MICROCONTROLLERS

Veena Hegde,BMSCE,Bangalore Page 1

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BMS College of Engineering, Bangalore

Text Books:

1. Kenneth J. Ayala ; “The 8051 Microcontroller Architecture, Programming & Applications”

2e, Penram International, 1996 / ThomsonLearning 2005

2. Muhammad Ali Mazidi and Janice Gillespie Mazidi and Rollin D.McKinlay; “The 8051
Microcontroller and Embedded Systems – using assembly and C ”- PHI, 2006 / Pearson, 2006

Sub: MICROCONTROLLERS

Semester: IV, BE

Sub Code: 06ES42

Branch: Common to EC, TC,IT,ML,BM

PART – A

Unit 1:Microprocessor and Microcontroller.

Introduction, Microprocessor and Microcontrollers, A Microcontroller survey. RISC & CISC

CPU Architectures, Harvard & Von – Neumann CPU architecture.

The 8051 Architecture: Introduction, 8051 Microcontroller Hardware, Input/Output Pins, Ports
and Circuits, External Memory, Counters and Timers, Serial Data Input/Output, Interrupts.

7
Hours

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Computer: A computer is a multipurpose programmable machine that reads binary

instructions from its memory , accepts binary data as input ,processes the data according to those
instructions and provides results as output. It is a programmable device made up of both
hardware and software. The various components of the computer are called hardware. A set of
instructions written for the computer to solve a specific task is called program and collection of
programs is called software .

The computer hardware consists of four main components. The central processing unit which
acts as computer’s brain. Input unit through which program and data can be entered to computer,
output unit on which the results of the computations can be displayed. Memory in which data
and program are stored.

Fig 1. Block diagram of a microcomputer

A computer that is designed using a microprocessor as its CPU , is known as a microcomputer.

Microprocessor or ‘Computer on Chip’ first became a commercial reality in 1971 with the
introduction of the 4 bit 4004 by Intel. A byproduct of Microprocessor development was
Microcontroller. The same fabrication technology and programming concept that make the
general purpose microprocessor also yielded the Microcontroller.

Microprocessors

A microprocessor is a general purpose digital computer central processing unit (CPU). Although
known as a ‘Computer on Chip’ the Microprocessor in no sense a complete digital computer.
Block diagram of a Microprocessor CPU which contains ALU; Program counter (PC), a stack

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pointer (SP) ,some working registers , a clock timing circuit and interrupt circuit s is shown in
the following figure

Arithmetic and
Logic Unit

Accumulator

Working Register

Program Counter Stack Pointer

Clock Circuit Interrupt Circuits

Fig.2.Block Diagram of a Microprocessor

To make a computer microcomputer one must add memory usually RAM and ROM,
memory decoders , an oscillator and a number of Input ,Output devices such as serial and parallel
ports. In addition special purpose devices such as interrupt handler and counters may be added to
relieve the CPU from time consuming counting or timing cores. When the Microcomputer is
equipped with mass storage devices , I/O peripherals such as a key board and a display CRT it
yields a small computer that can be applied to a range of general purpose applications.

The hardware design of a microprocessor is arranged such that a very small or very large
system can be configured around the CPU as the application demands as shown in Fig1. The
prime use of the Microprocessor is to read data , perform extensive calculations on that data, and
store those calculations in a mass storage device or display the results for human use. The
programs used by microprocessor are stored in the mass storage device and loaded into RAM as
user directs. A few microprocessor program are stored in ROM . The ROM based programs are
primarily small fixed programs that operate peripherals and other fixed devices that are
connected to the system.

Microcontroller: A Microcontroller is a programmable digital processor with necessary

peripherals. Both microcontrollers and microprocessors are complex sequential digital circuits
meant to carry out job according to the program / instructions. Sometimes analog input/output
interface makes a part of microcontroller circuit as mixed mode(both analog and digital) in
nature.

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A microcontroller can be compared to a Swiss knife with multiple functions incorporated in the
same Integrated Circuits. Block diagram of a typical Microcontroller which is a true computer on
a chip is shown below. The design incorporates all the features found in microprocessor CPU :
ALU,PC, SP and registers. It also has other features needed to make a complete computer: ROM,
RAM, Parallel I/O, serial I/O, Counters and clock circuits. Like the microprocessor , a
microcontroller is a general purpose device, but one that is meant to read data, perform limited
calculations on that data and control its environment based on those calculations. The prime use
of microcontroller is to control the operation of a machine using a fixed program that is stored in
ROM and that does not change over the lifetime of the system.

Fig3. Block diagram of a single chip computer

Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC):

Memory in those days was expensive. Bigger programs required more storage which
included more money . There was a need to reduce the number of instructions per program .
This was achieved by having multiple operations within single instruction. Multiple
operations lead to many different kinds of instructions .Access to memory in turn makes the
instruction length variable and fetch-decode execute time unpredictable – making it more
complex. Thus hardware was made to understand the complexity of instruction set. The
computer having such instruction set was named as Complex Instruction Set Computer
(CISC). Intel 8051 is an example for CISC architecture.

Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC):

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In applications which require more of input , output related operations having few simple
instructions that are of the same length allows memory access only with explicit load and
store instructions. Hence each instruction performs less work but instruction execution time
among different instructions is consistent. This would lead to instruction execution by
hardware including multiple number of registers inside CPU. The computer using such
instructions is called Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC). PIC microcontroller
manufactured by Microchip Company is an example for RISC architecture.

Vonneumann (Princeton) and Harvard Architecture :

Intel’s 8051 employs Harvard architecture. A microcontroller has some embedded

peripherals and Input/Output (I/O) devices. The data transfer to these devices takes place
through I/O registers.

In a microprocessor, input /output (I/O) devices are externally interfaced and are mapped
either to memory address (memory mapped I/O) or a separate I/O address space (I/O mapped
I/O). There are two possible architectures one is Princeton (Von Neumann) and another is
Harvard .I/O Registers space in Princeton architecture have only one memory interface for
program memory (ROM) and data memory (RAM). One option is to map the I/O Register as
a part of data memory or variable RAM area ( memory mapped I/O). Alternatively a separate
I/O register space can be assigned (I/O Mapped I/O) . Both the arrangements are shown in
Fig.4.

Fig 4. Input/Output Registers in Princeton Architecture

As shown in Fig 4. Program memory and Data memory are together in both the
arrangements. The Princeton or Vonneumann architecture one bus is used to carry the address
and data with an appropriate multiplexing technique ,which in turn reduces the cost. But
Harvard architecture which 8051 employs has separate Data memory and separate Code or
Program memory . The Fig. 5 and Fig .6 show the need for separate address and data bus for
each Program and Data memory in Harvard architecture. Since there are separate bus for

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access the operation of fetching the code and data can happen simultaneously which
increases the speed of operation of execution inside CPU.

Fig. 5.Organization of I/O registers in Harvard Architecture

In Fig. 5 , the first option is difficult to implement as there is no means to write to program
ROM area. It is also complicated to have a separate I/O space as shown in (3). Hence the
second option where I/O registers are placed in the register space is widely used in Harvard
architecture. Data
Data
Memory
C Addres
P s
U Data

Program
Memory
Addres
s

Fig6. Harvard Architecture

Computer Software: A set of instructions written in a specific sequence for computer to

solve a specific task is called a program, and software is collection of programs. The program
stored in the computer memory in the form of 0s and 1sand it is called as machine level
instructions. Since it would be difficult to remember machine codes in the form of binary

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numbers an intermediate level of language for programming, between higher and machine
level was developed and is known as assembly level language . Assembly language programs
are written using assembly instructions known as mnemonics.

For example in CLR A, instruction CLR means clear and A means accumulator. The program
mnemonics are converted to machine codes in the form of binary by a software called
Assembler.

The Assembly language programming requires a detailed knowledge of the architecture

with which the program is executed. In order to overcome the drawback of assembly
language programming Higher level language like C,C++ are introduced where an interpreter
or a compiler takes care of translating a higher level source code into machine codes.

Development/Classification of microcontrollers : Microcontrollers have gone through

a silent evolution (invisible). The evolution can be rightly termed as silent as the impact or
application of a microcontroller is not well known to a common user, although
microcontroller technology has undergone significant change since early 1970's.
Development of some popular microcontrollers is given as follows.

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Intel 4004
4 bit (2300 PMOS
1971
trans, 108 kHz)
MICROCONTROLLERS
Intel 8048 8 bit 1976

Intel 8031 8 bit (ROM-less) .

Intel 8051 8 bit (Mask ROM) 1980

Microchip PIC16C64 8 bit 1985

Motorola 68HC11 8 bit (on chip ADC) .

Intel 80C196 16 bit 1982

Atmel AT89C51 8 bit (Flash memory) .

Microchip PIC 16F877 8 bit (Flash memory + ADC) .

We use more number of microcontrollers compared to microprocessors. Microprocessors

are primarily used for computational purpose, whereas microcontrollers find wide application
in devices needing real time processing and control. Application of microcontrollers are
numerous. Starting from domestic applications such as in washing machines, TVs, air
conditioners, microcontrollers are used in automobiles, process control industries , cell phones,
electrical drives, robotics and in space applications.

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