Conventional Airspray
Conventional Airspray
Conventional Airspray
This Manual Is for your reference and may be consulted on a day to day his,
during Inspector Training or simply used as a gutde by persons not widely
experienced in the Industrial Coatings / Painting Industry.
If this is your personal Manual, it may be useful to record your Name, Company and
any other relevant information, below.
NAME: ........................................
COMPANY: .....................................
OTHER: ........................................
To register ownership of this Manual, please complete and return the Registration
Card found in the inside front pocket of the binder.
f? elcornetec
CONTENTS
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PART 1 INTRODUCTION
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PART 7 HEALTH & SAFETY
PART 8 - GLOSSARY
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PART 9 APPENDICES
Conversion Factors
Basic Cornion
a -
Available as optional exhas:
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PART 12 PAlKT TESTING
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PART 13 MARINE COATINGS INSPECTION
Firstly, the requirements of all Clients and Manufaclurers d i r to some extent in the areas
of ambient conditions, standards of cleanliness, application techniques and safety
management. The differences are most obvious betwleen geographically spread areas such
as Great Btitain and the Middle East. We have, in sane Sections of this Manual, defined
tasks and operations as 'mandatory' or 'optional'. This may sometimes conflict with your
instructions. The Client specification and Manufacturer's recommendations must be your
final arbiter in these respects. In the absence of these documents, this Manual will provide a
superb guide. Secondly, the Health 8 Safety Legislation and Regulat~onsare vastly
different, in detail, between countries and continents. To ensure we do not recommend
conditions which would be considered unsafe anywhere in the world (at today's date) we
use the UK Safety Management Systems as a yard stick. In this way we are able to detarl
all of the most common forms of Health & Safety Protection, such as, controlling hazardous
substances and assessment of risks to Peeonnel/ Public, Thirdly, the duties of the painting
Inspector may be as wide or as namw as the Client cares to make them. In developing this
Manual we have walked a tightrope, indicating in some areas a reponsibil~tyfor
ENSURING or CONFIRMING a specific result is achieved, and in other areas CHECKING
for the result. The Manual reflects typical requirements in the UK as of 1997. Such paints
should be idenhfied between the Client and the Inspector prior to the commencement ot the
workscope.
The primary task of the painting Inspector is to m u r e that the detalled requirements of the
specification and Manufacturers' recommendatloris are m p l e t e d to the satisfaction of the
@ Client. The guidelines set out in this Manual shwld be regarded as minimum requirements,
which may be superseded by particular instructions contained in the speciiication,
Manufactureh data sheets or Issued by the Client. Deviations from the spectfication may be
necessary to meet plant productton requirements etc. and in such instances any changes to
the specification must be authonsed by the Client, in writing.
An important part of the duties of a painting Inspector is the prepamtion of clear detailed
records of the work Thb is usually accomplished via a Daily Inspechcm Repoh These Daily
Inspection Reports are of immediate interest to the Client as an indication of work in
progress or lack of progress. In lhe longer term they are important traceability documents
for use in the event of coating failure, when full details of location, preparation, coatings and
problems encountered are required. The reports should be compiled so that both interests
are satisfied.
PART 1 INTRODUCTION
A comprehensive list of the tasks that a painting Inspector may be called upon to undertake
from lime to time.
The duties are set out as a checklist, so that the Inspectors may ensure they have
completed all the necessary duties related to a particular task
Details are given of the equipment necessary, the operation of the equipment, method of
measurement, calculation of results and interpretation to determine whether the ambient
conditions are sultable for surface preparation, application of paint or metal coating or other
associated advity
Use ot Instruments, interpretation of appmpriate Standards and special tests with which the
Inspector should be thoroughly familiar to ensure that the surface is properly prepared b r
the application of coating materials.
Information and tests with which the Inspector should be familiar to ersure that palnf of the
right type is in the proper condition so that when it is applied to the property prepared
surfaceit will give satisfactory long term protection to the substrate.
A brief detail of corrosion resistance of metal coatings along with application methods and
choice of coatings.
PART 8 GLOSSARY
Approximately M O terms assdated with corrosion, Gonosion theory, paints, painting and
similar topics associated with the protection on steel are briefly explained.
Conversion Factors -
Various charts and factors to help in the arithmetic in paint and volume calculations
Basic Corrosion -
Conversion factors - An understanding of the nature of corrnslon
To put the duties and rote of the painting Inspecbr in pewpmive, we have reproduced
several quotes from 'British Standard' 8S 5493:1977 Section Four (Code of Practice for the
Protective Coating of Iron and Steel against Corrosion).
The potential dumb!Iifyof a mating system can be reatbed only if it is applied to e sufiably
prepared surface. in the correcf manner and under correct conditions".
"Painting and metal coating differ from many other lnljllstrffalprocesses in that fhay are
susceptible to Operator abuse or adwem envimmental mfluences:
(Inspeclion} primary task Is to check th8t the mating Specification is being prqoedy
*its
mowed and where, for any mason, th13 Is not so, the Inspector should lead to the
instigation ofimmediate remedial actrbn:
The above quotations should form the inspiration for all painting Inspectors to undertake
their considerable responsibili9es, to ensure that potential durability of a coating system is
realised to tt-te satisfaction of the Client and with the cooperation of the coating Applicator.
The Manual sets down the tasks that the palnting Inspector will be required to perfom in
the discharge of his responsibilities. Guidelines are provided such that each task may be
carried out efficiently, and achieve its purpose,
2.0 AMBlWTCONDrnONS
40 PAINT
In the event of a dispute, for whatever reason, between the Cfient and the
Contractor, then the specificatkm provides the basis against which the work actually
carried out will be judged.
Some Clients will give precedence to the Manufacturer's recommendations aver the
paint speclfimtion. However as a general rule, the Cfient specifdon will be the
highest level of guidance followed by the Manufactureh recommendations, where
me specification is ambiguous or indeterminate.
Specific pmjects vtllise the contractors own procedures and method statements as
the basis for contract requirements. In this case, ifthese documents are accepted by
the Client men they will effectively become the Client specifcation.
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SECTION 2 O AMBIENT CONDITIONS
2.1 Measure (as close as practicable to the working surf@:
2.3 Observe for harmfur atmospheric pollution, cbmicals, salt spray,fumes, dust.
2.4 Determine whether the measuernents and observations taken allow work to
proceed.
@ 3.1.4 Special t W to be carded out, e.g. rogue peaks. soluble iron corrosion pmdum,
surface contamination, sieve analysis, weld areas.
- Plan
- Progress chart
- Ensure that the Daily Inspedon Report is related to the progress chart
3.3 Check the condition of the steel (pesurlace c o n c T i ) before cleaning commences.
3.5.3 The surface is free from oil, grease, dirt and dust.
3.6 Carry ovt special tests required by the specification, e.g. soluble salt, rogue peaks,
abrasive sieve analysis.
3.8.1 That the areas are suitably marked up so that they can be identified.
3.8.2 That the Supervisor is aware of your reasons for rejection and requirements for
furlher work.
3.8.3 Recheck t k area under preparation to ensure that the complete area meets the
required standards.
3.9 Wnen the specffication calk for surface preparation by mechantcal cleaning, in
addition to the above, it will be necessary to check that:
3.9.2 Any visible peaks and ridges mat may be produced by power deanlng rftethods
are removed.
4.2 Check that all painls to be used cn a surface am supplied by one palnt Manufacturer
or as specified by the dient.
4.3 Check that the paint is the correct type for the applicaiion method being employed
i.e. brush, splay type.
4.4 Record batch numbers and ensure that the paint is withdraw from stores in proper
sequenoe (usually oldest batch first). The batch numbering sequence shown on the
product will vary from Manufacturer to Manufacturer. Some have dates and some do
not!
4.5 Check the conditions of storage against Manufacturer's guidelines stnce the
warranty (if any) on the material will depend upon proper handling.
4.6 Monitor material usage to confirm mat there is sufficient paint in storage for
completion of the contract, the Contractor has sufficient earmarked for the contract
in a oentral store or that the material can be delivered in a timely fashion without
work had-UP.
4.7.t All materials are thoroughly stirred so that there Is no residue on the bottom of
the container
4.81 Confin that the materids are mixed strictly in accordance with the paint
Manufacturer's data sheets.
4.8.2 Confin bFat any induction time is r*ridy adhered to (if applicable).
4.8.3 GonfErm that no materfal is used after the expiry of its pot life.
4.8.4 Bear in mind that there is a direct relationship between temperature and pot IHe.
The higher the temperature. the shorter the useful pot life.
4.8.5 At the expiry of the pot life confirm that the paint is dtscarded or placed in
quarantine. Be aware of Exothem reaction if a large volume of rntxed paint is telt
to cure in the paint can.
4.9 Confirm that any additions to paints are strictly [n accordance with the
Manufacturer's recommendatiom.
4.10 Confirm that all necessary sampling procedures and testing have been carrled out
prior to the commencement of work.
4-11 When aocmwriate i.e. at the commencement ot a project !contract, ensure iha
painting do& not start until the muHs of any tests on submitted samples have been
received by the Client, These may indude wet samples. test plates etc.
@ M . N m Caw l r p c l o n Manual
Doc.No:ThRA-0147 Issue 02 Part 2
mcb'mson l & n Technical Support Ud..
England 1894-5,7
Pa!p5d12
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SECVON 5.0 PAINT APPLICA710N.
5.1 Check that the paint is applied only to surfaces in a condion fit to receive it.
5.1.1 Check that the ambient conditions and method of application are satisfactory for
the paint.
5.i.2 Check that the particular paint being applied does not have any speclal
restrictions on its application.
5.1.3 Check that the surface to which the paint is being applied is free from oil grease,
dust, corrosion products, grit, or any other material that would advemly affect its
performanceas detailed within the specification.
5.1.4 Check that the surface to which the paint Is being applied is mmct trom the
view point of overcoating time (maximin),
5.2 Check v b t h e r a M p e mt hw been specifled and, ifso, that it has been applied
corny.
5.3 Check that each coat of paint Is uniformly applied and is free from runs, sags or
other visible defects.
5.4 Ensure that any areas of defective m t I n g are marked for remedial atlention.
5.5 Recheck areas preuiously marked as defective to ensure that the remedial work has
been carried out.
5.6 Check pamcularly, the areas which are less readily accessible to ensure complete
merage of all surfaces. Pay particular attention to areas around boA holes, nuts
and bolts, the top side of soffits and I-beams, W
e more difficult comers on angle
beams, areas where water may accumulate, and all other areas which are difficult to
see unless you use an inspection mirror.
5.7 Ensure that the wet film thickness is calculakd from dry film thickness and is
measured and recorded immediatefy after application, and that the dry film obtained
will meet the requErements of the specification andror Manufacturer's
recommendations (see Figure 1).
5.0 Measure the dry film thickness: and ensure that it meets the requirements ot the
specification and the Manufacture* reoommendaffons. Record results and work
piece references.
5.9 Ensure that the dry film thickness is in agreement with the expected value calculated
fmthe wet film thickness.
5.12 Chedr that the handling of Items during and after painting is carried out in such a
way that the paint coatings are not damaged.
5.13 Check that painted items are not moved before the @nt coating is sufficiently cured
to withstand handling damage.
5.14 When it is not possible to repair damage prior to transportation, ensure that a
0 separate list identifying all damaged areas is submitted to the Client.
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SECTION 6.0 METAL COATINGS.
6.1 Sprayed Aluminium or Zmc.
6.1 Ensure that Me specification calls far the work to be carried out in accordance
with relevant Standards such as EN 22063 or equivalent.
6.1.2 Ensure that the surface preparation is in accordance with this standard paylng
particular attention to cleanliness, profile and freedom fmm contamination.
6.1.5 Ensure that the ambient condftiins are In amdance with the specification for
the application of sprayed metal coating.
6.1.4 When a holding coat ot metal spray is speciffed and appli6d to R e prepared
surFace, ensure mat the full thickness specified is built up as soon as reasonably
practical (see Figure 2).
6.1.6 Where the specification calls for the sprayed metal surface to be sealed, ensure
that this operation is undertaken as swJn as posslbte afier metal spraylng and
under the appropriate ambient conditions.
6.1.7 Check whether the spedfidon calls for a test of the adhesion of the sprayed
metal coating and, if so, ensure that the test is carried out and reported in
accordance with the appropriate section of BS 25691EN 22063 or specification
requirements.
6.1.9 Be aware ol the toxfc hazards of the metals being sprayed and take all
appropriate precadom for p u r health and safety.
6.2.1 Ensure that the specificalion calls for the work to be carried out in accordance
with relevant Standards such as BS 7293971 or equivalent.
6.2.2 Measure the thickness of the zinc coating as required and ensure that it Is in
accordance with the specification or Bmsh Standard.
Note that In the BTitlsh Slantlard zlnc coating thickness is related to metal
thickness. Hence, it is necessary to quote steel thickness when reporting.
6.2.3 Carry out a very thorough examination of the complete structure chedring for
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SECTION 7 0 REPORTS AND RECORDS.
7.1 Confirm that at the start of a contract, (if speclfled) appropriate documentation is
prepared by the Contractor.
7.2 Complete the Dally lnspactlon Report form using the foHowing:
7.2.1 Ensure that all boxes am completed with the relevant information (see Flgure 3
for typical inspection report).
7.22 Ensurethat boxes not approprfate for a particular day are cmssed out.
7.2.3 Ensure that reports are cross-referencedwith the plans, site instructions and
progress &a& as approprfate ta the project / contract.
7.3 Complete other IepOrts, as required, by the Client, which may indude the following:
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SECTION 8.0 ORGANISATION OF WORK.
8.1 Ensure that you effectively organise your time so that you are available for
inspections when required. Critical areas, parlicularly final surface prepamtion,
should be given priority.
8.2 Thoroughly study all sections of the Specification and ensure that any areas of doubt
are clarified by the Client priw to work being undertaken.
8,3 Constantly check on all aspects of health and safety for yoursetf. Contractors men
and olher Workers on site.
8.4 Attend and organise, where necessary, all s[te meetings called, whether periodic or
'ad hoc', to plan or progress the work or to solve a particular problem that has
arisen. Take notes of main points discussed.
8.5 U a k e regular?y wfth the Client's representative on site. At the start of a contract
agree with the Client the level of liaison that he requires, identifying thwe areas
where you have discretion.
8.6 In conjunction with the Client's representathe on Site, determine his requirements for
work measurement and rour res~onsibilitiesin this resoect. This information mav
already be detailed withiithe spe&fication.
8.7 Ch8ck that good housekeeping is o k m d in care of tods and equipment, correct
handllng and maintenance, site tidiness and shop discipline.
8.8 Emure that the Supervisor is aware of, and understands, the wishes of the Cllent
regarding your areas of authority.
8.10 Check fiat the Cmractors' supervision is aware of the requirements of the
specification.
8.1 1 ~t tha end of the contract, ensure that at1 charts, plans, log books, s~edffcations
and data sheets, punch or snag lists are filed in the appropriate location.
COMMENTS:
DATE: DATE:
Figure 3
Typical lnspectlon Report
For Exarnph?:
If the steel ternperaturn k 1% below &Reation at 7 am and the sun is shinino,
then R maybe OK to proceed wHh work, mversely if the same conditions prevail at
4 prn then condiiions will probably only get worse. In the evPnt of a coating failure,
the Painting Inspector's ambient condition recordings are always reviewed.
SECTION 2.0 -
MEASUREMENT OF; AIR TEMPERATURE,
REMTIVE HUMIDITY % DEW POINT USING A WHIRLING
HYGROMETER. (See Figure 4).
2.1 To Check the Instrument
2.2.1 Whlrl the hygrometer dightiy faster than I80 revolutions per minute (3
revolutions per second) for 1 minute.
2.2.2 For best mulff. the hygrometer should be out of dlrect sunliaM while being
whirled. In a stilt atmosphere, the Opetator shou~ciwalk slowly forwad while
whirling so that the readings are not affected #y the body.
2.2.3 Read both thermometers, notlng the wet bulb temperature first.
2.2.6 Repeat until each thermometer reads a mstant temperature foliowing twa
S u ~ 0 3 ~ ~ hwhirlings
re
2.3 Calculate the values for relathre humidity & dew p i n t from taMes provided.
2.3.1 Work out the difference betwen the dly bulb temperature and the wet bulb
temperature.
2.3.2 Frwn the tables, read dorm the columns to the appropriate air or dry bulb
temperature.
2.3.3 Read across the columns to the approphate temperature difference column.
2.3.4 Read off and record the &Hve h u m i d i and dew point.
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SECTION 3.0 STEEL TEMPERATURE (!he Flgure 5).
Select a part of the steel W i n the area b be worked whlch is typical of that area
with regard to exposure to the weather (sun, wind).
3.1 DFal'IhennonWem(Magnetic).
1 Fix the thermometer to the steel surface and note the temperature. The posluon
of fildng should be such that the gauge is not likely to get knocked, blasted or
painted. The gauge should not be in direct sunlight or on a wind exposed
surface. Where high Or low temperatures are a problem, more than one reading
may be necessary.
3.1.3 Alter a further 5 minutes read the temperature again and continue reading at
about 5 minute intervals until a constant temperature is reached. A dial
thermometer may take up to 30 minutes to reach constant temperature.
3.2.1 Engage probe, ensuring lt is inserted cowctty into the instrument socket; with
some instruments this automatically switches on the instrument so that the
temperature of the probe is ind'iied.
3.2.2 Press the probe firmly agdnst the surlace where It is required to measure the
temperature.
3.2.4 Record the steel temperature and Include the time of readlng and location where
readings were taken.
3.2.5 Depending on me type of Instrument, elther switch the Iristrument off ot unplug
the probe (autornatlcally switching the instrument om.
Note: Do not drag the probe aver the surface.
CancEusion -
You have measured:
- Air temperature
- Steel surface temperature
- Derived relative humidity and dew point
Consult tb speclflcations and Manufacturer's recommendations to determine
whether ambient conditions are as laid down.
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SECTION 4.0 RESIDUAL MOISTURE.
At present there is no satisfactory test to determine the presence ot moisture on the
surlace.
The Inspectw must therefore rely on visual examinatiron. Look for areas of hlgh gloss
and wipe the s u r l m with a tissue, Sprinkle a little talcum powder on the surlace and
then gently blow the talc If the surface is dry and free from oil the powder will be
readily blown off.
Bear In rnlnd that a large steel structure may take a long Pme to warm up sufficiently
to evaporate all moisture from h e surface. Areas exposed b me wind will tend to
dry off more easily than sheltered areas. Look at the ground. windows, unheated
buildings or vehicles parked overnight in the area for ewdenoe of condensation.
Prmsctive Coatings Inspaction Manual eRoblmn I d n Technical S u m Ltd.,
Doc.No: TMA4147 Issue 02 Pert3 England 199.4-5,T
Page 4 a1 7
Remember that you are acting as the Qualiiy Controller on site and that It Is
generally required that almost all paints are applied to a dry surface to obtain
maximum durability.
Where you are involved with materlds designed to be applied to a damp surlace. it
may be necessary to seek guidance from the paint Manufacturer for a more precise
definition of the application conditions.
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SECTION 5.0 ATnnOSPHERlC POLLUTION.
fhls must be by visual obsemtion of If19surroundings. Ctearly, if the site is close to
the sea or chemical works, thew is the risk of surface contarnfnation.
Generally, surface contamination wilt not b~ a problem during surface preparation,
when the surface is being primed within 4 hours of deanlng. However, when a paint
system is being applied, there may be delays ot severat days or weeks between
coats, durlng which time, the surfaces may have become contaminated. Under such
circumstances, the specification should be consulted and the Client advised,
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SECTION 6.0 WORK f 0 PROCEED.
APter taking all the above considemtiorrs into account, ensure that the Contractor's
Supervisor is aware of y w r decision and, where you advise delays on further
treatment, that he understands the reasons behind me decision.
If necessary, and in the event of a disagreement with the Contractor, then it may be
necessary to involve the Glint.
Bear in mind that the condigom at the time of the coating application, and for a few
hours aflemards, will determine whether the paint system will perform according to
the Manufactureh recommendations or fail prematurely.
Note.
This Part does not detail wentiladon requiremem even though these can be as
important to the project as temperatures, relative humidity etc. Ensure that
ventilation is available, especially in confined locations.
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figure 6 Pictorial Blaet S t m i ~ h kSa1,2,~~h
m d 3 {squivdmt)
1.0 OBJECTIVE
3.0 STANDARDS
3.1 Swedish
3.2 British
3.3 IS6 8501 (BS 7079: 1988)
3.4 European Scale of Degree of Rusting
-- Fedcyanide Test
Mertkoquent Test
At the start of a contract the Client may request that reference panels are produced
by the Contractor. T h e panels should be prepared using the same plant,
Operatives and operating conditions as will be employed on the contract worlrscope.
The reference panel must meet the conditions of the specification andlor the Client
Instructions, with regard tm
- Cleafliness
- Surface profile
- Density of profile
and it must be agreed by the Contractor, Client and Inspector that these conditions
have been sabisfied.
The reference panel should be stored in contact with VPI (Vapwr Phase Inhibitor,
rust-Inhibiting paper) paper, or in a sealed bag whfch also contains sillm gel to
absorb moisture.
Similar portions of the reference pane! should be held by the Clknt, Contractor and
Inspector for the duration of the Contract.
During the preparationof the ~ferencepanel. it is essential that the Inspector makes
complete and detailed notes of the conditions and procedures adopted. Any delays
and the reasons, and any changes in ambiem or operational conditions, must be
particularly noted.
Where new steel work is being prepared for painting, the Inspector shall examine
the steel surface and decide which of me conditions, A, 8, C or D best describes the
surface. The facts should be entered into the appropriate box in the Daily Inspection
Reporl.
The Inspector should be familiar wjth the photographs and description for all levels
of surface preparation, but they should pay particular attention to the ~a2'12and
Sa3 gmdes which are defined as follows:
saz112 -
Very thorough blast deaning. Millscale, rust & foreign matter shall be removed to the
extent that the only traces remaining are slight stains in the form of spots or stripes.
Finally, the surface is cleaned with a vacuum cleaner, clean dry compressed air or a
dean brush. It shall then correspond in appearance to the prints designated ~a2'12.
Sa3-
Blast cleaning to pure metal. millscale, rust and foreign matter shall be removed
completely. Finally, the sutfaoe is cleaned with either a vacuum cleaner, clean dry
compressed air, or a clean brush. It shall then have a uniform metallic colour and
correspond in appearance to the print designated Sa3. It should be noted that the
Swedish Standard makes no menlion of surface profile.
Refers only to the condition of the steel surface after grit blasting (It should be noted
that this standard and the Swedish standard are only strictly applfcable to dry grit
blasting).
The Inspector should Be familiar with this standard and should pay particular
attention to the First and S m d Qualities of cleanliness which am definecf (in
reverse order) as:-
Second Quality -
The entire surface shall show blast cleaning pattern and shall be oornpletely free
from contamination of oil grease, dlit or other matter, except that tightly bonded
residues of millscale or rust shall be permissible up to the following Ilmik:-
First Quality.
The entire surface shall show blast-cleaning pattern and shall be clean bare steel
completely free from any contamination or discolouration.
- The IS0 standard also gives pictorial standards for surface preparation using
dinerent types of abrasives and tor flame cleaning. The International Standards
Organisation is producing supplements to this docxlrnenl which include surface
profile and cleanliness measurements.
This scale for painted surfaces, is similar in structure and format to the Swedish
standard rust grades A-D, for unpainted steel.
It should be noted that where penmiages of coating breakdown are quoted, these
apply only to visible rust which has broken the surface of the paint film.
Where Inspectors are invohred with maintenance painting, they shall note the
condition ot the painted suflae, prior to preparation, by comparison with the
photographs 'Re'O to 'Re'9, and enter this information on to the Daily Inspection
Report as appropriate.
Note.
Readers should also be aware of the International Standards IS0 4628-1 to IS0
4628-6,which define and categorise intensity, quantity and size of common types of
defects i.e. blistering, flaking, chalking, cracking and rusting.
Grit blasting i
s usually wnducted with angular abrasive for open blastlng methods.
Shot blasting uses round shot and is usually used for automated systems (i.e..
wheelabrator).
The profile may be defined as the greatest vertical distance between the summit of
any peak on a blast-cleaned surface and the bottom of an immediately adjacent
trough, but without tak~nginto a m u n t any exceptional 'rogue' peaks which may be
formed by partides of abrasive embedded in the surface.
- Needle gauge
- Glass plate tor calFbration
4.1.1 Insbuckions for Use.
To zero the instrument, press down the foot of the gauge onto the surface of the
glass plate using light pressure and note the readrng of the pointer.
Repeal the above at least three times on different parts of h e glass plate and
note readings.
If the readings are within two small dhrisiom elther side of zero the instrument is
calibrated ready for use.
I f the readings are consistent but not on zero, then readjust the zero on the dial
by releasing the damp on the rim of the instrument (on the top left side) and
rotating the dial until the pointer reads zero.
4.1 2 Calibration.
Place hm shims of the same thickness or. if available, a shim rmh a notch cut in
it, under the base plate so that the needle Is clear.
a
Note the dial reading which shall correspond to the thickness of the shim if the
instrument is calibrated com&y.
4.1.3 Reading.
The maximum readma on the dials is typically 800 microns, though this should
be confined before Glibration using the instritmmt ~anufacturesinstructions.
Thus. the instrument is calibrated such that typically-
1 rewlutlon = 200 microns
1 division - TO microns
f small f ~ i s i o n - 2 microns
Check that the area to be measured is free from all dust and grit.
Check that tho instrument has been zeroed correctfy.
Press down the foot of the instrument m to the surface of the steel and note the
position of the pointers. Record the reading in microns.
Continue to lake readings wer an area of approximately one square metre until
a minimum of 10 readings have been obtained.
If the readings Indicate that the proflle of the surface is not amptable then:
Assuming acceptable values tor the surface profile have been obtained as above
then:
If the resub are consistent and within the agreed specification, then the rate of
readings may be reduced to 1 per 5 square metres.
A careful visual inspection will be maintained to ensure that the surface profile
remains uniform and that there is no change irl grit size or working conditions.
If it is found that the surface profile readings are outside the limits specified then
it will be necessary b follow through the procedure as laid out above.
- Incompressible
- Compressible
The tape was developed in. and Is manufactured in, America. Due to its country of
origin, the tape and micrometer gauge are calibrated in both microns and mils.
However, all of surface profile may need to be converted into microns before being
recorded on the Daily Inspection Repork, A this is the measure detailed in the
specification, using the conversion:
- -
- Coarse for profiles 0 51 microns (0 2 millthou)
- -
- X (extra) coarse for pr~files35 1? 4microns (1.5 4.5 millthou) .
4.2.1 Method.
Peel ofl the backing paper and press the tape onto the area selected for
measurement.
Rub the circular cut-out area with a burnishing tool until the entire circular area
has unifarmly darkened. Special h a d plastic round-headed spatulas are
normally supplied although the rounded end of a ball-point pen or pencil would
suffice.
Set the spring micrometer by ensudng that the amrils are dean and the spring
operates smoothly.
Adjust the dial by releasing the clamp on the rim of the instrument and rotating
the dial so that with the anvils clused the dial reads zero.
Re-tighten the clamp and check that the needle continues to read 0 after the
anvils have been opened and closed several times.
Remave the tape from the steel and pface the darkened circular portion between
the laws of the anvil, ensuring that the tape is centred.
Jake several readings over the darkened area of the circular cut-out. These
readings should be constant to within two small divisions of the scale.
Note.
1 fhe did gauge Is set at 0.Themfore to make allowance for the incompressible
portion of the tap which is 2 thou (51 mlmns) in thickness the figure read from
the gauge should be deducted. An alternative is to set the dlal in not at zero, but
at zero whflst reading a 51 micron shim. In ttris manner, the actual dial reading of
the used tape gives the surface profile directly.
3 k can generally be expected that dlal readings in the range 2 - 4miVthw, 2-4
-
thou, and 50 1Oomicrons will be obtained.
This Instrument provides a quick and effedive method of ascertaining the grading of
surface roughness. The surface profile comparator conformsto IS0 8503 Parts 1 to
4. and is usially made from Nickel or other corrosion resistant material.
Two sets of comparators are available, o m for surfaces pfqmed using grit (G)and
one prepared using shot (S), each having four segments of differing grades d
roughness. The appropriate comparator is placed against the substrate. A visual or
tactile comparison between the comparator and the test surface can be carried out
by means of a lens or by passing a finger nail over the surfaces. Record the grades
confirmed for all tested areas of the surface.
Rubbing lightly over the surface with a clean cotton glove. Care must be taken to
ensure that no cotton fibres remain on the steel.
The presence of 'rash rwting' on the prlmed surface, due to the peaks not being
m t e d with primer.
If rogue peaks are found, hey may be removed by tightly scuffing the surface
with emery paper, a metal bar or, prefarably, by hand. It is essential to check that
all dust and other contamination is completely removed after the sanding
operation, also that the operation has been successful in the removal of the
rogue peaks.
The 'soluble salts' are formed by the actron of sufphate or chloride contamInams wlth
the steel to give salts which are almost colourless and dl be located at the bottom
of mrmsion pits. If left under the paint, these substances encourage the passage of
water through the paint film, the water hen forms more corrosion products thus
producing, in time, large volumes of mst which will break the adhesion bond
between the coatings and the sumte. Obviously, the Importance of this factor will
depend upon the degree of exposure to wet conditions. Generally speaking, all
paints will last longer an a surface which Is substantially free from 'soluble Iron
corrosicm products'.
Currenfly, two tesls are recognlsa for the detection and determination of 'sduble
iron wrroslon products':
Ferricyenids Test (See Fgure 10).
If it is necessary tor the Inspector to prepare the test papers on site, he must
make himself aware of the health and safety hazarddwhen handling this
chemical.
Merckoquant Test.
Thls test will provide a semi-quantitative measurement of the level of soluble iron
corrosion products in the profile of the blast-cleanedsurface.
- -
Indicator test strips for ferrous ions Merckoquant or similar
- Distilled water or water of equivalent purity
- Pure cotton wool
- Small rod for stirring
- Ruler and chalk, or other device, for rneasurlng area 150mm x 150mrn
Procedure.
Measure an area on the blast-deaned surface of 2,250 sq. rnm (approx. 6 x 6").
Using 2-3 small pieces of cotton wool, each weighing abwt 0.5gm, wash the area
measured. Ensure that the cotton wool holds only sufficient water to wet the surlace
and does not run off the test area. Dry the surface with a fresh piece of cotton wool.
Wear sterlle gloves to prevent skn salts 8 other Impurities contaminating the results.
Mix all the cotton wool used and the water together uslng the rod and squeeze the
water from the wool 2 3 times. The test should be completed in about 5 minutes.
Dip tk indicator sMp brieliy into the liquid and then Fold tt in the air for 10-15
seconds until the wlour develops.
Note.
The area washed and the volume of water used have been chosen to glve fie level
or iron dlrectfy on these units.
The report should also include a complete i&nWaiton of the test area using
sketches if necessary.
5.9 Oil, Grease, Dust, etc.
Vlsual examination is the best method lor c W n a for the oresence of these
contamtmnts. i f in doubt, the use of an illuminated magnifler may'prove benefldal.
The presence of loose dust on tbe surface may be demonstrated uslng clear
'Sellotape' The tape should preferably be 25mm (1 inch) wide. Hadng pressed the
tape onto the surface under inspection, it will retail indications of surkice
contamination and may be kept as a permanent record by sticking onto good quality
white paper.
5.4 -
Abrasives Sieve Analysis.
Equipment:
-
Consult BS 2451 Table i for shot and Table 2 far grit - and from the table check
the mesh numbers of the sleves through which (a) all the sample should pass and
(b) none of the sample should pass, e.g. for 624, Table 2 shows a) all sample
should pass 1.mmm slew and b) na sample should pass 0.355mrn sieve.
Pour on to slew set comprising: lid, 1.00mm sieve, 0.365rnrn sieve and receiver.
Check all materiai has passed through top sieve and been retained by bottom sieve.
Note.
2 Et Is sufficient to take grlt frwn several different pam of the bag and test all parts
together.
Arrange the sieves in order wlth the largest mesh size at the top and a receiver
under the smallest mash size.
Pour in the weighed sample and shake the sieve set for 5 minutes. It ts essential
that shaking is continued for a full 5 minutes.
Welgh the contents of each sieve and record the results. Express each weight as a
percentage of the total weigM sample.
w r
e ss the results in a c c o with~ BS 2451 format, e.g. for 624 Total sample
passes i.OOrnm mesh sieve, at least 70% is retained by 07tOmm mesh sieve, at
most 15% passed the 0.6M3rnm mesh sieve, none passed the 0.355mm mesh sieve.
Note.
It is absolutely essential to ensure that dl sieves are completely dean prior to the
start of a test. This can best be achieved using a hard brush (a paint brush mth
bristles cut d m to 5mm) from the underside.
The removal of grii by poWng h m the underside using a metal point should never
be done. This is likely R damage the mesh and disturb the mesh size.
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5.5 -
Abrasive Contamination.
To check abrasives for dust or oll contamlnatlon, the Following tests should be
applied:
Oil. From a represenwhe sample take about IOOgrn of abrasive into a dean
container. For this test the container should not be plastic. A clean tln. ceramic
cup or glass beaker should be used. Pour clean xylene on to the abrasb until it
is just covered and stir. Pwr ofl some of the liquid on to a clean glass plate and
allow the sdvent to evaporate. Any oil or grease will be detected as a smear
when IIgMfy touched by a dean finger.
Note.
Xylene Is flammable, hence no smoking should be allowed in the vicinity and there
should be adequate ventilation when camyhg out tMs test
Other solvents may be wed for tMs test but it may be necessary to allow a longer
n the d and evaporation of the solvent.
time for ~ l u t i c of
5.6 Welds.
With regard to the surface prepamdon of weld areas for painting, the fdfnning shaft
be checked, using the letlers W U S F S as an ald to memory:
In connection with the lnspectlon of weld areas, the Inspector should be aware of
alkaline deposits left by sorne welding processes.
These are normally removed by blast-deanfng, but if for any reason the weld areas
are only receiving ltimlted preparation then It may be necessary to wash the weld
areas with dean water.
Where remedlal work is belng canIed out on painted areas that have been subject to
welding, it is important that the area is Mast-cleaned back to sound paint which has
goad adhesion. This may be up to 20m from the channel area,
It is also lmpwtant to bear in mind that the heat produced by the weldlng operation
will be transmitted through me steel and may cause damage to paint-work on the
other side. Again, the remedial blast-cleaning operatin should be undertaken untl
sound paint is reached. (See Figures 11 and 12).
Om hal point to be considered when pparlng the watd surface is the dtflerence in
metal surface hardness. The zone of the weld Itself and the affected parent metal
wound it may have been tempered during the weidtng process. This muld result in
the inability to profile that area as quickly or efficlenly as the nan affected areas.
Occasionally speaal preparation techniques may be necessary, such as a change in
the grit used.
CONCLUSIOM.
The preparation of a satMactorfly cleaned sutface Is the first clStical stage in the
provision of long term protection by a coating system.
Tke main problem so far as jnspection is concerned. Is to see that the surface is
properly cleaned whilst it Is dl wet. One suggestion is to lake an area that has been
cleaned by dry grit blasting then to wet it so that you have some Idea as to what you
are looking for.
It may be interesting to cavy out tests for 'soluble iron c o m l o n products' using
Merckoquant test strips. The level of soluble salt should be such that it is low and
should be reduced further by m h i q the surface.
Wlth regard M the application of !he prlmer or firs? coat, check carefully that it is
suitable for applicafion to a mdst or damp surface. Look dso on the Manufacturers
Instructions for any deflnitton of dampness.
Generally, such materlak am not suhble for appllcatlon to a surface that has
running water on it. If the surface is just damp, I.e. a tery thln film of water, then R
may be acceptable.
If them is any doubt concerning the use of the cormsfon tnhibftor then you shwld
recommend that it Is omitted.
While R may be possible to apply the specially formulated primer to a damp surface,
subsequent mats must be applied to a dry surface and this should be carefully
checked in the normat manner.
If sea-water is used for the initial preparation then It is essential that the surface is
washed with clean fresh water, prlor to paint application.
Water pressure has a good scouring actlon and it is obsewed that the cleaning
action improves as the pressure is increased. fighity bonded rnlllscale may be
It has been noted that the wet Mast cleaning method on lusty steel, is m e t i m e s
not as good as dry blasting because the high p r e s s u ~water seems to ilcochet off
the surface and not dwell long enough to penetrate or clean, by capillary action, the
soluble rust-producing products at the bottom of rust pits. If some abrasive, usually
slim free sand, is mixed with the water, faster and more efficient cleaning is
achieved.
Wet abrask deaning is not as m m o n now as it has been for the last 10 years.
Although havfng the advantages of removing salts and spark hazards, the wet
abrasive blast cleaning technique is being replaced with high pressure water
blasting.
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SECTION 7.0 ULTRA HIGH PRESSURE W A E R BLASTING.
1.0 Introduction.
20 Definitions.
They operate mainly at amund 30,000 PSI (2,000) bar wfth flows of about 20 IRES
per minute. Intensifier systems can operate at much higher pressures, presently up
to 60,000 PSI (4,000 bat), but typically, for steel preparation, at around 40,000 (PSI)
(2.750 bar) at flows of between 8 and 12 litres per mfnute. High pressures at lower
flow rates may have between 8 and 12 litres per minute. Hlgher pressures at lower
flow rates may have the advantage d better cufflng power when tightly adhered
primes have to be removed, and also af less fatigue to Operatots due to lower
reaction force.
No chemicals or abrasives of any kind are used, but the kinetic energy developed by
an UHP water iet traveltinu at over twice the soeed of sound is sufficient to
completely rem& even thetoughest rust deposits'from steel, any type of coating
and practically all invisible contaminates, principally salts.
This latter aspect has been of particular interest to coatings Manufacturers. Resldual
chloride levels of less than 10 microgrammes per square centitnetre, and sometimes
as low as 5p@cm2, virtually elrninate the risk of sdt-Initiated corrosion Cdls below
the newly applied coating. This Is another major advantage of UHP fresh water
hydrobladng over open, dry abrasive grit blasting where quite high salt levels can
be measured after surlace preparation. The abrasive ikelf can also be salt
contaminated.
These negligible salt levels, together with the increasing environmental pressure
coming upon open, dry grii blasting, led to the deflnition and publication of
hydroblasting standards by professional institutes and paint Manufactuers. Most
major paint companies now recommend a range of products suitable for applying to
correctly hydroblasted steel surfaces.
In the marine industry, water letting had been used by mobile crews and Contractors
as a method of surface preparation for a n u m k r of years, although there are
obviws disadvantages of water jetting as opposed to UHP hydroblasbng.
Because high volumes of water were being used at around 10,000 PSI (700
bar), sea water was the only option available which then defeated the object of
remwing salts from the substrate. Fresh water rinsing tends not to be carded out
very effectively.
Reactlon force form the high pressure produced from these machines results in
additional down time due to labour fatigue.
On the other hand, the use of UHP hydroblasSng produced a diiereni picture quite
dramatically:-
1 Due l o the low volume requirement of water, the ships evaporafors can normally
provide very high quality, de-lonlsed fresh water. A 12 litre per minute gun will
only typically use about 5 tonnes of water in a normal working shift and most
evaporators can easily provide this from surplus prcduction.
Due to the higher jet velocity, all the s& are removed from the substrate
available so a much higher standard of preparation can be achieved.
Low wlume means low reaction force to the Operator, and productivity can rise
as the fatigue factor diminishes.
Low volume, low reaction force tools can be taken into ballast tanks and dwble
bottoms at sea, vastly improving the potential scope of work in mat the process
can be carried out whilst the ship is mobile.
4.0 Standards.
4.1 As Ultra High Pressure Hydroblasting leaves the prepared surfaces sllgMly damp,
new paint products are constantly being developed by the paint fndustry. Visual
standards, prior to application, are also avalable both by industry bodies and by
paint Manufacturers.
These standards define the visual UHP appearance of steel substrates after
hydmblasting, although experienced Quality Control Inspectors will agree that visual
standards for 'slightly damp' substrates may cause some discussion during the
process work.
3.0 STORAGE
SPECIFIC GRAVlTY
YlSCOSlTY
METHODS OF APPUCATlON
DRYING TIYE
OVERCOATlNG TIYES
In order to achieve the above objectives, it is necessary to errsure that the coatlngs
are applied at the thickness and under the conditions recommended by the paint
manufacturer or as smified bv the Client. The matinas must be fimhv adherent and
uniformly applied to the pmperiy prepared surlace wgovt misses. inciusions, runs or
other defects.
The following sections will deWl the use of Manutadurers' data sheets, storage of
materials, the mixing and stirring ol paints and materials, specific gravity and
viscosity. A brief discussion on paint application is also given along with wetldry film
thickness and the testing of coatings and linings.
The data sheet, together with the specification, will provide the Inspector with the
informationto draw up a set of quality control parameters.
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SECTION 3.0 STORAGE.
In the absence of specific instructtons the following general guidelines should apply.
Paint should be stored so that it is protecmd from the elements in such conditions
that (typically) Its temperature is maintained between 4OC and 27OC.
Ventilation should be such that if oondensationdoes w r on the tins then It will not
lead to the containers being in prolonged contact with water, leading to the
posstbility of rusttng. In addition, adequate ventilation will help to keep the solvent
concentration at a low level, thus reducing any risks due to fire or explosion.
41 Single pack palnts, particutady those with heavy plgrnents such as zinc or
micaceous iron oxide, must be thoroughly stirred prior to use to ensure:
A is, therefore, essential ta ensure that stirrers will reach the bottom of the can.
A further useful check Is to examine empty cans to ensure that mixing procedures
have been thoroughly undertaken.
Pattiwlarly for two pack materials it Is recommended mat mirdng Is carried out
mechanically, using an air motor or spark proof electrjc motor for safety.
The palnt should be stirred for at lwast 5 minutes and,as with single pack systems, it
is necessary to ensure that there is is settlement of pigment on the base of the can
by using a stfrrer of sufficient length.
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SECTION 5.0 SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
A test which may be carded out to chedc
The weight per gallon cup comprises a straight sided cylindrical container made from
metal which, when fied with its special lid, holds exactly 1.00rnl of liquid.
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The lid is designed so that when the cup is filled with llquld and the Ild pressed firmly
down, then excess liquid will be ejected h r n the small hole in its centre.
5.2.1 Weigh the cup and lid, empty, and record weight.
5.2.3 Allow the paint to stand for 2 minutes to ensure the removal of all alr from the
paint sample.
5.2.4 Press the lid onto the cup, ensurfng that some of the paint is ejected through the
centre hole. If there is no paint ejected then it is necessary Po remove the lid and
add additional paint.
5.3 Calculation.
Mwe the decimal point 2 places to the left and record the figure obtained as the
specific gravity.
Example No 1.
S.G.
Record value as
Example No 2.
S.G.
Record value as
Manufacturer's data sheets may quote specific gravity (S.G.), density, weight per
gallon (rare these days) or weight in kilograms per 5 lires. Specific gravity and
density have the same numerical values. For weight per gallon, divide by 10 to
obtain SG (i.e. 132 Ibs per gallon = 1.32 S.G.) and for weight in kilograms per 5
litres divide by 5 to obtain S.G. (i.e. 6.44 per 5 litres = 1.28 S.G.).
&ia check on the accuracy of your scales and that yau are using the cwect
technique, the determination of the S.G. of water should give a value of 1.00.
If the determined value is lower than the value stated in the data sheet, the most
probable masons are insufficient mixing or the sample has been taken from the top
of the can or improper addition of solvent,
Altemativaly, the material in the can is not as stated on the data sheet
In the event of a large difference behveen the determined value and that recorded in
the data sheet, the material should be set aside until the reasons can be
established.
-
SECnON 6.0 VISCOSITY.
The following wps are available:
It is. therefore, essenblJ to ensure that the correct type and orifice slze of cup is
used. The Manufactureh data sheet should state the cup to be used.
Ncm.
The viscosfty of ofcertain hlgh-build materials, such as MI0 or thixotropic materials.
cannot be measured satisfactorily using a flow cup.
The usual method for the measurement d viscosity is to measure the time taken for
the liquid to run through a small hole of known diameter from a container of standard
volume.
Apparatus:
- Standard cup
- Stopwatch
- Thermometer
- Stand for cup
- Container for paint
The cups are available in different sizes, I.e. BS flow cups Nos. 3, 4 and 5 are
available. This information will be stamped on the cup and shall be recorded.
B S Cup
Method.
Record.
- Type and number of cup used.
- Temperature at which measurement was undertaken.
- Time In seconds through the cup.
- ldentlfication of sample with reference and batch numbers.
TMs is the second critical state in the use of paint for the long-term protection of
steel. The aim is to prwide a Smooth mat of uniform thickness which is free from
any sags, runs, misees, bestem, indusions or any other defect As the Inspector, you
are not concerned with the rate of working, but with the quality of the applied
coating.
It is not the intention of this section to comprehensively Mail every facet of the
applfcation techniques fisted. but merely to introduce them. It is expected that the
Inspector will have a competence in the safe handling and use of such equipment
before reaching this stage of professional expertise.
- Brush
- Rdler
- Conventional Spray
- Airless Spray
Check that the material supplied 'Is the correct grade for the application method
propcsed.
Where spray equipment Is being used check that the tip or nozzle size, spray angle
and pmsure are as remmrnended by the palnt Manufacturer.
-
Brush Application shwld be enowraged where the areas being coated are not
straightforwad. For areas where spray application is permitted, it All probably be
necessary for the painter to use a brush to mat difficult areas, e,g. bolted joints,
welds etc. This coat is often referred to as Stripe Coat. When completed the Stnpe
Coat w~llhave placed an extra layer of paint over those areas which may otherwise
not retain a full spray applied coat i.e. sharp edges etc.
-
Roller Application Whlle this method is quicker than brush, particularly for large
areas, the quality of the work Is generally inferior to brushing from the point of view
of long term protecbion. Usually, the coating tends to be rather thinner and more
porous (wicking effect) due to bits dewsited In the fllm from the roller. MI0 can cut
the fibres of the roller and cause contamination of the film.
Paint is drawn {sucked) under pressure of around 20 to 60 psl, ?oa spray head.
This spray head forces the material through a n a m orifice where it is then
m~xedwith a dual flow of air. The force of the air entering the paint stream
results in flne atomisation of the material, which settles gently on the sudace to
be coated.
The plston of the pump is driven up and down, drawing paint into a compression
chamber and !hen delivering it at an increased pressure. Typically the air pressure
driving the pump will be at around 80 ta TOOpsi. The ratio of the paint del'wry lo the
driving air will vary depending upon the type of pump used, though is usually
between 26 to 1 and 44 to 1. That means a 44 to 1 pump driven by 100psl will be
capable of delivering paint at the spray head at 4,400psi. The force of the paint
being delivered through a narmw orifice forms a dropfet mist This process requires
no atornising air.
Spray application generally allows greater actual applkalion speed of working but it
Is necessary to carefully mask off and protect gauges, etc. and adjacent areas io
protect from the effects of overspray, hence it rs not always the most effective
method.
The most common instrument for measuring wet film thickmess is the Comb gauge.
The two wknnost teeth of the ccinb are the same in length while the inner teeth
are progressively shorter. me gauge is pushed firmly into the wet paint so that the
outermost teeth make matact with the substrate steel or previously painted surtace.
The gauge must be at right angles to the painted surface.
The gauge is removed and th% teeth examined. Some of the heads of the teeth wil
be mated with paint while the remainder will be uncoated.
The wet film thickness, therefore, lies between tfie last tooth that is coaled and the
first tooth that is uncoated. This is determined by adding together the readings of the
two teeth then dividing the number by 2. For calculating the dry film thickness, the
mid point value between these two teeth shall be used.
Note.
It is important to ensure that the wet film thldonw reading is taken within one
minute (at the latest) of application. The teeth of the gauge should, at all times, be
kept clean and free from dned paint.
Care must be taken to ensure that when measuringw t film thickness over relatively
soft high build dry film, that the dried c d n g is not penetrated.
Very quick drying paints ars Impossible to measure h W i way and d m the
subsequent mats on top of chlorinated rubber, since the previous mats are
softened.
Several readings should be taken over a small area to obtain a reliable average
value. The value obtained should be checked against the data sheet to ensure that
the recommended dry film thickness will be achieved and that this value will satisty
the requirements of the specification.
Painters should be encouraged to measure thelr own wet Rlm thickness. Where this
is not being carried out, it would be reasonable for the Inspector to suggest to the
Contractoh Supervisor that his men be equipped with wet film thickness gauges
and shown how to use them correctly. This will not only help to make the job of the
lnspectw easier but may &so help the Painter.
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SECTION 9.0 DRYING TIME.
The period when:
- Temperature
- Ventilation (air movement reducing me concentration of solvent irnmediatety
above the surface)
- Paint tilm thickness
Generally, Manufacturer's data sheets quote three drying periods:
-
Touch dry When the film is suftidentty hard to perrnl measurement d dry film
thickness arid may be hard enough for the objec?to be carefully handled without
damage.
-
Qvereoating Time When the product is deemed suitable for overcoating
wlthout any adverse effects.
Full cure - When madmum chemical resistance has been hllt up withh the
coating.
The above drylng Mnitions are dependent upon temperatute and film thickness.
The Manufacturers assume that the coaling has bean applied at the recommended
film thickness and excessively thick films will take considerably longer for all the
solvent to evaporate from the coating. This is paparticularly so when excess solvent
has been added to the coating. Srrnilarly, coatlngs that cure by oxidation, i.e. the
oxygen must be absorbed from the atmosphere, will take considetably longer for a
thick film to cure properly.
Paint Manufacturers should quote the temperature at which the drying times are
applicable. Generally, a laboratory tempemlure is quoted which may be 20°G (W°F)
or higher. When paints are being applied on site at ambient temperatures down to
5OG, it may be necessary to multiply the quoted drying times by a factor of 4 or
more.
Some typtcal examples of the effect of temperature and curing agents on curing
fmes are shown below.
Arnide o m d epoxy -
-full cure afier 5 days at 30'~
- full are after 20 days at 1 0 ' ~
-dust dry after 8 minutes et 30°C
- dust dry after 30 minutes at 1o°C
Amine cured epoxy -
- full cure after 3 days at 20%
-
full cure alter 14 days at t O°C
-
full cure after 24 days at 5%
- overcoating time 6 hours at 30OC
- overcoating f me 48 hours at 5'~
Isocyanate cured epoxies are generally spedbd where appllcatlon must be carried
out at low temperatures. There are formulations available that can be applied at
temperatures down to -20°c, although - 1 0 ' ~is more usual. As above, overcoating
time and times to full cure are considerably lengthened at the low temperatures.
Coal tar epoies are similar to straight epdes in that they are affected by
temperatures.
!t should be noted that paints such as chlorinated rubber, which dry by solvent
evapomtion, will be affected by temperalure, in that at low temperatures, it will take
longer for complete evaporation. Retention of solvents in chlorinated rubbers may
affect the adhesion Icohesion of the primer, particularly ant rich types.
However, the difference between chlorinated rubber types and the epoxy types is
that with the latter, the resistance properties of me film may be adversely affected.
- It is the only positive value which may be checked at any time after the event,
withwt damage to the coating.
- It may be wdften into the speciffcation.
Measurement of dry film thickness will normally be carried out uslng an electronic
(see Figures t6 and 17) or magnetic gauge which requires callbratian immediately
prior to use.
?Thefollowing methods will be adopted for callbratron of dry film thickmess gauges:
Zen, and calibrate the instrument on sted whose surface profile matches the
profile of the painted surface being measured. Some spedficaifons may ml For a
Rat plate to be used here, or even a smooth surface plate.
Using shims of know thickness, calibrate the instrument over the mnge within
which it is ertpected that the measuredthickness will lie.
It may not always be possible to measure the suhm protile on the same surface
that is being coated, i.e. it may already be primed or the coating operation
completed. Information on the exp.ected surface profile should be available from lhe
specificat~onor previous inspection repork.
The ideal system, which should be followed wherever possible, Is to obtain a small
sample of steel about 15cm x 10cm and have this Mast cleaned by the contractor at
the start of the contract. This panel will then form a reference panel for the duration
of the contract as to the surface profile standard that is agreed and a calibration
panel for setting up dry film thickness measuring instruments.
Atternativety use the sample panel pruducilon method indicated safer in this
Manual.
Experiments have shown that when an electronic or magnetic dry film thldmess
gauge is calibrated on a smooth surface and then used on a grit blasted surface of
50 microns profile,the difference in apparent coating ZhickneSs will be of the order of
up to 25 microns on an actual coating thickness of 250 microns (1 0%).
Take readings withln a drcle of 25mm (1 inch) diameter un61 three consecutive
readings agree within 25 mlcrons. Record the average of the three readings as m e
reading.
On a fat area, at least two point readings shwld be taken per square metre.
It shwld not be anticipated that film thickness rneasulrement wlll be low in these
areas, since such areas should have received an additional stripe coat.
The Client specificatbn may indicate a specjfic method and system (such as a
statistically corrected sampling plan) fw the taking and recording of the dry film
thicknesses.
Having obtained and recorded en appropriate number of point readings for dry film
midmess, it is necessary to mnsult the specification to determine exactly the
requirements, i.e. whether the value should be mean, minimum, nominal or
otherwise stated.
Mean value implies that the average of all point values recorded should be in
agreement and above the value specified.
Minimum value implies that all point values recorded shwld be in agreement
and above the specified value.
Nanlnal value implies that the average of all polnt values recorded should equal
or exceed the nominal value and there should be no value less than 75% of the
nominal mlue (BS 5493 Seciion 19).
In addiion to rnaklng a careful check on dry film thickness values to ensure that the
coating is in compliance with the specification, it is also essential that the Inspector
carries out a thorough visual examination, using a telescopic mimr and torch where
necessary, to ensure mat all areas are completely and uniformty coated.
Any areas where there are sags, runs, blisters or rnlsses should be marked up for
appropriate action by the Conmctor. It is not sufficient that the Inspector only
identifies such areas but he must give dear notice of hls findings, and where the
specification demands it, pass instructions to the Contractor upon the actlon
required, such possibilities may include:-
Hand rub or sweep blast the surface to remove excessive mating thickness and
to provide a key for good i n t e m t adhesfon.
Completely remove the coating applled and commence re-work as Iffor the first
time.
Ensure that additional coatings are applied within tlwr Manufacturer's
recommended over-coating times, having due regard to temperature.
-
SECTION 11.0 CONVERSION of WET to DRY FlLM rlTI1ICKNESS.
Example A -
Volume solids Is 3%, wet Ckn thickness is 150 microns
Dry film thickness is 150 x 37 = 55.5 microns
100
Example B -
Volume solids is 54%. dry film thickness is 50 r n i m
Wet film thidtness is 50 = 92.5 microns
54
It is essential that the Inspector notes the time intemls required and ensures that
the Contractor operates within the limits stated.
Where recoating has taken place too quickly, the Inspector should check for
evidence of blistering or wrinkling, such defects may also be due to excessive film
thlclmess and consequent solvent entrapment.
If such malings are not reaated within the maximum time specffled then poor
adhssFon of subsequent coats may resutl and it Is generally necessary to sweep
blast or use other methods for roughening the surface to provide a good key for the
adhesion of the subsequent coat.
Note.
~ v e m t i n gtimes are dependent upon temperature for all types of paint. It is,
therefore, essential to consult the paint Manufactvreh data sheet for information on
the effect of temperature.
Particularty for two pack materials where the maximum owM be quoted as 3 days at
20% then at high amwent temperature, 1.e. 30°c, the maximum overcoating time
may be reduced-to 1-1.5 days. However, the paint Manufacturer should always be
consulted for detailed information on each paint system.
Following a detergent wash with the use of scrubbing brushes to aid the removal of
dirt, the surface should be liberally washed with a considerable quantity of clean
fresh water.
Note.
Zinc rich paints, which ate frequently used on uff-shore locations, are particularly
prone to the bufld up of soluble w m s b n products if not recoated wlthin 7 days
(generally). Such coatings may requlre a water wash and scrub prior to further
coating.
Following a water wash, it 3s essential to ensure that the surface is compfetely dry
before further coatings are applied.
-
SECTION 14.0 TESTS on the DRY FILM.
14.1 Adhesion.
The strength with whlch one coating bonds to another can only be tested
destructively. Tests of adhesion should only, therefore, be undertaken where there is
reasonable suspicion that something has gone wrong, where the CIierrt is in
agreement with such tests and where means are available to ensure that the tested
area can be adequately re-protected. Such tests will not, normally, be undertaken as
part of an Inspector's routine evaluation.
Two field tests for the adhesion of coatlngs are generally used as described
overleaf.
The meting fs cut using a sharp blade having a specified angle (e.g. a Stanley kniie)
so that the cut penetrates to the steel substrate.
A series of 6 or 11 lines are cut vertically and Me same number of lines cut
horizontally to give a box containing 25 to 100 squares. The distance apart for the
lines is either Imm or 2mm as agreed between the interested parties. Generally, for
film thicknesses up to 125 microns a Imrn spacing is used and the 2mm spacing is
used for thicker films.
Having made the cuts, the box of 25 or 100 squares is emmined and tfre number of
squares that are detached is noted. In additfon to noting the number of squares that
are detached, the layer of coating failure and whether the failure IS adhesive
(between layers) or coheskre (within the layer) should also be noted.
The British Standard lays down a dassification for the test results according to the
degree of flaking along the edges of the cuts.
A 'dolly made of aluminium alloy or similar is stuck on to the coating system under
evaluation, using a suitable adhesive. After the adhesive has cured, the 'dolly' is
removed by direct pull-off using a special tool and the force required is measured.
It Is essential to ensure a good bond between the ooated surface and the dolly, Both
surfaces are cleaned and lightly abraded, 'draldifec 2 pack adhesive, which sets in
24 hours, has been found to be satisfactory.
If quick results are required use onepack cyancectylate adhesive. On a good palm
system, the quicker setting adhesives tend to break first and, under these
drcumnces, the test gives very lMe useful information. Opinions differ as to
whether the mating should be scored round the 'dolly' and there is no laid down
standard for guidance. for thicker film in excess of 500 microns, the paint should
dways be scored down to bare metal. For thinner films scoring is not essential,
providing that the fact is recorded with ibe test resutts.
The instrument measures the force (in k i l q m s per square centlmetre [ k ~ , dPSI
]
or MPa) required to break the coating system. In addition to recording the force
required for removal, further Information may be gained by noting where failure
occurs in the system and whether such failure is cohesive (within the fifm) or
adhesiw (between successb layers). Such facts should be recorded, together with
the percentage coating adhering to the surface of the 'dolly'.
The direct pull-off test win indlcate the weakest llnk In a coating system from the
point of adhesion but does not necessarily glve information on the long term
durability of the system.
The adhesion tests describd have only a limited value, usually when mparlng the
relatlw performance of the same types of coating system from different paint
Manufacturers applied under monitored conditions.
Both the tests described are open to interpretation (and misinterpretation) and
should, thedore, only be used following discussion and agreement with the Client
Note.
The Inspector must conduct adhesion tests as specified and to the relwant
adhesion standards (i.e. ASTM D3359, Part A for site and IS0 4624 tor pull-off
tests).
The most useful field test Is the ewrlenced Inspector's thumb nail.
Coatings which are soft and 'cheesy' am definitely under-cured. Generally, the
coaHng should be firm and hard to the touch with some resilience.
It should be noted that it may take up to seven days, or longer In cold weather, for a
coating to reach a satisfactory state of cure. Providing thm is a gradual hardening
of the coating then the dryingcuring mechanism is taking place.
However, If the coating rernalns soft then some fault with the material should be
suspected, the most common being insuffident mixing and, in the case of two pack
materials, the use of the component in the wrong proportions wiibout stirring andlor
outside the material's useful life (induclion time, pol life).
Generally. if the coating rernalns cheesy then there is no alternative but to effect
complete removal and reapply using a fresh batch of the material.
There is no British standard method for carrying out the pencil hardness test so that
if this test is used it is necessary to report the procedure adopted. The most
common prcmdure is:
2 Hold the pencil vertically and draw down on the surlace using madmum pressure.
3 Wok from the sofiest to h a m pencil and record the hardness of me pen that u i n
@ just mark the surface.
i.e.
3H marks easily
2H just marks
H does not mark
Pencil hardness value is 2H
Such tests operate on the principle of establishing an electrScal circult through the
metal at the uncoated point
The instruments used appty a DC mtkge which may be varied wlth m e
Instruments, through a conductive brush or sponge onto the coated surface under
te§t
At a m b h the coating, the drcuL will be completed vla an earthing strap to the test
piece, and this will give rlse to audible or visual warning.
The voltage used is generally dependent upon Uw coating thldtness under test,
hence at high voltages there will be a tendency for the mating to break dovm at
points of weakness, tbereby creating damaged areas.
@ P r d h e Coatings I r p d m Manual
Dlr.M: TMA-OI47keue 0.2 Part 5
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Q R o b i m Irwin Technical Suppart Ltd.,
England 1994-57
Sponge Test (See Figure 21),
Boih models make contact dtfi the surface using a damp sponge. The sponge
should be such that excess moblure is not left on the surface. since this may give
rise to 'tracking', i.e. the water on the surface will conduct current to a pinhole some
distance away f m the sponge. Similarly, tha coated surface should be dry to obtain
reliable results.
Select a noncM1 area of the coating, or if tlme and resources permit, have a
sample panel cleaned and coaled in accordance with the specification and data
sheet.
With the DC holiday tester appropriately earthed to the test item, gritdually
increase the voltage until the coating shows clear signs of breakdown as
indicated by almost coniinuous sparking or other sign of coating Failure.
S d the voltage at 75% of the voltage required for breakdown, as above, and test
the item at that voltage.
Ensure that the instrument model number, voltage setting and areas b k d are
correctly recorded.
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PART 6
METAL COATINGS
1.0 INTRODUCTION
For corrosion control, specifically in the offshore industries, paints containing a high
percentage of zinc, mown as zinc-rich, are sometimes considered to be metal
coatings, but since the influence of the paint Mnder is of considerable signlflcance to
the overall properties, it is more rightly considered as a type of paint.
This section will detail the use of thermal sprayed coatings as an afternative to
organic and inorganic paints, codes of practices, inspection, testing, ~ p o r t s ,
recommendations and health and safety.
The uses of thermally sprayed coatings are on the increase and ths lflspe~tor
should be familiar with the processes and uses of these metab and applications.
A)thwgh both flame spray and arc spray methods are available, arc spray, a newer
method of application, has been shown to give faster output and superior adhesion.
For fabricated structures, born methods may be used especlaly where access to
difficult areas favours flame application and where broad plated areas favwr arc
spray.
The application of thermally sprayed aluminium requires more applicator training
than paint coatings together wtth additional attention to health and safety measures.
However, major benefits can be gained by the use of a coating which Is capable of
being handled almost ~mmediatelyafter application, showing little damage when
used as a fabrication coating and which can be applied to part of a structure (e.g.
leaving weld areas) for later completion or repair.
Sprayed aluminium has been shown to be effective for offshore structures as well as
against cormsion under Insulation, which might have become wet due to leakage of
rainwater through me weather cover.
IS0 8501 Preparation d steel substrate's before application of paints and related 1
1-4 products.
Surface rnvghness characteMcs of blast-cleaned steel suf?&ates.
Aluminium and zinc are the two metab recommended for atmospheric protection of
iron and steel and also for protection in salt and fresh water immersion.
Zinc is ~ ~ u a l99,9Y0
ly pure and is not contaminated in the spraying process. The
result is that metallised zinc coatirigs are much purer than those applied by hot dip
galvanfsing, for instance, since zinc used In galvanlsing plm-up a oonsidemble
amount of iron as an impurity.
Aluminium is often 99.00% to 99.7% pure alumlniurn and is used for corrosion
protection work. Thwgh 95% alumlnium and 5% magnesium alloy is becoming
popular today. Some other specialist work may requlre metal with a different allay.
For the protection of artides on a oanpetitrve basis with meihxts such as painting or
plating, thin coatings of sprayed zinc are used. Zinc, 25 microns thick, provides
excellent protection for small hardware items such as nuts, screws etc., which can
be prepared and metallised in tumbling barrels. While the cost of aluminium coatings
is slightly less than that of zinc of equal thickness, aluminium requires more
thorwgh surface preparation. Also aluminium 1s not rewmmended in thicknesses
less than 75 microns. Therefore, where the cost of preparation must be kept at a
minimum or where very thin coatings are sufficient. zinc should be used.
Zinc has a higher electnolytic potential than aluminium, and offers better protection
on work which is not readily accessible at all points around ils surlace. Small
uncoated areas such as scratches or voids on the underside of imperfectly headed
wets are protecterl electrotyticallyby zinc better man aluminium.
Although zinc and dumlnium are both classed as non femus metals, the thickness
of coating of both metals applled to steel can be measured by magnetic or
electro-magnetic gauges as both metals are not, themselves, magnetic.
3 In severe marine atmospheres, application of one coat of wash primer plus one
or two coats of aluminium vinyl enhanced the appearance and extertdd the life
of zinc coating at least 100%.
The only seated zinc panels tested in sea water were coated with chlorinated
rubber.
The co8tings listed betow atforded ample& protectionto low carbon $Peel panels.
E I & ~
~mof MetaIlised,Aluminium Wlid Z i m Coatings
- coatings
0.0003" (0.08mm) to 0.12" (0.3m)unsealed
Sea Water Eqmure 0.0006' (0.15mm) sealed
(a) and unsealed
-
0.0003" (0.08mm) to 0.009"(02.3111) u m e d e d
M W Arnosphelic 0.0006" (0.1 5mm) sea!& 0.003' (0.OBmm) sealed
m u r e (b) end umeah!
O.OOW" (0.OSmrn) to 0 . W (023m)unsealed
Industrial Atmospheric 0.0006" (0.15mm) sealed 0.003' (0.OBmm) sealed
and unsealed
Notas:
a Both below low tide end mean tide level.
The life expectancy of a metal structure and the durability of its aesthetic
appearance depend essentially on the quality of preparation of its surface and on
the performance characteristics of the coating which is to be in dlrect contact with
the steel. In this context zinc and aluminium play a fundamental part not only
because of the inherent resistance to the aggressiveness of the external
environment, but also by virtue of the exceptional active protection which they impart
to the steel.
These materials are comparable In cost to high pedormance paints ye? when viewed
over a 25-30year lie span offers huge savings in maintenance costs as shown
below.
-------
l
h Pack (CRP)
I
1 One Pack lCRPl
(200Mkmns)
The chart illustrates the life expectancy of watlrtp (based IXBS 5493).
Advantages Disadvantages
There are many metals used in thermal spray process althwgh only two are
generally used in the wrstnrction industry, their attributes indude;
Aluminium -
Zinc -
- Excellent for cathodic protection
- Excellent resistance to mechanicaldamage
- Life propoltionat to thickness (except when sealed)
- Used in anti-corrosive primers
Metals by Environment -
Prim to the use of thermal spray metals, review of the environment must be
considered.
Examples:
The process for application of thermal spray metal is relatively simple and con&b
of the following stages:
2 Spraying the molten metat onto the prepareds u m t e by means of armpressed air
GAS -
In cornbudon flame spraying the con%nuousfymoving wire is passed through a
pistol, melted by a c o n i d jet of burning gas (propane or acetylene fuel mixed with
oxygen), The molten wire tip enters the cone, atornises and is propdfed onto the
substmte.
When using either process, operator experience will develop with time, but some
general guidelines include the development of an optimum distance between the
gun and substrate to maintain a satisfactory temperature at m c h the sprayed metal
hits the surface. This distance, combined with the speed of laterat movement of the
gun, controls the rate and hence thicknes of metal deposiy In order to conhnl an
even thickmess on large flat areas, small areas about 0.5m , are marked out by the
Operative with the sprayed mew and then 'filled in',
Thickness checks are made regularly and areas lower than specificafion can be
brought up to thickness immediately. As the spray application produces dust
(especially the arc methml), it is necessary to progressively clean in front of the
sprayer to enwre fresh metal is deposited on clean surfaces. The operation
becomes a two-man team, with oo-ordination of cleaning, application and thickness
checking, reducing Operator fatigue and rnaintainfng production.
As a minimum, one coat is usually recommended as this will penetrate the open
pores and reduce the exposed area of metal and its corrosion. Some projects have
been known to utilise 3 and 4 coats of paint up to 250 mlcrons. Some typical
examples of sealingfpainting include:
The thicker the sealer coats, the smooiher the surface wlll be, thus redudng dirt and
grime. Sea!er coats can be pigmented to obtain most mlours, although at high
temperatures, aluminium flake is generally used in a silrcone binder resin.
When revlevdng sea4r costs. the choice of aermal spray coatings will have a
deciding factor. This was highlighted in the AWS 19 Year Report (see Section 5.0).
A Id of research and development has gone into the Formulationof suibble sealers
for thermal spray coatings. Most ot the major paint Suppliers have satisfactory sealer
coats which are generally of low viscosity farmulation {to ensure gcmd penetration
Into me thermal spray coabing).
Some projects specify the exact wmposltiwl requfments of the m l e r coat. The
sealer coat is by far the most important coat if a number of coals are utilised.
Application.
Application d the sealer mats Is by the usual meffiods i.e+brush, spray or rofler,
although some projects spedfically request application of the sealer coat be
conducted by bush to ensure full penetration of the sealer into the thermal sprayAd
coating.
It is important that the sprayed metal surfaoe is free from loose particles, dust etc.,
and is quite dry and un-contaminated by soluble salts such as chlorides and
sulphates that may be present in the atmosphere.
N~standiq the above, the sealer coat should be applied as directed by the
paint Suppliers in respect of thbkness, iype of application etc, wfth the emphasfs on
achieving a continuous closed film, especially on awkward locations. Poor
application of the sealer coats can lead to 'rust staining'; although nut detrimental,
this does look unsightly.
It must be rernembebered that the really effective treatment is the first coat The daily
work schedule should be planned to allow for all areas that have been metd
sprayed to be sealed before ahnospheric contaminatbn occurs, particularly dust or
condensation. Dust should be Mown off with clean, dry air and preferably be vacuum
brushed.
-
SECTION 9.0 ADHESION VALUES.
Gas application can achieve values of over 600 PSI I4.05MPa
A pull off strength of approx 1500 PSI I 10.14MPa is often specified for arc spray.
The reasons for specifying hlgh adhesion values are v a M and mnge from Me
~erceotionthat increased adhesion eauals increased setvice life to the need to have
high adhesion values to ensure that ihe metal spray is retained when subsequent
applications e.g. fireproofing and thermal insulation are later removed.
Abrasives.
Suitable abrasives for preparation of carbon steel to be aluminium or zinc
metal sprayed include:-
SECTION 10.0
ENVIRONMENT.
- METAL COATINGS - HEALTH, SAFETY AND
Health & Safety and Environmental considerations in Aluminium Metal
Spraying.
Experience over a number of years has show that thermal spraying of aluminium
and zinc results in little serious health or s a w problems, but like many other
industrial processes requires attention to application procedures and equipment to
avoid hazards.
Precautiwls are reviewed under separate headings which would apply to one or
more types of process.
Compressed Gases.
The usual gases used in Ram spraying are acetylene or propane with oxygen, and
the cylinders should be stored securely and full containers separated from empty
ones. Oxygen should be stored separately from other gases.
Pressure regulators shwld always be fitted to cylinders in use and only connected
to the equipment using the special hose supplied.
Electricity.
Although the open clrwit h arc spraying equlprnent daes not usually exceed 50
volts, it Is normally connected to 440 vult supply mains and therefore connections
should k made by a competent electrician.
During metal spraying dusts can be created whfch in worst cases can cause short
circuits and therefore earthing and appropriate circuit breaking measures should be
ensured.
Radiant Energy.
Themal spraying involves elechwnagnetk waves and precautiis should be taken
against ultra-violet energy, especidly where the brilliant blue light from UE electric
arc, produced in electrical welding or melting of metals, which has high U.V.
mcentration. The eyes especially should be protected, not only those of the
operator, but also those of other operatives and Inspectors. Operatives should wear
dark goggles and visors at all times, other people in the area should wear datk
safety glasses.
Cumnt Regulations.
There are no national regulatlom that specifically cover metal spraying but most
European countries have regulations which control aspects of the metal spraying
process and specifiers need to be aware d the potential hazards. Most of the
processes will be covered by legislation intended to reduce danger to Personnel or
to protect the environment.
- DustS
- Health
- Environment
- Plant & Equipment
- Training
From an Health & Safety aspect several problems or hazards are caused through
the dusb produced whilst metal spraying. The quantlties of dust evolved In the
p m s is my much dependant upon the efficiency of deposition of the process a5
it is set up. For example, in arc spraying very high amperage can produce massive
amounts of unstable energy at the wire rnefting head and this results in a none
uniform spread of the molten wire and hence poor deposition, similarly the poorly
controlled u w of gas on the flame spray situation. The molten wire which is not
deposited on the surface of the object being sprayed will cool In the atmosphere and
form dust partides.
This is not the only criteria to affect the evolution of dusts, but does Illustrate the
point.
This last figure of 35 mw3 is not quite as fixed and dear cut as it appears s h m the
concentration at which the mixture may became expbsive will vary dependant upon
the pattide size. The size one may expect from a spraying operation can range from
sub-micron, wMch is respirable level dusts, up to 30 - 50 microns. As a very broad
rule of thumb, the larger me particle size the greater the concentration required to
become explosive.
This dust erplosion problem may becwne apparent long after the actual spraying
operation is complete. Dusts wlll ~01lF4CtOn the floor, on ledges or in ducts amund
the spraying area and this can be reintroduced as airborne dust through kicking up
on peoples feet or sweeping operations. Again the concentrations will need to be
considered to determine explosivity.
Handling of dry dusts causes m e problems when extrecled dusts are collected In
a hopper or chamber. Obviously the chamber will have a high concentration of dust
and must therefore be inhinsicaltv safe to avoid emlosion risks. When the dusts are
removed from the collection chahber and aim when dusts are collected from the
floor of the spraying area, spark free methods should be empbyed. The material
needs to be sealed into containers and air excluded if possiMe. Because of the risks
associated with dusts of this nature, a secure storage area and disposal method
should be developed.
One partial solution to the extraction and collection proMem Is to utitii a wet system
of dust collection. This wuuld typically imrolve the use of extractors with wet filtration
systems and a tank to hold the wet dust. This in addialon to wetblng of fimr deposits
to make it easier to collect without clouding up.
This solutlon is partial slnce it only maintains ttre dust at low levels whllst the dust is
wet and also, aluminium dust will release a quantity of hydrogen gas whilst wet. If
this is sealed into containers then obviously me gas will expand to pressurise the
container.
10.1.2 Health.
The process also ghres offa quantity d ozone. The ozone is believed to dissipate
wimin feet if not inches of evdutfon and in most circles is not considered significantiy
harmful to the Operator or others.The real harmtul aspscts of WE spraylng operation
come to the fore when one considers the respirable portion of the dusts evolved.
Respirable dust is a major hazard and can only reasonably be pmteGted against by
the use d Respiratory Protective Equipment (RPE). Full breathing equipment
enclosing the head is the only acceptable protedon when using arc spray
equipment and full visor protection when gas spraying. The equipment should be air
fed, though a back up filter pack would be valuable II case of air supply failure.
The liw effects ol over expowre to the substances used in both an:and gas metal
spraying include:
q0.1.3 Environment.
Environmental protection has -me a m@r Factor in the evaluation of the use of
metals as a corrosion prevention coating medium. In many respects the potential
environmental concerns are diminished when coatina with metals since no solvents
are used in the manufacture or application of the wiie. ORen however thii factor is
diffused by the application of a solvent based sealer or colwr coats d paint, applied
later in the protection coating system.
The main polfits of concern are the release of airborne dusts and the handling and
disposal of other dust partides produced and collected manually or automaticalty.
Airborne Particulate.
The Environmental Protection Act defines gulte clearly the quantity and amount of
particulate which may be released to the atmosphere in the UK. Currently the figure
is 50 mg/mg and is similar in most European countries. The most effective method of
mirolling the outfall of particulate is through the use of full enclosure operating
areas.
Enclosure.
Full endosure can be developed in several ways; most common is the workscope
being within the confines of a workshop with scald access, but also a tented type of
system can be effective. In either case the movement of air must b? controlled to
ensure any movement is fmm the outside of the enclosure to the Inslde. The best
way of ensuring this is to use an afr extradon system creating a negative pressure
internal to the enclosure.
Monitoring.
Monitoring of the emlsstons must be &ed out emer continuously or regularly.
dependant upon your area authority or country regulations. Often this revolves
around the measurement of outlall frnm the exhaust of the extraction units, or
regular monitoring of the dkpersement of partfculates in a gkren area around the
work sae or location. In this last instam a great deal of envlmnmental sampling
may be required.
Waste Particulate.
The handling and disposal of waste material may cause prlicular c o r n ohce it is
still in a state h m which it may e w k into flammable dust clouds. This can be
caused by poor handling techniques during colection or by poor storage where it is
released into the atmosphere later in the handling cycle. The potential gas
propagation from damp aluminium storage is also a consideration.
Dispoeal.
The disposal of the dusk produced and collected may pose a prnblem in m e
countries. In the UK for example, small quantities may be land fiTled as
non-hazardous waste. This method is constantly reviewed by each individual area
authority so may not be the case everywhere. Quantities of over 1 ton can be
re-cycled economically, though some waste handling companies may store and
amalgamate your wme with that of other producers to make up the minimum
quantities required.
Other forms of disposaf Include amalgamation of the waste into some other
substance where it will be totally encapsulated and so sealed, followed by disposal
into a hazardous waste land fill s k , Sealing in solid containers and again land filled
as hazardous waste.
Arc.
All an: spraying equipment may present a hazard and be dangerous simply because
of the use of hfgh voltage electricity. In ktf the equipment is designed and buiN,
genemlly, to be totally safe. The potential danger arises when the equipment is not
maintained properly or when the operator Is untrained in the setting up or handling.
The air feed to the equipment must be maintained as dean as possible to ensure
both proper operation and also to restrain potentially flammable substances being
fed into the deliwry system. Component breakage must be dlowed for and potential
misfeed of wire both at the spray head and in the wire feed system can cause injury
to the operator.
Earlhing of the equipment is obviously a major concern when high amperages and
vokages are encountered. The energiser u n k must be maintained in a clean area
athenvise tthe cooling fans will draw in large quantities of the p a w l a t e sprayed.
This may cause a shorl circuit or worse in the energiser unit
Gas.
The safe opemtbn of gas equlpnwnt is pernaps more widely respected due to Its
camman use in fabrication industries. The handling of gas equipment and gas
bottles Is adequately discussed in the Bdtish regulations. Safe handling procedures
are available in most countries. The mixing of gas and the poor maintenance of
gauges etc. seem to account for most incidents involving gas metal spraying.
In both gas and arc metal spraying the potential for bums is obviously huge. The
processes both produce sufficient energy to destroy flesh instantly if contact is made
wfth the melting area of the spray unit. The surfaces sprayed can also cause bums
to operators and others working around them, since heat is retained in the surface
for some considerable time following sprayfng. The temperatures of a medium
deposited thickness of aluminium On a 3 - 4 mm thick steel surface may be around
80 - 120°C.
10.1.5 Training.
Most halnlng for he& and Safety of metal spraying Is undertaken during production
or discipline tminiw. General safety training is obviously essential but added to this
should be more in-depth understahding of the specifid hazards of metal spraying
processes. The extm hazards can entail noise, high pressure gasses and air, ultra
violet radiation, working with electricrty, operation of breathing equipment, high
temperature operation, negatively pressudsed full endosure and extraction.
f he most suitable method of instilling the howledge and requirements of the higher
safety standards is through a special training programme designed around a
particular project. Wlth the larger projecb this is possible and cost effective though
with the smaller ones a more generic form of tmning is required.
Trainees must show a bask level of competence in the operation of the safety
systems involved in the process. Competmce should preferably be demonstrated by
testing and obsenmnce on the work scope.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
3.0 DUTYOFEMPLOYER
11.0 FIRE
12.0 -
PAINTS CODE OF PRACTICE FOR SAFE HANDLING
14.0 SCAFFOLDlNG
This Part of the Manual details the requirement of the Contractor and gives typical
statements and responsibilities that are legtslation. This should be read in
conjunction with the main lntroductfon shown at the beginning of thfs Manual.
The painffng Inspector most be aware of the basic fundamentals of safety and the
risk of using hazardous chemicals and solvents. Remember everybody is their o m
Safety Officer and if you are unsure of anything do not be afraid to ask someone
more knowledgeable.
Health and Safety pmcedunes and data sheets must be reviewed prior to
commencement of work. especially in confined lomtians such as tanks, ships holds
and double bottom eic.
-
SECTION 2.0 THE HEALTH AND SAFEW AT WORK ACT 1974.
This Act alms to promote the health, safely and welfare of all persons at work. One
of the purposes of the Act is to involve everybody, whether Employer. Employee,
self-employed, Manufacturer of plant, equipment or materials, to ensure so far as is
reasonably pracricabk, the health, safety and welfare of all persons.
This Part contains advice and guldance for all Employees to ensure, so far as it is
reasonably practicable, their health, safety and welfare.
-
SECTION 3.0 DUTY OF EMPLOYER.
1 To ensure, so far as is reasonably pradcable, the h a & , safety and welfare at work
of h i Employees.
5 Prepare and revise, as necessary, a witten Statement of his general policy wilh
regards to health and safety at work of his Employees.
6 Arrange for the implementation of that policy, defining dearly the role and
responsibility of Management.
7 P
& all necessary protective and safety dolhing and equipment at no charge to
the Ernpioyee.
1 To take reasonable -re for the bath, safety and welfare of hlmsdf, his fellow
Employees, Employees of Clients and Contractors and other persons who may be
affected by his acts or missions.
2 To co-operaie WWI his Employer to enable him (the Employer) to caw out hls
obligations under the Act.
3 To use pmperty, and maintain in satisfactory condition, all items of equipment andor
clothing provided by his Employer In the interests of health, safety and welfare.
4 To make himself aware of and observe all safety prwisions, whether stalutory, as
laid dawn in the Cornpan~srules In this booklet or those applying to h i place of
work at the site of a Client or Contractor.
SECTION 5.0 -
CONTROL OF SUBSTANCES HAZARDOUS TO
HEALTH (COSHH) (UK).
This legislation was errforced in 1988. It is the m s f b i l i t y of the company to:
3 Ensure as far as possible, lhat all personal protection equipment supplid fed pproperly
worn by training Employees and also that any such equipment is examined,
rnainlainedand tested.
6 Ensure engineering control measures put in place are maintained as effective. This
would indude testing of the exlractlon systems and proving of me breathing air as
pure etc.
@ -
SECTION 6.0 RISK ASSESSMENT.
The advent of the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992 has
prompted Cmtmclors to adopt rlsk assessment procedures. All Companies with five
Personnel or more must undertake mitten assessments of the risklincident or injury,
whilst underlaking activities associated with the workscope.
All work lacatlans will have to be assessed to show any potential risk lo working
Personnel.
1.e. A Painter spraylng pdnt in a confind area is a high risk and steps must be
taken to reduce or eliminate the risk wherever possible.
Risk assessments are conducted by lhe Supervisors and Management, who must
be trained in the development of rlsk assessment. The paintmgmating Contractor
should have a risk assessment procedure available.
-
SECTION 7.0 CHECK LIST FOR A NEW CONTRACT.
En tfielr preparation for undertakfng a naw contract, the Inspector should ensure that
the items detailed below have been fully covered.
The Inspector should bear in mind the location of the contract. The regulabons with
regard to health and safety, may be signlmntly different in ottler countries.
- Specifiition
- Manufacturers Satety Data Sheets
- British or International Standards
Additional requirements that may be necessary but that are not laid down in the
specification.
The Specification may place certain responsibllltles for health and safety onto the
Inspector. He must therefore, ensure hat he has received the necessary training
and equipment to enable him to undertake these responsibilities.
The particular health and safety requirements of the coating materials should be
studied.
If the information is not provided or is Inadequate then the Inspector should consut
the Manufacturer.
The Inspector should study the information provided and ensure that he has
recetved the necessary training and equipment to enable him to wmpiiU with any
health and safety hazard that may arise due to the rnaten'al.
7.4 Instruments.
The Inspector shouId moonsult the specification and data sheets for any addmonal
tests that may be required and ensure that he is in possession of the necessary
equipment.
Any special test equipment may pose an additional hazard, i.e. is the equipment
intrinsically safe? The Inspector must, therefore, ensure that he has received the
necessary train~ngin the use of such equipment and understands any potential
hazards that may be involved.
What is the:
- evacuation signal?
- evacuation procedure?
Where are:
Do you know how to operate the fire alarm and flrefightlng appliances?
What immediate first aid facilities are available on site in event of an accident?
What are the site requirements regarding the wearing of protective clothing?
Do you h o w the name, location and internal tebphone number of the site Safety
mcef?
Is the sib a 'llama source free' area or does it contain such areas wfthin its
boundary? The regulations with regard to equipment containing batteries, metal
objects that could cause sparks and clothing (particularly nylon) should be checked
with the site Safety Officer. prior to entry.
Ensure that you are familiar with the slte regulations with regad to smoking. The
regulations applying to 'No Smoking' areas shall be strictly obsenred at all times.
@ -
SECTION 8.0 PROTECTIVE CLOTHING.
9.1 Duty d the Employer.
To provide any necessary clothing or equipment for the health, safety and welfare of
the E m p l o p at no cost to the Employee.
To ensure that the Employee undepstmds the functions and limitations of any
clothing or equipment provided for his health and safety at work.
To use, in the proper manner, anq item of clothing or equipment provided by the
Employer for his health and safety.
To ensure that any item of clothing or equQrnenf provided tor health and safety at
work is maintained in a serviceable manner and is r e n e w when necessary.
-
Safety Helmet Should be adjusted to fit comfortably and fitted with an elastic strap
to go under the chin. The helmet should be checked regulally for signs of cracking
or other damage. In the event of cracks appearing or if a hard blow is sustained,
even though no damage is apparent, the helmet should be replaced.
-
Eye Protection The type of protection required will depend upon me hazard. BS
2092 states the requirements for general purpose eye protectjon and protection
against chemical splashes, dust, gas, impact from high speed Rying particles and
flying molten metal.
-
Face Masks W111 be required when applying material by spraying. For certain
maierfals and grit blasting it is necessary to use a face mask havlng its own air
supply under positive pressure.
-
Overalls Provide a first line of defence against spillage. In addition, they should
reduce the potential hazard due to loose clothing, e.g. ties or loose sleeves. Nylon
overalls should not be worn due to risk of sparking from static electricity.
Boots - If properly chosen will reduce chance of slipping. Protective toe caps will
minimise the hazards due to falling objects. Some contracts will require the use of
safety boots without nails.
-
Noise For certain speclfled jobs, ear defenders may be required.
-
SECTION 10.0 PROTECTION OF EYES.
The Employer must prwtde approved eye protection and maintain an adequate
stock for this purpose.
The Employee must use the prolection provided and ensure that in the event of
loss or damage, the protection is replaced.
- -
Impact Grade 1 (Higher resistance)
- Grade 2 - (Lower mistance, but thought to be sufficient for most General
Engineering Hazards)
- Chemical
- Dust
- Gas
- Molten metal and hot solids penetration
Based on the above classifications, there are three types of protectinn available:
-
Goggles Depending upon the type of ventilation and lens constrvction. They are
manufactured for protection against hazards classified above, usually protection is
provided against a Combination of hazards.
-
Faoe Screens Provide similar eye prot-n to goggles.
All lrspectors and other Staff who may visit sites should have a palr of spectades to
BS 2092.
Goggles approved according to BS 2092 - ICD, should be worn when you are
involved in Ihe following operations:
- Blast cleaning
- Handling of liquids in open vessels
- Spraying of liquids or metal
- Power wire brushing or grinding
The above list is not complete since it is up to the individual to recognise hazardous
operations or situations and to ensure mat the appropriate protection is used.
Remember that you are protecting y w r eyes. If in doubt. you shauld consult the
Safety Officer for the site where you are working.
Fuel - the material must be capable of supporting combustion and In the right
form, e.g. a full can of paint with the Ild secured in the stores is less hazardws
than paint being sprayed.
-
Oxygen Reducing the oxygen content of the alr in We vidn'ily of the Reme wlll
cause the fire to die. d reduction from 20% (normal) to 15% may be sufficient.
The Inspector should, therefore, note that solvent vapours m a t e d with paints,
thinners or cleaners are particularly hazardous and should ?x treated wlth particular
care. It is important to ensure that a means of ignition 4s not provided where these
materials are being used.
Points to Note.
- No sparks, e.g. dectfical mnladts, nailed boots on st@. tools dropped on the
steel deck
- Cut off any source of power, e.g. electricity, gas, compressed alr
- 'Use the available emergency fire exiingubhers, providing that you & not place
p ~ e linf danger
Consult and follow the Manvfactuwh data sheets. These should contain health and
safe& data for the specific materials. In addion, the Supplier may Issue a general
health and safety data sheet.
Where applicable, consult and follow the Personal Protection Advice for the use of
marine paints and cornpxitions. THs booklet is issued by the British Coatings
Federation.
Know the probable hazards and symptoms connected wlth the paints with which you
are working. Be aware of the first aid remedies.
Solvents.
With regard to Health and Safely it is necessary that the following terms are
understood:
M.EL
Represents the concentretion of a substance In the atmosphere below which nearly
all workers may be repeatedly exposed during their normal working hours without
adverse effect to their health.
PPm mgrm3
Benzene 10 32
Toluene 100 375
Xylene 100 435
White spi* 575
furpentfne 560
Petroleum 2000
No&.
These values are concentration of in the atmosphere and have been d r m from the
UK published figures at the time of writlng. These figures are reviewed almost
annually, therefore your own owntries most recent figures should be consulted prior
to the use of this information.
Thus, M.E.L. and LE.L. are impartant during the application of paint, prtlarlarly
spray painting in confined spaces, since both represent a measure of concentration.
Good ventilation is dearly imporlant and the paint rnanufacturar's safety data sheet
should give guidelines. As example consMer the figures noted below, purely as a
sample;
2970 cubic metres of air is required to reduce the vapowr concentration MOW
the concentration resulting in the M.E.L.
71 cubic metres of air is required to reduce the vapwr concentration below 10%
of the LE.L This 10% figure is chosen to allow for inconsistent mncentrations in
a given area i.e. small pocket of high concentration In a drain etc.
The cublc metres in these examples, relates to the quantity of air either In the
location during applicallon (morn size) or flowing through the area during the cure of
the material. The methods d calculating these factors should be studied and
practised before attempting to base the safety of Personnel upon your results.
F.P.
The FP of a solvent or solvent mixture is the lowest tempemfun?at which vapour is
given off in sufficient quantities to form an explosive or inflammable mixlure with air.
Clearly F.P. and LE-L. are inter-related. F.P. is a guide for the storage of paint,
while LE.L 6 significant durlng application. It is important, therefore, that sources of
ignition should be eliminated during paint application.
The irnmedlate effect Is to leave only a small puncture wound, but if proper
treatment is not canTed wt promptly, the paint and particularly solvent can cause
swellng which may lead to amputation.
-
SECTION 13.0 PERSONAL PROTECTION ADVICE.
The Brltkh Coatlngs Federation have published a booklet with this title which
recommends the personal health and safety equipment that should be worn by
Operatives and Personnel in the immediate vidnity of paint application.
P.P.A. 2/6
Fimt Digit.
Representsthe health hazard that may be due to the solvent.
The range is 0 3 , depending on the quantity of air theoretically required to dilute the
solvent vapour from one litre of paint in order not to exceed the TLV.
The mquimd air quantfty range set for each digit is:
-
Of0 (Brush applicatlon, good ventflation)- gloves and eye p m t d o n
316 - (Spray application, limited miilatlon) - gloves, eye protection, air-fed hood,
skin protection
If the containers are malked w)th a PPA number, hrther information concerning the
recommended pewonal protection equipment should be obtained f r m the
Manufacturer.
At present, the PPA system ~hrs m1y to marine paints and compositions, the
absence of such markings should not be interpreted as indicating the absence of
hazard due to me material.
-
SECTION 14.0 SCAFFOLDING.
The following notes provlde only general guldance concerning the safety aspects of
scaffolding and access.
As a paintlng Inspector, you are not generally required to take any responsibility for
erection or rnairltenancef scaffolding. The notes, therefore, are guidance for the
safety of yourself and others on scaffolding already erected.
Laddws.
A ladder shall rest on firm, even ground and b erected sa that the ladder is at an
angle of about 75" to the horizontal. i.e. a slope of 4 vertical to 1 horizontal. For a
ladder resting on a wall 2.4 metres (8 feet) from me ground, the foot of fie ladder
should be 60an (2 feet) from the wall.
fhe ladder should rise at least 1.070m (3 R. 6 inches) abwe the stepping off point.
Thus, to gain access at a point 2.4 metres fmm the ground, the ladder should ideally
be 3.5 metres (1 1 feet) long.
The ladder must be firmly secured in position. The best method is tying at the top.
since this wilf prevent sdeways slippage, as well as outward slippage at the bottom.
Alternatively, side guys can be sewred to ancllorages at or near ground level. By
itself, a sandbag or stake at the bottom of the ladder should only be regarded as a
temporary fixing.
Protectbe Coatings Inspection Manual QRoblnm Irwin Technical Supp? LM..
0oc.N~:TMA-0147 02 Pa7 England 1994-5.7
Page 14 d 17
Ladders which have badly worn or broken rungs or split stiles should not be used.
~ n faults
y or cracks should not be fifled with putty and the ladder should not be
painted so that any faults may be dearly seen.
The rungs of a ladder are designed to support the weight of a man and whatever
load he may be carrying. The rungs shall not, therefore, be used to support
scafldding planks. Similarly, ladders should always be supported an their stiles and
not on the rungs.
Scaffolding.
Scaffolding Mil normally have been erected by a specialiH flrm who will be
responsible for its maintenance. Alternatively, the Contractor will appoint a
competent person.
The Construction (Worktng Places) regulations 1966 fequire that scaffolds shalt be
inspected regularly and a The Gomtructlon (Working Places) Regulations 1966
require that scaffolds shdl be record of the inspection hetd on the site.
Every scaffold should, therefore, be inspected before use, after adverse weather
conditions which may affect its stability and at least once every week. Particular
attention should be paid to fixings and the condition of placing of scaffold boards.
If mere is any doubt concerning the safety of scaffdding, the Wiowing publications
should be consulted:
TYPEOFHAZARD: 6
a
w
e
&WM
-
ppn--
SPILLAGE:
BUND ALL BPILLAGE wmf -BENT INEFlf
MATERIAL
CMSIFIED AS FLAMMABLE:
CONTAINER DISPOSAL.
LAND FlLL DISPOSAL OF CURE0 AND SEMI CURED P A M CONTAMlERS BY LEEUSED
-
WASTE CARRlER MAY BE C l A S S m D AS HAtARDWS WAS= IF STILL IN LMUlD
TROWEL APPUCATlON
F R R E ~ C ~ , F D ~ ~ ~ ~ O R I ] R Y P O ~ ~ E R , ~ I V
NO SMOKrmG WHEN IN USE.
Abrasive.
Term used for the Mast deaning media. Ghllled iron grit, blast shot, sand etc., are all
examples of abrasives used in the coatings industry.
Absorption.
The process of soaWng up. Wng absorbed. Some materials and s u h t e s are
more absorbent than others.
Accelerator.
Any substance whlch increases the speed of a chemical reaction. In the paht
industry the term usually indicates materials that hasten the curing of a resin
system.
Accuracy.
The agreement &tween a measurement and the actual value e-g. a coating
thickness gauge with an acarracy specification of s 5% of reading will give values
between 95 and i05vm on a 100pm coafng when calibrated correctly.
Acidic.
Used to describe the chemical nature of a substance which mutmlises a l k a l ~and
which must m t a i n hydrogen. Acidic sdutions have a pH of less than seven. Acidic
materials tum litmus paper red.
Adhesion.
The degree of attachment between a paint mating or varnlsh film and the underlying
material with which it is in contact. The latter may be another film of pa~nt(adheslon
between one coat and another) or any other rnaterlai such as wood. metal, plaster.
etc. (adhesion between a coat of paint and its substrate).
Air Drying.
A substance which drles through oddation by absorption of air and molecule growth.
Generally preceded by sohent evaporation. No curing agents (other than air) are
neoessary.
Airless Spray.
The process of atomlsation of paint by W n g it through a fine orifice at very high
pressure. This dect may be aided by the vaporisation ot the &vents especially if
the paint has been previously heated. The term is not generally applied to those
electrostatic spraying processes which do not use air for atomisation.
Alkyd.
A synthetic combination of an aFcohol and an acid. The name derives from the a1 in
alcohol and the cid in add (the name shwfd really be alcid). Alkyd resins am used
in large wlurnes in the coatings industry.
Ambient Tmpertrtuw.
An ambient temperature is a term used to describe the sumunding, or room,
temperature.
Amine Adduct.
An amine curing agent is an example. These are usually combined w f h resins.
Anaerobic.
Lacking free oxygen. This usually refers to the state of the electrolyte adjacent to the
metal structure.
Anion.
An ion with a negative charge, f o m d when an atom gains electrons in a reaction.
Nan metals tend to form anions.
Anode.
That part of the surface in an electmlytlc cell which is usually subject Za comhre
attack.
Anti-Fouling
Name applies to a substance (usually a paint) which is used to stop sea life fouling
attaching to ships, rigs, pipes etc. Anti-fouling paints can be toxic release or special
surface tension property coatings.
Aqueous.
Consisting largely of water: dissolved in water.
Asphalt,
A residue from the petroleum d i l l i n g Industry. Can be used for coating pipelines
etc.
Atom.
The smallest indMsible particle of an element than can exist Simply described as
me 'building bricks' of which everything is made.
Binder.
The non-volatile film-forming portion of a paint; it binds or cements the pigment
parlides together and adheres the coating to the substrate.
Bii.
The term used to describe bits of skin, foreign matter etc., projecting from the
surface of an applied coating. Could be an applicatkm or product problem.
Bituminous Paints.
Originally, the class of paints consisting essentially of natural bitumens dissolved in
organic solvents; they may also contaln softening agents, pigments and inorganic
fillers. They are usually black or dark in colour. The term 'bituminous' has come to
include bitumen-like products such as petroleum asphalt. The term is not generally
used for paints based on coal tar or coal tar pitch.
Bleeding.
Used to describe the pmess of tiision of a soluble coloured substance into a
coaling. An undesirable discolouralion is usually the outcome. Selechve sealer coats
can prevent this.
Blooming.
A whitening deposit similar to mat on a grape. It causes the loss of gloss and
creates a dull effect on the paint. It is sometimes possible to remove this blooming
simply by wiping the surface with a damp cloth. Generally caused by a reaction to
moisture during curing of a paint film.
Calcareous.
A product which contains lime.
Cathode.
That part of the surface in an electdytlc cell which does not usually suffer corrosive
attack
Cathodic Protection.
The prevention of ~ r r o s i o nby means ot an impressed current, or sacrificial anodes
which produce a flow of cumnt stronger than, and in opposition to, the flow which
resulk in cormston. It can only be used on items buried in damp soil or immersed in
water, j.e. in an electrolyte.
Chalking.
The formation of a friable, powdery layer on the surface of a paint film caused by
disintegration of the binding medium due to the action of weathering. The chalking of
a paint film can be considerably affected by the choice and concentration of the
pigment
Checking.
See 'Cracking'.
Chrornating.
Treatment of ligM alloys by chemical mlutrons normally containing chromic acid
andlor chrnmates in suitable acid medium. This treatment modifies the surface ta
give improved pmtection agafnst corrosion and to serve as a good base for
subsequent paint coats.
Cissing.
A defect In a wet mating which leaves areas of the dried film wlth either holes
through the whole of the coating or attenuated holes. This defect is common on
substrates contaminatedwith grease, oil and silicone.
Cohesion.
The forces which Mnd the particles of paint or varnish film together wlth a coherent
whole.
Colour Fast.
The ability of a produe to maintaln its colwr. Non fading.
Compatibility.
The ability of hnro or more substances to combine satlsfactorlly.
Copolymer.
See 'Polymer'
Cracking.
Generally the spring of a dry paint or varnish film usually as a result of ageing. The
following terms are used to denote the nature and extent of this defect:-
Hair-Cracking.
Fine cracks which do not penetrate the top coat; they occur at random.
Checking.
Fine cracks which do not penetrate the top coat and are distributed over the
surface givlng the semblance of a small pattern.
Cracking.
A b r e a k d m In which the cracks penetrate at least one coat and may be expected
to result ultimately in complete failure.
Craring.
Resembles checking but the cracks are deeper and broader.
Curing.
The process by which a coating becomes hard and insoluble by heal, chemical
reaction, U.V. wrlng etc.
Curing Agtsnt.
An additive which promotes the curing of a film.
Curtaining.
Another term for sags and rum, although generally u s d when the defect is of a
large or uniform nature.
Defects.
Flaws or faults in a coating or on a substrate. (See Part 10 tor Table of Defects and
examples).
Delamination.
The separation of layers. Could refer to paint coatings, i.e. the total &laminaLon
beween coats due to foreign matter contamination.
Differential Aeration,
The unequal access of alr to different parts of a metallic surface, resufflng otten In
the stimulation of corrosion at areas where access of air is restricted.
Diluent
A volatile liquid usually added to paint m l n g s during manufacture. Although not a
true solvent, a diluent can be used in combination with true solvents to lower
viscos~tyand increase the bulk.
Dolly.
A device, usudty made from metal, which is used with a test instrument for
assessing the adhesion of coatings to a substrate. The doly is attached to the
surface by adhesive and a force applied by the instrument to remove it and the
coating fmm the substrate.
Driers.
Substances which, when incorporated in relatively small proportions in paints or
varnishes based on drying o h , bring about an appreciable reduction of their drying
times at ordinary temperatures. These substances are usually compounds of
manganese. cobalt or lead.
Drying.
The process of the change of a paint from the liquld to the solid state, due to the
evaporation of solvent, chemical reactions of the bindlng medium, or a combination
of these factors.
Dryspray.
Particles of paint which have dried out after leaving the application gun, prior to
attachment to the substrate. Dryspray effect is a visuaf rwghness on the surface
and can lead to adhesion related problems of sufxequent coats.
Earth.
The conducting mass of earth or of any conductor in direct electrical connection
therewith. A connection, whether intentional or unintentional, beWeen a cxxrductor
and the earth.
Verb: To connect any condudor with the general mass of earth.
Note: 'Ground' sometimes used for 'earth'; both include expanses of natural water.
Protective Cmiings n
I-n Manual ORobinson llwln Technical SuppM Ud.,
Doc No: f MA-0147 Issue 02 Part 8 England 1994-5.7
Page 6d22
8 elcometec
Efflomcence.
on the outside of bncks and
A crystalline soluble whfte salt deposit usuafly found
cement substrates. Efflorescence is formed &an crystals lose part of their water. b
powdery substance Is left on the substrate.
Electrode.
A conductor of the m@a tcil class (including carbon) by means of whlch current
passes to or from an electrotyte,
Electrolyte
An add, base or salt, which, when d i v e d in water, splii up into charged
particles, so that the solution conducts electricity. Also applied loosely to the solution
itself, e.g. rain water made acid by industrial pollution or contamination by salt In
marine atmospheres.
Elec!rostatic Spraying.
Methods of spraying in which an electrostatic field Is created between the work to be
coated and the atomised paint particles. The charged partides of paint are attracted
to the article being painted. The electrostatic field of force is used In some processes
to effect the atomisation of the paint. Powder coabngs may also be applied by
electrostatic mating.
Element.
The basic component of all materials. A pure substance which cannot be broken
down into anybing simpler by chemical means. There are 104 elements currently
known to man All are found in the Periodic Table.
Emulsion.
To give an apparently homogeneous material, one liquid is dispersed in a second
liquid in t k form of minute drops. If the droplets remain permanently dispersed the
emulsion Is said to be stable and certain compounds are added as stabifisers
because of their power to keep tha droplets dispersed.
Emulsion Paint
Generally, paints in which the msdlum Is an 'emulsion' or emulsion-llke dispersion d
a solid organic binder in water. Industrially, the name is mainly restricted to those
paints in which the medium is an 'emulsion' of a synthetic resin. Polyvinyl acetate
emulsion paints form a typical exarnpte.
Endothermic.
A reaction in which heat energy Is taken up fmm the surroundings. A fall in
temperature occurs.
Erosion.
EmiFng or being eroded. The wearing away of a surface due to external forces,
e.g. rocks in the sea or a pafnt film exposed to wind blown sand etc.
Etch Primers.
Priming paints which are generally supplied as hNo separate cvmponents which
requlre to he mixed immediately prim to use and remain usable for a llmited period
only- The mixed paint contains carefully balanced proportions of an Inhibiting
pigment, phosphoric acid, and a synthetic resin binder in a mixed alcohol solvent.
They are generally used on galvanised or non-ferroussurfaces.
They give a corrosion inhibiting film which is a vgr good basis for the a p p l i d o n of
subsequent coats of paint. Although these matertals are referred to as primers, the
films which they give are so thin that it is better to consider them as etching
solutions, and folrow them with more orthodox types of primer. These primers can
also be known as wash prfmers. They are very sensitive to water during and
immediately after applcation.
Exothermic.
A reaction in which heat energy Is released to the surroundings. A rise in
temperature occurs.
Extender.
A material in powder form. Used in cmjunctlon with pigments in @nt for Its film
forming properties and to avoid settlement during storage. Usually cheaper than the
true pigrnerrts.
Fernus.
Contains iron.
Filiform Corrosion.
Sporadic, srnatl, thread-like corrosion products whlch tend to form beneath thin and
semi-permeable films. A comion cell is developed within the thread.
Flexibility.
The ability to bend without damage. A general requirement for certain coatings, e.g.
pipeline coatings.
Foreign M m r .
A term used in the coating indvsby to describe contamination, e.g. grease, oil.
silicone, dust, dirt, etc.
Galvanic Action.
A spontaneous electrolytic cell reaction in which the metallic mode corrodes.
Galvanic Anode.
An electrode used to protect a structure by galvanic sacrfficlal adon.
Gahanised Saeel.
A form of corrosion protection in which steel is d i d in m o b n zinc which then acts
as a sacrificial coating, protecting the steel. Used a lot in the construction industry.
Steel ske is restricted to We slze of the galvaniser's bath.
Generic.
Characteristic of; belonging to a partiarlar family, Examples of paints i.e. epoxies,
polyurethanes etc.
Grit Blaeting.
See 'Blast Cleaning'.
Groundbed.
A system of buried or submerged electrodes connected to the positive terminal of an
independent source of dim3 current, in order to lead to earth the current used for
the cathodic protection of a buried or immersed rnetalllc structure.
Herdem.
An agent used to effect the hardening of a synthetic resin system.
High-Build Paint.
A paint (e.g. single or tw-o pack @ n l ) which, because of L thixotroplc or other
qualities, can be applied in a single coat at thidumses in the mnge ofl 120 microns
and upwards).
Hydroxyl.
Solutions containing hydro@ ions. Chemlcal radld OH-.
Hygroscopic.
Used to descrlbe a substancs which absoms water. Chemically described as a
subslance which can take up to 70% of its own mass of water without diiobing or
becoming wet.
Impressed Current.
The current supplied by a rectifier or other direct-arrrent soume (specifically
excluding galvanic anodes, e.g. silicon iron anodes)to a protected structure in order
to attain the necessary protection potentid.
Impact Resistance.
The ability of a paint film to resist a sudden blow.
Incompatibility.
The inability to mix or adhere together. Sometimes used in the malings Industry to
describe different genefit types of paint which should not be mixed. The opposite b
compatible.
Induction Time.
For certain two padc paints, the mbred materials must be allowed to stand for a
certain time before the paint k applled. The pefrod of standing after rnixlng is
referred to as the induction time. It is gemrally half to one hour but will depend on
the components. The data sheets for two pack materials must be checked to
determine whether an Induction time is necessary and, if so, the Inspector must
check that the mixed material is allowed to stand prior to application.
Inert
Without Inherent power or action, Chemically inactive (not reactive).
Inert Pigment.
Pigments which rernaln relathrely Inactive or unchanged In paints; they may play an
important part in contmllfng corrosion due b their typlcal laminar (plate-like) shape
which increases the banler effect. Typical examples are leafing aluminium or MIO.
Infusible.
See Thermo-settfng.
Inorganic.
Any Substance entirely derived from minerals or metals. Not derived from living
materials,
Ion.
An atom, or group of atoms, carrying a charge of positive or negative electricity.
Laitance.
Loose friable product sometimes produced on the surface of new laid concrete.
'Laitam is generally detrimental to coating systems and must be removed by blast
cleaning, acid wash etc.
Lead Paints.
Paint containing more than 5 pet cent of soluble lead or lead compound (expressed
as PM3) of the dried pigment when tested by the method prescribed in 'Statutory
Rules and Orders 1926, No, 1621 of the Lead Paint Protection Against Poisoning
Act 1926'.
Lead Restricted.
A description used by certain Government Departments to signity paints which are
not lead pants within the meaning of the 'Lead Paint Protection Against Poisoning
Act 1926'. New legislation 1s being enacted to restrict the use of lead pant in
buildings, espedally where children have access.
Leafing.
A term used to describe orientation of pigments. Usually flat, in horizontal planes,
e.g. aluminium flakes In heat resistant paints.
Mastic.
An adhesive composition. Loosely used to describe a plastic filler, stopper or putty.
Microclimate.
The mllective physical conditions, such as temperature and humidity, at a small
specified location, e.g. a bridge or even parts of the bridge since the conditions from
point to point may vary slgnifcantly.
Mil.
Aunit of length commonly used in the U.S.A. equal to 6.001 Inch (1 thou). The
metric equivalent is 0.025 mrn or 25 microns.
Mild Steel.
Steel with no deliberate alloy addttion and with a carbon content not exceeding 0 2 5
per cent.
Millscale.
The oxide layer produced when steel is formed during the hot rolling prooess. This
scale is cathodic to steel and must be removed prior to applylng a paint system.
Miscible.
The ability to form or blend together. Chemical term.
Monel.
An alloy of nickel, copper and aluminium which hasexcellent anti cormsive
pmperties. Often used where cormsiw chemicals are present.
Monomer.
The unit mokwle from which a P o w e r is built up.
Mud Cracking.
Used to describe a defect produced in highly pigmented p i n t systems, e.g. zinc
silicate. An appearance of dried mud caused by over application, rapid coring etc.
MVT.
Moisture Vapour Transmisston. The rate at which moisture is transmitted through a
substance.
Neoprene Pairtfs.
Paints based on pigmented sdutfons of the synZhetfc rubber, neoprene
(polychlorvprene), a vulcanising agent being added before use. Neoprene pafnts are
used mainly for industrial maintenance palnting for service under conditions of
severe chemical exposure.
Non Volatile.
The solid part of a paint left after the solvent has evaporated.
Oil Length.
The ratio of dl to resln In a varnish medium normally expresw in terms of parts by
weight of oil to one part by weight of resin.
Oleu-Resinous.
Generally refers to varnishes composed of vegetabte drying oils in conjunction with
hardening resins, which may be either natural or synthetic.
Orange Peel.
The term given to the visual appearance of a paint finish because it resembles an
orange peel or skin. Can be attributed to flow chaacterlstics, poor application etc.
Organic.
Any substance consisting of, or d e M from, matter which has lived.
Osmdic Blistering.
The formation of blisters under a paint film which mntahs moisture. (SeeOsmosis).
Overspray.
Generally waste. Partides of paint which have not hit the desired target. Common to
air and aides spray application methods, especially H used near awkwardly shaped
items.
Oxide.
Compound of oxygen with another element (usually a metal) or with radical.
Passiuaaion.
The act of making something inert or unreactive. Corrosion term.
Phenolic Resins.
Phenolic resins are the prcducts of condensation reactions between phenoTs and
afiphatic aldehydes, usually formaldehyde. The term includes both the simple
condensation products (pure or 100 per cent phenolics) and those m o d W with
resin or resln esters. Phenolic resms are reacted with drying oils to produce med~a
for paints. Some phenolic resins are used in solu%oneither alone or in cambination
with e.g. alkyd or epoxy resins as media for industrial stoving paint.
Phosphaing.
The formation of a thin phosphate coating, usually as a petreatment for painting ot
coating purposes.
Pickling.
A process where steel and other metals am dipped 4n a solution (usually add) for
cleaning.
Pigment.
The insoluble solid partides dispersed in a paint, which give the dried film its
characteristic properties of colour and opacity and influence durability in vi3rious
environments.
Pitting Cornsion.
A particularly dangerous type of m&on because, though the attack may be ~n'tall,
L concentration in Isolated deep pits may cause serious damage, e.g. pipes may be
holed.
Plasticiser.
A paint ingredient used to Impme the flexibility of a materid
Polarisation.
The produetion of counter-electromotiveforce at metal surfaces due to the passage
of electric current through an electrolytic df.
Polyethyiene (polytherm).
A colourtess themoplastic material composed of polymers of ethylene.
Polymer.
A large molecule built up by the union of a number of smaller molecules. Vinyl resins
are e~amplesof true polymerisation. The name is frequently applied to large
molecules produced by any chemical process.
Homo-polymer.
A true polymer in which molecular units from which it is built are all of the same
-
kind. Pdyvinylchlorlde W C - is an example.
A true polymer in whlch molecular units from which it is built are of two or more
klnds. Polyvinylchlorideaoetate, as employed in vinyl paints, is en example.
Polyurethane Resins.
Polyurethane resins am made by crosslinking saturated polyesters with isocyanates
or polyisocyanates. fhwe resins are usually supplied in two packs to be mixed
Immediately before use but they may also be found in single pack paints.
Polyvinylchloride (PVC).
A dourless thermoplastic material composed of polymers of vtnyl chloride.
Commonly know as P.V.C. Not to be confused with Pigment Volume
Concentration.
Potemmal.
Relates to a metal immersed in a conducting medium. The voltage of the metal,
r e i a t i i to a standard electrode, produced through the tendency of the metal to enter
the medium as ions and to displace hydrogen.
Pot Life. The pwlod after mixing during the mildure of resin and activator or
hardener of a W p a c k paint remains usable and fully eflectii. Some two-pa&
paints, e.g. etch primers remain usable, i.e. they can still be applied, even after they
have become ineffectual. The Manufacturer's data sheet must be comuited and
these should quote pot life at a particular temperature, usually 20°C. Parlicwlariy in
hot climates the pot life will be considerably shortened.
PreFabrication Primer.
An organic film-forming matefiat, whlch may acontaln a pigment (often metallic) that is
applied to a steel surface directly after surface preparation genedly by
blast-cleaning, and which does not have to be removed prior to welding.
Although it is intended only to provide temporary protection, it should be compatible
with the permanent protective systems.
Primer.
The first complete coat of paint of a palnifng system applied to an unpafnted surface,
as an integral part of the permanent protective system.
horection Potentirh.
The more negative level to which the potential of a metallic structure, w f h respect to
a specified reference electrode in an electmlytlc environment, has to be depressed
in order to effect cathodic proteclion of the structure,
P.V.C.
See either Pdyvlnylchloride or Pigment Volume Concentmion.
Reference Electrode.
An electrode, the potentfa! of whlch is accurately reproducible and which serves as a
basis of reference in the measurement of other electrode potentials.
Relatiwe Humidity.
The amwnt of water vapour that air can take up depends upon it temperature. The
amount it actually contains is usually expressed as per cent Relative Humidity, i.e.
the percentage of the amount the air could sustain at the particular temperature.
Rust.
Reddish or yellowish-brown coating formed by oxidation of iron.
Sacrificial Anode.
Synonym for 'galvanic a M e S .
Saponification.
This term normally refers to the formation of a soap by the reaction between a fatty
acid ester and an alkali. In protective coatings, saponification refers to the
decompwition of the medium of a paint or varnish I r n by afkali and moisture in a
substrate, e.g. new concrete or rendering based an cement, sand and Ihe. CoaHngs
used in conjunction with cathodfc protection are also liable to saponification. In very
severe cases the film may be completely llquified by saponification. In situations like
those quoted, saponification resistant paints should be used.
Shelf Life.
The time that a paint will keep in good mdiiian on the shelves of a shop or stock
room. In the case of two component paints, before mixing.
Sherardiring.
A method of matlng steel or cast iron artides. The artides are heated with zinc dust
for several hours.
Shop Primer.
An anticorrosive tempowry primer applied in the woks (during steel rolling). This
primer protects the steel plates from corrosion during the construction phase of a
project.
Short Oil.
A tow ratio of oil to w i n in a varnish medium.
Shot Blast.
See 'Blast Cleaning'.
Silicone Resins.
A dass of synthetic restn prduced from organic compounds containing silicon. Not
to be confused with the silicate medium used in zinc silicate paints.
Soffit&
Steel beams used for bridges and other slructures are usually manufactured for
strength combined with lightness In the form of an I-beam. The bottom edge of the
bottom flange is called the soffit.
Solution.
A liquid in which a substance can be dissolved.
Solvents.
Liquids which are used in the rnarmfactu~of paint to dissolve w disperse the
film-fomlng constituents, but which evaporate during drylng and therefore do not
become a part of the dried film. They are used lo control the consistency and
character of the finish and to regulate application properties (see Thinners).
Spreading Rater.
The area covered per unit amount of palnt applied. Spreading rate should be
expressrxi as square metrdltre at a given dry film thickness.
Stray Current.
Current flowing in the soil or water environment of a structure and arising mainly
from electric power or traction installations. Such stray current can pass from the
environment into the structure and vice versa. Cormsion can result.
Stainless Steel.
A steel containing sufficient chrornhrn, or chromium and nldtel, to render It highly
resistant to corrosion. Some stainless steels can be non magnetic and are therefore
considered to be non fermus substrates for the purpose of mating thickness
measurement.
substrate.
A general name given in protech coating practice to the base material Wing
coated, e.g. steel, wood, concrete, etc.
SulphatereducingBacteria.
A group of bacteria found in mast soils and natural waters, but active only in
conditions of near neutrality and freedom from oxygen. They reduce svlphates in
their environment, with the production of sulphides and severe corrosion.
Surface Profile.
The depth from peak to trough of a blast cleaned substrate prior to painting.
Synthetic.
A substance not occurring naturally. ArWicial.
Tkrrno-Setting.
Organic coating materials, which on heatlng b e m e insoluble and infusible.
Thenno-Plastic.
Organic coating materials, W c h will soften under tfie hfluence of heat and may
become %uid.
Thinners.
Volatile liquids which may be addd to palnts and varnkhes to cheapen and to
facilitate application or aid penetralion by lowering the viscosity.
They must be mpletely misclble with the paint or varnish and not cause
precipitation Of the non-volatile portion either in the container or Fn the film during
drying. Thinners should only be added by me User in accordance with
Manufadurefs instructions (see Sotvents).
Thixotropic Paint
A paint with a special structure of 'body" which undergoes a temporary reduction in
consistency dur~ngapplication. Thls allows the paint to be spread easily but to resist
the formation of runs when heavy w t i n g s are applied. In the decorating field these
paints are called 'non-drip' (see also Viscosity).
The two parts of a two-pack paint are usually supplied in h e correct relative
proportion either in entirety separate containers of appropriate sizes or in a single
container divided into two cornparbnents. (The term dual-pack is often used to
describe the latter type of container).
Undercoal Paint
The coat, or coats, applied to a surface after priming, filing, etc., or after the
preparation of a previously palnted surface, and before the application of a finished
coat An undercoat should possess good hiding power arid a oolour leading up to
that of the finished mat, and should otherwise be that of the finished coat, and
should otherwise be suitable, for use with the other paints in the system.
Vehicle.
The liquid portion of paint, in which the pigment is dispersed; it is GompDsed of the
binder, the solvent and any thinner present.
Vinyl Resins.
Resins formed by palymedsatim or compounds which contain fie vinyl radical
(CH2CH). Vinyl resins may be applled as solution m organic solvents, as plastisols,
organosols or emulsion (aqueous dispersion) form (see Emulsion Paints).
Vinyl Paints.
Paints wntaining a co-pdymer 8.g. polyvinylchlorideand polyvinyl acetate.
Viscosity.
The internal resistance to flow possessed by a ffquid. It is determined by measuring
the force required to shear the Ilquid, i.e. to move one layer over another in orderly
flow without turbulence at a defined rate. Most palnt snlvents.'and many oils and
varnishes, are termed Newtonian liquids, that is, when they are tested in suitable
viscometers at a fixed temmture. their rate of flow [shear) is ~romrtiondto the
shearing force. The viscosijl of these liquids at a fixed krnpel$tu& is'thus constant.
for most pafnts and other pigmented materials the rate of Row (shear) is not
proportional M the shearing force, but may very with the time and rate of shearing
force.
For these materials only an apparent viscosity, a figure which refers only to the
behaviour of the material under the particular circumstances and precise condions
of measurement. can be determined (see also Thixotropk Paint).
VolatiSe.
The fluid content of a material which evaporates, e.g. the solvent in a paint. Opposite
to non volatile.
Volume Solids.
Non volatile proportionof the paint or coaling (normally expressed as a percentage).
Wash Primer.
See 'Etching Primer'.
Water Borne.
A general name for a paint materlal which uses water as the solvent. These
products have temperature and humidity constraints and contain small amounts of
organic solvents.
White Spirit
White spirit is the most commonly used thinner for paints and varnishes. It consists
of straight-run or blended petroleum hydrocarbons and has a boilinq temperature in
Wrought Iran.
Iron 2 very low carbon content (0.02 to 0.03%) and, in the case of British wrought
irons, with a high slag content and a characteristic laminated structure. The
fundamental difference between wrought iron and steel is that, whereas steel Is cast
into ingots, wrought iron is ternwed from the furnace in a semi-molten plastic
condition and is formed into bars or billets under a steam hammer. Lime, if any,
wrought iron is now used in new structures.
Zinc Phosphate.
A paint pigment used in anti-corrosive paints.
-
1.1 -
Basic F m u l a Paint Covwage.
e.g,
n F.T. x 100 = 125 M I ~ W.F.T.
S
40 % VIS
0.g.
150 W.F.T. X 3i%YB = 55.5 Dry Film ThMess
100
3 Volume Solids.
e.9.
z.QBEL x 100 = 40% Volume Sdlds
50 W.F.T
Pipes.
The surface area of a pipe is calculaled by muftlplying the diameter (D) by 3.142
and then rnuitiplylng the ita ant sum by the overall pipe length.
A=3.f42xDxL
Spheres.
The surface area of a sphere Is calculated by mulliplylng the square of the radius
by 3.142 by 4.
~=4x3.142x~~
Cub.
A cube has six sides which are a!l identical squares. Total surlace area is six
multiplied by the square of the length (a) of one of the sides.
i.e. A x A x 6
Mangle.
The surface area of a Mangle Is:
Area = bkl
2
Cone.
Area of the curved surface of a axle b:
Area
Ring.
Area = 3.142 - 3.142 P
Area
Ellipse.
d = minor slds
D = major axis
Beem.
Area of beam:
A + (2B-C) x length x 2
CUBE
-D-
TRAPEZIUM ELLIPSE
- B-
BEAM
I lire
e.g.
What is the wet film thldrness If one 1Ih-e is applied aver 10 sq. metres (1 sq. m=
10,000 sq. cms.)
Rule.
1 lttre of paint ( or Iiquld ) applied at 1 micron thick warld cower lOM1 sq.m w at
100 mimns thick would cwer 10 sq.m. (pro-rata).
Most paints comprise of solids and liquids, the solids being the vehicle (mmkh
or binder) plus pigment and filler, these are the non wlatiles, the nquld or solvent
part are those materiats which evaporate when the paint has been applied.
i.e. The volume solids is that proportion of the paint that wlll be left on the
substrate after evaporation of the solvent has taken place, Zaking into account
their volumes.
% by weigM
Binder 55.00/0 Solids retained
M i t e Spirit 35.0% Solvents
Xylene l
Ul%
100.0
The weight solids is themfore 55% slnce whRe spirit (35%) and Xylene. (10%) are
volatiles, however the volume will be different, fi we determine We volume of
each component by dimding the mass by the density or weight per gallon. Volume
(i-e. mass divided by density).
V =Mass
Density
100 grns
We can calculate two properties a) ths volume sdids and b) the density of our paint,
thus:
~ -
@ a) Volume %bide
Knowlng the volume solfds Ub us how much shrinkage wil cxxur on dryirg, 47.9%
will be retained, 52.1 % will be lost.
If 100 microns is applied (i.e.) wet film thickness, 47.m of 100 micmns will be the
dry film (D.F.J) tMckness = 4jSmkmm
= BzLX, litres
10 V
This formula can be interchanged to cakuhte the theoretical D.F.T or any other
unknown, Suppose a Contractor says he has applied 500 litres of Palnt with volume
sdids over 1DO0 sq. rn.
These figures are pudy theoretical and are b s e d on the following faders:-
The total cost or ccrst per unl (say per sq. m) can be calculated.
For Example: Compare costs uslng Paints A, & and G to achieve 375 microns
D.F.T over 15,OOQsq. ms.
Paint 8:
Paint C:
By using Paint C, one would save approximately £2,000, unless other factors are
considered important enough, Paint C is the obvious choice from pure initid cost.
Howewr a record of bad deliveries, inferior materials, poor quality controt, poor after
sales senrice etc. should also be m t d e r e d if any of these factors exrst.
When the Ejtimat~rhas dadded, they must then make a l l m s for losses which
increases hki wquiremmt of *9,534 litres aowrdlng to the following factors:
Depth of Profile.
On blasted surfaces opttmum amplitude 75 - 100 microns, however 150 - 200
microns would require more paint ta fill the troughs and cover the peaks, since dry
film thickness measurements are taken from the peaks.
This would obviously ms?more and has lo be weighed against the posslble increase
in mechanical bond. In cases where the profile amplitude is less (e.9.) 20-30microns
even when the standard of blasting is high say Sa3 there is a danger that there will
not be enough mechanical bond.
Irregularity of Shape,
Obviously with complicated shapes, it will be much more difficult to obtain uniform
films and prevent loss due to overspray.
Where a minfmum dry film thickness ts specified one should aim at a slightly higher
average to allow for variations in film build.
Overspray.
Even on relatively uncomplicated substrates can amount to 5% even wfth airless
spraying.
General Losses.
Due to over running pot life. piiiering, spillage etc.
Absorbent Surfaces.
Cause penetration of the painL
2) 1
R
= u
Ax
= 2.0sq. rn per lire
Density.
The term is used to denote the weight per ynit volume (i.e.) in gms per cc Water
has a mdmum density of 1.000 gm Icc at 4 C. Above and below this temperature it
becomes Sess.
-
spetiac wi.
Mercury Metal has a density of 13.6 gm per a:is therefore 13.6 times as heavy as
water whlch brings us to the specific gravity definition, which is really a ratio of the
weight of any volume of material over an equal volume of water.
e.g.
Ult of
Wt of 1 cc of Water is 1.0 gm
:. W.P.G -- 1Olbs
Since -
(1 kilo = 1000 gms) = 1.0 loilogmml litre
{I kilo = 2.2 ~bs) = 2.2 bj litre
(1 litre = 1.76 pints) = 2.2 1b 1 1.76 pints
(lgallon = 8pints) =?3xfllbs/gallon = 10Ibs
1.76
It Is indeed fortunate that a nlce round figure like '10' fs pruduced, olttemise
calculations would be much more diffiwlt, imagine water having a density of say
1.14 gm/ccor +i14IbsIgallon.
It Is hoped that the above notes explain some of the terms and calculations used in
application of surface coatrngs.
Q.2 What is the Y.S% if a pelnt with a D.F.T. of 43pm was origlnelly apptled with a 72pm
W.F.T.?
U3.L
W.F.T.
Q.3 What W.F.T. would be applied to leave a D.F.T. of 150 using a paint with 65%
volume sollds.?
(2.4 What area would 15 Ittres of pafnt cover baving a D.F.T. of 4 5 if ~the volume
solids amounted to 62%?
Area = Y!mm
.2 =- - 2 ~ 5 . 4m2
W.F.T 73
Q.5 What Mlume of paint wcn~ldbe requlred to cover 29 m2 if ffie VS was 73% and a
D.F.T. of 114pm was obtained?
(Divide c
m" 11000 4524 = 4 5 litres
to obtain litres) loo0
Note.
It may be that the information p M e d win be In the impel181 quanttnes, R will be
necessary to comrerl it to metric equivalents before progressing further.
6.6 What is the D.F.T. using 3.4 gallom of paint to cover 34yd If the V.S% is 46.
answer in prn?
D.F.T. -
Comrer~lmChart
Inches Mlllirnetres
Mllimetres Inches
Feet Metres
Metres Feet
Square Inches Square milllrnetres
Square Feet Square metres
Square Mehes Square feet
Cubic Feet Litres
Litres Cubic feet
Gallons Utres
LItres Gallons
Ounces Gms
Grams Ounces
Pounds Kilograms
K~lograrns Pounds
Pounds per sq.R Kilos per sq. metre
Ulos per sq. meter Pounds per sq. feet
Pounds per cu. feet Kilos perm. metre
D<iIos per cu. metre Pounds per a. feet
Fahrenheit to Celsius -
VF 32) x 0.55)
Celsius to fahrenhetl ec x 1.8 + 321
Bhr per hour WatEs
Watts Kilocaloriesper hour
Kilocalorfesper hour watts
Kilocalories per hour Btu per hour
Kilocalories lhour PC BtulhrPF
Btu per hour Kilocalolles par hour
Btu per hour per O F Kilocalaries per hour per "C
Watts Btu per hour
Btu/Sq. ft. 1 hr Watts per sq.metre
Watts Isq. metre Btu/sq. W hr
Btulinchkq. ttJhrPOF WaWmeterPG
BtuAncWsq.R/hrPF K~locaIorieslme~C
Kilocalorieslsq.rneWhff BtuTurcNsq.WhrPF
13tu/sq.ftlhrl°F K i l o c a l o r i e s l s q . m ~ d"C
KilocaIori&sq.mlhrPC Btulsq.ftlhd"F
Btu/sq.fthrPF Wattslsq.meWC
Wattslsq.meha"C Btulsqfthff F
Tons refrigeration watts
Sq.R.hr. "FIBtu in Sq.rn.WC/watEs
1.609 3 4 h
Some Common SI U n k
From To Calcutate
Ambient Conditions.
Check that hygrometer is fllled with disHlled water and the wlck is dean and correctly
positioned.
Ensure that hygrometer Is rotated at 180 revoMiins per minute and that the wet
bulb reading Is constant after two succwsim wings.
Measure steel temperature in the area where the work Is being undertaken.
Calculate dew pint and relathre humidlty fmm the tables provided.
Consult specification and paint data sheets to dstermtne whether the mndiions are
suitable for painting to proceed.
Surfaa Preparation.
Check that cleanliness is in accordance with the standard appropriate for the
contract, as detailed in the specificalion.
Check that surface is free from dust, dirt, oil and other contamination.
Check for the presence of soluble cornion product salts. Does the specification
require such a test and, if so,is the level of salts below the requirements?
Consult data sheet or calwWe expected dry film thickness to ensure that D.F.T. will
be in accordance with specification.
Surface prdlle, particulafiy, should be close b the value recorded for the surface.
InaccessibleAreas.
Use inspection mirrw and torch.
Ovsrtoating Times.
Consult paint Manufactum's data sheets to ensure ittat coatings are applied in
accordance wfth the mmmendaiions for both minimum and maximum overcoatlng
times.
Paints.
Record the Manvfachrrefs name, paint, reference number and batch number from
tins on site.
Check that the reference numbers agree wlth the data sheets provided.
Check that the materials will meet the requirements of the spedfication.
Check that the mabtial is the correct type for the method of appllcatlon being
employed.
The corrosEon of valuable equipment and plant sbuctures is going on a$out us every
day. Almost everywhere, ample evidence is available that a tremendous job of
prevention and protection needs to be accomplished.
Nate.
This short Section on m o s l o n theory Is slimplified for clarity purposes. It is not
meant to train wlth a mind to making experts in Zhls area, but rather to give a sense
of the depth and scope of the topb.
Corrosion of lron -
The following reactlon shows us that the rwting of lron and steel C a two-fold
process involving:
oxygen
An electrolyte
A metallic pathway
Both positlve and negative charges are created. These electrically charged chemical
fragments are present in great numbers (two ounces of table salt will split into 1023
ions, half (+) charge and half (-1 charge) and are Mghty active and energetic.
Their movement through the solulion, under the influence of the corrosion chemical
reaction, constitutes Rowofrough the electrolyte.
The presence of water is essential to the fornulation of the lons in the electrolyte.
lorn carmot form under completely dry conditions. Therefore, water and lons are
consMered together as functional pa* of the corrosion process.
Figure 26
Hydrogen ( H+ ) and Hydroxyl( OH* ) Ions in Water
Oxygen -
All the oxygen we will ever need Is avallaMe in the atn~osphere,and all exposed
metal is constantly In contact with L.
Waaer-
The atmosphere, except for desert areas, b usuaHy rnohre laden. Either rndsture
vapour or dew droplets a# in contad w[th th8 Iron surface.
Ions -
Smog, salt spray, madm W s , Industrial soot and fumes, splash and spillage, soil
contamination - all these sources can pmTOvldeminerals, salts, acids or alkaline
materials such will dissolve in available moisture to produce ions.
Flguw 27 shows the tiny 'corrosion battw Hlhlch Wm prOduce m when wmnt
flows.
A greatly magntlied partion of the Iron surface is shorm (Figure 27). l n y adlacent
areas (not visible to the eye) act as anode and cathode. On, and just above, the
sutfam, moisture loaded with ions. serves as an electrolyte. Gaseous oxygen is
dissolved in the electrolyte, and is freely available to the surlace of the metal.
kte.
In this case, the electrolyte prwides the external drcut The IntEmal dmit Is
frwn
prwided by the metal part tiself, since t is highly a m d ~ c t i ~ e point to point.
Fmure Z?
M a n Battery ( Ready to Dischsrge )
Thls thy battery is replhxted millions of times over on a large iron surtaoe, so that
eventually the eye sees what appears to be a uniform layer of rust building up.
Note that the iron cathode Is not attscked, However. it performs Its function in
providing 8 site at which oxygen could undergo its necessary change to caustic.
Figure 28
Anode Attack
Protective Coatings n
I- Manual QRobimson lmin Technical Suppoll Lid..
Doc.No: TMA-0147 Issue 02 Part9 Engfand 1994-5.7
Page 32 d 45
3.4 The Strong Acid Corrosion Battery.
The dlssdved metal in this battery will not form rust (at Feast not initsally), but will
remain dissolved in the add electrolyle as an lron salt as long as sufficient moisture
is present and as long as an excess of acid is present. When the available acid is
consumed (for example, acid splash on steel), and the moisture evaporates
somewhat, copious rust will then form and become deposited over the corroded
areas of the metal suttace.
lron
Bearlng In mfnd that the metal located hlgher on the scale wWl conode preferenQRy
and thereby protect the mdal lower on the scale from corrosion attack, Zhe followfng
example may be set up:
R copper and zinc are connected mgtsher, the zhc will dissohre or be axroded
preferentlalb, thus protecting the copper. Since the metal attacked is &fined as the
anode, the zinc will then serve as an anodlc a m . The copper wlll be the cathodic
area of the metal protected. The lunctlon of each will be identical to that found in the
'corraslon battery' set up for the rusting d Iron. The intensity with which two metals
will react In this preferential manner may be measured by the distance between 2he
two metals In the Galvanic Smfe. Jhus, between brass and copper there woufd be
only a weak tendency for the brass to wnnde; whereas, r i m or magnesfum would
dissolve very readily to protect silver. It may be noted that magnesium is at the top
of the scale and will have a tendency to corrode in preference to any other metal
shown on the Gafvanlc Scale. Conversely, platinum, which is extremely Inert, never
corrodes preferentially. While the tendency to conode depends on the ldnds of
metals coupled together, the rate at which the conoding anode is attacked depends
on the relative of anodes and cathodes hooked together.
TaMe 1
Galvanic Series ofMetals and Alloys (Industrial)
in Sea Water
Conversely then, if the cathode area is small compared to the anode area (see
Figure 31), the corrosion of the anode mill be relatively slow, since the demand on
the anode is spread thin and any local spot loses little metal. It must be kept in mind
that the areas of each metal involved are those in electrical contact and not just the
areas of metal in physical contact. The area of metals in electrical contact will be
determined by those areas which are in contact with an external conduchve clrcuit
(electrolyte).
for example, In the use of rivets of one metal to fasten together plates of a different
metal, we flnd an excellent example of the possible effects of galvanic corrosion.
Ifsteel plates (anodes) were boned with copper rkr& (cathodes) only a very slow
corrosion of the steel would occur, since the galvanic corrosive effect is spread out
over a large area of steel.
On the other hand, if copper plates (cathodes) were bolted with steel rivets
(anodes), rapid rusting of the rivets would occur. The small area of rivets would be
attacked by all the galvanic current generated by the large copper plates and would
corrode rapidly. (See Figure 32).
Magnesium
Anode
Fgure 30
Sewm Galvanic Comrsion
Figure 31
Mild Galvanic Corrosion
P i i d e Caatlng 1nqmd-m Manual aobjnsan Irwin Technical Support Ud..
OmNm TW-0147 Luue 02 Part 9 England 1994-5.7
Page37d45
Copper (Cathode)
\
\
I
0
#
% H
- - - - - - w e
-
Right Very SLOW steel corrosion
Steel (Anode)
-
Wrong RAPID steel corrosion
It Is known fmm wWe fleld expemm mat It is very d i l t to stop mi$ type of
cornion. Application of a coating over the crevlce is usually not satisfactory for hnro
reasons:
1. Trapped salts and rust laden wltb mrrusion producls and water will promote early
blistering beneath the mating, leading to premature film failure.
2. The sharp edges of the Mev)ce are llkely to be inadequately mved wlth the
coating so that edge rusting can start promptly. Fllm rupture along the edges,
followed by progressive adhesion loss, w i H IBSult In unsatisfactory coating
performance.
The mast practical way to diminate crevice corrosion Ls to amid shuctural destgn
details that create crevice conditiwrs (lap welds, lap sectlm riveted together, etc.).
In existirig structures, crevices shwld be filled with appropn'ate mastic or fillers and
proper welding techniques shwld be observed. Weld spaner, pockets, cracks and
other crevice type spots in the area to be coated should be eliminated.
Pjmng comrsion takes heavy toll on macMnery and equipment due to the
concentration of the electtical cycle on a very small anodic area. When protective
films break down or pinholing occurs, local corrosion or pfttlng may follow. An anode
will be formed at the point where the film break occurs, and being in contact with the
external electrolyte, will thus bear the full onslaught of any attack by a surrounding
cathodic area. Generally, the smaller the anodic area that is in contact with the
electrolyte, the more rapid and severe the pltting will be.
As the pitting and rusblng result, as in Figure 34, the hilckup of rust under the e d p
of the millscale scale will break and eventually crack, loosening a small section af
the millscale scale. Since the coating has been applied directly wer the millscale
scale and has no adhesion to the steel Itself, when the millscale scale breaks away,
it is normally expected to find coating failure.
Figure 34
Painting over Millscale
Electrolytic corrosion arlses from the fact that when a metal is immersed in an
electroTyte, it tends to dissolve. Solution of the metal occurs because the metal
atoms lose valency electrons and thus change into metal ions which pass into the
electrolyte.
Fe* + 2e
electrons
ions
-
Thus in the corrosion (or oxidab'on) process the imn loses electrons the anodic
prooess. These electrons are used up in the complimentary cathodic ptooess, for
which there are a number of possibilities:
2H+ + 2e- + HZ
hydrogen ~Ydroge'l
ion
evolution
2 The most irnprhnl and mmMy obserued cathodic pmcem in neutmi or alkaline
aqueous environments is the oxygen reduction placess:
~ e * + 20K -r FeIOHIe
f e r n s hydmxide
precipitate (white)
This compound Is unstable and loses water to form hydrated fertic oxide or rust
M a l Ion Reduction -
~ e + ~ + e- + ~ e + ~
Metal Dbposilan -
cut2 c 2e- + cu
Note that the electrons required for all of these cathadic processes are supplied by
the anodic process. Thus the anodic and cathodlc processes are mrnprimentary;
ff either is stopped or cannot take place then the overall corrosion p m s s will
cease.
Milsratian
3:
Cathode
-
+zHY*
1. ydrogen Evolution (Acids)
2e- 2 2~ ~i*
2. Oxygen Reduction
*
0 2 2H20 2 4e- 40Hg
3. Bacterial (Anaerobic)
-
-
4H2 + SO4 2 4'"
+ 4H20
Metal Dissolution
Figure 35
Reactions on the Metal Surface in a Simple Corrosion Cell
PROTECTIVE COATINGS
INSPECTION MANUAL (PART 10)
Author.
This Manual has been Miten and edited by Mr. Brendan Rtzslmons, M.F.Com,
M.I.M.F., M+I.Mgt. Rae Author us a qualified NACE Senior Corrosion Technologist,
Coatings Inspector and Protective Coatings Specialist.
Acknowledgements.
The Author would like to thank the following persons for their help and assistance in
compiling the information contained in this Part of the Protecthe Coatings inspection
Manual:
Every effort has been made to ensure that the contents of this Manual are accurate.
However, no responsibility can be accepted for any e m 6 or omissions by the
Publisher: Elcorneter instruments Ltd., by the Author: Mr. Brendan F i i m o n s or by
the Institute of Comsion.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
20 -
TABLE OF DEFECTS DISCUSSED SHOWING 'TYPE' 'DESCRIPnON' EL
'CAUSES'
Figures 1 to 36 inclusive
-
3.2 Caee History No. 2 Cratked Roof W i n g
-
9.3 Case History No. 3 Bubbles in Coating Film
-
3.4 Case History No. 4 Double Trouble with Dissimilar Materials
- -
3.5 Case History No.5 Out d Sight Out of Mind, Hidden Problem
The aim of this Part is to give the Qualhy Control Inspector an understanding of
madlng and surface defects which will be useful for assessment surveys, future
recoating work, writing reports and specification review etc. It is not intended ta be
used as a 'Do it yourself manual' for failure analysis. Addiurnal reading is
recommended, e.g. Has's Paint Film Defects, where a full description of all the
possibilities associated with paint. coating and surface defects may be listed.
Many coating defect anawes are conducted in oonjunctfon with a qualified Chemist
or Coaeing Spedalist who has access to laboratory equipment, Thls may not always
be viable due to lxation, type of work, work schedule etc. and as such, the Quality
Control Inspector should make himselfherself familiar wfth the common defects
described within this Part of the Manual.
Fn the main. palnt and mating defects are either 'immediate' i.e. occur during or
soon after applicabn, or when fully cured and rxmsMered to be aged coalngs. On
thfs basis a 'process of elimination' may be the first course of action. Far example, if
a two pack paint remains soft a full day after application, a checklist of the following
items may eliminate a number of possibHities before the material Suppller is called in
to look at the problem.
lnvastlgation of the above may indicate Ute m a s m for the soft coaffng a d would
be essential before further investigation by the Supplier of the product The same
process of elimination can be conducted for cured and a g d coatings, taking into
account the environment to which the substrate is exposed i.e. hot pipework,
immersed substrate etc. The Quality Control Inspector must be careful with the
description of a 'defect' since what may be considered to be a defect by one Client
may be perfectly acceptable to another. Examples of this can be found with chalking,
blooming and wrinkling, to name only three.
e i.e. metres
figure 2
Fonign Prtlwlm Conternination in ths Palnt Film Prodwen a 'Bitty' Rnbh
P ~ ORobiraon
~ lmln TechnM Suppart Ltd.,l
Doe.NaTMMn61 W 0 2 Parl70 Edand 1gBg7
Faplod38
e elcometec
Figure 3
Blisming Fwnwdon a Coating which wan u6ed in Conjunctionwith h l h d i i
-on
Figun 4
Blistering d a Coal Tar Epoxy which wen S u m to Imm6#ion Prior to Full
Cum
J -
aw@ 6
-y Applisd Coatings Creating BubWer in the Coating
Figure 8
Up Shot of Chscking. M m a s d to Topmat
Figum B
-
on Ssvsrs Cl&g was ths Outtome
rf'
awithin a Paint Fill
?!!f elcometec
e elcornetec
Ftgure 15
Feding (right) h o c i a t e d with Low Quali Pigmentation
Figure I 6
Flaking of Topcolt d w b Moisturn Contmillltkn
Figure 18
Haxagod Cdls whjch m Formsd in a typical Flotation Odbet
~ ~ ~ k
Doc No:lM44lBt LDMOZ
a p d b n
Part30
~ ORoblnwn Ifwin T a h h l Support Ud,
En- 1806-7
C
PagO15d38
Fungi Oruwth-A to P a i d Cawum
RdeCollthp-Wnl ORP#noon I&I TedwkU Slppon Ud,
P a l 10 *s#-7
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-
~~~~
Da.kTMAOI61 k m 0 2 W 10
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England l W 7
20 d 38
8 elcometec
Figure 25
Pinhole8 in a Topcoat of Zinc Silkate I Epoxy Duplex System
Figure 26
Lack of WnWnmm m d lots of Molmre Fksull
m*colllhak*pct&l-
Doc. No: TMMllBl h u e 02 Part 10 En@nd ?-7
C
-22d38
Figm28
-
Close Up Shot of Figure 27 Nom Cracklng within Run of Plhrt
.,; . ._ . ..- . .. ,
. - s ~
,-: '
,
,
.
;.'.,.;i.
..
t.,
.- .":%
,
.\;
.
Figure 35
w v e Thi- and Slow Drying RDducsd thin Wrlnlding Effect
-
SECTION 3.0 CASE HISTORIES.
3.f -
C.le H i m No.1. Cowmion Uncbr Insulation .
Vendw lnspectlon d d e d that ihe & had been coated with only one
mat of epoxy paint at 50 micmns dry Rlm thickness at the date of manufacture.
~ ~ C a a h p I ~ M m u a l D W m M n Technical Suppart Ltd.
Doc. No: M % Lssue
l 02 Part 10 England 1 W 7
-28d38
?!f elcometec
Remedial W&
The vessel was blest cleaned and the deep pimng filled with weW metal. The whole
area was then reblasted to an Sa3 standard prlor to application of two aoak of
epoxy phenolic with a dry film tMckness of 250 mlcrons. All preparation and mating
operations were conducted under controlled conditions.
New thermal insulation was applied wHh additional eII3phasis on ovedap areas,
water protection points, mastic jolnh and, of course, a 'DO NOT WALK ON THIS
VESSEL' sign was attached.
@ PidsFthre Coatings- I
Doc NO:T W 6 l h u e 12
Manual
Part 10
Page 28 d 38
1 Clem all a m free fmm dl, grease, dirt. mtbture e k
2 Apply one ad of elumkrhrm epmcy paint by bnwhlrdler.
TMs coalkg used to seal the as- and stop my Meding ngmugh the
m=Q--
The coahp were appaed durhg the summer months ensurlng that the coetings
muld be app#ed and cured wllhout contamlnatlon by rain a.
lnspectlonof the cured coetlrgs w d e d a good m,hard Mwith good dour
and a pleesent v-
The followfng year (10 months later) the Owner of the building noticed small cracks
had appeared on the coaing. No particular paitern or location was found for the
cracks although they did appear to be confined to the topcoat.
Within one month of the remedial painting additional crack appeared. Chce again
the palnt Manufactumrsupplied additional paint which was applied R the cradrs. No
further Inspection was conducted until the following year when the cracking was
found to be more extensive than before, with some of the crackfng extending 4mm in
width. The Owner of the bulld~ngdecided to bring In independent painting
consuftants who conducted a full survey of the coated area and took samples for
labomtory analysis. The laboratory report concluded that wmpatibllity and adhesfon
between mats was satisfactory but the properties of the epxy topcoat compared
with the asphalt coating were different with regard ta flexibility, elongation etc. This
difference in properties was put to the test on a location which was sublect to
variable changes in temperatures and mowment 1.e. summer I winter conditions
exposed roof, warmer substrate (due to insulated mf)and slight movement due to
some wood seclions of the structure.
The report also highlighted the fact that a large section of the epoxy coa!ing on the
roof was chalkjng. This was due to degradation of the binder in the epoxy resin
subject to ultraviolet sunlight.
Remedial Work:
Although some month passed More an agreement was reached, the palm
Supplier ewntually agreed with the independent report that ihe paint specification
was wrong and costs for rectification would l~carried by the paint Manufacturer. A
specialist roofing Contractor was employed who removed what they could of the
paint system prior to relining with a flexible roofing compound and fibreglass matting.
Inspections up to five years have shown no subsequent defects.
-
Visw ot Ihe hating S y a m Black Asphalt, Muminiurn and
Epoxy Topcoat, Craoks are Visible within the Topcoat.
The wmacl was placed with a major CMI Engineering Contractor who commenced
the work with a number of specialkt w m m
The palnt[ng spedRcatian was very vague and spiciiied that the &ng cmthg be
cleaned, touched up in I c d W areas of paint breakdorm and given Unw overall
coats of chlorlnabd rubber, at a day film thickness recommended by the painting
manufadurn. The M n g system was also a chlorinated rubber and durlng
inspecllonwas found to be In excellent mdilion w4th no areas of paint bmakdown.
80th the consuMng Engineers and the main CMI Contractor were requested to
inspect the dry swimming pool. It was evident f m the initial inspection that there
was a paint problem, therefore the paint rnanufamm was requested to inspect the
painted pod. Blisters and bubbles wera visible across the coating and a laboratory
test confirmed the detachments found in the filter system were flakes of dried
chlorinated rubber palnt. Only afterdiscussions with all parties did the extent of the
coating fallure become dear.
1 The paint ManYFactunr was unaware of the project and as such could not offer
advice on preparation 1 application, film thickness elc. not to mention Health and
Safety.
3 Urrskllled labour applied the matlng, whlch after imstigation, was found to have
been applied by brush and then rolled over to give a smooth Wish.
4 Only ha8 the film thfckness of the chlorinated rubber was applied than w ~ l d
have been recommended by the paint Manufacturer.
Labomtory Mnduded that the mating conLained ' m h t and air vdds'
created by poor appllcatlon technique and fast overcoating.
mmemd work:
C ~ Sectional
M Vkw of the Colding -
Nak tha Entrapped Air Voide
Durlng Ihe life of the item, the rnoishrre wiWn the wnc& was drawn into
the graln bounttaries of the wood, whlch subsequently caused the wmd to well,
cradt ttte pdrd film and on reshrlnking, flake the paht df. 10096 Aaklng was
obiservedonthewood~wlthhteninchesofbwood!~jdn.withIhe
Iwmhlng am&3 having mere cracked coating, and of cwrse, total coating failure
mkdtable.
Wood;
Wood Is a p o m s and natural subslance and as such rnorement is Inevitable.
Correct seasoning of the wood. preparafion and correct palnt systems am essential.
The above piclure was shot by a resident Englneer who took dellvery of a vessel
dudng a m-on project on a petrochemical site. Albhough the paht looked good
on arrhral to slte. *in b d v e months flakes of coating were found around M e d
c o n d o n s etc. where essential site maintenance had been conducted.
lnvestlgatian remaled that all of the coating had been applied aver tightly am&
mlllscale and no sub prepamtition h d taken place. The detachment wes not due
to poor adheslon of the paht krl because of the millscale disbanding from the
substmL. This wss more prominent in areas in proximity of steam lines, along slde
the wssel, since millscale expan& and cmtmcfs at a different rate lu steel,
parhlarly hot or cold areas wlll promote disbondhg. The Manufacturer of the
wssd tiad the prepamlkm and coating mrk to a Contractor (who is
no lorq8r in buskss) who had merely applii the peint system to Re miltscale with
Ihe assumption that the millscale was lnEact and thus would remein so for tlw life of
ihe vesd, the paint could not fall ofR
The Contractor was unaware of the process of corrosion, and that millscale is
cathDdlc to the steel subslrate, nor that it is unstaMe and crack3 and spalb
espedally In amas of constant thermal cycthg (i.e. steam lines).
Total mmcnd of the palnt and millscale was required along with the application of a
suitaMe paint system. Full independent lnspectlon was utillsed on thls accaslon.
P w -I Manual Q W m I d n T.chnical Suppart Ud..
Doc. No: tMkM%ll8mm 02 Pm10 EJand 1888-7
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