan2 θ
Proof The proofs for these properties are an application of Theo-
rem 7.1.
(i) Using Theorem 7.1 (i),
sin 2θ = sin(θ + θ)
= sin θ cos θ + sin θ cos θ
= 2 sin θ cos θ.
108
(ii) Due to Theorem 7.1 (ii),
cos 2θ = cos(θ + θ)
= cos θ cos θ − sin θ sin θ
= cos2 θ − sin2 θ.
We have
and
tan 2θ = tan(θ + θ)
tan θ + tan θ
=
1 − tan2 θ
2 tan θ
= .
1 − tan2 θ
109
Example 7.7 Assume
cos2 2x = 2 − 5 cos x.
Solve for x.
cos 2x = 2 cos2 x − 1.
So,
cos2 2x = 2 − 5 cos x
⇒ 2 cos2 x − 1 = 2 − 5 cos x
2
⇒ 2 cos x + 5 cos x − 3 =0
⇒ (2 cos x − 1)(cos x + 3) =0
It follows that
1
cos x = or cos x = −3.
2
The latter case is impossible. If cos x = 1/2, then
π 5π
x= + 2πn or x = + 2πn
3 3
for n = 0, 1, −1, 2, −2, . . ..
110
y
α 2
x
√ −3
13
cos 2α = 2 cos2 α − 1
2
2
=2 √ −1
13
5
=− .
13
111
The triangle we constructed in Example 8 was not required for (c).
This is because we were given tangent.
cos 2α = 1 − 2 sin2 α.
1 − cos(2α)
sin2 α = .
2
Taking square roots and substituting θ/2 for α gives
r
θ 1 − cos θ
sin = ± .
2 2
cos(2α) = 2 cos2 α − 1.
112
Solving for cos2 α gives
1 + cos(2α)
cos2 α = .
2
Then, after taking square roots and replacing α with θ/2, we
have r
θ 1 + cos θ
cos = ± .
2 2
(iii) The proof for (iii) follows from (i) and (ii):
q
1−cos θ
θ ± 2
tan = q =
2 ± 1+cos θ
2
r
1 − cos θ 2
=± ·
2 1 + cos θ
r
1 − cos θ
=± .
1 + cos θ
To prove the second and third cases of (iii), we will use the
identity
1 − cos2 θ = sin2 θ.
We have
r r
θ 1 − cos θ θ 1 − cos θ
tan = ± tan = ±
2 1 + cos θ 2 1 + cos θ
r r
1 − cos θ 1 − cos θ 1 − cos θ 1 + cos θ
=± · =± ·
1 + cos θ 1 − cos θ 1 + cos θ 1 + cos θ
s s
(1 − cos θ)2 1 − cos2 θ
=± =±
1 − cos2 θ (1 − cos θ)2
s s
(1 − cos θ)2 sin2 θ
=± =±
sin2 θ (1 − cos θ)2
1 − cos θ sin θ
= ± = ±
sin θ 1 − cos θ
Then a careful analysis of signs reveals
θ 1 − cos θ θ sin θ
tan = and tan = .
2 sin θ 2 1 − cos θ
113
Example 7.9 Use the Half Angle Identities to compute (a) sin 157.5◦ ,
(b) cos 157.5◦ , and (c) tan 157.5◦ .
Solution
(a) Using Half Angle Identity (i),
r
1 − cos 315◦
◦ 1
sin 157.5 = sin · 315◦ =± .
2 2
114
√
From (a), cos 315◦ = 2/2. It follows that
r
◦ 1 + cos 315◦
cos 157.5 = ±
2
s √
1 + 2/2
=±
2
s √
2+ 2
=±
4
p √
2+ 2
=± .
2
Since 157.5◦ is in the quadrant II, cosine is negative. Thus,
p √
◦ 2+ 2
cos 157.5 = − .
2
115
Example 7.10 Suppose θ is in [0, 2π), and
√
7
cot θ = − and cos θ < 0.
3
What are the exact values of (a) sin(θ/2), (b) cos(θ/2), and (c)
tan(θ/2)?
4
3
θ
√ x
− 7
116
Since π/2 < θ < π implies π/4 < θ/2 < π/2, we conclude
sin(θ/2) is positive. Thus,
p √
θ 8+2 7
sin = .
2 4
(c) Lastly, using the second case of Half Angle Identity (iii),
θ 1 − cos θ
tan =
2 sin√θ
1 + 7/4
=
3/4
√
4+ 7
= .
3
117
Another set of identities, which can be used to solve the same type
of problems, are the Power Reducing Identities.
Corollary 7.1 (Power Reducing Identities) Say that θ is a stan-
dard position angle.
1 − cos 2θ
(i) sin2 θ =
2
1 + cos 2θ
(ii) cos2 θ =
2
1 − cos 2θ
(iii) tan2 θ =
1 + cos 2θ
Readers that prefer these identities to the Half Angle Identities are
welcome to use them instead.
118
metric functions at a slightly larger set of angles. The identities
have applications in Calculus as well.
Proof
(i) Theorem 7.1 (ii) gives
119
Then dividing by 2 yields
1
cos α cos β = sin(α + β) − sin(α − β) .
2
Example 7.11 Compute (a) cos 45◦ cos 15◦ and (b) sin 22.5◦ cos 22.5◦ .
Solution
(a) Using Proposition 7.4 (ii),
1
cos 45◦ cos 15◦ = cos(45◦ + 15◦ ) + cos(45◦ − 15◦ )
2
1
= cos 60◦ + cos 30◦
2
√ !
1 1 3
= +
2 2 2
√ !
1 1+ 3
=
2 2
√
1+ 3
= .
4
120
7.3 Verifying Identities
We will verify identities in the final section of this chapter. The
key ideas of the verification process were introduced in Section 5.6.
However, this chapter has added more identities to our knowledge
base, and the reader will be expected to utilize them.
csc(π/2 − α)
= cos α.
1 + tan2 α
csc(π/2 − α) csc(π/2 − α)
2 =
1 + tan α sec2 α
sec α
=
sec2 α
1
=
sec α
= cos α.
121
Example 7.13 Verify that the equation is an identity.
tan 2β 2 cos2 β
=
tan β cos2 β − sin2 β
2 tan β
tan 2β = .
1 − tan2 β
Utilizing these identities, we have
tan 2β 1
= tan(2β)
tan β tan β
2 tan β 1
= 2 ·
1 − tan β tan β
2
=
1 − tan2 β
2
= sin2 β
1 − cos 2β
2/1
= cos2 β−sin2 β
cos2 β
2
2 cos β
= ·
1 cos β − sin2 β
2
2 cos2 β
= .
cos β − sin2 β
2
122
Example 7.14 Verify the identity.
1 1 θ 1
− + sin θ cot + cos θ = cos θ.
2 2 2 2
θ 1 θ sin θ
cot = and tan = .
2 tan(θ/2) 2 1 + cos θ
123
7.4 Exercises
** Exercise 1 ** Exercise 4
(d) cos 5π
24 cos π 5π
24 −sin 24 sin π
24
** Exercise 2
tan 31π 17π
18 − tan 36
(e)
Calculate the exact value. 1 + tan 18 tan 17π
31π
36
(f) cos π
8 cos 23π π
24 +sin 8 sin 23π
24
π
(e) sec 23π
(a) tan − 12 12
** Exercise 3 π √
(c) tan θ + =− 3
What is the exact value? 6
(a) cos 408◦ cos 198◦ +sin 408◦ sin 198◦ ** Exercise 6
◦ ◦
tan 57 + tan 78
(b) Suppose
√ sin α = 12/13, tan β =
1 − tan 57◦ tan 78◦
− 17/8, cos α < 0, and cos β >
(c) sin 575◦ cos 275◦ −sin 275◦ cos 575◦ 0.
tan 312◦ − tan 192◦ (a) Find sin(α + β).
(d)
1 + tan 312◦ tan 197◦
(b) What is cos(α − β)?
(e) cos 40◦ cos 20◦ −sin 40◦ sin 20◦
(c) Evaluate tan(α + β).
tan 286◦ − tan 136◦
(f)
1 + tan 286◦ tan 136◦ (d) Calculate csc(α − β).
124
** Exercise 7 * Exercise 10
Assume cos α = −4/5, cot β = sin 17◦ ≈0.292 csc 43◦ ≈1.466
15/8, tan α > 0, and sin β > 0. ◦
cos 22 ≈0.927 sec 55◦ ≈1.743
◦
tan 77 ≈4.331 cot 25◦ ≈2.145
(a) Find cos(α − β).
(b) What is tan(α − β)? Find the approximate value
without a calculator.
(c) Evaluate sec(α + β).
(d) Calculate cot(α + β). (a) cot 13◦ (d) tan 65◦
(b) cos 73◦ (e) sin 68◦
** Exercise 8
(c) csc 35◦ (f) sec 47◦
Write each expression in the
form * Exercise 11
y = A sin (Bx + C) + D 5π π
sin 16 ≈0.831 csc 7 ≈2.305
cos 2π
5 ≈0.309 sec 5π
18 ≈1.556
for some A, B, C, and D. tan 7π 11π
11 ≈−2.190 cot 16 ≈−0.668
125
** Exercise 13 ** Exercise 18
** Exercise 17 ** Exercise 21
Evaluate without a calculator. Calculate.
(a) cos 165◦ (e) cot 255◦ (a) cos 105◦ cos 45◦
(b) tan 285◦ (f) sec 202.5◦ (b) sin 30◦ sin 15◦
(c) sin 22.5◦ (g) sin 7.5◦ (c) sin 105◦ cos 105◦
(d) csc 15◦ (h) cos 191.25◦ 435◦ 375◦
(d) cos sin
2 2
126
** Exercise 22 ** Exercise 24
Evaluate.
7π π Verify the identity.
(a) cos sin
12 4
π π 2 sin(α+π/4)
(b) sin cos (a) √
2
= sin α + cos α
6 12
29π 25π
(c) sin sin 2 cos(θ−45◦ )
24 24 (b) √
2
= sin β + cos β
7π π
(d) cos cos
12 12 1 + tan γ
π
(c) tan γ + 4 =
** Exercise 23 1 − tan γ
** Exercise 25
(i) 1 (iii) − cot x
Verify.
(ii) tan x (iv) sec x
cos(90◦ − α)
Match the above with the ex- (a) = csc α
1 − cos2 α
pressions below. Some options
may be used more than once.
sec(π/2 − β)
1 + tan2 x (b) = sin β
(a) 1 + cot2 β
csc(90◦ − x)
(b) cos(90◦ − x) csc(x) cot(90◦ − γ)
(c) = cot γ
sec2 γ − 1
(c) cos(−x) csc(−x)
sin(90◦ − x) ** Exercise 26
(d)
sin(−x)
(e) cos x csc(90◦ − x) Verify the identities.
sec x
(f)
csc x tan α 2 − sec2 α
sin 2x (a) =
(g) tan 2α 2
2 cos2 x
sin (90◦ − 2x) tan 2β 2
(h) (b) =
1 − 2 sin2 x sin β 2 cos β − sec β
127
** Exercise 27 ** Exercise 30
cot2 γ − 1 tan(γ/2)
(c) cot 2γ = (c) = csc γ
2 cot γ 1 − cos γ
*** Exercise 31
** Exercise 28
Verify.
Verify the identities.
θ θ
sin θ = cot − cos θ cot .
sin 2α 2 2
(a) = 2 cot α
1 − cos2 α
*** Exercise 32
1 − sin2 β cot β
(b) =
sin 2β 2 Use Theorem 7.1 (i) and (ii) to
sin 2γ prove
(c) = tan γ tan α + tan β
2 − 2 sin2 γ (a) tan(α+β) =
1 − tan α tan β
** Exercise 29 tan α − tan β
(b) tan(α−β) =
1 + tan α tan β
Verify.
** Exercise 33
cos α + sin α sec α
(a) = Use Theorem 7.1 to prove (a)
cos 2α 1 − tan α
sine is odd and (b) cosine is
cos β − sin β csc β even. This exercise is only
(b) =
cos 2β 1 + cot β for didactic purposes; we used
that sine and cosine are odd
cos 2γ + cos γ and even, respectively, when we
(c) = cos γ + 1
2 cos γ − 1 proved Theorem 7.1.
128
Appendices
129
131
Appendix D
Unit Circle
y
√ √
− 12 , 23 (0, 1) 1
, 3
• 2 2
√ √ √ √
− 2 2 • 90◦ • 2 2
2 , 2 2 , 2
• 120◦ 60◦ •
√ √
3 1 ◦ π ◦ 3 1
− 2 , 2 135 2 45 2 , 2
2π π
• 3 3 •
3π π
150◦ 4 4 30◦
5π π
6 6
(−1, 0) (1, 0)
• 180◦ π 0 0◦ • x
7π 11π
6 6
5π 7π
210◦ 4 4 330◦
√ • 4π 5π • √
3 3
3 1 3π 3 1
− 2 , −2 225◦ 2 315◦ 2 , −2
• 240◦ 300◦ •
√ √ √ √
− 22 , − 22 • 270◦ • 2
2
, − 2
2
√ √
•
3 3
− 12 , − 2 (0, −1)
1
2 , − 2
132
133
134
Appendix E
List of Identities
Reciprocal Identities
1 cos θ
cos θ = cot θ =
sec θ sin θ
1
sin θ =
csc θ Even and Odd Identities
1 sin(−θ) = − sin θ
tan θ =
cot θ
1 cos(−θ) = cos θ
sec θ =
cos θ
tan(−θ) = − tan θ
1
csc θ =
sin θ
sec(−θ) = sec θ
1
cot θ =
tan θ
csc(−θ) = − csc θ
cot(−θ) = − cot θ
Quotient Identities
sin θ
tan θ =
cos θ
135
Pythagorean Identities sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ
cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1
2 2
cos θ − sin θ
1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ cos 2θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1
1 − 2 sin2 θ
136
Product to Sum and Differ-
ence Identities
B
cos α cos β= 21 cos(α+β)+cos(α−β) •
a c
sin α sin β= 21 cos(α−β)−cos(α+β)
sin α cos β= 12 sin(α+β)+sin(α−β) • •
C b A
cos α sin β= 21 sin(α+β)−sin(α−β)
Law of Cosines
1
arccsc x = arcsin
x
Euler’s Formula
1
arccot x = arctan eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ
x
137
138
Appendix F
Answers
139
(b) (i) 262.219 (c) T V ≈ 15.150
(ii) 78.613
(d) ST ≈ 11.726
(c) (i) 71.407
(ii) 41.716 16. (a) U V ≈ 18.033
140
22. (a) 25.377◦ (d) 30◦ 24. (a) 24.620◦ (c) 8.213◦
26.
√ √
√ √ 1 2 3
1 2 3 x
x 2 2 2
2 2 2
(a) (b) π π π
arcsin x 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ arcsin x
6 4 3
141
(b) 419.550 m 39. 467.128 m
38. 72.471 ft
142
π π
8. (a) θ = 90◦ 13. (a) (f)
6 6
(b) θ = 180◦ π π
(b) (g)
◦ ◦ 12 3
(c) θ = 45 or θ = 225
π
(c) 4π
(d) θ = 30◦ or θ = 330◦ 10 (h)
π 9
(e) θ = 60◦ or θ = 120◦ (d)
4 (i) 2π − 5
◦
(f) θ = 120 or θ = 300 ◦ π
(e) (j) 1
8
9. (a) ϕ = π/2 or ϕ = 3π/2
(b) ϕ = π/6 or ϕ = 5π/6
1 1
(c) ϕ = 5π/6 or ϕ = 14. (a) (c) −
2 2
11π/6
1 1
(b) (d) −
(d) ϕ = π/3 or ϕ = 5π/3 2 2
(e) ϕ = π/4 or ϕ = 5π/4
√ √
(f) ϕ = 7π/6 or ϕ = 2 2
15. (a) (c) −
11π/6 2 2
√ √
2 2
10. (a) QI (d) QII (b) − (d)
2 2
(b) QIV (e) QIV
(c) QIII (f) QIII √ √
16. (a) 3 (c) 3
√ √
(b) − 3 (d) − 3
11. (a) Positive x-axis
(b) Positive y-axis
√ √
(c) Negative x-axis 3 3
17. (a) − (f) −
3 3
(d) Negative y-axis
(b) 0 (g) −2
12. (a) 33◦ (e) 37◦ 1 (h) −1
(c) − √
(b) 46 ◦
(f) 21◦ 2 2
(i) −
(c) 29◦ (g) 44◦ (d) undef. 2
√ 1
(d) 53◦ (h) 62◦ (e) − 2 (j) −
2
143
√ √
3 3 csc β = 13/12,
18. (a) (g) −
2 2 sec β = 13/5,
(b) −1 and cot β = 5/12.
√
√ 3
(c) − 2 (h) − (b) sin(π − β) = 12/13,
3
cos(π − β) = −5/13,
(d) 0 √
√ tan(π − β) = −12/5,
2
2 3 (i) − csc(π − β) = 13/12,
(e) − 2
3 sec(π − β) = −13/5,
√ and cot(π − β) =
2 3 1
(f) − (j) − −5/12.
3 2
(c) sin(2π −β) = −12/13
19. (a) sin α = 3/5, cos α = cos(2π − β) = 5/13
4/5, tan α = 3/4, tan(2π − β) = −12/5
csc α = 5/3, sec α = csc(2π−β) = −13/12
5/4, and cot α = 4/3. sec(2π − β) = 13/5
cot(2π − β) = −5/12.
(b) sin(360◦ −α)=−3/5,
cos(360◦ −α)=4/5, (d) sin(β + π) = −12/13
tan(360◦ −α)=−3/4, cos(β + π) = −5/13
csc(360◦ −α)=−5/3, tan(β + π) = 12/5
sec(360◦ −α)=5/4, and csc(β + π) = −13/12
cot(360◦ −α)=−4/3. sec(β + π) = −13/5
cot(β + π) = 5/12.
(c) sin(α+180◦ )=−3/5,
cos(α+180◦ )=−4/5,
tan(α+180◦ )=3/4, 15 17
21. (a) − (d) −
csc(α+180 )=−5/3,
◦ 17 8
sec(α+180◦ )=−5/4, and 8 17
cot(α+180◦ )=4/3.
(b) − (e)
15 15
(d) sin(180◦ −α)=3/5, 8 8
(c) (f) −
cos(180◦ −α)=−4/5, 17 17
tan(180◦ −α)=−3/4,
csc(180◦ −α)=5/3, 22. (a) undef. (e) 1
sec(180◦ −α)=−5/4, and √
cot(180◦ −α)=−4/3.
3 (f) −1
(b) − √
3
20. (a) sin β = 12/13, √ (g) 3
(c) − 2 √
cos β = 5/13, 2 3
tan β = 12/5, (d) −1 (h)
3
144
23. (a) 1 1 (c) 1/3 + 2n, 2/3 + 2n,
(e) −
2 4/3 + 2n, or 5/3 + 2n
(b) 0 √
(f) 2 (d) 2πn/5, π/15+2πn/5,
√ √
2 3 2 3 or π/3 + 2πn/5
(c) (g) −
3 3 28. (a) 120◦ or 200◦
(d) −1 (h) −1 (b) 15◦ , 45◦ , 135◦ , 165◦ ,
255◦ , or 285◦
24. Answers vary. (c) 90◦ or 270◦
25. (a) D: R and R: [−1, 1] (d) 105◦ , 165◦ , 285◦ , or
(b) D: R and R: [−1, 1] 345◦
145
(d) sin θ = 24/25, 2πn
cos θ = −7/25,
sec θ = −25/7, (c) π/4 + 2πn, 3π/4 +
csc θ = 25/24, and 2πn, 5π/4 + 2πn, or
cot θ = −7/24. 7π/4 + 2πn
(a) 3 2 0 0
(d) 1 2π 1 π
(e) 2 4π 0 −2π
2.
146
π 2π 2π
(a) f (x) = −3 sin 3x − 3 (b) g(x) = π cos 4x + 3 −2
7. Possible answers:
πx 2π x
(a) f (x) = 3 tan 10 − 5 +1 (b) g(x) = −4 cot 5 −3
147
Period Vertical Shift Phase Shift Asymptotes
πx
(b) g(x) = − 23π x π
(a) f (x) = 3 sec 2 +2 2 csc 2 − 2 −
11π
π 3 π
(a) y = 2 cos 2x +π −1 (g) y = 3 tan 2x + 4 −2
(b) y = −5 sin( 12 x + π) π π
(h) y = π cot 8x − 4 +π
(c) y = cos 3x − π2 + 2
= 3 sec π4 x + 3
(i) y
(d) y = 12 sin π4 x + 2π − 1 = −2π csc 2x + π2 − π
(j) y
= π2 sec 2π π
(e) y = 2 tan π2 x − π + 1
(k) y 3 x+ 3 +π
1
cot(x + 135◦ ) = 12 csc π2 x − π − 23
(f) y = 2 (l) y
148
√ √ √ √
6− 2 3 (d) − 3
1. (a) 3. (a) −
4 2 1
(b) −1 (e)
√ 2
(b) 2 − 3 √ √
3 3
(c) − (f) −
√ √ 2 3
6− 2 √
(c) 4. (a) −1 2
4 √ (d)
2
3
√ (b) − (e) 1
(d) 3+2 2
√ √
3 3
√ √ (c) − (f) −
3 2
6+ 2
(e) −
4
5. (a) π/6 + πn
√ √
(f) − 6 − 2 (b) 3π/4 + 2πn or 5π/4 +
2πn
√ √ (c) π/2 + πn
(g) − 6 − 2 √
96 + 5 17
6. (a)
√ 117
(h) 3+2 √
40 + 12 17
√ (b) −
2. (a) 3−2 117
√
√ √ 96 + 5 17
6+ 2 (c) √
(b) − 12 17 − 40
4
√ 117
(c) − 3−2 (d) √
96 − 5 17
√ √ 84 85
2− 6 7. (a) − (c) −
(d) 85 36
4
13 36
√ √ (b) (d)
(e) 6− 2 84 77
√ √ √
(f) 2− 6
π
8. (a) y = 5 2 sin πx +
√ √ 4
6+ 2 π
(g) (b) y = −6 sin x +
4 3
√ √ π
(h) − 3−2 (c) y = − 2 sin x −
4
149
π
(d) y = 2 sin 2x − (d) 2πn, π/3 + 2πn,
6 2π/3 + 2πn, πn,
9. Answer omitted to save 4π/3+2πn, or 5π/3+
space. 2πn
p √
2+ 3
10. (a) 4.331 (d) 2.145 17. (a) −
2
(b) 0.292 (e) 0.927 √
(b) −2 − 3
(c) 1.743 (f) 1.466 p √
2− 2
(c)
11. (a) −0.668 (d) 0.309 2
2
(b) 0.831 (e) 2.305 (d) p √
2− 3
(c) 1.556 (f) −2.190 √
(e) 2 − 3
2
12. Answers vary. (f) − p √
2+ 2
13. Answers vary.
√
q p
14. sin 2θ = 240/289 2− 2+ 3
(g)
cos 2θ = −161/289 2
tan 2θ = −240/161 √
q p
sec 2θ = −289/161 2+ 2+ 2
(h) −
csc 2θ = 289/240 2
cot 2θ = −161/240
p √
2+ 2
18. (a)
15. sin 2ϕ = 24/25 2
cos 2ϕ = 7/25 √
(b) 3−2
tan 2ϕ = 24/7 p √
sec 2ϕ = 25/7 2+ 2
csc 2ϕ = 25/24 (c)
2
cot 2ϕ = 7/24 2
(d) −p √
16. (a) π/2 + 2πn, 7π/6 + 2− 3
2πn, 3π/2 + 2πn, or √
11π/6 + 2πn (e) 1+ 2
2
(b) 2πn, π/6 + 2πn, (f) p √
5π/6 + 2πn, or π + 2− 3
2πn p √
2− 2+ 3
(g) p √
(c) π + 2πn 2− 3
150
√ 1
q p
2− 2+ 2 (c) −
(h) − 4
2 √
√ 2−1
19. sin(θ/2) = 2/10 (d)
√ 4
cos(θ/2) = −7 2/10 √
tan(θ/2) = −1/7 1− 3
√ 22. (a)
sec(θ/2) = −5
√ 2/7 4
csc(θ/2) = 5 2 √ √
6+ 2
cot(θ/2) = −7 (b)
√ 8
20. sin(ϕ/2) = 5 √34/34 √ √
3− 2
cos(ϕ/2) = 3 34/34 (c)
4
tan(ϕ/2) = √5/3
sec(ϕ/2) = √34/3 1
(d) −
csc(ϕ/2) = 34/5 4
cot(ϕ/2) = 3/5 23. (a) iv (e) i
√
1− 3 (b) i (f) ii
21. (a)
4
√ √ (c) iii (g) ii
6− 2
(b) (d) iii (h) i
8
151