Open Channel Flow

• Flow in an open channel is under gravity.

• Free surface pressure is constant [atmosphere].
• Free surface pressure is constant in the direction of flow.
• The area of cross section is not fixed. Channel depth can vary from
section to section.
• Sections may regular or irregular [natural streams/wadis].
• Boundary surfaces may vary widely. [lined / unlined].
• Uncertainty in determining the friction factor.

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Open Channel Flow

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Open Channel Flow
Types of Flow

• Uniform flow

• free surface is parallel to bed

• constant depth – constant section
• velocity is constant

• Non-Uniform (varied) flow

• free surface is not parallel to bed

• variable depth – variable section
• velocity is not constant

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Open Channel Flow
Types of Flow

• Steady Flow
• constant depth – constant section
• velocity is constant in time

• Unsteady Flow
• variable depth – variable section
• velocity is not constant in time

Usually flow in channels is assumed steady uniform flow.

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Open Channel Flow

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Equations
v 2A
• Continuity equation free surface 2g
• Momentum y

• Bernoulli equation [Energy] channel bed z

datum

v 2A
H= +z+y
2g

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Equations
v 2A
Specific energy equation free surface 2g
y

Taking channel bed as reference channel bed z

• Specific energy: datum
2
v A
E= +y
2g

• hydraulic grade line = free surface

• total energy line is v2/2g above free surface
• datum = channel bed

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Equations

Critical Depth

For the same E:

• y : subcritical
• low velocity, deep section
• y : supercritical
• high velocity, shallow section
• y=yC at dE/dy=0, occurs at y critical

• at constant q = Q/b
q2
E = y+ , q = Q/b
2gy 2
q2
yc = 3
g
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Open Channel Flow
Flow Equations

Classification of flow:

Froude Number Fr

• Fr > 1, flow is supercritical

(rapid, shallow)

• Fr = 1, flow is critical

• Fr < 1, flow is subcritical (slow, deep)

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Equations

Steady uniform flow

• Chezy Equation
v = C RSo
Q = AC RSo

C: Chezy coefficient (50-70)

So : Channel bed slope

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Equations

Steady uniform flow

• Manning Equation
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
v= R So
n
A
Q = R 2 / 3So1/ 2
n
n: Manning’s coefficient
So : Channel bed slope

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Open Channel Flow

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Equations

Example:

Determine the slope of a rectangular flume 1.5m wide and 0.75m deep to
deliver 3.5 m3/s of water when running full. Use Chezy coefficient C = 72.

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Equations

Solution:

Flow section area A=by=1.5 m x 0.75 m=1.13 m2 y = 0.75m

Wetted perimeter P=b+2y=1.5+(2x0.75)= 3 m

Hydraulic radius R=A/P=1.13/3=0.38m b = 1.5m

Apply Chezy formula to find the slope So

v = C RSo
Q = AC RSo
3.5 = 1.13x 72 0.38So
So 0.5 = 3.5 /(1.13x 72 x 0.380.5 )
So = 0.0048

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Equations

Example:

A channel of trapezoidal section, with side slopes x

that are 60° with the horizontal bottom of the
channel as shown on the figure. The channel y = 0.9m 60°
conveys water at a depth of 0.9m. Determine the
t
bottom width and the slope of the bed for a
discharge of 1.7m3/s with a mean velocity of flow b

of 0.6m/s. Apply Manning n = 0.025.

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Equations

Solution:
x

Calculate section area A

Q=Av y = 0.9m 60°

A=Q/v=1.7/0.6=2.83 m2 t
From geometry:
A=((2b+2x)/2)y b

Find x:
tan 60 = y/x
x= y/tan 60=0.9/1.732=0.52 m
Find b:
2.83=((2b+2*0.52)/2)*0.9
b= 2.63 m

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Equations

Solution:
Find the wetted perimeter P x

P=b+2t
t= y/sin 60 =0.9/0.866=1.04 m y = 0.9m 60°

P=2.63+2*1.04=4.71 m t
Find hydraulic radius R:
R=A/P=2.83/4.71=0.6 m b

Apply Manning’s formula to find the slope So

1 2 / 3 1/ 2
v= R So
n
A
Q = R 2 / 3So1/ 2
n
2.83
1.7 = 0.6 2 / 3 So1/ 2
0.025
4
So = 4.43x10 17
 Open Channel Flow

Example

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Open Channel Flow
Solution

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Open Channel Flow
Example

A trapezoidal irrigation channel that is to be excavated in silty sand

(n=0.02) on a bed slope of 1:10000. The side slopes will be 1:2.
Determine the channel dimensions such that the mean velocity is 0.6
m/s when conveying a discharge of 10 m3/s.

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Open Channel Flow
Problem 1
Q = Av
A = Q / v = 10 / 0.6 = 16.67 m 2
A = ( b + 2 y) y 2y 2y
b = 16.67 / y - 2 y
y V =1
A
R =
P H =2
A 2 1
Q = R 3S 2 b
n
2
16.67 16.67 3 1
10 = × 2 × 0 . 0001 2

0.02 P 3

P = 12.87 m
P = b + 2y 5
12.87 = 16.67 / y - 2 y + 2 y 5 y = 1.37 m
2
0.47 y - 12.87 y + 16.67 = 0 b = 9.48 m 21
Open Channel Flow
Flow Equations

Resistance in uniform flow

The boundary resistance is identical with that of full pipe flow.

Thus, the Darcy-Weisbach and Colebrook-White equations may
be applied.

In uniform flow the energy gradient Sf is equal to

the bed slope S0.

Darcy-Weisbach

Colebrook-White

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Equations

Resistance in uniform flow

By substituting for λ the velocity of flow is given by:

This resistance formula is used in combination with the energy

equation in solving flow problems.

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Equations

Channels of composite roughness

In applying the Manning formula to channels having different n

values for each material type, an equivalent n is estimated.

Horton and Einstein formula:

P: wetted perimeter

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Equations

Channels of composite roughness

Example

A trapezoidal channel with side slope 1: 1 and bed slope 1: 1000

has a 3 m wide bed. The bed is composed of sand (n = 0.02) and
sides of concrete (n = 0.014). Estimate the discharge when the
depth of flow is 2 m.

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Equations

Channels of composite roughness

Solution
1
y/P1=sin45 1

P1=P2= 2.828 m

P3 (bed width)= 3 m

P=8.66 m

A=10 m2

R = 1.16 m
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Open Channel Flow
Flow Equations

Channels of composite roughness

Solution

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Open Channel Flow
Efficient Uniform Flow Section

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Open Channel Flow
Efficient Uniform Flow Section

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Open Channel Flow
Best Trapezoid Section

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Open Channel Flow
Example

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Open Channel Flow
Example

A long rectangular concrete-lined channel (k = 0.3 mm) 4.0 m wide, bed

slope 1: 500 is fed by a reservoir via an uncontrolled inlet. Assuming that
uniform flow is established a short distance from the inlet and that entry
losses = 0.5 V2/2g, determine the discharge and depth of uniform flow in the
channel when the level in the reservoir is 2.5 m above the bed of the
channel at inlet.

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Open Channel Flow
Example

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Open Channel Flow
Example

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Open Channel Flow
Non-uniform flow

Rapidly varied flow

Hydraulic Jump [Standing Wave]

A hydraulic jump occurs when

subcritical flow in a channel is
changed to supercritical flow, due
to some feature in the channel
(e.g. sluice gate), and then the flow
changes again to subcritical flow
downstream.

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Open Channel Flow
Non-uniform flow

Rapidly varied flow

Hydraulic Jump [Standing Wave]

A hydraulic jump occurs when

subcritical flow in a channel is
changed to supercritical flow, due
to some feature in the channel
(e.g. sluice gate), and then the flow
changes again to subcritical flow
downstream.

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Open Channel Flow
Rapidly varied flow

Hydraulic Jump Equations

Rectangular channels

V1
Fr1 =
gy 1

• Fr > 1, flow is supercritical

(rapid, shallow)

• Fr = 1, flow is critical

• Fr < 1, flow is subcritical (slow, deep)

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Open Channel Flow
Rapidly varied flow

Hydraulic Jump Equations

Rectangular channels

The momentum equation and

The energy equation are
Manipulated to derive
The following equations:
y2 1
=
y1 2
(
1 + 8Fr12 - 1 )
0.5
y +y
Q = b (gy 1 y 2 ) 1 2
2
(y _ y1 )3
2
E loss =
4 y1 y 2
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Open Channel Flow
Rapidly varied flow

Hydraulic Jump Equations

Rectangular channels

Example

A rectangular channel has a width of 6 m. Water flows in the channel at

a rate of 36 m3/s and a depth of 1 m.
a) Is a hydraulic jump possible?
b) If a hydraulic jump is possible, what is the depth of flow after the
jump?
c) What is the amount of energy that is dissipated through the jump?

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Open Channel Flow
Rapidly varied flow

Hydraulic Jump Equations

Rectangular channels

Solution

a) Find Froude number

V1
Fr1 =
gy 1
V1 = Q / A = 36 /(1x 6) = 6 m / s
V1 6
Fr1 = = = 1.92
gy 1 9.81x1

Since Fr1>1 flow is supercritical and a hydraulic jump is

possible.
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Open Channel Flow
Rapidly varied flow

Hydraulic Jump Equations

Rectangular channels

Solution

b) The depth of flow after the jump y2:

y2 1
=
y1 2
(
1 + 8Fr12 - 1 )
1 1
y2 =
2
( )
1 + 8Fr12 - 1 y1 =
2
( )
1 + 8x1.92 2 - 1 x1 = 2.26 m

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Open Channel Flow
Rapidly varied flow

Hydraulic Jump Equations

Rectangular channels

Solution

c) The energy that is dissipated through the jump:

(y _ y1 )3 (2.26 _ 1)3
2
E loss = = = 0.22 m
4 y1y 2 4x1x 2.26

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Open Channel Flow
Rapidly varied flow

Hydraulic Jump Equations

Rectangular channels

Solution

c) The energy that is dissipated through the jump:

(y _ y1 )3 (2.26 _ 1)3
2
E loss = = = 0.22 m
4 y1y 2 4x1x 2.26

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Measurement in Channels

• Flow measuring structures

• Velocity measurement

• Slope-area method [natural channels]

• Dilution methods

• Use of tracers

• Electrochemical devices

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Measurement in Channels

• Flow measuring structures

Weirs

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Measurement in Channels

• Flow measuring structures

Weirs

Broad crested
and sharp weirs
3
2
Qactual = Cd ×1.7bH

V-Notch weirs
5
8 
Q  C d tan 2g H 2
15 2

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Measurement in Channels

• Flow measuring structures

Weirs

rectangular weirs
3
2
Q  Cd b 2g H 2
3

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Measurement in Channels

• Flow measuring structures

Flumes

3
2
Qactual = 1.7Cd Cv bH

Automatic recorders in flumes

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Measurement in Channels

• Flow measuring structures

Flumes

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Measurement in Channels

• Velocity measurement

Variation in velocity

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Open Channel Flow
Flow Measurement in Channels

• Velocity measurement
• Measure velocity (current meter /anemometer) at 0.2 and
0.8 of depth.
• Find average velocity and multiply by incremental area
(width * depth)
• Find total Q = S (Vi Di Wi)

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Open Channel Flow
Open Channel Design

Open channel design involves selection of an appropriate section

dimensions for a given discharge.

Bed slope is usually determined by topography.

A resistance equation (Darcy or Chezy or Manning) are used with

another equation to determine the relationship between width and
depth.

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Open Channel Flow
Open Channel Design

(a) Rigid boundary channels — economic section.

Using the Darcy-type resistance equation:

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Open Channel Flow
Open Channel Design

(b) Mobile boundary channels (erodible)

(I) Critical tractive force theory

The tractive force is the force exerted by the
water on the wetted perimeter of a channel.

Average unit tractive force [average boundary

shear stress] is given by:

τ = gRS

Boundary shear stress is not uniformly

distributed. The distribution varies with channel
shape.
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Open Channel Flow
Open Channel Design

(b) Mobile boundary channels (erodible)

(II) Maximum permissible mean velocity

The depth of flow has a significant effect on the boundary shear
stress.Values of maximum velocity for channels of small bed slope
and depths [≤1 m] are given in published tables.

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