ECN 302 Notes

The Necessity of Digitization
The conventional methods of communication used analog signals for long distance communications, which suffer
from many losses such as distortion, interference, and other losses including security breach.
In order to overcome these problems, the signals are digitized using different techniques. The digitized signals allow
the communication to be more clear and accurate without losses.
The following figure indicates the difference between analog and digital signals. The digital signals consist of 1s and
0s which indicate High and Low values respectively.
Advantages of Digital Communication
 The effect of distortion, noise, and interference is much less in digital signals as they are less affected.
 Digital transmission provide reliability and regeneration of signals.
 The hardware implementation in digital circuits, is more flexible than analog.
 The occurrence of cross-talk is very rare in digital communication.
 The signal is un-altered as the pulse needs a high disturbance to alter its properties, which is very difficult.
 Signal processing functions such as encryption and compression are employed in digital circuits to maintain
the secrecy of the information.
 The probability of error occurrence is reduced by employing error detecting and error correcting codes.
 Spread spectrum technique is used to avoid signal jamming.
 Combining digital signals using Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is easier than combining analog signals
using Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM).
 The configuring process of digital signals is easier than analog signals.

 Digital signals can be saved and retrieved more conveniently than analog signals.
 Many of the digital circuits have almost common encoding techniques and hence similar devices can be used
for a number of purposes.
 The capacity of the channel is effectively utilized by digital signals.
 Digital transmission provide data processing options and flexibilities not available in analog transmission.
 An important measure of system performance is the probability of error (PE)

Following are the sections of the digital communication system.
Source
The source can be an analog signal. Example: A Sound signal

Input Transducer
This is a transducer which takes a physical input and converts it to an electrical signal (Example: microphone). This
block also consists of an analog to digital converter where a digital signal is needed for further processes.
A digital signal is generally represented by a binary sequence.
Source Encoder
The source encoder compresses the data into minimum number of bits. This process helps in effective utilization
of the bandwidth. It removes the redundant bits (unnecessary excess bits, i.e., zeroes).
Channel Encoder
The channel encoder, does the coding for error correction. During the transmission of the signal, due to the noise in
the channel, the signal may get altered and hence to avoid this, the channel encoder adds some redundant bits to the
transmitted data. These are the error correcting bits.
Digital Modulator
The signal to be transmitted is modulated here by a carrier. The signal is also converted to analog from the digital
sequence, in order to make it travel through the channel or medium.
Channel
The channel or a medium, allows the analog signal to transmit from the transmitter end to the receiver end.
Digital Demodulator
This is the first step at the receiver end. The received signal is demodulated as well as converted again from analog
to digital. The signal gets reconstructed here.
Channel Decoder
The channel decoder, after detecting the sequence, does some error corrections. The distortions which might occur
during the transmission, are corrected by adding some redundant bits. This addition of bits helps in the complete
recovery of the original signal.
Source Decoder
The resultant signal is once again digitized by sampling and quantizing so that the pure digital output is obtained
without the loss of information. The source decoder recreates the source output.
Output Transducer
This is the last block which converts the signal into the original physical form, which was at the input of the
transmitter. It converts the electrical signal into physical output (Example: loud speaker).
Output Signal
This is the output which is produced after the whole process. Example: The sound signal received.
Elements of Digital Communication
Basic signal processing functions, which may be viewed as transformation, classified into the following nine groups:
Complex Baseband Representation of Bandpass Signals
Almost every communication system operates by modulating an information bearing waveform onto a sinusoidal
carrier.
Type of Transmission Center Frequency of Transmission
Telephone Modems 1600-1800 Hz

AM radio 530-1600 KHz
CB radio 27 MHz
FM radio 88-108 MHz
VHF TV 178-216 MHz
Cellular radio 850 MHz
Indoor Wireless Networks 1.8GHz
Commercial Satellite Downlink 3.7-4.2 GHz
Commercial Satellite Uplink 5.9-6.4 GHz
Fiber Optics 2 × 1014 Hz
Table 1: Carrier frequency assignments for different methods of information transmission

All signals are lowpass signals and the fundamental ideas behind modulation and communication signal processing
are easily developed.
Any receiver that processes the received waveform digitally uses the complex baseband representation to develop
the baseband processing algorithms.
A bandpass signal, xc(t), is a signal whose one-sided energy spectrum is both:

1) Centered at a non-zero frequency, 𝑓𝐶 , and
2) Does not extend in frequency to zero (DC).
The two sided transmission bandwidth of a signal is typically denoted by BT Hertz so that the one-sided spectrum of
the bandpass signal is zero except in [𝑓𝐶 − BT /2, 𝑓𝐶 + BT /2].
This implies that a bandpass signal satisfies the following constraint: BT /2 < 𝑓𝐶 .
Fig.1: A typical bandpass spectrum.

Since a bandpass signal, xc(t),
It is a physically realizable signal
It is real valued
Consequently the energy spectrum will always be symmetric around f = 0.
The relative sizes of BT and 𝑓𝐶 are not important, only that the spectrum takes negligible values around DC.
A bandpass signal has a representation of

Figure : Plot of the bandpass signal
Figure : Plot of the amplitude and phase
Schemes for converting between complex baseband and bandpass representations
Complex Baseband to Bandpass Conversion Bandpass to Complex Baseband Conversion
Note that the LPF simply removes the double frequency term associated with the down conversion.

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The Necessity of Digitization

 Digital transmission provide reliability and regeneration of signals.

 The hardware implementation in digital circuits, is more flexible than analog.

 The occurrence of cross-talk is very rare in digital communication.

 Spread spectrum technique is used to avoid signal jamming.

 The configuring process of digital signals is easier than analog signals.

 The capacity of the channel is effectively utilized by digital signals.

 An important measure of system performance is the probability of error (PE)

The source can be an analog signal. Example: A Sound signal

A digital signal is generally represented by a binary sequence.

Type of Transmission Center Frequency of Transmission

Telephone Modems 1600-1800 Hz

Table 1: Carrier frequency assignments for different methods of information transmission

A bandpass signal, xc(t), is a signal whose one-sided energy spectrum is both:

Fig.1: A typical bandpass spectrum.

A bandpass signal has a representation of

Complex Baseband to Bandpass Conversion Bandpass to Complex Baseband Conversion

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