Electronic Mechanic 1st Sem NSFQ Books

NSQF
LEVEL-5
ELECTRONIC MECHANIC
Sector: Electronics & Hardware
TRADE THEORY 1ST SEMESTER
ELECTRONIC MECHANIC TRADE THEORY − 1ST SEMESTER (NSQF LEVEL- 5)

(a) (b)
C1 C2 Cn CT
V
ET180612
C T = C 1+ C 2 + +Cn
IN COM OUT
IN OUT
UNREGULATED
REGULATED
DC OUTPUT
COMMON
DC INPUT
C1 C2
ET1B0512
AS PER NCVT REVISED SYLLABUS FOR ITI

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Directorate General of Training,
P.O. Box - 3142, CTI Campus, Guindy, Chennai - 600 032 Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship,
Phone: 2250 0248, 2250 0657, 2250 2421 Fax: (044) 2250 0791 Government of India
E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Website: www.nimi.gov.in
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Copyrights © 2018 National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai. MEDIA INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
ELECTRONIC MECHANIC
NSQF LEVEL - 5
1st Semester
TRADE THEORY
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SECTOR: Electronics and Hardware
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DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

MINISTRY OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT & ENTREPRENEURSHIP
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
MEDIA INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
(i)
Post Box No. 3142, CTI Campus, Guindy, Chennai - 600 032
Sector : Electronics and Hardware
Duration : 2 - Years
Trade : Electronic Mechanic 1st Semester - Trade Theory - NSQF level 5
Copyright © 2018 National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai

First Edition : August 2018 Copies : 1,000
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Rs.355/-
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All rights reserved.

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No part of this publication can be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the National
Instructional Media Institute, Chennai.
Published by:
NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA INSTITUTE
P. B. No.3142, CTI Campus, Guindy Industrial Estate,
Guindy, Chennai - 600 032.
Phone : 044 - 2250 0248, 2250 0657, 2250 2421
Fax : 91 - 44 - 2250 0791
email : [email protected], [email protected]
Website: www.nimi.gov.in
(ii)
FOREWORD
The Government of India has set an ambitious target of imparting skills to 30 crores people, one out of every
four Indians, by 2020 to help them secure jobs as part of the National Skills Development Policy. Industrial
Training Institutes (ITIs) play a vital role in this process especially in terms of providing skilled manpower.
Keeping this in mind, and for providing the current industry relevant skill training to Trainees, ITI syllabus
has been recently updated with the help of Mentor Councils comprising various stakeholder's viz. Industries,
Entrepreneurs, Academicians and representatives from ITIs.
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI), Chennai, an autonomous body under the Directorate
General of Training (DGT), Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship is entrusted with developing
producing and disseminating Instructional Media Packages (IMPs) required for ITIs and other related
institutions.
The institute has now come up with instructional material to suit the revised curriculum for Electronic
Mechanic Trade Theory1st Semester in Electronics and Hardware Sector under semester pattern.
The NSQF Level - 5 Trade Theory will help the trainees to get an international equivalency standard where
their skill proficiency and competency will be duly recognized across the globe and this will also increase
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the scope of recognition of prior learning. NSQF Level - 5 trainees will also get the opportunities to promote
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life long learning and skill development. I have no doubt that with NSQF Level - 5 the trainers and trainees
of ITIs, and all stakeholders will derive maximum benefits from these IMPs and that NIMI's effort will go a
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long way in improving the quality of Vocational training in the country.

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The Executive Director & Staff of NIMI and members of Media Development Committee deserve appreciation
for their contribution in bringing out this publication.
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Jai Hind
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ASHEESH SHARMA
Joint Secretary
Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship,
Government of India.
New Delhi - 110 001
(iii)
PREFACE
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) was established in 1986 at Chennai by then Directorate
General of Employment and Training (D.G.E & T), Ministry of Labour and Employment, (now under Directorate
General of Training, Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship) Government of India, with technical
assistance from the Govt. of the Federal Republic of Germany. The prime objective of this institute is to
develop and provide instructional materials for various trades as per the prescribed syllabi (NSQF) under the
Craftsman and Apprenticeship Training Schemes.
The instructional materials are created keeping in mind, the main objective of Vocational Training under
NCVT/NAC in India, which is to help an individual to master skills to do a job. The instructional materials are
generated in the form of Instructional Media Packages (IMPs). An IMP consists of Theory book, Practical
book, Test and Assignment book, Instructor Guide, Audio Visual Aid (Wall charts and Transparencies) and
other support materials.
The trade practical book consists of series of exercises to be completed by the trainees in the workshop.
These exercises are designed to ensure that all the skills in the prescribed syllabus are covered. The trade
theory book provides related theoretical knowledge required to enable the trainee to do a job. The test and
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assignments will enable the instructor to give assignments for the evaluation of the performance of a trainee.
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The wall charts and transparencies are unique, as they not only help the instructor to effectively present a
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topic but also help him to assess the trainee's understanding. The instructor guide enables the instructor to
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plan his schedule of instruction, plan the raw material requirements, day to day lessons and demonstrations.
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In order to perform the skills in a productive manner instructional videos are embedded in QR code of the
exercise in this instructional material so as to integrate the skill learning with the procedural practical steps
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given in the exercise. The instructional videos will improve the quality of standard on practical training and
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will motivate the trainees to focus and perform the skill seamlessly.
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IMPs also deals with the complex skills required to be developed for effective team work. Necessary care
has also been taken to include important skill areas of allied trades as prescribed in the syllabus.
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The availability of a complete Instructional Media Package in an institute helps both the trainer and
management to impart effective training.
The IMPs are the outcome of collective efforts of the staff members of NIMI and the members of the Media
Development Committees specially drawn from Public and Private sector industries, various training institutes
under the Directorate General of Training (DGT), Government and Private ITIs.
NIMI would like to take this opportunity to convey sincere thanks to the Directors of Employment & Training
of various State Governments, Training Departments of Industries both in the Public and Private sectors,
Officers of DGT and DGT field institutes, proof readers, individual media developers and coordinators, but for
whose active support NIMI would not have been able to bring out this materials.
R. P. DHINGRA
Chennai - 600 032 EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
(iv)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) sincerely acknowledges with thanks for the co-operation and
contribution extended by the following Media Developers and their sponsoring organisations to bring out this
Instructional Material (Trade Theory) for the trade of Electronic Mechanic under Electronic and Hardware
Sector.
MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS
Shri. G. Ethirajulu _ Principal (Retd),

MDC Member,NIMI,Guindy
Chennai -32.
Shri. D.S. Varadarajulu _ DD/Principal (Retd),

MDC Member,NIMI,Guindy
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Chennai - 32.
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Shri. S. Ameer Basha _ Principal (Retd)
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MDC Member, NIMI,

Chennai-32.
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Smt. S. Sanjikadevi _ Assistant Professor (Retd)

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MDC Member NIMI, Chennai - 32

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Shri. P. Jayavel _ Training officer (Retd)

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MDC Member, NIMI

Chennai-32
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Shri. Deenadayalan _ Project Manager

MDC Member, NIMI
Chennai-32
Shri. V. Gopalakrishnan _ Assistant Manager,

Co-ordinator, NIMI, Chennai - 32
NIMI records its appreciation for the Data Entry, CAD, DTP operators for their excellent and devoted services in
the process of development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI also acknowledges with thanks the invaluable efforts rendered by all other NIMI staff who have contributed
towards the development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI is also grateful to everyone who has directly or indirectly helped in developing this Instructional Material.
(v)
INTRODUCTION
TRADE THEORY
The manual of trade theory consists of theoretical information for the First Semester course of the Electronic
Mechanic Trade. The contents are sequenced according to the practical exercise contained in the manual on
Trade Practical. Attempt has been made to relate the theoretical aspects with the skill covered in each exercise
to the extent possible. This co-relation is maintained to help the trainees to develop the perceptional capabilities
for performing the skills.
The Trade Theory has to be taught and learnt along with the corresponding exercise contained in the manual
on trade practical. The indicating about the corresponding practical exercise are given in every sheet of this
manual.
It will be preferable to teach/learn the trade theory connected to each exercise atleast one class before
performing the related skills in the shop floor. The trade theory is to be treated as an integrated part of each
exercise.
The material is not the purpose of self learning and should be considered as supplementary to class room
instruction.
TRADE PRACTICAL
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The trade practical manual is intented to be used in workshop . It consists of a series of practical exercies to
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be completed by the trainees during the First Semester course of the Electronic Mechanic trade
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supplemented and supported by instructions/ informations to assist in performing the exercises. These
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exercises are designed to ensure that all the skills in the prescribed syllabus are covered.
The manual is divided into three modules. The distribution of time for the practical in the three modules are
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given below.
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Module 1 Basic Workshop Practice 13 Exercises 75 Hrs

Module 2 Basic Electricity 22 Exercises 100 Hrs
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Module 3 Measuring Technique 05 Exercises 50 Hrs

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Module 4 Soldering and De-Soldering 06 Exercises 25 Hrs

Module 5 Active and Passive component 17 Exercises 75 Hrs
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Module 6 Rectifiers 10 Exercises 50 Hrs

Module 7 Basic Computer 23 Exercises 125 Hrs
Module 8 IC Regulators 05 Exercises 25 Hrs
Total 101 Exercises 525 Hrs
The skill training in the computer lab is planned through a series of practical exercises centred around some
practical project. However, there are few instance where the individual exercise does not form a part of project.
While developing the practical manual a sincere effort was made to prepare each exercise which will be easy
to understand and carry out even by below average traninee. However the development team accept that there
if a scope for further improvement. NIMI, looks forward to the suggestions from the experienced training faculty
for improving the manual.
(vi)
CONTENTS
Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Page No.
Module 1 : Basic Workshop Practice
1.1.01 Familiarization of the industrial training institute 1
1.1.02 Importance of safety and Precautions to be taken in the industry/shop floor 2
1.1.03 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 5
1.1.04 &1.1.05 First Aid 9
1.1.06 Safety Practice - Fire extinguishers 18
1.1.07 - 1.1.09 Basic hand tools 23
1.1.10 - 1.1.13 Fitting and Sheet metal 35
Module 2 : Basic Electricity
1.2.14 - 1.2.16 Electrical Terms 39
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1.2.17 - 1.2.21
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Conductor and Insulator 43
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1.2.22 - 1.2.28
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Measuring Instrument Meters 47
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1.2.29 - 1.2.31 Cells and Batteries 50

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1.2.32 - 1.2.35 Secondary batteries-types,charge,discharge and maintenance 54

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Module 3 : Measuring Technique

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1.3.36 Introdcution to measuring instruments 64

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1.3.37 Classification of electrical meters and essential forces required in an 72

indicating instrument
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1.3.38 & 1.3.39 Controls and functions in Oscilloscopes 83
1.3.40 Signal generators 89
Module 4 : Soldering and De-Soldering
1.4.41 - 1.4.44 Soldering of wires 92
1.4.45 & 1.4.46 Switches 103
Module 5 : Active and Passive component
1.5.47 Active electronic components 111
1.5.48 - 1.5.50 Resistors 113
1.5.51 Ohm’s Law 124
(vii)
1.5.52 - 1.5.54 Krichhoff’s Laws 130
1.5.55 Inductors and Inductance 134
1.5.56 Capacitors & Capacitance 146
1.5.57 Circuit breakers 161
1.5.58 - 1.5.60 Relays 165
1.5.61 Time constant for RC circuit 175
1.5.62 R.C Differentiator 178
1.5.63 R.L.C. Series and Parallel circuit 181
Module 6 : Rectifiers
1.6.64 - 1.6.66 Semiconductor diodes 199
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1.6.67 & 1.6.68 Transformer 209
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1.6.69 - 1.6.72 Working principle of zener diodes 222
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1.6.73 Regulated power supply 239
Module 7 : Basic Computer

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1.7.74 to 1.7.77 Introduction to computer devices, parts and their working 241
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1.7.78 CMOS setup and BIOS installation 260

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1.7.79 Switch Mode Power Supply for PC 263

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1.7.80 to 1.7.83 Hard Disk 267

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1.7.84 Different types of printers,HDD 273
1.7.85 Computer Viruses 280
1.7.86 MS office and its installation, creating basic document in MS word 281
1.7.87 Paint in Windows 285
1.7.88 MS word file, folder, editing, formatting text & labels 289
1.7.89 MS Excel 298
1.7.90 Microsoft Power point 312
1.7.91 Covering of Pdf file 315
1.7.92 Browsing & searching websites text/images & use of E-mails 317
1.7.93 - 1.7.95 Computer networking, Cables Components, Connectors and Servers 328
1.7.96 WiFi Network 341
(viii)
Module 8 : IC Regulators
1.8.97 & 1.8.98 Integrated circuit voltage regulators 344
1.8.99 Heat sinks for IC based Regulators 348
1.8.100 OP-amp Voltage regulator 350
1.8.101 IC Voltage Regulators - Variable output 352
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(ix)
ASSESSABLE / LEARNING OUTCOME
On completion of this book you shall be able to
• Apply safe working practices.

• Perform basic workshop operations using suitable tools for fitting,
riveting, drilling etc. observing suitable care & safety.
• Select and perform electrical/electronic measurement of single
range meters and calibrate the instrument.
• Test & service different batteries used in electronic applications
and record the data to estimate repair cost.
• Plan and execute soldering & de-soldering
dering of various electrical
components like Switches, PCB & Transformers for electronic
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circuits.
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• Test various electronic components using proper measuring
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instruments and compare the data using standard parameters

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• Assemble simple electronic power supply circuit and test for

functioning.
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• Install, configure, interconnect given computer system(s) and

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demonstrate & Utilize application packages for different

applications.
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• Construct, test and verify the input/output characteristics of

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various analog circuits.

• Plan and construct different power electronic circuits and analyse
the circuit functioning.
• Select the appropriate opto electronic components and verify the
characteristics in different circuits.
(i)
Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.01
Electronic Mechanic - Basic Workshop Practice
Familiarization of the Industrial Training Institute

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• identify the staff structure of the institute
• identify the available trades in the institute and their functions
• state about shop floor practice.
The Industrial Training Institutes throughout India follow The head of the Industrial Training Institute is the Principal,
the same syllabus pattern as given by the National under whom there is one Vice-Principal, Group Instructor/
Council for Vocational Training (NCVT) Board. In India Training officer and a number of trade instructors/
there are about Govt. ITIs and Private ITIs. (Based on the Asst.Training officer as shown in the Organisation chart
Govt.of India, Ministry of Labour Annual report of of ITI.
2016-2017). The Govt. ITIs in each state work under the
Eventhough there are133 trades selected for Instructional
Directorate of Employment and Training which is a
training and 261 trades identified for Apprentice training,
department under the Labour Ministry in most of the
according to the requirement of industrial needs, area
states. Some of the ITIs are under the Central Government
and finance a few selected trades are established under
and are attached to the Advanced Training Institutes
each ITI. The trainees are advised to make a list of othe
which are named as Model Training Institutes.
trades available in their ITI, the type of training and the
scope of these trades in getting self employment or job
opportunity in the rural and urban areas.
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1
Importance of safety and precautions to be taken in the industry/ shop floor

• state the importance of safety
• list out the personal safety precautions to be observed
• list out the safety precautions to be observed while working on the machines.
• list three kinds of road sign
• describe the marking on the road
• describe the various police traffic hand signal and light signal
• list the collision causes.
Importance of safety Don’t touch or handle any equipment/ machine unless

authorised to do so.
Generally accidents do not happen; they are caused.
Most accidents are avoidable. A Good craftsman, having Don’t walk under suspended loads.
a knowledge of various safety precautions, can avoid
Don’t cut practical jokes while on work.
accidents to himself and to his fellow workers and protect
the equipment from any damage. To achieve this, it is Use the correct tools for the job.
essential that every person should follow safety procedure. Keep the tools at their proper place.
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(Fig 1)
Wipe out split oil immediately.
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Never direct compressed air at yourself or at your co-

worker.
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Ensure adequate light in the workshop.

Clean the machine only when it is not in motion.
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Sweep away the metal cuttings.

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Know everything about the machine before you start it.

Personal safety
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Wear a one piece overall or boiler suit.

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Keep the overall buttons fastened.

Don’t use ties and scarves.
Roll up the sleeves tightly above the elbow.
Wear safety shoes or boots or chain.
Cut the hair short.
Don’t wear a ring, watch or chain.
Never lean on the machine.
Safety in a workshop can be broadly classified into 3
categories. Don’t clean hands in the coolant fluid.
• General safety Don’t remove guards when the machine is in motion.

Don’t use cracked or chipped tools.
• Personal safety
Don’s start the machine until
• Machine safety
- the workpiece is securely mounted
General safety
- the feed machinery is in the neutral
Keep the floor and gangways clean and clear.
- the work area is clear.
Move with care in the worksop, do not run.
Don’t adjust clamps or holdig devices while the machine
Don’t leave the machine which is in motion. is in motion.
2 E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.02
Never touch the electrical equipment with wet hands. Take measurements only after stopping the machine.
Don’t use any faulty electrical equipment. Use wooden planks over the bed while loading and
unloading heavy jobs.
Ensure that electrical connections are made by an
authorised electrician only. Safety is a concept, understand it.
Concentrate on your work. Safety is a habit, cultivate it.
Have a calm attitude.
Safety Sign
Do things in a methodical way.
Don’t engage yourself in conversation with others while In order days road locomotive carrying a red flag by day
concentrating on your job. and red lantern by night. Safety is the prime motive of
every traffic.
Don’t distract the attention of others.
Kinds of road signs
Don’t try to stop a running machine with hands.
Mandatory (Fig 2)
Shop floor practices
Cautionary and
A shop floor is small organization within a large one. It is
informatory
subset of the business enterprise where all the tangible
production takes place. Within a shop floor there are Madatory sign (Fig 2)
various smaller departments, operations and
responsibilities.
Shop floor departments
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The following departments work under a factory or a shop
floor
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• Purchase department
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• Production department
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• Operations department
• Quality control department
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Purchase department
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It is responsible for recognizing the need to purchase,

receiving quotes or proposals and procuring the required
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material. Purchasing department determines the vendor’s

compliance, deals with suppliers and assess incoming
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material’s cost and quality. It finally deals with the

accounts department for acutal purchase.
Machine safety
Switch off the machine immediately if something goes
wrong.
Keep the machine clean. Violation of mandatory sign can lead to penalities. Ex
Stop, give way, limits, prohibited, no parking and
Replace any worn out or damaged accessories, holding compulsory sign.
devices, nuts, bolts, etc., as soon as possible.
Cautionary signs (Fig 3)
Do not attempt operating the machine until you know how
to operate it properly. Cautionary warning signs are especially safe. Do’s and
don’ts for pedestrian, cyclists, bus passengers and
Do not adjust tool or the workpiece unless the power is motorists.
off.
Stop the machine before changing the speed.
Disengage the automatic feeds before switching off.
Check the oil level before starting the machine.
Never start a machine unless all the safety guards are in
position.
E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.02 3

Information signs (Fig 3)
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Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

• state what is personal protective equipment and its purpose
• name the two categories of personal protective equipment
• list the most common type of personal protective equipment
• list the conditions for selection of personal protective equipment.
Personal protective equipment (PPE) Categories of PPEs
Devices, equipments, or clothing used or worn by the Depending upon the nature of hazard, the PPE is broadly
employees, as a last resort, to protect against hazards divided into the following two categories:
in the workplace. The primary approach in any safety
effort is that the hazard to the workmen should be 1 Non-respiratory: Those used for protection against
eliminated or controlled by engineering methods rather injury from outside the body, i.e. for protecting the
than protecting the workmen through the use of personal head, eye, face, hand, arm, foot, leg and other body
protective equipment (PPE). Engineering methods could parts
include design change, substitution, ventilation, 2 Respiratory: Those used for protection from harm
mechanical handling, automation, etc. In situations where due to inhalation of contaminated air.
it is not possible to introduce any effective engineering
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methods for controlling hazards, the workman shall use They are to meet the applicable BIS (Bureau of Indian
appropriate types of PPE.
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Standards) standards for different types of PPE.
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As changing times have modernized the workplace,
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The guidelines on 'Personal Protective Equipment' is
government and advocacy groups have brought more issued to facilitate the plant management in maintaining
safety standards to all sorts of work environments. The an effective programme with respect to protection of
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Factories Act, 1948 and several other labour legislations persons against hazards, which cannot be eliminated or
1996 have provisions for effective use of appropriate controlled by engineering methods listed in table1.
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types of PPE. Use of PPE is an important.

Table1
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Ways to ensure workplace safety and use personal

protective equipment (PPE) effectively. No. Title
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• Workers to get up-to-date safety information from the

PPE1 Helmet
regulatory agencies that oversees workplace safety
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in their specific area. PPE2 Safety footwear

• To use all available text resources that may be in PPE3 Respiratory protective
work area and for applicable safety information on equipment
how to use PPE best.
PPE4 Arms and hands protection
• When it comes to the most common types of personal
protective equipment, like goggles, gloves or PPE5 Eyes and face protection
bodysuits, these items are much less effective if they
are not worn at all times, or whenever a specific PPE6 Protective clothing and cover
danger exists in a work process. Using PPE all
consistently will help to avoid some common kinds PPE7 Ears protection
of industrial accidents.
PPE8 Safety belt and harnesses
• Personal protective gear is not always enough to
protect workers against workplace dangers. Knowing
more about the overall context of your work activity
can help to fully protect from anything that might
threaten health and safety on the job.
• Inspection of gear thoroughly to make sure that it

has the standard of quality and adequately protect
the user should be continuously carried out.
5
Personal protective equipments and their uses and hazards are as follows
Types of protection Hazards PPE to be used
Head Protection (Fig 1) 1. Falling objects Helmets

2. Striking against objects
3. Spatter
Foot protection (Fig 2) 1. Hot spatter Leather leg guards

2. Falling objects Safety shoes
3. Working wet area Gum boots
Nose (Fig 3) 1. Dust particles Nose mask

2. Fumes/ gases/ vapours
Hand protecion (Fig 4) 1. Heat burn due to direct contact Hand gloves
2. Blows sparks moderate heat
3. Electric shock
Eye protection (Fig 5, Fig 6) 1. Flying dust particles Goggles

2. UV rays, IR rays heat and Face shield
High amount of visible radiation Hand shield
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Head
Head shield
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Face Protection (Fig 6, Fig 7)
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1. Spark generated during Face shield
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Welding, grinding Head shield with or
2. Welding spatter striking without ear muff
3. Face protection from Helmets with welders
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UV rays screen for welders

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Ear protection (Fig 7) 1. High noise level Ear plug

Ear muff
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Body protection (Fig 8, Fig 9) 1. Hot particles Leather aprons

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Quality of PPE’s Proper use of PPEs
PPE must meet the following criteria with regard to its Having selected the proper type of PPE, it is essential
quality-provide absolute and full protection against that the workman wears it. Often the workman avoids
possible hazard and PPE’s be so designed and using PPE. The following factors influence the solution
manufactured out of materials that it can withstand the to this problem.
hazards against which it is intended to be used.
• The extent to which the workman understands the
Selection of PPE’s requires certain conditions necessity of using PPE
• The ease and comfort with which PPE can be worn
• Nature and severity of the hazard
with least interference in normal work procedures
• Type of contaminant, its concentration and location
• The available economic, social and disciplinary
of contaminated area with respect to the source of
sanctions which can be used to influence the attitude
respirable air
of the workman
• Expected activity of workman and duration of work,
• The best solution to this problem is to make 'wearing
comfort of workman when using PPE
of PPE' mandatory for every employee.
• Operating characteristics and limitations of PPE
• In other places, education and supervision need to
• Ease of maintenance and cleaning. be intensified. When a group of workmen are issued
PPE for the first time.
• Conformity to Indian/ International standards and
availability of test certificate.
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8 E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) -Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.03

Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.04 & 1.1.05
First Aid
• state the first aid
• list the key aims of first aid
• explain the ABC of the first aid
• brief how to give first-aid treatment for a victim who needs first aid
• state importance of house keeping
• explain environment, health and safety
• state the importance of safety and safety signs
• state five safety.
First aid is defined as the immediate care and support treatment, such as in the case of applying a plaster
given to an acutely injured or ill person, primarily to save to a small wound.
life, prevent further deterioration or injury, plan to shift
the victim to safer place, provide best possible comfort Training
and finally help them to reach the medical centre/ hospital
through all available means. It is an immediate life-saving Basic principles, such as knowing to use an adhesive
procedure using all resources available within reach. bandage or applying direct pressure on a bleed, are often
acquired passively through life experiences. However,
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Imparting knowledge and skill through institutional to provide effective, life-saving first aid interventions
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teaching at younger age group in schools, colleges, entry
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point at industry level is now given much importance. especially true where it relates to potentially fatal illnesses
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Inculcating such habits at early age, helps to build good and injuries, such as those that require cardiopulmonary
healthcare habits among people. resuscitation (CPR); these procedures may be invasive,
and carry a risk of further injury to the patient and the
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First aid procedure often consists of simple and basic provider. As with any training, it is more useful if it occurs
life saving techniques that an individual performs with before an actual emergency, and in many countries,
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proper training and knowledge. emergency ambulance dispatchers may give basic first
aid instructions over the phone while the ambulance is
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The key aims of first aid can be summarized in three on the way. Training is generally provided by attending a
key points: course, typically leading to certification. Due to regular
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changes in procedures and protocols, based on updated

• Preserve life: If the patient was breathing, a first aider clinical knowledge, and to maintain skill, attendance at
regular refresher courses or re-certification is often
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would normally then place them in the recovery

position, with the patient leant over on their side, which necessary. First aid training is often available through
also has the effect of clearing the tongue from the community organization such as the Red cross and St.
pharynx. It also avoids a common cause of death John ambulance.
inunconscious patients, which is choking on
regurgitated stomach contents. The airway can also ABC of first aid
become blocked through a foreign object becoming
lodged in the pharynx or larynx, commonly called ABC stands for airway, breathing and circulation.
choking. The first aider will be taught to deal with this
through a combination of 'back slaps' and 'abdominal • Airway: Attention must first be brought to the airway
thrusts'. Once the airway has been opened, the first to ensure it is clear. Obstruction (choking) is a life-
aider would assess to see if the patient is breathing. threatening emergency.
• Prevent further harm: Also sometimes called • Breathing: Breathing if stops, the victim may die
prevent the condition from worsening, or danger of soon. Hence means of providing support for breathing
further injury, this covers both external factors, such is an important next steps. There are several methods
as moving a patient away from any cause of harm, practiced in first aid.
and applying first aid techniques to prevent worsening • Circulation: Blood circulation is vital to keep person
of the condition, such as applying pressure to stop a alive. The first aiders now trained to go straight to
bleed becoming dangerous. chest compressions through CPR methods.
• Promote recovery: First aid also involves trying to
start the recovery process from the illness or injury, When providing first aid one needs to follow some rule.
and in some cases might involve completing a There are certain basic norms in teaching and training
9
students in the approach and administration of first aid Stop the bleeding
to sick and injured.
If the victim is bleeding, try to stop the bleeding by
Not to get panic applying pressure over the injured part.
Panic is one emotion that can make the situation more Golden hours
worse. People often make mistake because they get
panic. Panic clouds thinking may cause mistakes. First India have best of technology made available in hospitals
to treat devastating medical problem viz. head injury,
aider need calm and collective approach. If the first aider multiple trauma, heart attack, strokes etc, but patients
himself is in a state of fear and panic gross mistakes often do poorly because they don't gain access to that
may result. It's far easier to help the suffering, when technology in time. The risk of dying from these
they know what they are doing, even if unprepared to conditions, is greatest in the first 30 minutes, often
encounter a situation. Emotional approach and response instantly. This period is referred to as Golden period. By
always lead to wrong doing and may lead one to do the time the patient reach the hospital, they would have
wrong procedures. Hence be calm and focus on the passed that critical period. First aid care come handy to
given institution. Quick and confident approach can save lives. It helps to get to the nearest emergency room
lessen the effect of injury. as quickly as possible through safe handling and
transportation. The shorter that time, the more likely the
Call medical emergencies best treatment applied.
If the situation demands, quickly call for medical Maintain the hygiene
assistance. Prompt approach may save the life.
Most important, the first aider need to wash hands and
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Surroundings play vital role dry before giving any first aid treatment to the patient or
wear gloves in order to prevent infection.
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Different surroundings require different approach. Hence
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first aider should study the surrounding carefully. In other Cleaning and dressing
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words, one need to make sure that they are safe and
are not in any danger as it would be of no help that the Always clean the wound thoroughly before applying the
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first aider himself get injured. bandage gently wash the wound with clean water.
Do no harm Not to use local medications on cuts or open wounds

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Most often over enthusiastically practiced first aid viz. They are more irritating to tissue than it is helpful. Simple
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administering water when the victim is unconscious, dry cleaning or with water and some kind of bandage are
wiping clotted blood (which acts as plug to reduce best.
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bleeding), correcting fractures, mishandling injured parts

etc., would leads to more complication. Patients often CPR (Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation) can be life-
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die due to wrong FIRST AID methods, who may sustaining

otherwise easily survive. Do not move the injured person
unless the situation demands. It is best to make him lie CPR can be life sustaining. If one is trained in PR and
wherever he is because if the patient has back, head or the person is suffering from choking or finds difficulty in
neck injury, moving him would causes more harm. breathing, immediately begin CPR. However, if one is
not trained in CPR, do not attempt as you can cause
This does not mean do nothing. It means to make sure further injury. But some people do it wrong. This is a
that to do something the care gives feel confident difficult procedure to do in a crowded area. Also there
through training would make matters safe. If the first are many studies to suggest that no survival advantage
aider is not confident of correct handling it is better not when bystanders deliver breaths to victims compared to
to intervene of doing it. Hence moving a trauma victim, when they only do chest compressions. Second, it is very
especially an unconscious one, needs very careful difficult to carry right maneuver in wrong places. But CPR,
assessment. Removal of an embedded objects (Like a if carefully done by highly skilled first aiders is a bridge
knife, nail) from the wound may precipitate more harm that keeps vital organs oxygenated until medical team
(e.g. increased bleeding). Always it is better to call for arrives.
help.
Declaring death
Reassurance
It is not correct to declare the victim's death at the accident
site. It has to be done by qualified medical doctors.
Reassure the victim by speaking encouragingly with him.
How to report an emergency?
Reporting an emergency is one of those things that seems
10 E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) -Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.04 & 1.1.05
simple enough, until actually when put to use in Do not hang up the phone until you are instructed to
emergency situations. A sense of shock prevail at the do so. Then follow the instructions you were given.
accident sites. Large crowd gather around only with
inquisitive nature, but not to extend helping hands to the How to do basic first aid?
victims. This is common in road side injuries. No passer-
by would like to get involved to assist the victims. Hence Basic first aid refers to the initial process of assessing
first aid management is often very difficult to attend to and addressing the needs of someone who has been
the injured persons. The first aiders need to adapt multi- injured or is in physiological distress due to choking, a
task strategy to control the crowd around, communicate heart attack, allergic reactions, drugs or other medical
emergencies. Basic first aid allows one to quickly
to the rescue team, call ambulance etc., all to be done determine a person's physical condition and the correct
simultaneously. The mobile phones helps to a greater course of treatment.
extent for such emergencies. Few guidelines are given
below to approach the problems. Important guideline for first aiders
Evaluate the situation
Assess the urgency of the situation. Before you report
an emergency, make sure the situation is genuinely Are there things that might put the first aider at risk. When
urgent. Call for emergency services if you believe that a faced with accidents like fire, toxic smoke, gasses, an
situation is life-threatening or otherwise extremely critical. unstable building, live electrical wires or other dangerous
scenario, the first aider should be very careful not to
• A crime, especially one that is currently in progress. rush into a situation, which may prove to be fatal.
If you're reporting a crime, give a physical description
of the person committing the crime. Remember A-B-Cs
• A fire - If you're reporting a fire, describe how the fire
ed
The ABCs of first aid refer to the three critical things the
started and where exactly it is located. If someone first aiders need to look for.
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has already been injured or is missing, report that as
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well.
ish • Airway - Does the person have an unobstructed
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• A life-threatening medical emergency, explain how airway?

the incident occurred and what symptoms the person
• Breathing - Is the person breathing?
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currently displays.
• A car crash - Location, serious nature of injures, • Circulation - Does the person show a pulse at major
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vehicle's details and registration, number of people pulse points (wrist, carotid artery, groin)
involved etc.
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Avoid moving the victim

Call emergency number
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Avoid moving the victim unless they are immediate

The emergency number varies - 100 for Police & Fire, danger. Moving a victim will often make injuries worse,
108 for Ambulance.
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especially in the case of spinal cord injuries.
Report your location Call emergency services
The first thing the emergency dispatcher will ask is where Call for help or tell someone else to call for help as soon
you are located, so the emergency services can get there as possible. If alone at the accident scene, try to establish
as quickly as possible. Give the exact street address, if breathing before calling for help, and do not leave the
you're not sure of the exact address, give approximate victim alone unattended.
information.
Determine responsiveness
Give the dispatcher your phone number
If a person is unconscious, try to rouse them by gently
This information is also imperative for the dispatcher to shaking and speaking to them.
have, so that he or she is able to call back if necessary.
If the person remains unresponsive, carefully roll
Describe the nature of the emergency them on the side (recovery position) and open his
airway.
Speak in a calm, clear voice and tell the dispatcher why
you are calling. Give the most important details first, • Keep head and neck aligned.
then answer the dispatcher's follow-up question as best
as you can. • Carefully roll them onto their back while holding his
head.
• Open the airway by lifting the chin (Fig 1).
E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) -Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.04 & 1.1.05 11
• Treat a concussion: If the victim has suffered a blow
to the head, look for signs of concussion. Common
symptoms are: loss of consciousness following the
injury, disorientation or memory impairment, vertigo,
nausea, and lethargy.
• Treat a spinal injury victim: If a spinal injury is

suspected, it is especially critical, not move the
victim's head, neck or back unless they are in
immediate danger.
Look, listen and feel for signs of breathing Stay with the victim until help arrives
Look for the victim's chest to raise and fall, listen for Try to be a calming presence for the victim until
sounds of breathing. assistance can arrive.
If the victim is not breathing, see the section below Unconsciousness (COMA)
• If the victim is breathing, but unconscious, roll them
onto their side, keeping the head and neck aligned Unconscious also referred as Coma, is a serious life
with the body. This will help drain the mouth and threatening condition, when a person lie totally senseless
prevent the tongue or vomit from blocking the airway. and do not respond to calls, external stimulus. But the
basic heart, breathing, blood circulation may be still intact,
Check the victim's circulation or they may also be failing. If unattended it may lead to
death.
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Look at the victim's colour and check their pulse (the
The condition arises due to interruption of normal brain
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carotid artery is a good option; it is located on either side
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activity. The causes are too many.
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of the neck, below the jaw bone). If the victim does not
have a pulse, start CPR. • Shock (Cardiogenic, Neurogenic)
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Treat bleeding, shock and other problems as needed • Head injury (Concussion, Compression)
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• Asphyxia (obstruction to air passage)

After establishing that the victim is breathing and has a
pulse, next priority should be to control any bleeding. • Extreme of body temperature (Heat, Cold)
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Particularly in the case of trauma, preventing shock is • Cardiac arrest (Heart attack)
the priority.
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• Stroke (Cerbro-vascular accident)

• Stop bleeding: Control of bleeding is one of the most • Blood loss (Haemorrhage)
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important things to save a trauma victim. Use direct

pressure on a wound before trying any other method • Dehydration (Diarrohea & vomiting)
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of managing bleeding. • Diabetes (Low or high sugar)
• Treat shock: Shock may causes loss of blood flow • Blood pressure (Very low or very high)
from the body, frequently follows physical and • Over dose of alcohol, drugs
occasionally psychological trauma. A person in shock
will frequently have ice cold skin, be agitated or have • Poisoning (Gas, Pesticides, Bites)
an altered mental status, and have pale colour to the • Epileptic fits (Fits)
skin around the face and lips. Untreated, shock can
be fatal. Anyone who has suffered a severe injury or • Hysteria (Emotional, Psychological)
life-threatening situation is at risk for shock.
The following symptoms may occur after a person has
• Choking victim: Choking can cause death or been unconscious:
permanent brain damage within minutes. • Confusion
• Treat a burn: Treat first and second degree burns by • Drowsiness

immersing or flushing with cool water. Don't use • Headache
creams, butter or other ointments, and do not pop
• Inability to speak or move parts of his or her body
blisters. Third degree burns should be covered with a
(see stroke symptoms)
damp cloth. Remove clothing and jewellery from the
burn, but do not try to remove charred clothing that is • Light headedness
stuck to burns.
• Loss of bowel or bladder control (incontinence)
12 E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) -Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.04 & 1.1.05
• Rapid heartbeat (palpitation)
• Stupor
First aid
• Call EMERGENCY number.

• Check the person's airway, breathing, and pulse
frequently. If necessary, begin rescue breathing and
CPR.
How to diagnose an unconscious injured person
• If the person is breathing and lying on the back and
after ruling out spinal injury, carefully roll the person • Consider alcohol: look for signs of drinking, like empty
onto the side, preferably left side. Bend the top leg bottles or the smell of alcohol.
so both hip and knee are at right angles. Gently tilt • Consider epilepsy: are there signs of a violent seizure,
the head back to keep the airway open. If breathing such as saliva around the mouth or a generally
or pulse stops at any time, roll the person on to his dishevelled scene?
back and begin CPR.
• Think insulin: might the person be suffering from
• If there is a spinal injury, the victims position may insulin shock (see 'How to diagnose and treat insulin
have to be carefully assessed. If the person vomits, shock")?
roll the entire body at one time to the side. Support
the neck and back to keep the head and body in the • Think about drugs: was there an overdose? Or might
same position while you roll. the person have under dosed - that is not taken
enough of a prescribed medication?
• Keep the person warm until medical help arrives.
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• Consider trauma: is the person physically injured?
• If you see a person fainting, try to prevent a fall. Lay
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the person flat on the floor and raise the level of feet • Look for signs of infection: redness and/ or red streaks
above and support.
ish around a wound.
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• If fainting is likely due to low blood sugar, give the • Look around for signs of Poison: an empty bottle of
person something sweet to eat or drink when they pills or a snakebite wound.
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become conscious. • Consider the possibility of psychological trauma:

might the person have a psychological disorder of
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DO NOT some sort?

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• Do not give any food or drink of an unconscious • Consider stroke, particularly for elderly people.
person • Treat according to what you diagnose.
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• Do not leave the person alone.

Shock (Fig 3)
• Do not place a pillow under the head of an
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unconscious person.
• Do not slap an unconscious person's face or splash
water on the face and try to revive him.
Loss of consciousness may threaten life if the

person is on his back and the tongue has
dropped to the back of the throat, blocking
the airway. Make certain that the person is
breathing before looking for the cause of
unconsciousness. If the injuries permit, place
the casualty in the recovery position (Fig 2)
with the neck extended. Never give any thing
by mouth to an unconscious casualty.
E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) -Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.04 & 1.1.05 13
A severe loss of body fluid will lead to a drop in blood the product or touch the interior of the product.
pressure. Eventually the blood's circulation will
deteriorate and the remaining blood flow will be directed
to the vital organs such as the brain. Blood will therefore
be directed away from the outer area of the body, so the
victim will appear pale and the skin will feel ice cold.
As blood flow slows, so does the amount of oxygen Minor injury due to electric shock may occasionally
reaching the brain. The victim may appear to be occur. Do not touch the terminals while power is being
confused, weak, and dizzy and may eventually supplied.
deteriorate into unconsciousness. Try to compensate for
this lack of oxygen, the heart and breathing rates both
speed up, gradually becoming weaker, and may
eventually cease.
Potential causes of shock include: sever internal or

external bleeding; burns; severe vomiting and diarrohea,
especially in children and the elderly; problems with the
heart. Minor burns may occasionally occur. Do not touch the
product while power is beinng supplied or immediately
Symptoms of shock after power is turned OFF.
Victims appear pale, ice cold, pulse appear initially faster

and gets slower, breathing becomes shallow. Weakness,
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dizziness, confusion continue. If unattended the patient
may become unconscious and die.
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Shock kills, so it is vital that you can recognize these
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signs and symptoms. With internal bleeding in particular, Fire may occasionally occur. Tighten the terminal screws
shock can occur sometime after an accident, so if a with the specified torque.
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person with a history of injury starts to display these

symptoms coupled with any of the symptoms of internal
bleeding, advise them to seek urgent medical attention.
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Or take or send them to hospital.

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First aid
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Keep the patient warm and at mental rest. Assure of Minor electric shock, fire, or product failure may
good air circulation and comfort. Call for help to shift the occasionally occur. Do not allow any pieces of metal or
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patient to safer place/ hospital. conductors or any clippings or cuttings resulting from
installation work to enter the product.
• Warmth: Keep the victim warm but do not allow them
to get overheated. If you are outside, try to get
something underneath her if you can do easily. Wrap
blankets and coats around her, paying particular
attention to the head, through which much body heat
is lost.
Precautions for Safe Use
• Air: Maintain careful eye on the victim's airway and
be prepared to turn them into the recovery position if Input Voltage
necessary, or even to resuscitate if breathing stops.
Use a commercial power supply for the power supply
Try to keep back bystanders and loosen tight clothing
voltage input to models with AC inputs.
to allow maximum air to victim.
Inverters with an output frequency of 50/60 Hz are
• Rest: Keep the victim still and preferably sitting or
available, but the rise in the internal temperature of the
lying down. If the victim is very giddy, lay them down
power supply may result in ignition or burning. Do not use
with there legs raised to ensure that maximum blood
an inverter outpur for the power supply of the product.
and therefore maximum oxygen is sent to the brain.
Grounding
Power Failure
Connect the ground completely. Electric shock occur if te
Minor electric shock, fire, or product failure may the ground is not connected completely.
occasionally occur. Do not disassemble, modify, or repair
14 E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.04 & 1.1.05
Operating Environment Load
Use each product within the rated range for ambient Internal parts may possibly deteriorate or be damaged if
operating temperature, ambient operating humidity, and a short-circuited or over current state continues during
storage temperature specified for that product. operation.
Use the power supply within the ranges specifed for Charging a battery
vibration and shock reistance.
When connection a battery at the load, connect an
Do not use the power supply in locations subjects to overcurrent limiting circuit and overvoltage protection
excessive amount of dust or where liquids, foreign matter, circuit.and Ground connections
or corrosive gases may enter the interior of the product.
Output and Ground connections
Install the power supply well away from devices that
The power supply output is a floating output (i.e., the
produce strong, high-frequency noise and surge.
primary side and secondary side are separated). so the
Do not use the power supply in locations subject to direct output line (i.e., +V or -V) can be connected externally
sunlight. directly to a ground. Though the ground, however, the
insulation between the primary side and secondary side
Mounting
will be lost. Confirm that no loops are created in which the
The installation screws can be tightened into the power power supply output is short-circuited through the internal
supply only to a limited depth. Make sure that the lengths circuits of the load.
of the screws protruding into the power supply are within
Example: When the +V side of the power supply is
the specified dimensions.
connected directly to a ground and a load is used for
Wiring which the internal 0-V line uses the same ground.
Use caution when connecting the input cable to the power Fire safety
ed
supply.
Prepare before a fire:
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The power supply unit may be destroyed if the input cable
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is connected to the wrong terminals. Use caution when
Always familiarize yourself to “where you are” and be
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sure to know how to reach the two nearest exits.
using a model with a DC input. The power supply unit may
be destroyed if the polarity is reversed. Remember that in a fire situation, smoke is blinding and
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will bank down in the rooms and hallways. This condition

Do not apply more than 75-N force to the terminal block
may force you to crouch or crawl to escape to safety. By
when tightening the terminals.
always being aware of your surroundings, your knowledge
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Wiring materials of the nearest exits and having a plan will greatly increase
your ability to deal with sudden
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Use a wire size that suits the rated ouput current of the
power supply to be used in order to prevent smoking or If you are notified of, or discover a fire:
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ignition caused by abnormal loads.

• Move quickly to the nearest accessible exit.
Caution is particularly required if the output current from
• Notify, and assist others to evacuate along the way.
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one power supply is distributed to multiple loads. If thin

wiring is used to branch wiring, the power supply’s
overload protection circuit may fail to operate depending
• If the building fire alarm is not yet sounding, manually
on factors such as the impedence of the load wiring even activate the alarm pull station located near the exit.
the load is short-circuited. • Exit the building and proceed to the “ Area of gathering”
Therefore insertion of a fuse in the line or other protective
measures must be considered. Evacuation procedures for persons with mobility
issues:
Precautions against ingress of metal fragments
(Fillings) In the event of an actual emergency incident, persons
with mobility issues or who are unable to safely self-
Drilling on the upper section of an installed power supply evacuate should follow this procedure:
may cause drilling fragments to fall onto the PCB,
thereby short-circuiting and destroying the internal circuits. • Relocate to an entry to an evacuation stairwell, marked
Whether the power supply cover is attached or not, cover by a red exit sign.
the power supply with a sheet to prevent ingress of
fragments when performing work on the upper sector of
• Wait near the enclosed exit stairwell if there is no
the power supply. smoke or other threats to your safety. Most fire alarm
activations are brief, allowing occupants to return
Be sure to remove the sheet covering the power supply within a few minutes.
for machining before power-ON so that it does not
interface with heat dissipation. If smoke, fire, or other threat is imminent, move into the
stairwell:
E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.04 & 1.1.0515
• After the stairwell crowd has passed below your floor where the employees are not only at home with their work
level, enter the stairwell with assistant(s) and wait on but they enjoy the work and hence their work efficiency
the stair landing. Make sure that the door is securely gets a boost.
Housekeeping and cleanliness at workplace Good housekeeping and cleanliness normally results
Housekeeping and cleanliness at the workplace are into (i) a workplace which is cleaner, safer,well organized
closely linked to the industrial safety. the degree, to and more pleasant for work, (ii) improved utilization of
which these activities are effectively managed, is an floor space, (ii) smoother and systematic workflow with
indicator of the safety culture of the organization. House substantial reduction in non-value added activities, (iv)
keeping and cleanliness not only make the organization better inventory control of tools and materials, (v) reduced
a safer place to work in but also provide a big boost to the handling to ease the flow of materials, (vi) reduction in
image of the organization. These activities also (i) wastages of materials, (vii) more efficient equipment
improve efficiency and productivity, (ii) helps in clean-up and maintenance leading to lower break-downs,
maintaining good control over the processes, and (iii) (vii) minimization of errors leading to better products, (ix)
assist in maintaining the quality of the product. These safe environment for work and lower exposures of
important aspects of housekeeping and cleanliness are employees to hazardous substances (such as dusts, and
furnished below. vapours etc.), (x) more hygienic workplace conditions
which lead to improved health of the employees (xi)
improved overall look and feel of the work environment,
Housekeeping and cleanliness
Safe place to work

and (xii) improved morale of the employees. Poor
housekeeping and cleanliness, on the contrary, creates
Boost to the organizational image workplace hazards which lead to various accident such
as (i) slips, trips and falls, (ii) caught in-between objects,
Improve efficiency and productivity (iii) struck by falling objects, (iv) struck by moving objects.
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(v) cut/stabbed by objects, and (vi) struck against objects.
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Help in good control over the processes create fire hazards which inevitably lead to increased fire
risk.
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Assist in maintaining product quality Elements of housekeeping and cleanliness at

workplace
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The major elements which are normally included in the

There are several signs which reflect poor housekeeping housekeeping and cleanliness practices at the workplace
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and cleanliness at the workplace in the organization. are described below.

Some of these signs are (i) cluttered and poorly arranged
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work areas, (ii) untidy or dangerous storage of materials Dust and dirt removal - Working in a dusty and dirty area
(such as materials stuffed in corners and overcrowded is unhygienic as well unhealthy for the employees since
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shelves etc.), (iii) dusty and dirty floors and work surfaces, there can be respiratory type irritations.
(iv) items lying on the shop floor which are in excess or Flooring - Floors are to be cleaned regularly and
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no longer needed, (v) blocked or cluttered aisels and immediately if liquids or other materials are spilled. Poor
exits, (vi) tools and equipment left in work areas instead floor conditions are a leading cause of accidents in the
of being returned to proper storage places, (vii) broken workplace.
containers and damaged materials, (viii) overflowing
waste bins and containers, and (ix) spills and leaks etc. Lighting - Adequate lighting reduces the potential for
accidents. It is to be ensured that inoperative light
Housekeeping and cleanliness is crucial to a safe fixtures are repaired and dirty light fixtures are cleaned
workplace. It can help prevent injuries and improve regularly so that the light intensity levels are maintained
productivity and morale, as well as make a good imprint at the workplace.
on the people visiting the workplace. The importance of
good workplace housekeeping and cleanliness to the Aisles and stairways- Aisles and stairways are to be kept
overall operation is to be firmly planted in the clear and not to be used for storage.
consciousness if each employee since a clean, neat and Spill control-The best method to control spills is to
orderly workplace not only contributes to the health and prevent them from happening. Regular cleaning and
safety of the employees but also affects their morate and maintenance on machines and equipment is an essential
even the overall success of the organization. practice.
Housekeeping and cleanliness practices generally reflect Waste disposal-The regular collection of the waste
the attitude of the management towards healthy practices. materials contribute to good housekeeping and cleanliness
Good housekeeping and cleanliness reflects pride in the practices. Placing containers for wastes near the place
workplace, which signals that the organization has a where the waste is produced encourages orderly waste
healthy work culture. This is important since a healthy disposal and makes collection easier. All recyclable
work culture provides an environment at the workplace wastes after their collection are to be transferred to their
designated places so that the waste materials can be Maintenance - One of the most important elements of
dispatched to the point of use or sold. good housekeeping and cleanliness practices is the
maintenance of the equipment and the buildings housing
Tools and equipment - Tools and equipment are required
them.
to be inspected prior to their use. Damaged or worn tools
are to be taken out of service immediately. Tools are to Individual workspace - individual workspace need to be
be cleaned and returned to their storage place after use. kept neat, cleared of everything not needed for work.
Many workplace injuries occur right in the employee’s
workspace.
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E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.04 & 1.1.0517
Safety Practice - Fire extinguishers

• state the effects of a fire break out
• state the conditions required for combustion relevant to fire prevention
• state the general precautionary measures to be taken for fire prevention
• determine the correct type of fire extinguisher required for a particular function
• state environment, health and safety.
Fire disaster which not only leads to destruction of material

Fire is nothing but burning of a combustible material. but also endanger the life of persons. Hence, the lesson
For combustion the three main requirements are shown one must never forget is, keep the fire under control.
in Fig 1. Every effort must be made to prevent uncontrolled fire.
When there is a fire outbreak, it must be controlled and
extinguished immediately without any delay.
Preventing fire
The majority of fires begin with small outbreaks. If this is
not noticed, fire goes out of control and will be on its way
of destruction. Hence, most fires could be prevented if
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suitable care is taken by following some simple common
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Fuel
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waste, waste or cloth soaked with oil, scrap wood,
Fuel can be any combustible substance in the form of a paper, etc. in odd corners. These refuse should be in
solid, liquid or gas. Examples; wood, paper, petrol, kero- their collection bins or points.
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sene, LPG etc., The fuel will catch fire and burn provided – Do not misuse or neglect electrical equipments or
a high enough temperature(heat) is brought about and a electrical wiring as this may cause electrical fire.
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continuous supply of oxygen is given. It is important to Loose connections, low rated fuses, overloaded cir-
note that without fuel, combustion cannot take place. cuits causes over heating which may in turn lead to
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fire. Damaged insulation between conductors in

Heat
cables cause electrical short circuit and cause fire.
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Fuels will begin to burn at a certain temperature. Differ- – Keep away clothing and other materials which might
ent types of fuels need different temperatures to catch catch fire from heating appliances. Make sure the
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fire and burn. For example, wood needs a higher tem- soldering iron is disconnected from power supply and
perature to catch fire and burn than paper. Petrol needs is kept safe in its stand at the end of the working day.
much lesser temperature to catch fire and burn than – Store highly flammable liquids and petroleum mix-
paper. Generally liquid fuels give off vapour when tures such as thinner, adhesive solutions, solvents,
heated. It is this vapour which ignites. Some liquids such kerosene, spirit, LPG gas etc. in the storage area
as petrol do not have to be heated as they give off vapour exclusively meant for storage of flammable materials.
at room temperature (15oC - 25oC) itself. It is important – Turn off blowlamps and torches when they are not in use.
to note that without heat, fuel cannot get ignited(catch
fire) and hence combustion cannot take place. Controlling and Extinguishing fire
Oxygen Isolating or removing any of three factors illustrated in
Oxygen exists in air. The amount of oxygen in air is Fig1, will control and extinguish fire. There are three
sufficient to continue the combustion once it occurs. basic ways of achieving this.
Hence to keep a fire burning, oxygen is a must. It is 1 Starving the fire of fuel
important to note that without oxygen, combustion can- To remove the fuel which is burning or cut further
not continue to take place. supply of fuel to the fire.
Controlled and uncontrolled fire 2 Smothering
To stop the supply of oxygen to the fire by blanketing
Fire is a boon to mankind. Without fire, there would not be the fire with foam, sand etc.
cooked food or hot water for bath as and when we want it. 3 Cooling
At the same time if the fire does not get constrained to To reduce the temperature of the fire by spraying
a place of requirement, fire can become a bane(curse) water and thus cooling the fire.
to mankind. An uncontrolled fire can cause such a
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By any one of the above three methods, fire can be first
controlled and then extinguished.
For the purpose of determining the best method of extinguishing different types of fires, fires are classified
under four main classes based on the type of fuel as given in Table 1.
TABLE 1
Classification of Fire Fuel involved Precautions and extinguishing
Class A Fire Wood, paper cloth etc. Most effective method is cooling with water.
Solid materials Jets of water should be sprayed on the base
Class B Fire Flammable liquids & Should be smothered. The aim is to cover
liquefiable solids the entire surface of the burning liquid. This
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has the effect of cutting off the supply of
oxygen to the fire.
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liquids.
Foam, dry powder or CO2 may be used
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on this type of fire.

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Class C Fire Gas and liquefied gas Extreme caution is necessary in dealing
withliquefied gases. There is a risk of
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explosion and sudden outbreak of fire in the

entire vicinity. If an appliance fed from a
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cylinder catches fire -shut off the supply of

gas. The safest course is to raise an alarm
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and leave the fire to be dealt with by trained

personnel.
Dry powdered extinguishers are used on
this type of fire.
Class D Fire Involving metals The standard range of fire extinguishing

agents is inadequate or dangerous when
dealing with metal fires.
Fire in electrical equipment:
Carbon -di-oxide, dry powder, and
vapourising liquid(CTC) extinguishers can
be used to deal with fires in electrical
equipment.
Foam or liquid (eg. water) extinguishers

must not be used on electrical equipment
at all.

Fire extinguishers (ii) Foam extinguishers
These may be stored pressure or gas cartridge types as
Different fire extinguishing agents should be used for
shown in Fig 4.
different types of fires as listed in Table 1. Using a wrong
type of extinguishing agent can make things worse.
A fire extinguishing agent is the material or substance
used to put out the fire. These extinguishing materials
are usually (but not always) contained in a container
called the ‘fire extinguisher’ with a mechanism for spray-
ing into the fire when needed.
There is no classification for electrical fires as these
are only fires in materials where electricity is present. To
control electrical fire in a building the electrical supply
should be cut off first.
Most suitable for:
Types of fire extinguishers
– flammable liquid fires
Many types of fire extinguishers are available with – running liquid fires.
different extinguishing agents to deal with different
classes of fires as shown in Fig 2. Always check the Not to be used in fires where electrical equipment is
operating instructions on the extinguisher before use. involved.
(iii) Dry powder extinguishers
Extinguishers fitted with dry powder may be of the gas
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cartridge or stored pressure type as shown in Fig 5.
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Appearance and the method of operation is the same as
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the fork-shaped nozzle. Powders have been specially
developed to deal with Class D fires.
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(i) Water-filled extinguishers

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In water-filled extinguishers, as shown in Fig 3, there are

two types based on the method of operating the extin-
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guisher.
a Cartridge type
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b Stored pressure type
iv) Carbon-di-oxide (CO2)

This type is easily distinguished by the distinctively
shaped discharge horn as shown in Fig 6. These
extinguishers are suitable for fires on flammable liquids
and liquefiable solids. Best suited where contamination
by deposits must be avoided. Not generally effective in
the open air.
In both the methods of operation, the discharge can be

interrupted as required. This is to conserve the contact
area and to prevent unnecessary damage to the material
due to water.

v) Halon Extinguishers (Fig 7) If you are taking instructions,
Carbontetrachloride(CTC) and Bromochlorodifluoro – follow the instructions systematically. Do not be
methane (BCF). They may be either gas cartridge or non- panic. Do not get trapped in fire or smoke in a
conductive. hurry.
If you are giving instructions,
– assess the class of fire(class A,B,C or D)
– send for sufficient assistance and fire brigade
– judge the magnitude of the fire. Locate locally
available suitable means to put-out the fire.
– ensure emergency exit paths are clear of ob-
structions. Attempt to evacuate the people and
explosive materials, substances that can serve as
further fuel for fire within the vicinity of the fire
break.
– Allot clear activity to persons involved in
The fumes given off by these extinguishers firefighting by name to avoid confusion.
are dangerous especially in confined space. – Control and extinguish the fire using the right
type of fire extinguisher and making use of the
General procedure to be adopted in the event of a available assistance effectively.
fire 5 After fully extinguishing the fire, make a report of the
1 Raise a loud alarm by using any of the following. fire accident and the measures taken to put out the
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fire, to the authorities concerned.
Adopt any one method of giving an alarm signal for
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fire breaking in your institute/ workshop.
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– Raising your voice and shouting Fire! Fire!Fire!
Reporting all fires however small they are,
helps in the investigation of the cause of the
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.... to call the attention of others. fire. It helps in preventing the same kind of
– Running towards the fire shouting Fire! Fire! accident occurring again.
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and actuate fire alarm/bell/siren. This alarm/bell/ Environment, health and safety (EHS) : is a discipline
siren to be actuated only in case of fire. and specialty that studies and implements practical
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– Any other means by which the attention of aspects of environmental protection and safety at work.
others can be called and are made to understand In simple terms it is what organizations must do to make
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there is a fire break out. sure that their activities do not cause harm to anyone.
2 On receipt of the fire alarm signal, do the following:
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Regulatory requirements play an important role in EHS

– stop the normal work you are doing discipline and EHS managers must identify and
understand relevant EHS regulations, the implications of
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– turn OFF the power for all machinery and

which must be communicated to executive management
equipments
so the company can implement suitable measures.
– switch OFF fans/air circulators/exhaust fans Organizations based in the United states are subject to
– switch OFF the mains if accessible. EHS regulations in the code of federal regulations
particularly CFR 29,40, and 49. Still, EHS management
3 If you are not involved in fire fighting team, then,
is not limited to legal compliance and companies should
– evacuate the working premises be encouraged to do more than is required by law, if
– close the doors and windows, but do not lock or appropriate.
bolt From a health and safety standpoint, it involves creating
– assemble at a safe open place along with the organized efforts and procedures for identifying workplace
others hazards and reducing accidents and exposure to harmful
– if you are in the room/place where the fire has situations and substances. It also includes training of
broken out, leave the place calmly through the personnel in accident prevention, accident response,
emergency exit. emergency preparedness, and use of protective clothing
and equipment.
4 If you are involved in the fire fighting team,
From an environmental standpoint, it involves creating a
– take instructions/give instructions for an organ- systematic approach to complying with environmental
ized way of fighting the fire. regulations, such as managing waste or air emissions all
the way to helping site’s reduce the company’s carbon
footprint.

Sucessful HSE programs also include measures to 3. Community healthy and safety
address ergonomics, air quality, and other aspects of
workplace safety that could affect the health and well- • Water quality and availability
being of employees and the overall community. • Structural safety of project infrastructure
Environment guide lines
• Life and fire safety (L&FS)
1. Environmental
• Traffic safety
• Air emissions and ambient air quality
• Transport of hazardous materials
• Energy conservation
• Disease prevention
• Wastewater and ambient water quality
• Emergency preparedness and response
• Water conservation
4. Construction and decommissioning
• Hazardous materials management
• Environment
• Waste management
• Occupational health and safety
• Noise
• Community health and safety
• Contaminated land
2. Occupational health and safety
• General facility design and operation
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• Communication and training
• Physical hazards bl I
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• Chemical hazards ish
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• Biological hazards
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• Radiological hazards
• Personal protective equipment (PPE)
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• Special hazards environments

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• Monitoring
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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.07 - 1.1.09
Basic hand tools

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• name the types of screwdrivers
• state what should be the width and thickness of the tip
• state the effect of improper width and thickness of the tip
• list the parts of a combination plier and their uses
• state the uses of diagonal cutters
• state the uses of nose pliers and their types
• state the uses of tweezers and their types.
Basic Hand tools shaped and matches the size of the slot as shown in Fig 3.
There are innumerable types of hand tools used for

different types of work. Some of the basic tools which are
a must for a mechanic electronics are dealing in are :
– screwdrivers
– pliers, and
– tweezers.
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Screwdrivers
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A screwdriver is a tool used to tighten or loosen screws.
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A simple screwdriver and its parts are shown in Fig 1.

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A flat screwdriver tip should be slightly hollow ground.

With such a shape its turning force is exerted at the
bottom of the slot which keeps the tip in the slot when
turning a screw.
Fig 4 shows a flat screwdriver tip which is slightly tapered.

Its turning force is exerted at the top of the slot causing
When a screwdriver is used to tighten or loosen screws.

The blade axis of a screwdriver must be linked up with
that of the screw axis as shown in Fig 2. If this is not taken
care of, the screwdriver tip/screw head/threads in the
hole will get damaged.
In order not to damage the slot and/or the tip of the

screwdriver, it is very important that the tip is correctly
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the tip to be lifted out of the slot. When turning a screw
downward pressure has to be exerted on the screwdriver
in order to keep the tip in the slot.
It is important that the width and thickness of a flat

screwdriver tip correspond to the dimensions of the slot
it is used with. Its width should be slightly less than the
length of the slot and its thickness should be almost equal
to the width of the slot as shown in Fig 5.
Screwdrivers are available in many sizes, ranging from

blade lengths from 25 mm to 300 mm and widths of tips
ranging from 0,5 mm to 18 mm.
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A tip which is too narrow as shown in Fig 6 will exert its Length of blade L and Length of tip W
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turning force close to the centre of the screw, causing
damage to the slot and to the tip.
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the blade and the width of the tip of a screwdriver. A

screwdriver with a 6 mm wide tip can have blade lengths
ranging from 25 to 250 mm. It can also have various
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forms of handles as shown in Fig 10.

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A tip which is too thin might get twisted when the

screwdriver is turned as shown in Fig 7.
There are, however, screwdrivers which are made to an

industrial specification such as DIN, ISI etc. These
screwdrivers have fixed dimensions and for each size of
screwdriver the width of its tip and the length of its blade
A flat tip which is too wide might cause damage to the is specified as shown in Fig 11.
workpiece as shown in Fig.8a and 8b.
Fig 12 shows a Phillips cross-type screwdriver tip. It is
Screwdrivers with flat tips are specified in size by the used to tighten and loosen screws with a Phillips cross-
length of their blade and by the width of their tip as shown type recess.
in Fig 9. These dimensions are given in millimetres
(mm).
24 E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.07 to 1.1.09
– shaping and bending light sheet metal parts,
– forming, bending, twisting and cutting small diameter
wires.
Pliers consist basically of a pair of LEGS which are joined
by a PIVOT as shown in Fig 13. Each leg consists of a
long HANDLE and a short JAW.
If the legs of the pliers are crossed at the pivot, the jaws
will CLOSE when pressure is applied to the handles as
shown in Fig 13b. In some pliers the jaws will close when
pressure is applied to the handles as shown in Fig 13c.
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Using a screwdriver
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The general procedure for using a screwdriver is given
below.
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– Select a suitable screwdriver having the required

blade length, width of tip and thickness of tip.
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– Check that the tip of the screwdriver is flat and square.

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Worn out tips tend to slip off while turning and

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may cause injury. Pliers have SERRATED or PLAIN JAWS as shown in

Fig14 a. Surrogated jaws offer a better grip on the
– Make sure your hands and the screwdriver handle are
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workpiece. Serrated jaws might, however, damage the

dry and free from grease. surface of the workpiece. In this case protection sleeves
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– Hold the screwdriver with the axis in line with the axis or pliers with non-serrated jaws as shown in Fig 14b
of the screw. should be used.
– Guide the blade with one hand as shown in Fig 23. Set
the tip of the screwdriver in the screw slot.
– Be sure of the direction in which the screwdriver is to
be twisted. Twist the handle gently and steadily.
Do not apply too much pressure in the axial

direction of the screw. This may damage the
screw threads.
Never try to use a screwdriver as a lever; this Pliers are made from high quality steel. In many cases
could break the tip or bend the blade and make pliers are CHROMIUM PLATED to protect them against
the screwdriver unusable. rust. In climates with a high degree of humidity it is
advisable to use such pliers as they will last longer and
Pliers
need less maintenance.
Pliers are tools which are used for:
To keep pliers in good working condition, they should be
kept clean, the metal parts should be wiped with an oily
– holding, gripping, pulling and turning small parts and
piece of cloth and, from time to time, a drop of oil should
components,
be applied to the pivots and joints.
E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.07 to 1.1.09 25
Diagonal cutter plier
Fig 15 shows DIAGONAL CUTTING PLIERS or SIDE

CUTTING PLIERS.
End cutting plier

Fig 19 shows END-CUTTING PLIERS or END NIPPERS
They are used for cutting small diameter wires and and their applications.
cables, especially when they are close to terminals as
shown in Fig 16. They are used to cut small diameter wires, pins, nails and
to remove nails from wood.
End cutting pliers are made in the following overall
lengths:
130, 160, 180, 200, 210 and 240 mm.
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They are also used to remove the sheath and insulation

from cables and cords as shown in Fig 17.
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Flat nose pliers
Fig 20 shows a FLAT NOSE PLIERS and its applications.

They can also be used for other operations such as
splitting and removing cotter pins as shown in Fig 18. They are used to form and shape wires and small pieces
of metal.
Diagonal cutting pliers are made in the following overall
lengths: They are also used for other operations such as removing
the metal sheath from cables, or gripping and holding
100, 125, 140, 160, 180 and 200 mm. small parts.(Fig.20)
Flat nose pliers are made in the following overall lengths: Round nose pliers are made to the following overall
lengths:
100, 120, 140, 160, 180 and 200 mm.
100, 120, 140, 160, 180 and 200 mm.
Long nose pliers
Fig 22 shows a LONG NOSE PLIERS and its applications.

These pliers are made with straight and curved jaws.
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Round nose pliers
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Fig 21 shows ROUND NOSE PLIERS and its applications. areas.

They are used to form curves in wires and light metal
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strips. The conical shape of the jaws makes it possible to They are also used to adjust fine wires, contacts and
form curves and circles of various dimensions. other parts.
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They are also used to form eyelets in wires to fit terminal Long nose pliers are made with many differently shaped
screws, and to hold small parts. jaws as shown in Fig 23. Long nose pliers are available
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in the following overall lengths:160, 180, 200 and 220

mm.
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Combination pliers
Fig 24 shows a COMBINATION PLIERS and its appli-

cation. A number of operations can be performed with
these pliers.
The FLAT GRIP can be used to grip and hold parts and
components and to twist wires.
Many combination pliers also have a PIPE GRIP which

is used to grip and hold cylindrical objects.
They also have a pair of SIDE CUTTERS which are used

to cut small diameter wires and cables.
These pliers are available with straight and curved jaws
in the following dimensions.
Size Overall Used with circlips

length shaft diameter of
0 130 mm 3 - 10 mm
1 130 mm 8 - 25 mm
2 170 mm 19 - 60 mm
3 230 mm 40 - 100 mm
4 320 mm 85 - 165 mm
Circlip pliers for internal circlips
Fig 26 shows CIRCLIP PLIERS for INTERNAL CIRCLIPS.

By applying pressure to the handles of the pliers, the jaws
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will compress the circlip which can then be removed from
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the workpiece.
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Circlip pliers for internal circlips
Fig 26 shows CIRCLIP PLIERS for INTERNAL CIRCLIPS.

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By applying pressure to the handles of the pliers, the jaws

will compress the circlip which can then be removed from
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the workpiece.
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These pliers are also available with straight and curved

jaws in the following dimensions.
Size Overall Used with circlips
length shaft diameter of
0 130 mm 3 - 10 mm
A pair of JOINT CUTTERS are provided for shearing off 0 130 mm 3 - 10 mm

steel wires. 1 130 mm 8 - 25 mm
Combination pliers are available in the following overall 2 170 mm 19 - 60 mm

lengths: 140, 160, 190, 210 and 250 mm. 3 230 mm 40 - 100 mm
Circlip pliers for external circlip 4 320 mm 85 - 165 mm
Fig 25 shows a CIRCLIP PLIER for EXTERNAL Pliers used by electrician

CIRCLIPS. The prongs of the jaws are inserted into the
holes of the circlip. By applying pressure to the handles A number of pliers, especially diagonal cutting pliers,
of the pliers, the jaws will expand the circlip which can combination pliers, flat nose pliers, round nose pliers
then be removed or moved onto the workpiece. and long nose pliers, are frequently used by electricians.
As an additional safeguard against electric shock, these The thin structure of the tweezers permits easy access to
pliers are available with insulated handles made of high places where fingers cannot reach. Tweezers are very
quality rubber or plastic as shown in Fig 27. useful during soldering of wires, components and placing
of small screws in interior places.
Engineer’s steel rule

An engineer’s steel rule is the basic and most commonly
used measuring tool for measuring and drawing the
length of straight lines. A typical engineer’s steel rule is
shown in Fig 29.
Before you work with electrical installations

or electrical appliances, they have to be
disconnected from the electrical supply.
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Working with live parts of an electrical
installation or appliance can INJURE or KILL
bl I Steel rules are made of spring steel or stainless steel.
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you, and it might seriously damage the
The edges are accurately ground to form a straight line.
installation and equipment.
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The surfaces of steel rules are satin-chrome finished to
Tweezers reduce glaring effect while reading, and also to prevent
rusting.
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Tweezers are used to hold light weight and very small

components and very thin wires/strands. Tweezers are Graduation on engineer’s steel rule
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classified according to the shape of the tip and are The engineer’s steel rules are generally graduated both
specified by their length and shape. Fig 28 shows different in centimetres and inches as can be seen in Fig 29. In
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types of tweezers. centimetre graduations, the smallest graduations are at

intervals of 0.5 mm. In inch graduations the smallest
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graduation is of 1/16 of an inch. Thus the maximum

reading accuracy of a steel rule is either 0.5 mm or 1/16
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of an inch.
Standard sizes
Steel rules are available in different lengths. The com-
mon sizes are 150 mm/6inches, 300 mm/12 inches and
600 mm/24 inches.
Scriber
A scriber is a pointed, sharp tool made of steel or carbon
steel as shown in Fig 30. There are two types of scribers,
namely,
– Plain scribers
– Double end scribers
Uses of scribers
Scribers are used for scribing(marking) lines on surfaces
prior to cutting. Scribers are generally used for marking
on such surfaces on which pencil marking cannot be
made or pencil marking is not clearly visible or pencil
marking gets erased while handling or pencil marking is
too thick. For example pencil marking is not suitable on
Hylam or Bakelite sheets. Hence, line markings are done
on these boards using scribers.
A typical way of marking/scribing using a scriber is shown
in Fig 31.
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Hacksaw frame and blade

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Fig 32 shows a typical hacksaw frame fitted with a blade.

A hacksaw is used to cut metallic sheets or sections. It is
also used to cut slots and contours.
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Types of hacksaw frames

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BOLD FRAME: In this, the frame width is fixed and

cannot be altered. Because of this only a particular
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standard length of hacksaw blade can be fitted with these

frames.
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ADJUSTABLE FRAME (FLAT): In this, the frame is

made of flat metal with provision for adjusting the width
of the frame. Hence, different standard lengths of blades
can be fitted with this frame.
ADJUSTABLE FRAME TUBULAR TYPE: In this, the
frame is made of tubular metal with provision for adjusting
the width of the frame. Hence, different standard lengths
of blades can be fitted with this frame. This is the most
Punch
commonly used type of hacksaw frame because this
frame gives better grip and control while sawing. A punch is a tool used to make punch marks or light
depressions at locations to be drilled or to position
Hacksaw blades dividers or for making permanent dimensional features.
A hacksaw blade is a thin, narrow, steel band with teeth A typical punch is shown in Fig 34. Punches are made of
and two pin holes at the ends as shown in Fig 33. These hardened steel with a narrow tip on one side.
blades are made of either low alloy steel (la) or high
speed steel (hs). Hacksaw blades are available in standard
lengths of 250 mm and 300 mm.
30 E&H Electronic Mechanic Related (NSQF - 5) - Theory for Exercise 1.1.07 to 1.1.09
The two main types of punches are shown in Fig 35.
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These punches have an angle of 900 at

Centre punch:These
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the punch point. The punch mark made by this angle will
be wide but not very deep. These punch marks give a
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good seating for the drill bit at the start of drilling as

shown in Fig36c. If one tries to drill at a point without a
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punch mark, the drill bit will slip away from the point to be
drilled and may drill a hole at unwanted points, making
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the job a waste.

Prick punch:The angle of the prick punch is 300or 600as
shown in Fig 35. The 300 point prick punch is used for
marking light punch marks needed to position dividers.
The divider leg will get proper seating in this punch mark.
The 600 punch is used for witness marks.
Hammer
An engineer’s hammer is a hand tool used for striking
purposes like punching, bending, straightening, chip-
ping, forging, riveting etc.,
Parts of a hammer
Fig 37 shows a typical hammer with the parts labeled.
Using hammers
Before using a hammer,
– select a hammer with the correct weight suitable for
the job
– make sure the handle is properly fitted
– check the head and handle for any cracks
– ensure that the face of the hammer is free from oil or
grease.
Drilling and drilling machines

Drilling is a process of making straight holes in materials.
The head is made of drop-forged carbon steel. The To drill holes, a machine tool known as drilling machine
handle is generally made of such materials which can is used. Drilling machines are used with twist drill bits.
absorb the shock while striking. Wood is most popularly These drill bits rotate and penetrate into the material
used as the material for the handle. making holes. The drilling machines can be manually
Face: The face of the hammer is that which strikes the driven or electrically driven. A drilling machine can be
objects. Hence, this portion is hardened. Slight convexity portable/hand held or mounted on a stand. A typical
is given to the face to avoid digging of the face edges. manually driven, hand held drilling machine most
commonly used in small electronics work is shown in Fig
Pein: The pein is the other end of the head. It is used for 40a. Fig 40b illustrates a portable power drilling machine.
shaping and forming work like riveting and bending. The
pein can be of different shapes like ball pein, cross pein
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and straight pein as shown in Fig 38. The pein of a
hammer is also hardened is the face.
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Cheek: The cheek is the middle portion of the hammer-

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head. The weight of the hammer is stamped here. This

portion of the hammer head will be soft.
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Eyehole: The eyehole is meant for fixing the handle. It

is shaped to fit the handle rigidly. Wedges are used to fix
the handle in the eyehole as shown in Fig 39.
Specification of engineers hammer

Engineer’s hammers are specified by their weight and
the shape of the pein. Their weight varies from 125 gms
to several kilo grams.
Generally, the weight of an engineer’s hammer, used for
marking purposes is 250 gms.
The hand drill is used for drilling holes up to 6.5 mm

diameter.
Electric drilling machines are used where higher drilling
speed and fairly constant speed is required. Holes can be
drilled faster and with higher accuracy using electric
drilling machines. Portable electric drilling machines are
available in 6 mm and 12 mm capacity. These drilling
machines generally operate on 230 V, 50 Hz AC mains
supply.
Twist drill/drill bit

Twist drills are used in drilling processes to form round Speeds of drills
holes in solid materials. When a drill is rotated and the
rotating drill is pressed against the material, the drill As shown in Fig 43, the outer corner of a drill bit is the
penetrates and cuts away the material. The rate at which most hard-worked part of the cutting lip. For example, in
the drill is pressed through the material is called the one revolution the outer corner cuts through twice as
‘feed’. much metal as the mid-point of the cutting lip.
PARTS OF A DRILL
Fig 41 shows the different parts of a twist drill.
Shank: Shank is that portion of the drill by which it is held
and driven by the drilling machine. Many different types
of shanks are available, but two of the most common
types of shanks are shown in Fig 42.
Taper shank drills: These are available in sizes from 12
mm to 52 mm in diameter. The shank has a self-holding
ed
taper which fits into a sleever or the taper bore of the
drilling machine.
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Straight shank drills: These types of drills are more The cutting speed for a particular material is expressed
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commonly used than taper shank drills. The shank has the in feet per minute or in metres per minute.
same diameter as the body of the drill. These drills are
The recommended speed for a drill is the ideal cutting
available in sizes from 0.35 mm to 16 mm in diameter.
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speed for the outer corners of its lips. You should be able
Body: The body extends from the shank to the cutting to select the revolutions per minute of the drilling machine
end(point). Generally, the body shape of most drills is the that will give this cutting speed at the circumference of
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same, but some special shapes may be necessary for the drill.
special tasks. It has two helical grooves called flutes
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General Rules
which run along its sides. The flutes help:
If you do not have tables of speeds and feeds to guide
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– to form the cutting edges

you, remember these general rules.
– to curl the chips and allow them to come out
– The smaller the drill, the higher the r.p.m.
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– to allow the coolant to flow to the cutting edge.

– The softer the metal, the greater the feed.
Drill point: The conical shape of the cutting edge is
– The harder the metal, the smaller the feed.
ground to suit the material to be cut. A typical drill point
is shown on Fig 42. This is the sharpened end of the drill – The harder the metal, the lower the r.p.m.
and has a number of different parts. – Soluble oil is a suitable cutting fluid for cooling the drill
while drilling for most common metals-other than cast
iron, which is best drilled dry.
Files
A file is a cutting tool with multiple cutting edges used for
filing different materials. Filing in one of the processes
used to cut/remove small quantities of materials.
PARTS OF A FILE
Fig 44 illustrates the main parts of a typical file.
Double cut: A double cut file has rows of teeth in two
directions across each other at an angle of 50° to 60°,
another row at 75°. These files are used to file hard
materials such as steel, brass, bronze, etc.
Rasp cut: This has individual, sharp, pointed teeth in a
line, and is useful for filing wood, leather and other soft
materials. These files are available in half-round and
round shape.
Curved cut: These files have deeper cutting action, and
are useful for filing soft materials like aluminum, tin,
File specification
copper and plastic. These are available only in flat shape.
Files are specified according to their:
The selection of the type of cut of a file is based on the
– length material to be filed. Single cut files are used for filing soft
– grade materials. But certain special files, for example - those
– cut used for sharpening saws, are also of single cut.
– shape.
Shapes of files: Various shapes of files with their
Length is the distance from the tip to the heel. It varies application are shown in Fig 46.
form 100mm to 300mm.
Grade: Different grades of files are Rough, bastard,
second cut, smooth and dead smooth.
Rough file is used for removing more quantity of metal
ed
quickly.
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Bastard file is used for ordinary filing purposes.
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Second cut file is used for good finishing purposes.
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Smooth file is used for removing less metal and for giving
good surface finish.
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Dead smooth file is used for high degree finishing.

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Cut of file
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The rows of teeth on the file surface indicate the cut of

a file. For example, if there is single row of teeth on the
file surface as shown in Fig 45, it is called ‘single cut file.’
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Types of cut
The different types of cut of files are:-
– Single cut,
– Double cut,
– Rasp cut, and
– Curved cut.
Single cut: A single cut file has a single row of teeth in
one direction on the face of the file at an angle of 60°.
These files are used for filing soft materials such as lead,
tin, aluminum etc.
Fitting and sheet metal

• state the types of sheets
• state the names of cutting tools
• define riveting and name the types of rivets.
Cutting And bending of sheet metal Brass sheet: Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc in
Almost all sheet metal industries use large quantities of various proportions. It will not corrode and is extensively
steel rolled into sheets of various thicknesses. These used in craft.
sheets are sometimes coated with zinc, tin or other
SNIPS - SHEET METAL CUTTING TOOLS
metals for various applications. Other than steel sheets,
industries also use sheets made out of zinc, copper, A snip is a cutting tool used for cutting thin sheets of
aluminum, stainless steel etc. metal. A typical snip looks as shown in Fig 1 and 3.
The term sheet metal generally applies to metals and There are three types of snips.
alloys rolled into sheets of various thicknesses of less
1 Straight snips
than 5 mm. Sheets of thickness over 5 mm are called
plates. 2 Bent snips/curved snips
3 Universal snips
Earlier, sheets were specified by standard wire
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gauge(SWG) numbers. Each gauge is designated with a
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definite thickness.The larger the gauge number, the
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lesser is the thickness of the sheet. Nowadays, the sheet
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thickness is directly specified in millimetres(mm), such
as 0.40 mm, 0.50 mm, 0.63 mm, 0.80 mm, 0.90 mm, 1.00
mm, 1.12 mm, 1.25 mm etc.
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Types of sheets
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Steel sheet: This is an uncoated sheet of mild steel

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having bluish-black appearance. The use of this metal is

limited to articles that are to be painted or enameled.
A typical straight snip and its parts are shown in Fig 1.
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Galvanized iron sheet: The zinc-coated iron sheets are

1 Handle 2 Blade 3 Stopper
known as galvanized iron sheets, popularly known as GI
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sheets. The zinc coating resists rust. These are most Straight snips have straight blades for cutting thin sheets
commonly used in making water pipes. Articles like pans,
buckets, furnaces, cabinets are also made using GI
sheet.
Copper sheets: Copper sheets are available either as
cold-rolled or hot-rolled sheets. Cold-rolled sheets are
worked easily and are used in sheet metal shops. Gut-
ters, roof flashing and hoods are common examples
where copper sheet is used.
Aluminium sheets: Aluminium sheets are highly resistive
to corrosion, whitish in colour and light in weight. Since along a straight line as shown in Fig 2a. It can also be
aluminium is a ductile material, it can be bent to any used for external curved cuts as shown in Fig 2b.
shape easily. Aluminium sheets are widely used in Bent snips/curved snips
manufacturing of a number of articles such as household
Bent snips have curved blades as shown in Fig 3a. These
utensils, light fixtures, windows etc.
snips are used for cutting internal curves and for trimming
Tin sheets: Tin sheet is a sheet of iron coated with tin to a cylinder on the outside of the cut as shown in Fig 3b.
protect the iron sheet against rust. The size and thickness
of the tin sheets are denoted by special marks, not by
gauge numbers.
Tinned sheets are used for food containers, dairy equip-
ment, furnace fitting etc.
35
Angle steel: As shown in Fig 5a, two pieces of angles are
used for folding sheet metal to an angle of 90o. These
angles are fitted on a vice with the sheet metal to be bent
sandwiched between the angles as shown in Fig 5b. For
longer sheets, lengthy angles will be used along with a
clamp or hand vice as shown in Fig 5c.
Folding bars: The sheet metal to be bent is clamped in
the folding bars. The folding bars are clamped in the vice
as shown in the Fig 6. The sheet metal is bent to the
required shape using a mallet (wooden hammer).
Fig 4 shows a universal snip. Universal snips are used for

most general purpose works. The best size of snip for
general use is a pair of 300 mm long.
FOLDING TOOLS C - clamp: A typical C-clamp shown in Fig.7 is used
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Tools commonly used in the folding of sheet metal are: as a holding device. This clamp is used when two
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–
–
angle steel
folding bar ish another. It is available in different sizes according
to the opening width of the jaws.
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– C clamp
– stakes
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– mallet.
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Stakes: Stakes are tools used for bending, seaming

and forming of sheet metal that cannot be done on any
regular machine. For the above purposes, different
shapes of stakes as listed below and shown in Fig 8 are
used. Stakes are made of soft or cast steel.
– Hatchet stake
– Square stake
– Blow-horn square stake
– Bevel-edge square stake
Hatchet stake: It is used for making sharp bends, for
bending edges and for folding sheet metal.
Square stake: It is used for general purpose bending
works.
Blow-horn stake: It is used in forming, riveting or
seaming tapered, cone-shaped articles, such as funnels
etc. Uses: Rivets are used for joining metal sheets and plates
in fabrication work, such as bridges, ships, cranes,
Bevel-edged square stake: It is used to form corners structural steel work, boilers, aircraft and in various other
and edges. works.
Mallet Material: In riveting, the rivets are secured by deforming
Fig 9 shows a mallet. A mallet is used for striking while the shank to form the head. These are made of ductile
bending sheet metals. Mallets are made of wood, rubber, materials like low carbon steel, brass, copper and alu-
copper etc. Since these are soft materials, they will not minium.
damage the sheet surface while working.
Types of rivets (Fig 12)
The four most common types of rivets are:

• tinmen's rivet
• flat head rivet
• round head rivet
ed
• countersunk head rivet.
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NOTCHES
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Notches are angular spaces in which the sheet metal is

removed as shown in Fig 10. The purpose of making Each rivet consists of a head and a cylindrical body called
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notches is to allow the work to be formed to the required as shank. (Fig 13)
size and shape as shown in Fig 10. Notches prevent
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excess material from overlapping and causing a bulge at

the seam and edges.
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Method of riveting: Riveting may be done by hand or by

machine.
While riveting by hand, it can be done with a hammer and

a rivet set.
Rivet set: A cross-section of a rivet set is shown in the

figure 14a, b and c. The shallow, cup-shaped hole is used
Riveting: Riveting is one of the satisfactory methods to draw the sheet and the rivet together. The outlet on the
of making permanent joints of two pieces - metal side allows the slug to drop out.
snips. (Fig 11)
The cup shape is used for forming the rivet head.
It is customary to use rivets of the same metal as that of
the parts that are being joined. The rivet set selected should have a hole slightly larger
than the diameter of the rivet.
E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.10 - 1.1.13 37
The minimum distance between the rivets (pitch) should
be sufficient to allow the rivets to be driven without
interference. The distance should be atleast three times
the thickness of the sheet or above.
The maximum distance should never exceed 24 times

the thickness of the sheet. Otherwise buckling will take
place as shown in Fig 16.
Spacing of rivets: The space or distance from the edge

of the metal to the centre of any rivet should be atleast
twice the diameter of the rivet to avoid tearing. The `Lap'
distance (4D) is shown in Fig 15.
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Electronic Mechanic - Basic Electricity
Electrical terms
• describe electrical charge, potential difference, voltage, current, resistance
• explain about DC and AC circuit
• explain single phase and 3 phase A.C. system
Electric charge NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE POLARITIES

Charge is the basic property of elementary particles of Negative polarity has been assigned to the static charge
matter. Charge is taken as the basic electrical quantity produced on rubber, amber, and resinous materials in
to define other electrical quantities such as voltage, general. Positive polarity refers to the static charge
current etc. produced on glass and other vitreous materials. On this
basis, the electrons in all atoms are the basic particles of
According to modern atomic theory, the nucleus of an negative charge because their polarity is the same as the
atom has positive charge because of protons. Generally, charge on rubber. Protons have positive charge because
when the word charge is used in electricity, it means the polarity is the same as the charge on glass.
excess or deficiency of electrons.
Positive charge is denoted by +Q (deficiency of elec-
Charges may be stationary or in motion. Stationary trons) and Negative charge is denoted by -Q (excess of
charges are called static charge. The analysis of static electrons). A neutral condition is considered zero charge.
ed
charges and their forces is called electrostatics.
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Opposite polarity/charges attract each other
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Example: If a hard rubber pen or a comb is rubbed on a
sheet of paper, the rubber will attract paper pieces. The If two small charged bodies of light weight are mounted
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work of rubbing, resulted in separating electrons and so that they are free to move easily and are placed close
protons to produce a charge of excess electrons on the to each other, they get attracted to each other when the
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surface of the rubber and a charge of excess protons on two charges have opposite polarity as shown in Fig 2a.
the paper. The paper and rubber give evidence of a In terms of electrons and protons, they tend to be
attracted to each other by the force of attraction between
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static electric charge having electrons or protons in a

static state i.e. not in motion or stationary charges. opposite charges. Furthermore, the weight of an electron
is only about 1/1840 of the weight of a proton. As a result,
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The motion of charged particles in any medium is called the force of attraction tends to make electrons move
current.. The net transfer of charge per unit time is called towards protons.
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current measured in ampere.

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Charge of billions of electrons or protons is necessary for

common applications of electricity. Therefore, it is con-
venient to define a practical unit called the coulomb (C)
as equal to the charge of 6.25 x 1018 electrons or protons
stored in a dielectric, as shown in Fig 1.
Same polarity/charges repel each other

In Fig 2b, it is seen that when the two bodies have an
equal amount of charge with the same polarity, they repel
each other. The two negative charges repel, while two
positive charges of the same value also repel each other.
The symbol for electric charge is Q or q. A charge of 6.25

x 1018 electrons is stated as Q = 1 Coulomb = 1C. This unit
is named after Charles A. Coulomb (1736-1806), a
French physicist, who measured the force between
charges.
39
Electric potential difference R.M.S. Value: Root mean square value of an alternating
current is given by that steady d.c. current which pro-
The electrical potential difference is defined as the
duces the same heat as that produced by the alternating
amount of work done to carrying a unit charge from one
current in a given time and given resistance. It is also
point to another in an electric field of the two charged
called the virtual or effective value of A.C.
bodies. In otherwords, the potential difference is defined
as the difference in the electrica potential. Ir.m.s. = 0.707 Imax
When a body is charged to a different electric potential Vr.m.s = 0.707 Vmax
as compared to the other charged body, the two bodies
All A.C. voltmeters and ampere meters read r.m.s. value
are said to be potential difference. Both the bodies are
of voltage and current.
under stress and strain and try to attain minimum
potential. Symmetrical Alternating Quantity: The ratio of the
value to the mean period
Unit : The unit of potential difference is volt.
Instantaneous value: The value of a variable quantity
Resistance (Fig 3)
at a given instant.
Resistance is the measure of opposition to electric
Peak value: The maximum of the values of quantity
current. A short circuit is an electric circuit offering little
during a given interval.
or no resistance to the flow of electrons. Short circuits are
dangerous with high voltage power sources because the Basic of DC circuit
high currents encountered can cause large amounts of This flow of electrical charge is referred to as electric
heat energy to be released. current. There are two types of current, direct current
(DC) and alternating current (AC). DC is current that
flows in one direction with a constant voltage polarity
ed
(fig.5) while AC is current that changes direction periodi-
cally along with its voltage polarity (fig 6). But as societies
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grew the use of DC over long transmission distances
became too inefficient. With AC it is possible to produce
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the high voltages needed for long transmissions.

Therefore today, most portable devices use DC power
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while power plants produce AC.

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A.C. Circuits
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Cycle: A complete change in value and direction of

alternating quantity is called cycle. Fig.3 shows a cycle.
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Period: Time taken to complete one cycle is called

period.
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Amplitude: It is the highest value attained by the current

of voltage in a half cycle.
Instantaneous value: Value at any instant is called
instantaneous value. Fig.4 shows this value by i1,i2....
Voltage
Frequency: It is defined as the number of cycles per We define voltage as the amount of potential energy
second. In India 50 c/s frequency is common. between two point on a circuit. One point has more
charge than another. This difference in charge between
NP the two points is called voltage. It is measured in volts.
Frequency= where N is the speed in r.p.m and P is
120 Techinally, it is the potential energy difference between
no.of poles of a machine. two points that will impart one joule of energy per
coulomb of charge that passes through it. The unit “volt” Benefits and uses of a single phase AC power supply
is named after the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta who
Single phase power supply units have a broad array of
invented what is considered the first chemical battery.
applications. Units that have a limited power need up to
Voltage is represented in equations and schematics by
1000 watts typically make the most efficient use of a
the letter “V”.
single phase AC power supply. Generally, benefits of
Basics of AC circuit selecting a single phase system include:
As useful and as easy to understand as DC is, it is not the • Broad array of application uses
only “kind” of electricity in use. Certain sources of
electricity (most notably, rotary electro-mechanical • Most efficient AC power supply for up to 1000 watts
generators) naturally produce voltages alternating in
• Fewer design costs
polarity reversing positive and negative over time. Either
as a voltage switching polarity or as a current switching • Less complex design
direction back and forth, this “kind” of electricity is known
as Alternating Current (AC):as shown in figure (7) In a 3 phase system there are three power wires, each
120° out of phase with each other. Delta and wye are the
two types of circuits use to maintain equal load across a
three phase system, each resulting in different wire
configurations. In the delta configuration, no neutral wire
is used. The wye configuration uses both a neutral and a
ground wire. (Note: In high voltage system, the neutral
wire is not usually present for a three phase system.) All
three phases of power have entered the cycle by 120°. By
the time a complete cycle of 360° has completed, three
ed
phases of power each peaked in voltage twice as shown
in Fig 9. With a three phase power supply, a steady
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stream of power is delivered at a constant rate, making
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Whereas the familiar battery symbol is used as a generic it possible to carry more load.
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symbol for any DC voltage source, the circle with the
wavy line inside is the generic symbol for any AC voltage Fig 8
source.
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One might wonder why anyone would bother with such a

thing as AC. It is true that in some cases AC holds no
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practical advantage over DC. In applications where

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electricity is used to dissipate energy in the form of heat,

the polarity or direction of current is irrelevant,so long as
there is enough voltage and current to the load to produce
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the desired heat (power dissipation). However, with AC

it is possible to build electric generators, motors, and
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power distribution systems that are far more efficient

than DC, and so we find AC used predominately across Fig 9
the world in high power applications.
General overview of single phase and three phase
AC system
Both single phase and three phase systems refer to units
using alternating current (AC) electric power. With AC
power, the flow of current is constantly in alternating
directions. The primary difference between single phase
and three phase AC power is the constancy of delivery.
In a single phase AC power system the voltage peaks at
Benefits and uses of a three phase AC power supply
90° and 270°, with a complete cycle at 360° is shown in
Fig 8. With these peaks and dips in voltage, power is not Typical applications for 3 phase systems include data
delivered at a constant rate. In a single phase system, centers, mobile towers, power grids, shipboard and air-
there is one neutral wire and one power wire with current craft, unmanned systems, and any other electronic with
flowing between them. The cyclical changes in magni- a load greater than 1000 watts. Three phase power
tude and direction usually change flow in current and supplies offer a superior carrying capacity for higher load
voltage about 60 times per second, depending on the systems. Some of the benefits include:
particular needs of a system. Reduction of copper consumption
Fewer safety risks for workers
Lower labor handling costs Line voltage and phase voltage
Greater conductor efficiency Line voltage is the voltage measured between any two
lines in a three-phase circuit. Phase voltage is the
Ability to run higher power loads
voltage measured across a single component in a
Additionally, three phase systems in delta configuration three-phase source or load.
with a 208 volt load requires less circuit breaker pole
Line current and Phase current
positions than that of a wye configuration. In these cases,
a three phases system yields further savings in installa- Line current is the current through any one line between
tion, maintenance, and cost of production materials due a three- phase source and load. Phase current is the
to the reduction of required wires. However, in most current through any one component comprising a three
cases, the wye configuration is preferable. Wye is more phase source or load. In balanced “Y” circuits, line
flexible so that it can power devices that require 3 phase, voltage is equal to phase voltage times the square root
2 phase, or 1 phase power. For example, a data center’s of 3, while line current is equal to phase current.
warehouse of servers may only require three phase
power, however the technician monitory the series will
likely need single phase power to operate his/her
computer, tools and lights.
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Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.17 to 1.2.21
Conductor and Insulator

• define conductor and insulator
• explain about types of cables
• explain about types of wires.
Conductors: Materials that contain many free electrons Conductors form an unbroken line carrying electricity
and are capable of carrying an electric current are known from the generating plant to the point where it is used.
as conductors. Conductors are usually made of copper and aluminium.
A conductor is a wire or cable or other form of metal,
Some materials are better conductors of electricity than
suitable for carrying current.
others. The more free electrons in a material has the
better it will conduct. Silver, copper, aluminium and most All wires are conductors, but all conductors are not wires.
other metals are good conductors. For example copper bus bar are conductors but not wires.
They are rigid rectangular bars.
Insulators: Materials that have only a few free electrons
Current passing through a conductor generates heat.
(if any), and are capable of not allowing the current to
The amount of heat depends on the value of current and
pass through them are known as insulators.
the potential difference between its ends.
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Wood, rubber, PVC, porcelain, mica, dry paper, fibre
The rate of heat production in the conductor equals the
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glass are some examples of insulating materials.
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amount of power lost by the electricity in passing through
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Non-conducting materials (insulators) are also called the conductor.
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DIELECTRIC.
The cross-sectional area of the conductor must have a
Conductors make up the main conducting path of large enough area to give it a low resistance. But the
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electric current, and insulating materials prevent current cross-sectional area must also be small enough to keep
flow through unwanted paths and minimises electrical the cost and weight as low as possible.
hazards.
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The best cross-sectional area depends on how much

current the conductor must carry.
Conductors: The use of conductors and their insulation
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is regulated by I.E. regulations and I.S.Code of practice. The rate of heat production in a conductor increases with
the square of the current. As heat is produced the
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Regulations and I.S. code cover electrical conductors

conductor gets hotter and the temperature rises until the
listing the minimum safety precautions needed to
rate at which the conductor releases heat to the
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safeguard people, buildings and materials from the

surroundings equals the rate at which the heat is produced.
hazards of using electricity.
The temperature of the conductor then remains steady.
Wires and cables are the most common forms of This steady temperature is called equilibrium temperature.
conductors. They carry electric current through all kinds
There is a limit to the temperature each kind of insulation
of circuits and systems. Wires and cables are made in a
can safely withstand. There is also a limit to the
wide variety of forms suited to many different applications.
temperature the surroundings can withstand.
(Fig.10).
I.E. regulations specify the maximum current considered
safe for conductors of different sizes, having different
insulation and installed in different surroundings.
Size of conductors: The size is specified by the

diameter or the cross-sectional area. Typical sizes are
1.5 sq mm, 2.5 sq mm, 6 sq mm etc.
A common measure of wire diameter is the standard wire
gauge (SWG), commonly used in our country. The
resistance of a material increases as the length of the
conductor increases, and the resistance decreases as
the cross-sectional area of the conductor increases. We
can compare one material with another by measuring
the resistance of samples.
43
Classification of Conductors Every electrical device is protected by some kind of
insulation. The desirable characteristics of insulation
Wires and cables can be classified by the type of are:
covering they have.
– high dielectric strength
Bare conductors: They have no covering. The most – resistance to temperature
common use of bare conductor is in overhead electrical – flexibility
transmission and distribution lines. – mechanical strength
– Non hydroscopic.
Insulated conductors: They have a coating of insula-
tion over the metals. The insulation separates the No single material has all the characteristics required for
conductor electrically from other conductors and from every application. Therefore, many kinds of insulating
the surroundings. It allows conductors to be grouped materials have been developed.
without danger. Additional covering over the insulation
adds mechanical strength and protection against weather, Insulating tapes
moisture and abrasion.
Various tapes are used for insulating electrical equip-
Stranded conductors: They consist of many strands of ment, conductors and components. Some of these are
fine wires as shown in Fig 11. The wires in stranded adhesives. The tapes commonly used include friction,
conductors are usually twisted together. Stranded con- rubber, plastic and varnished cambric tapes.
ductors are more flexible and have better mechanical
strength. Semiconductors: A semiconductor is a material that
has some of the characteristics of both the conductor and
an insulator. Semiconductors have valence shells con-
ed
taining four electrons.
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Common examples of pure semiconductor materials are
silicon and germanium. Specially treated semiconductors
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are used to produce modern electronic components such

as diodes, transistors and integrated circuit chips.
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Cable: A length of insulated conductor. It may also be of Electrical cable types

two or more conductors inside a single covering. The
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conductors in a cable may either be insulated or bare.

• Coaxial cable - used for radio frequency signals, for
example in cable television distribution systems.
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Cables are available in different types. There are single

core, twin core, three core, four core and multi-core • Communications cable
cables.
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• Direct-buried cable
Properties of insulation materials
• Flexible cables
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Two fundamental properties of insulation materials are • Heliax cable

insulation resistance and dielectric strength. They are
entirely different from each other and measured in differ- • Non-metallic sheathed cable (or non metallic building
ent ways. wire, NM, NM-B)
Insulation resistance: It is the electrical resistance of

• Metallic sheathed cable (or armored cable, AC, or BX)
the insulation against the flow of current.
Mega-ohmmeter(Megger) is the instrument used to meas- Fig 12
ure insulation resistance. It measures high resistance (a)
values in megaohms without causing damage to the
insulation. The measurement serves as a guide to
evaluate the condition of the insulation.
Dielectric strength: It is the measure of how much

potential difference the insulation layer can withstand
without breaking down. The potential difference that
causes breakdown is called the breakdown voltage of the
insulation.
Steel wire armoured cable
(b) Twin-lead
(d)
Twinaxial cabling
(c) Twisted pair
(e)
ed
bl I
pu M
ish
A comparison of the most commonly used metals as conductors in wires is given below:
Re NI
PROPERTIES TYPES OF METALS USED AS CONDUCTORS

be @
Silver Copper Gold Aluminium

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Ability to be drawn Very good Very good Very good Not good
t t rig
into thin wires

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Flexibility (ability Very good Good Very good Not good

to bend without breaking).
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Conductivity. Very good Very good Good Good

(100%) (94%) (67%) (56%)
Resistivity in W m 1.6x10-8 1.7x10-8 2.4x10-8 2.85x10-8

at 20°C
Ability to withstand Good Good Very good Bad

extreme atmospheric
conditions.
Cost Expensive Cheap Very Very

expensive cheap
Conductors used in common types of wires are always 3 Uniform diameter of wire can be maintained.
drawn to thin circular forms (bare wires). A few reasons
why the wires are drawn in circular form are given below. 4 Insulation can be uniformly covered.
1 Drawing a conductor in the circular shape is cheaper Conductor(s) of wires are covered with insulating mate-
and easier than drawing in any other form. rial or an insulating coating(enamel). Some of the rea-
sons for covering the conductor of wires with an insulator
2 Round shape of the conductor ensures uniform cur- are given below:
rent flow through the conductor.
1 Bare conductors carrying high voltage/current when The maximum current that flows through a wire of a
touched accidentally will give electrical shock, which particular diameter without heating up the wire is called
can be hazardous to life. the maximum current carrying capacity or generally the
current carrying capacity of a wire. Hence the current
2 When two or more conductors carrying different types
carrying capacity of a wire is directly proportional to the
of current are laid side by side, the current flow
conductor’s diameter.
through the wires should not get mixed.
3 To protect the conductor from moisture and destruc- STANDARD WIRE GAUGE
tive atmospheric conditions.
Size of a wire means the diameter of the conductor used
Any non-conductor of electricity can be used as an in that wire. To measure the size of a wire, an instrument
insulator. However the insulators used with wires should called standard wire gauge (SWG) is used as shown in
have elastic properties so that the insulation does not get Fig 14.
cut or tear off when wires are bent.
CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY OF WIRES

A wire is used to carry electric current. The amount of
current that can flow through a wire depends on, how
good is the conductivity of the conductor used
(silver,copper,aluminum etc) physical dimension (diam-
eter) of the conductor(s).
Larger the diameter of the conductor, higher is the

current that can flow through it, as shown in Fig 13.
ed
bl I
pu M
ish
Re NI
be @
Standard wire gauge is a circular metal disk with varying

slot sizes on its circumference. Each slot size corre-
sponds to a gauge number which is written just below the
o ht
hole. The gauge numbers specify the size of a round wire

t t rig
in terms of its diameter and cross-sectional area. The

following points are to be noted while using/reading
Standard Wire Gauge:
No py
– As the gauge numbers increase from 0 to 36, the

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diameter and circular area decrease. Higher gauge

numbers indicate thinner wire sizes.
– The circular area doubles for every three gauge sizes.
For example, No. 10 SWG has approximately twice
the area of No. 13 SWG.
Measuring Instrument Meters

• state the use of meters
• list the basic parts of a simple meter
• list the minimum specifications that go with any meter
• list the symbols used on meter dial and interpret their meaning.
Meters parameter that the meter can measure. The different

Meters are instruments used to measure electrical quan- symbols used and their meanings are shown in Charts 1
tities like voltage, current, resistance etc., at the end of this lesson.
Measurement of electrical quantities is necessary while Example 1: A symbol V on a meter dial indicates,
installing, operating, testing & repairing electrical & elec-
tronic equipments and circuits. V for measuring voltage
~ for measuring AC.
A simple meter is shown in Fig 1.
This means, a meter with V symbol is for measuring AC
voltage.
ed
Example 2: A symbol V on the meter dial indicates,
bl I
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ish V for measuring voltage
Re NI
~ for measuring AC
be @
_ for measuring DC.

o ht
This means, a meter with V symbol is for measuring AC

and DC voltages.
t t rig
The meter scale as shown in Fig 1, is graduated/marked

from 0 to 10. This means that this meter can measure up
No py
to a maximum of 10 volts. This is referred to as the

maximum measurable value in that meter.
Co
The electrical quantity to be measured is given to the The meter scale of 0 to 10 is divided to 5 parts in steps
input terminals (A) of the meter. The internal meter of 2 volts as shown in Fig 2. Each division is called the
movement or mechanism moves the pointer(D) over the Main Scale Division (MSD) of the meter scale.
graduated scale(C) marked on a plate called the dial
plate(B). The pointer stops at a point on the scale which
corresponds to the magnitude of the input given at the
input terminals(A).
Any simple meter must have the following minimum

specifications.
[1] The electrical parameter it can measure.

Example: DC voltage, AC voltage, DC current, AC
current, resistance and so on.
[2] The maximum quantity that it can measure.
Example: 10 volts, 100 volts, 1 ampere and so on.
Each main scale division in Fig 2 corresponds to 2 volts.
The simple meter shown in Fig 1 can measure DC Further each main scale division (say 0 to 2) is further
voltage. This can be found out from the symbol V divided into 4 more divisions as shown in Fig 3. These
marked on dial plate of the meter. All meters will have divisions are called Small Scale Divisions (SSD).
such symbols by which the user can identify the electrical
47
‘ ⊥ ‘ symbol on the dial plate indicates that, the meter has
to be positioned vertically (at right angle to the Table) as
shown in Fig 5(b). If this meter is placed horizontally while
⊥
taking measurement then, the readings shown by the
meter will not be accurate.
Each small scale division therefore corresponds to,
Value of one main scale division

Number of small scale division per main scale division
2 volts
for fig. 1, each SSD is, = 0.5 volts
4
Hence the smallest voltage that can be accurately meas-
ured using this meter is 0.5 volts. This is nothing but the
value of one small scale division of the meter.
Example: To find the maximum and minimum values

that can be measured using a meter having a graduated
ed
scale as shown in Fig 4.
Other symbols indicating the position in which a meter is
bl I
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to be kept while taking readings is given in the Chart 1 of
ish this lesson.

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[H.I Use Chart 1 and elaborate the meaning of the

symbols in the classroom.]
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CLASSROOM EXERCISE
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For a meter with dial plate markings as shown in Figure

6, referring to Chart 1 of this lesson, find;
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i) the nature and type of electrical parameter it can

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Maximum quantity the meter shown in Fig 4 can measure measure

is equal to the full scale deflection value or the highest ii) the position in which the meter is to be kept while using
numeric on the right edge of the of scale = 5 volts. iii) the type of mechanism used for the pointer movement
Co
iv) the percentage of error indicated in the meter reading

Minimum quantity the meter can measure is equal to v) the maximum test voltage that can be applied
value of one small scale division vi) the minimum and maximum quantity the meter can
accurately measure.
value of one main scale
=
No. of small scale div/main div
= 1 Volt
= 0.1 volts.
10 div
The minimum values that can be measured using the
meter in Fig 4 is 0.1 volts and the maximum values that
can be measured is 5 volts.
On the dial scale of any meter, in addition to the symbols

indicating the electrical parameter (voltage, current etc)
it can measure and the type of parameter (AC, DC, AC/
The meters discussed so far, can measure only one
DC), there are several other symbols. One of the
range of values. The meter shown in Fig 1 can measure
important symbols to be identified before using the meter
0 to 10 volts. The meter shown in Fig 4 can measure 0 to
is the position symbol.
5 volts. Such meters are called Single range meters.
These meters are generally mounted on electrical pan-
Fig 5(a) indicates a typical position symbol on the dial
els, and on the front panel of power supply units. Hence,
plate of a meter.
these meters are commonly referred to as panel meters.
SYMBOLS ON METERS Indicates Indicates the
Scale Marking type of meter reading of AC/DC
Linear / Non Linear 2 3 Symbol on Meaning of the Symbol Symbol Meaning of the Symbol
1 4 meter dial
DC VOLTAGE OR CURRENT
V VOLTMETER
5
0
mV milli–VOLTMETER
μV micro–VOLTMETER DC VOLTAGE OR CURRENT
A AMMETER
mA milli–AMMETER AC VOLTAGE OR CURRENT
1 2 !
μA micro–AMMETER
Ω OHMMETER AC / DC VOLTAGE OR CURRENT
OHMS OHMMETER
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Indicates the type of mechanism/ Indicates percentage Indicates the Indicates special in- Indicates special in-
principle of the meter pointer placement position structions that go structions that go
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error in the indicated
movement associated with the meter. meter reading.
t t rig of the meter with the meter. with the meter.
Symbol Meaning of the Symbol Symbol Meaning of the Symbol

Symbol Meaning of the Symbol Symbol Meaning of the Symbol Symbol Meaning of the Symbol Symbol Meaning of the Symbol
MOVING COIL
o ht
MC MOVING IRON ±1% error expressed as a
VERTICAL POSITION
MI
MOVING COIL 1 percentage of the end value
of measuring range 0 NO TEST VOLTAGE
WITH MAGNETIC SHIELD
MOVING IRON
be @
PERMANENT MAGNET ± 2.5 % error expressed as
1.5 a percentage of the end VERTICAL POSITION
value of measuring range PERMISSIBLE DEPARTURE
MOVING COIL TEST VOLTAGE
MOVING IRON ± 20 FROM VERTICAL POSITION 500VOLTS ELECTROSTATIC
WITH 1.5 ± 1.5 % error expressed as a
QUOTIENT SHIELD
RECTIFIER percentage of the total scale
MEASURING
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length of width.
± 1.5 % error expressed as HORIZONTAL POSITION TEST VOLTAGE

MOVING COIL 1KILOVOLTS ATTENTION
MOVING COIL 1.5 a percentage of true value.
WITH
NEEDLE / MAGNET READ INSTRUCTIONS
pu M
THERMAL CONVERTER/ !
THERMO COUPLE HORIZONTAL POSITION BEFORE USE..
PERMISSIBLE DEPARTURE TEST VOLTAGE
MOVING MAGNET
± 10 0 FROM HORIZONTAL POSITION 2KILOVOLTS
MOVING COIL QUOTIENT MEASURING
bl I
WITH THERMAL
CONVERTER ISOLATED ELECTRO DYNAMIC INCLINED POSITION
CORELESS ANGLE OF INCLINATION
ish
600 FROM HORIZONTAL
MOVING COIL
ELECTRO DYNAMIC
QUOTIENT MEASURING QUOTIENT MEASURING
ed
CORELESS
ELECTRO DYNAMIC
WITH
INDUCTION TYPE
IRON CORE
INDUCTION ELECTRO DYNAMIC

QUOTIENT MEASURING QUOTIENT MEASURING
WITH IRONCORE
HOT WIRE ELECTRO STATIC
BIMETALL IC
E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.22 to 1.2.28
VIBRATING REED
49
Cells and Batteries

• state the difference between battery and other power sources
• list the two main classifications of batteries
• name the basic unit of a battery
• list a few popular shapes and sizes of commercially available cells
• state the difference between dry and wet cells
• state the difference between primary and secondary cells
• state the need for mechanical zero setting of the meter
• state the precautions to be taken while measuring the output of cells
• reason, why, not all types of batteries are suitable for all applications.
POWER SOURCES
Devices that produce electricity are generally termed as
Power sources. These power sources produce electricity
by converting some form of energy into electrical energy.
As shown in Fig 1, all power sources must first be
supplied with external energy such as heat, light or
mechanical energy before they can produce electricity
ed
with an exception in the case of cell/battery. Batteries
bl I
are different from the other types of power sources
pu M
ish
because, energy is provided by chemical reaction in
batteries. Therefore, no energy need be supplied from
Re NI
outside for the battery to produce electricity. Hence

batteries are one of the most important power sources.
be @
In a battery, electrical energy is produced by the chemicals

contained within the battery. Cells are the basic units of
a battery. Several cells forms to make a battery. Batteries
o ht
are classified mainly under two categories.

t t rig
(a) Primary batteries

Secondary batteries - These batteries must be first
No py
(b) Secondary batteries charged with electrical energy. Once the battery is fully
charged,it will then convert chemical energy to electrical
Co
energy. Secondary batteries first stores electrical energy

supplied to it and then supply electrical energy as and
when required. Hence secondary batteries are com-
monly called storage batteries. A typical secondary
storage battery is shown in Fig 3.
A battery may consist of two or more number of cells.

The battery shown in Fig 3 has six cells of 2V each.
Primary Batteries - Converts chemical energy in to These cells are connected in series to give 12V at battery
electrical energy. This uses the chemicals within it to terminals.
start the action of energy conversion. The most common
types of primary cells and batteries are shown in Fig 2.
50
THE CELL
A cell consists of a pair of metal strips called electrodes
and dipped in a chemical solution called electrolyte as
shown in Fig 4.
Dry cells and batteries are available in several shapes

Primary and Secondary cells and sizes to suit commercial requirements. Some popu-
lar shapes of dry cells were shown in Fig 2.
Primary cells are those which once fully used has to be
thrown-out or destroyed. This is because the electrodes Technically, any particular type of cell is defined by the
ed
and electrolyte used in this type of cells cannot be materials used as electrodes and electrolytes in that cell.
bl I
reused. Hence, primary cells are non-rechargable cells. A dry cell with zinc as the -ve electrode, carbon as the
pu M
paste form.
ish
Generally, the electrolyte used in primary cells is of +ve electrode with zinc chloride as the electrolyte is
Re NI
referred to as zinc-carbon cell or zinc chloride cell.
Secondary cells are those which once used can be
Similarly a dry cell which uses an alkaline solution as
be @
reused by charging them. Hence, secondary cells are

electrolyte is called an Alkaline cells.
rechargable cells. Generally, the electrolyte used in
secondary cells is in liquid form. However, there are
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A Chart on Types of cells/batteries given at the end of

rechargable cells with paste form electrolyte also.
this lesson lists some popular dry cells along with the
t t rig
In this lesson the commercial aspects of primary cells names of the materials used for the +ve,-ve electrodes,
are discussed. Secondary cells are discussed in further the electrolyte used, the available sizes, the rated output
No py
lessons. voltage and their applications.
The use of different materials for their electrodes and

Co
Dry and Wet cells

electrolytes results in different voltage, current rating
The electrolyte can be in liquid form or a paste form. discharge characteristics and the shelf life (life of the
Cells with paste form electrolyte are known as DRY battery if kept unused).
cells. Cells with liquid form of electrolyte are called WET
cells. NOTE: Not all types of cells are suitable for all applica-
tions. This is because some appliances draw high initial
Dry cells and batteries current or current in pulses which may not suit the
As the electrolyte used in dry cells is in paste form, it discharge characteristics of the cell.
does not spill or leak. Hence, dry cells are used extensively
in portable electrical and electronic gadgets. Typical Weak, dead cell
constructional details of a zinc-carbon during cell is Dry cells are used in various gadgets like flash lights,
shown in Fig 5. tape recorders etc, the cells convert the chemical energy
built into them into electrical energy. In doing so, the dry
The two electrodes of dry cells are brought out and are
cell slowly gets consumed. This means, the voltage
available as +ve and -ve terminals of the cell. Usually
across the cell terminals decreases and the current it can
the metallic cell container serves as the -ve of the cell as
supply to the connected load becomes less and less. A
shown in Fig 5. The voltage that appears across the
stage will reach when the dry cell is no more capable of
terminals depends upon the electrodes and the chemi-
supplying sufficient voltage/current through the
cals used in the cell. The voltage of a cell is so made as
connected load . Then the cell is said to have become
to suit the commercial requirement. Generally the voltage
weak or dead.
across the terminals of a dry cell range between 1.2 to
1.5 volts.
As a thumb rule, dry cell can be declared unfit for use if, A simple way to check sticky pointer/meter movement is
the voltage across its terminals is less than 75% of its to hold the meter in hand and tilt the meter back and forth
rated output voltage. gently, checking for the free movement of the pointer. If
the pointer is not moving freely, it is advised not to use
Example: A used zinc chloride dry cell with a rated that meter for making measurements.
voltage of 1.5 volts has 1.1 volts across its terminals.
Find whether the cell is usable or not. Voltmeters used for measuring DC voltages will have
their input terminals marks +ve and -ve. For making
Rated o/p voltage of the cell is 1.5V. voltage measurement, the +ve terminal of the meter
Measured output of the cell is 1.1V. must be connected to the +ve terminal of the battery and
% Measured output with respect to rated output is the -ve terminal of the meter to the -ve terminal of
battery. If the terminals are reversed, the meter deflects
1.1 below zero. This may cause temporary or sometimes
x 100 = 73.3 %
1.5 permanent damage to the meter movement.
As the output is less than 75% of the rated output, the dry
The following precautions should always be taken while
cell is unfit for use or can be treated as a Weak cell.
making voltage measurement of cells or other voltage
Measuring cell voltage sources;
To measure the voltage of a dry cell, a voltmeter having 1) Check for the right type and range of meter is being
a full scale deflection value greater than, but close to the used for measurement.
rated output of the dry cell, should be used. Also the
meter’s minimum measurable voltage (value of one Example: To measure cell/battery voltages use DC or
small scale div) should be as small as possible (at least AC/DC voltmeters only.
ed
0.2 volts).
bl I 2) Check if the maximum and minimum measurable

pu M
As most of the cells have voltages less than 2 volts, the
ish
voltage of the meter is as per requirement.
meters used to measure cell voltage should be free from
Re NI
errors. One of the most common errors in meters is the Example: To measure cell voltages of around 1.5volts,
Mechanical Zero error. This error is caused due to the use a voltmeter having a range of 2 volts but not more
be @
mechanical movements involved in the meters. This than 5 volts. The value of each small scale division of the
error in meters is correctable. The steps involved to meter should be atleast 0.2 volt or less.
correct this error is called Mechanical zero setting of
o ht
meters. 3) Make it a practice to connect red coloured meter prod

to the +ve terminal of the meter and black coloured
t t rig
All meters will have a screw on it as shown in Fig 6. prod to the -ve terminal. This avoids confusion and
Keeping the terminals of the meter open, the screw is prevents damage to meter.
No py
turned slowly to bring the pointer exactly to 0 position on

the meter scale. This means, with no voltage applied, 4) Never measure the current of a cell by connecting an
Co
the meter is made to show exactly zero volts. ammeter directly across its +ve and -ve terminals.
This will not only damage the meter but will discharge
the cell heavily and make the cell weak. Use a 1 KW
resistor in series for measuring current driving capac-
ity of a cell.
Care has to be taken while turning this screw as this

screw is directly connected with the sensitive and deli-
cate meter movement. Turning the screw in large
amounts or in jerks may damage the meter movement
permanently making the meter unusable.
Before using a meter for measurements, it is necessary

to check if the meter needle is moving freely over the
graduated scale. There are possibilities that the meter
movement may be sticky due to dust collection on the
meter movement or due to the bent pointer needle.
Chart for 1.2.29 &1.2.31
TYPES OF CELLS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
Usual Classification Negative Positive Electrolyte Rated Available sizes Applications

Name/Types Electrode Electrode output
(Anode) (Cathode) voltage
Carbon-Zinc Primary Zinc MnO2/C Mixture of 1.5V D, C, B, A, AA, AAA Flash lights, radio, tape
(usually called NH Cl and ZnCl
4 2 batteries and for
Co
Leclanche cell) general purpose.
Carbon-Zinc Primary Zinc MnO2/C Zinc chloride 1.5V D,C, B, A, AA, AAA Electric shaver, electric
No py
(Zinc chloride cell) knives transmitters,
cordless drills, tools etc.
t t rig
Alkaline-Manganese Primary Zinc Manganese Aqueous solution of 1.5V D, C, AA Camera cranking, radio
o ht
dioxide cell & dioxide potassium
potassium hydroxide controlled toys, radios
rechargeable & tape recorders.
be @
Mercuric oxide cell Primary Zinc Mercuric oxide Aqueous solution of 1.35V C, B, AA and Cameras, watches,
potassium hydroxide button cells hearing aids,
Re NI
or sodium hydroxide calculators etc.
pu M
Silver oxide cell Primary Zinc Ag O
2
Aqueous solution of 1.5V Button cells Hearing aids, digital
potassium hydroxide wrist watch, micro-lamps,
bl I
or sodium hydroxide lights, meters etc.
ish
Nickle-Cadmium Rechargeable
( Secondary ) Cadmium Nickel Aqueous solution of 1.2V All sizes of cyclin- Portable equipments
ed
hydroxide potassium hydroxide drical, rectangular like radio, tapes etc.,
and buttoncells rechargeable flash lights,
emergency light etc.
Lithium Primary Lithium Iodine/metallic Organic, inorganic 3V to Medium to Electronic watches, cal-
Manganese oxides, sulphides water 6V large culators, heart pacemaker
button cellslife support equipments &
communication equipments.
53
Electronic Mechanic - Basic electricity
Secondary batteries - types charge, discharge and maintanance

• list a few applications of lead-acid batteries
• name the most popular maintenance free lead acid battery
• describe the recharging of lead acid batteries
• list a few types of secondary cells, their nominal cell voltage, capacity and applications
• explain the effect of temperature on AH capacity
• state various types of discharging of lead acid battery
• list care and maintenance of lead acid batteries
• state the different types of electrolytes
• describe the hydrometer
• connect the cells in series, parallel and series parallel.
Secondary batteries Principle of chemical action
Secondary batteries are made of small units known as A fully charged lead-acid cell has a lead peroxide (PbO 2)
cells. The main difference between a primary and a positive electrode, which will be reddish brown in colour
secondary cell is that a secondary cell can be recharged. and a gray spongy lead (Pb) as the negative electrode.
This is because the type of chemicals used in a secondary These two electrodes are immersed in an electrolyte
cell is such, the chemical reaction is reversible.
ed
which is a diluted solution of sulphuric acid (27% sulphuric
acid) having a specific gravity of 1.3. Such a cell produces
bl I
pu M
When a secondary cell is supplying current to a load, the an output of 2.2 V.
ish
cell is said to be discharging. This discharging current
Discharging of lead-acid cells
Re NI
gradually neutralizes the separated positive and negative
charges at the electrodes (Anode and Cathode). The chemical action that takes place during the dis-
be @
charging of a lead-acid cell is shown in Fig 1.

On the other hand, when current is supplied to a cell, the
charges get re-formed on the electrodes due to reverse
o ht
chemical reaction. This action is known as charging the

cell. For charging a cell, the charging current is supplied
t t rig
by an external DC voltage source, with the cell behaving

as a load.
No py
The process of discharging and recharging is called

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cycling of the cell. As long as the cell is in good condition

the discharge and charge cycles can be repeated several
hundred times.
Since a secondary cell can be recharged, in other words
the charges restored, these cells are called storage cells.
During discharge, the lead (Pb) in both the electrodes
react with sulphuric acid (H2So4) to displace hydrogen
The most common type of secondary cell is the Lead-
and form lead sulphate (PbSo4). This lead sulphate, a
acid cell. A battery consisting of a combination of such
whitish material, is somewhat insoluble and hence gets
cells is called Lead-acid battery. Lead-acid batteries are
partially coated on both positive and negative plates.
commonly used in automobiles such as cars, buses and
Since both plates approach the same material (PbSo4)
lorries etc.,
chemically, the potential difference between these plates
Lead-acid, wet type cells begins to decrease. At the same time, the combining of
Lead-acid secondary batteries made of lead-acid are oxygen in the lead peroxide (PbO2) with the hydrogen
used in almost every automobile, for starting the engine. atoms of the electrolyte forms water (H2O) as shown in
These batteries supply load current of 100 to 400A to the the equation given below,
starter motor of automobiles.
Pb + PbO2 + 2H2So4 Discharge
2PbSo4 + 2H2O
The nominal voltage of a lead-acid cell is 2.2 V. By →
connecting three or six cells in series, batteries of 6V or It can be seen from the discharging equation that as the
12V is obtained. battery discharges (delivers energy to a load), the sulphuric
acid solution becomes weaker (more and more diluted)
with its specific gravity approaching 1.0.
54
The coating of whitish lead sulphate on the electrodes The lead sulphate (PbSO4) which gets coated on the +ve
and the decrease in specific gravity of the electrolyte and -ve plates tends to harden into an insoluble salt over
makes the voltage of the cell to drop off. Also, the internal a period of time. Hence, it is recommended to fully
resistance of the cell rises due to the sulphate coating on recharge a battery even if it is not used for quite some time.
the plates.
Charging of lead-acid cells

The chemical reaction that takes place during charging
of a lead-acid cell is shown in Fig 2.
When a battery charger, having an output voltage (2.5V)
ed
which is slightly higher than the nominal voltage of the
bl I
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cell (2.2V), is connected as shown in Fig 2, the direction
ish
of ionic flow gets reversed (refer to Fig 1 for the discharging
Re NI
direction). The electrical energy supplied by the charger
causes the recombination of lead sulphate (PbSo4) with
Construction of lead-acid batteries
hydrogen ions in the electrolyte. Therefore, the excess
be @
water is removed from the electrolyte solution. As the Fig 3 shows the principle behind the construction of
electrolyte returns to its normal strength of sulphuric acid commercial lead acid batteries.
o ht
(27%) and the plates return to their original form of lead

peroxide and spongy lead, the voltage across the elec- Although in Figs 1 and 2, the lead-acid cell electrodes
t t rig
trodes returns to its nominal value of 2.2 V. The chemical were shown as single plates, in a practical cell, it will not
action involved during charging can be represented by be the case. To increase the surface area and current
capacity, a number of positive and negative plates are
No py
the following equation;

interleaved and separated by porous rubber sheets as
At the negative pole: shown in Fig 3a. All the positive plates are electrically
Co
PbSO4 + 2 electrons > Pb + SO4 connected, and all the negative plates are electrically
connected. These parallel connections yield a higher
At the positive pole: current capacity of the cell with an overall cell output
PbSO4 - 2 electrons + 2H2O > PbO2 + So42- - 4H+ voltage of 2.2V. Several such cells can be connected in
series to obtain the required battery voltage. For example,
As the above reactions take place simultaneously, the Fig 3b shows three such cells connected in series to
equation can be written as, produce a 6 volts Lead acid battery.
2PbSO4 + 2H2O + Electrical energy >2H2So4 + Pb In lead-acid batteries, since hydrogen gas is produced
+ PbO2. during recharging, vents (holes) are provided on the
> battery compartment to let hydrogen and water vapour
It should be noted that, to charge a lead-acid escape into free air. The vents also help in adding
battery of 12 V (2.2 V x 6 cells), the output distilled water to the cells to compensate the water
voltage of the battery charger used for charg- evaporated from the electrolyte.
ing should be between 14.1 V to 15 V, and, its For further details on the construction and
current rating not larger than 30 A. Charging manufacturing techniques of lead acid batter-
batteries at excessively higher currents can ies refer reference books listed at the end of
cause boiling of the electrolyte. This reduces this unit.
the liquid level in the battery and causes
buckling and crumbling of the electrodes, Current rating of Lead acid batteries
thus reducing the life of the cells and hence
the battery. The current rating of a lead acid battery is usually given in
ampere-hour (Ah) units, based on an 8 hour discharge
period. In other words, batteries are rated in terms of how
much discharge current they can supply for a specified
period of time (often 8 hours). During this time, the cell’s
output voltage must not drop below 1.7 volts. Typical Ah
values of automobile batteries range from 60 Ah to 300 Ah.
For example, A 60-Ah battery, used in smaller automo-
biles, can supply a load current of 60/8 or 7.5 amperes for
8 hours without the cell voltages dropping below 1.7
volts. However this battery can supply less current for
longer time (5 amps for 12 hours) or more current for a
shorter time (60 amps for 1 hour).
Effect of temperature on Ah capacity of Lead-acid
batteries
As in the case of primary cells, the capacity of a lead-acid
cells also decreases significantly with temperature. These
cells lose approximately 0.75% of its rated ampere-hour
(Ah) capacity for every 1°F decrease is temperature. At The importance of specific gravity can be seen from the
0°F (–18°C), its capacity is only 60% of the value at 60°F fact that the open circuit voltage(V) of lead-acid battery
(15.6°C). In cold weather, therefore, it is very important is approximately given by,
to have an automobile battery always fully charged. In V = Specific gravity + 0.84.
addition, at very cold temperature, the electrolyte freezes
more easily as it is diluted by water in the discharged For instance, if the specific gravity is 1.280 then,
condition.
ed
V=1.280 + 0.84 = 2.12V
bl I
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Keep the batteries always fully charged espe-
cially in cold weather conditions.
ish Instrument for testing condition of cells - High rate
discharge tester
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Specific gravity of electrolyte The internal condition of a lead-acid battery cell is

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Specific gravity is a ratio comparing the weight of a determined by this test. A low range (0-3V) voltmeter is
substance with the weight of water. The specific gravity shunted by a low resistance as shown in Fig 5.
of water is taken as 1 as a reference. For instance,
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specific gravity of concentrated sulphuric acid is 1.835.

This means, sulphuric acid is 1.835 times heavier than
t t rig
water for the same volume.

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In a fully charged lead-acid cell, the specific gravity of the

electrolyte, which is a mixture of sulphuric acid and water
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should be 1.28 at room temperature of 70 to 80°F. As the

cell discharges, more and more water gets released into
the electrolyte, lowering the specific gravity. When the
specific gravity of the electrolyte falls down to about
1.150, the cell can be taken as fully discharged. Hence,
the state of discharge of a lead-acid cell can be found out
by measuring the specific gravity of its electrolyte.
The specific gravity of electrolyte is measured using a The two terminal prods are pressed on to the terminals of
instrument known as Battery hydrometer as shown in a cell for testing. For fully charged cell the meter pointer
Fig 4 below. points in the range of full charge on the meter scale. A
sulphated old cell will show the discharge reading. The
meter is having three colours red, yellow and green; red
for fully discharged, yellow for half charged and green for
fully charged condition of the cell respectively.
Topping up of lead-acid battery cells
In normal working condition of a lead-acid battery, the
level of the electrolyte solution should be such that all the
plates of the cells are fully immersed. If the level of the
electrolyte is found to be less, then distilled water should
be added to the indicated level of the cell through the vent
plugs. This process of maintaining the level of
el ectrolyte in lead-acid battery cell is called topping up.
Although wet electrolyte lead-acid secondary cells are
Do not add tap water or well water for topping up.
the most common type, there are other types of secondary
This will reduce cell life.
cells which find application in certain fields due to their
special features. A brief on other types of secondary
When a lead acid battery is being charged, the vent plugs
batteries is given below;
are to be kept open for the gas produced to escape freely
into air. Maintenance free lead-acid batteries
In case of lead-acid batteries used as back-up DC supply Recent advances in lead-acid cells have resulted in low
in un-interrupted power supplies (UPS), since charging maintenance and maintenance free batteries. In normal
and discharging of batteries is a continuous process, the lead-acid batteries, the battery plates contain antimony
vent plugs of the batteries will have several holes made (4%), as the plates are made of lead antimony. It has
on it for the gases produced during charging. been found that the amount of gassing i.e. production of
Un-interrupted power supplies are used in hydrogen while charging a cell can be reduced by lowering
Hospitals, Computers etc., where the power the amount of antimony in the lead plates. By reducing
failure may prove very costly. the antimony in plates to 2%, low maintenance cells can
be made. These cells require very little addition of water
Care and routine maintenance of lead-acid batteries because very little water is boiled-off during charging.
Totally maintenance free cells use antimony-free plates
– DO NOT use battery if it is discharged beyond the allowing complete sealing of battery, since no vents are
minimum value of 1.7V per cell. necessary because gas does not build-up at all. Once
sealed, no electrolyte can evaporate from the cell.
– DO NOT leave a discharged battery in that condition However in some batteries, a small vent is provided to
for a long time. Even if not in use, keep the battery relieve the pressure arising from altitude changes.
always fully charged.
ed
One such maintenance free lead-acid cell is the Gelled-
bl I
– Always maintain the level of the electrolyte 10 to 15 Cell This cell enjoys all the advan-
Electrolyte Lead-acid Cell.
pu M
ish
mm above the top of the plates by adding suitable tages of a wet lead-acid cell but avoids the problems due
quantity of distilled water (NOT tap water). to liquid electrolyte as it uses a gelled electrolyte. These
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cells use lead-calcium grids. These cells are completely

– DO NOT add sulphuric acid to maintain specific sealed and can be mounted in any position. A one-way
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gravity. relief valve is provided to release excess pressure if the

cell’s internal pressure rises too high during charging,
– Keep the vent openings in the filling plug always open and it automatically recloses.
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to prevent build-up of high pressure due to the gases

Gelled-electrolyte lead acid batteries are available from
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formed. At least the vent plug should have holes

made in it. 2 V to 12 V with capacities ranging from 0.9 to 20Ah,
based on a 20 hour discharge rate. The maximum current
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– Wash off the acid and corrosion on the battery top for these batteries ranges from 40 to 200 A. These
using moist cloth, baking soda and water. batteries are used in domestic emergency lamps, portable
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television sets, portable tools and a variety of industrial

– Clean the battery terminals and metal supports up to applications.
the bare metal and apply vaseline or petroleum jelly
over its surface. Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) cell
Next to lead-acid, these cells are popular because of their
– DO NOT test a discharged battery using a ‘High rate ability to deliver high current and can get recycled many
discharge tester’. times. Also, the cell can be stored for a long time, even
when discharged, without any damage. The NiCd cell is
Some applications of lead-acid batteries available in both sealed and non-sealed designs, but the
Lead-acid storage battery is the most common type sealed construction is more common. Nominal output
found in commercial market. Lead-acid batteries find a voltage of a nickle-cadmium cell is 1.25 V per cell.
great variety and range of applications. Some common
applications are listed below; The chemical equation for the NiCd cell can be written as
– In petrol run motor vehicles like scooters, cars etc.
2Ni(OH)3 + Cd ←
charge
– In small domestic and industrial private generating 2Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2.
→
plants and in mines. discharge
– Battery run locomotives.
– In emergency lamps for small capacity lighting. The electrolyte is potassium hydroxide (KOH), but it does
– In uninterrupted power supplies (UPS) for providing not appear in the chemical equation. The reason is that
reserve supply in the event of mains failure. the function of this electrolyte is just to act as a conductor
for the transfer of hydroxyl (OH) ions. Therefore, unlike
the lead-acid cell, the specific gravity of the electrolyte in Zinc-chlorine (hydrate) cell
the NiCd cell does not change with the state of charge.
This cell has been under development for use in electric
The NiCd cell is a true storage cell with a reversible vehicles. It is sometimes considered as a zinc-chloride
chemical reaction of recharging that can be cycled up to cell. This type has high energy density with a good cycle
1000 times. Maximum charging current is equal to the life. Nominal output is 2.1 V per cell.
10-h discharge rate. It should be noted that a new NiCd
battery may need charging before use. Lithium-iron sulphide cell
Applications include portable power tools, alarm systems, This cell is under development for commercial energy
and portable radio or television equipment. applications. Nominal output is 1.6 V per cell. The normal
operating temperature is 800 to 900°F which is high
Nickel-iron or Edison cell compared with the normal operating temperature of the
more popular types of cells.
This cell was once used extensively in industrial truck
and railway applications. However, it has been replaced
Sodium-sulphur Cell
almost entirely by the lead-acid battery. New methods of
construction for less weight, though making this cell a This is another type of cell being developed for electric
possible alternative in some applications. vehicle applications. It has the potential of long life at low
cost with high efficiency. The cell is designed to operate
The Edison cell has a positive plate of nickel oxide, a
at temperatures between 550 and 650°F. Its most
negative plate of iron, and an electrolyte of potassium
interesting feature is the use of a ceramic electrolyte.
hydroxide in water with a small amount of lithium hydrox-
ide added. The chemical reaction is reversible for re-
Lead-acid secondary batteries made of lead-acid are
charging. The nominal output is 1.2 V per cell.
used in almost every automobile, for starting the engine.
These batteries supply load current of 100 to 400A to the
ed
Nickel-zinc cell
starter motor of automobiles.
bl I
This type has been used in limited railway applications.
pu M
ish
There has been renewed interest in it for use in electric The nominal voltage of a lead-acid cell is 2.2 V. By
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cars, because of its high energy density. However, one connecting three or six cells in series, batteries of 6V or
drawback is its limited cycle life for recharging. The 12V is obtained.
nominal output is 1.6 V per cell.
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Plastic Cells
Alkaline - manganese secondary cells
A recent development in battery technology is the re-
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Alkaline - manganese secondary batteries are mainte- chargeable plastic cell made from a conductive polymer,
nance free, hermetically sealed, and will operate in any which is a combination of organic chemical compounds.
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position. Individual cells use electrodes of zinc and These cells could have ten times the power of the lead-
manganese dioxide with an alkaline electrolyte of acid type with one-tenth the weight and the one-third the
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potassium hydroxide. Each cell has a nominal voltage of volume. In addition, the plastic cell does not require
1.5 V. Alkaline-manganese batteries are available in maintenance. One significant application could be for
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rated Ah capacity of 1 to 4 Ah. The internal resistance of electric vehicles.

these batteries is appreciably higher than NiCd batteries.
A plastic cell consists of an electrolyte between two
Therefore, alkaline manganese batteries are not suitable
polymer electrodes. The operation is similar to that of a
for large current supplies.
capacitor. During charge, electrons are transferred from
Alkaline manganese batteries have been designed for the positive electrode to the negative electrode by a dc
electronic and electrical appliances where initial cost and source. On discharge, the stored electrons are driven
low operating cost are of paramount interest. The total through the external circuit to provide current in the load.
number of times the alkaline manganese secondary
batteries can be recharged is much less than that of NiCd Solar cells
batteries, but the initial cost is lower.
Solar cells convert the sun’s light energy into electric
Charging alkaline manganese batteries is different from energy. Solar cells are made of semiconductor materials,
that of NiCd batteries. According to the manufacturer’s which generate a voltage output with light input. Silicon,
data, the charging should be done at constant current but with an output of 0.5 V per cell, is mainly used now.
at a constant voltage. Another difference, when compared Research is continuing, however, on other materials,
with other secondary batteries is that, the alkaline man- such as cadmium sulphide and gallium arsenide, that
ganese batteries must not be discharged too much; might provide more output. In practice, the cells are
otherwise, the chemical process can be no longer rearranged in modules that are assembled into a large solar
versed which means they cannot be recharged. It is array for the required power.
recommended by the manufacturer not to discharge the
cells below 1 volt. In most applications, solar cells are used in combination
with a lead-acid cell specifically designed for this use.
When there is sunlight, the solar cells charge the battery, In constant current charging, the output DC voltage of the
besides supplying power to the load. When there is no charger will be generally twice the nominal voltage of the
light, the battery supplies the required power. battery to be charged. But, the charging current is
controlled by varying the rheostat connected in series
Application of maintenance free Gelled Electrolyte with the battery. For example, to charge a 12 V battery,
Lead-acid batteries the DC voltage source can be 24 V, but the charging
Since Gelled electrolyte lead-acid batteries are mainte- current will be kept controlled say, 1 ampere with the help
nance free and can be placed in any position, these of the rheostat.
batteries are extensively used in almost all types of
With the introduction of voltage regulator integrated
portable equipments. The most common application of
circuits like LM317, it has become very simple and less
Gel-batteries can be found in emergency lamps. Emer-
expensive to make constant current battery chargers.
gency lamps are nothing but stand-by light sources, used
Fig 7 shows a simple constant current battery charger
in the event of main’s failure. The type of lamp used could
using LM317. This charger can be used for any type of
be a miniature tube light or a simple filament lamp.
battery charging as long as the charging current is less
Emergency lamps which use miniature tube lights need
than 1.5 Amperes.
a special circuit known as inverter. The function of the
inverter circuit is to convert a low DC voltage into a high
AC voltage.
Recharging lead-acid batteries

Recall that lead-acid batteries are rechargeable. Once
the cell voltages of a lead-acid battery falls below 1.8 V,
the battery needs recharging. This discharged state of
ed
battery can be found by measuring the specific gravity of
the electrolyte (1.150) or by measuring the voltage
bl I
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across the cells of the battery.
ish In Fig 7, the resistor R1 between the adjustment terminal

Re NI
To charge a lead-acid battery, an equipment known as and the output of the regulator sets a constant output
Battery charger is used. A battery charger is nothing but current given by,
a DC voltage source which can supply the necessary
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voltage and charging current to the battery.

1.25
o ht
There are two main methods of charging batteries. They I out =

R1
are;
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1 Constant current battery charging and Wattage of R1 > (Iout)2. R1

2 Constant voltage battery charging.
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Current can be set at any value between 10 mA and 1.5

1) Constant current battery charging
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A in the circuit at Fig 7. To have higher currents, suitable

In this method of charging batteries, the charging current external power transistors can be used. In Fig 7, the input
supplied to the battery is kept at a prescribed (by the voltage to the regulator IC (LM317) should be 1.5 times
battery manufacturer) constant value. The amount of this the battery voltage (to be charged) plus 3 V. LM317 used
constant current varies depending upon the Ah capacity in Fig 7 is immune to output shorts or reverse battery
of the battery. The value of constant charging current connections. Hence, the charger will always be safe.
should not be excessive as this would cause excessive
gassing. Excessive value current rises the cell The disadvantage of constant current battery charging is
temperature above the safe limit (generally 40°C) which that it takes comparatively long time to fully charge the
will reduce the life of the battery. battery. But, the charge efficiency, which is defined as,
Charge stored by the battery
Fig 6 shows a very simple method of constant current Charge efficiency =
charging system. Charge suppliedto the battery
is high compared to constant voltage battery charging.
2) Constant voltage battery charging

In this method, the voltage applied across the battery
terminals is kept constant, but no control is imposed on
the charging current. Therefore, the battery draws large
charging current in the beginning and as the cells gets
charged, the charging current decreases to a small
value.
In this method, the time required for charging is reduced compensate the idle condition or open circuit losses. This
to half compared to the constant current charging. But, the small current charging is known as Trickle charging.
charge efficiency gets reduced by approximately 10%. Trickle charging keeps the battery always fully charged
and in ready to use condition, so that, the battery can be
In constant voltage charging, the voltage applied to the
fully made use of in emergency conditions.
cells for charging should be fixed at about 2.3 to 2.5 volt
per cell and not more. For instance, for a 12 volts car
For example, if the normal charging current for a battery
battery, the DC voltage output of the charger should be
is 4 amps, then the trickle charge current would be around
between 14 V to 15 V.
20 to 40 mA (1:200 or less).
Simple constant voltage battery charging shown in Fig.8.
Generally for converting AC into DC. Rectifier circuits FLOAT Charging
are used. For pricision operation, Thyristor based rectifiers
In this method, the charger and the battery are always
also used.
connected in parallel for supplying current to the load.
Resistor R is used to limit the initial charging surge The charger provides current for the load and the current
current from becoming excessively high. This is because it is necessary to keep the battery fully charged. The
excessive current may damage the diode and trans- battery here is an auxiliary source of DC power.
former of the battery charger unit.
Note that an automobile battery is in a floating-charge
circuit. The battery charger is an AC generator or alternator
with rectifier diodes driven by a belt from the engine.
When the car is started, the battery supplies the cranking
power. Once the engine is running, the alternator charges
the battery.
ed
bl I
pu M
ish
Re NI
TRICKLE Charging
be @
Whenever a storage battery is used as an emergency

reserve, as in the case of un-interrupted power supply
o ht
(UPS), it is necessary to keep the batteries fully charged

and ready for use at any time if the mains supply fails.
t t rig
A fully charged battery, which is not connected to any

No py
load is expected to maintain its terminal voltage. But, due

to internal leakage in the battery and other open circuit
Co
losses, the battery voltage slowly falls even in idle or

open circuit condition. Therefore, to keep it in fully
charged condition, the battery should be supplied with a
charging current which is small and just sufficient to
Cells and Batteries
Electrolytes are salts which contain ions and can carry applications, such as the ingredient in most soft and
electrical charge when molten or dissolved in a liquid, liquid soaps. KOH is harmful if indigested.
they are important to you as a person as it enables your
Lithium-ion(Li-ion)
cells to regulate their electrical charge and the flow of
water molecules across its cell membrances. As for your Li-ion uses liquid, gel or dry polymer electrolyte. The
body the different types of electrolytes you can have are; liquid version is a flammable organic rather than aqueous
type, a solution of lithium salts with organic solvents
Sodium (Na+)
similar to ethylene carbonate. Mixing the solutions with
Potassium (k+) diverse carbonates provides higher conductivity and
Chloride (CI-) expands the temperature range. Other salts may be
added to reduce gassing and improve high temperature
Bicarbonate (HCO3-) cycling.
Magnesium (mg2+) Li-ion with gelled electrolytes receives many additives to
Calcium (Ca2 )+ increase conductivity, so does the lithium-polymer battery.
The true dry polymer only becomes conductive at elevated
Electrolyte serves as catalyst to make a battery conductive temperatures, and this battery is no longer in commercial
by promoting the movement of ions from the cathode to use. Additives are also administered to achieve longevity
the anode on charge and in reverse on dischage ions are and unique characteristics. The recipe is classified and
electrically charged atoms that have lost or gained each manufacturer has its own secret sauce.
electrons. The electrolyte of a battery consists of soluble
salts, acids or other bases in liquid, gelled and dry Hydrometer
formats. Electrolyte also comes in a polymer, as used in This meter is used to test the specific gravity of the liquid.
ed
the solid-state battery, soild ceramic and molten salts, as It consists of a glass-made tube with bulb. The glass tube
in the sodium-sulfur battery.
bl I is filled with small lead pieces and is fitted with scale on
pu M
ish
Lead Acid which specific gravity is written as well as the indication
of charged to discharged condition of a cell is also written.
Re NI
Lead acid uses sulfuric acid. When charging, the acid This hydrometer is kept in another glass-made tube. On
becomes denser as lead oxide (PbO2) forms on the one side of this tube a rubber ball is fitted and on the other
be @
positive plate, and then turns to almost water when fully side, nozal is fitted, see Fig 2. When the ball of this meter
discharged. The specific gravity of the sulfuric acid is is pressed and released while keeping this meter in the
measured with a hydrometer. Lead acid batteries come electrolyte of the cell, the electrolyte comes in the outer
o ht
in flooded and sealed formats also known as valve glass tube in which hydrometer bulb floats and gives
regulated lead acid (VRLA) or maintenance-free.
t t rig
reading with dilute H2SO4. The bulb will sink in the

Sulfuric acid serves a wide range of applications and is electrolyte while with strong H2SO4 the bulb will come up
Hence, it gives reading. The electrolyte is so filled that
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also found in drain cleaners and various cleaning agents.

It further serves in mineral processing, fertilizer the Hydrometer should not stick on the upper head or the
manufacturing, oil refining, wastewater processing and bottom of the outer tube.
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chemical synthesis. Reading on the Hydrometer 1280

Nickel-cadmium (Nicd) Full charge 1260
The electrolyte in Nicd is an alkaline electrolyte (potassim Half charge 1200
hydroxide). Most Nicd batteries are cylindrical in which
several layers of positive and negative materials are Full discharge 1200
wound into a jelly-roll. The flooded version of Nicd is used or Dead 1180
as the ship-battery in commercial aircrafts and in UPS
systems operating in hot and cold climates requiring
frequent cycling. Nicd is more expensive than lead acid
but lasts longer.
Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)
NiMH uses the same or similar electrolyte as Nicd, which
is usually potassium hydroxide. The NiMH electrodes are
unique and consist of nickel, cobalt, manganese,
aluminium and rare earth metals, which are also used in
Li-ion. NiMH is available in sealed versions only.
Potassium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the
formula KOH, commonly called caustic potash. The
electrolyte is colorless and has many industrial
If, by mistake, one cell connection is reversed in
a series group, its voltage will oppose that of the
other cells. This will produce a lower than ex-
pected battery output voltage.
Example: Suppose that one of the three `D' flashlight

cells of the previous example is connected in reverse,
(Fig 5) the output voltage then would be:
V Battery = (1.5V)+(1.5V) (1.5V)

= (3.V) (1.5V)
= 1.5V.
Parallel connection: Cells are connected in parallel by

connecting all the positive terminals together and all the
negative terminals together as in Fig 6.
Series and parallel cell connections: Often an electric

circuit requires a voltage or current that a single cell is not
ed
capable of supplying alone. In this case it is necessary to
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connect groups of cells in various series and parallel
pu M
arrangements.
ish
Re NI
Series cell connections: Cells are connected in series

by connecting the positive terminal of one cell to the
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negative terminal of the next cell. (Fig 3)

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t t rig
Identical cells are connected in parallel to obtain a higher

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output current or ampere-hour rating. With this connec-

tion of cells, the output ampere hour rating is equal to the
sum of the ampere hour ratings of all the cells. However,
Co
Identical cells are connected in series to obtain a higher the output voltage remains the same as the voltage of a
voltage than is available from a single cell. With this single cell.
connection of cells, the output voltage is equal to the sum Example: Suppose four cells are connected in parallel.
of the voltages of all the cells. However, the ampere hour (Fig 7) Each cell has a rating of 1.5 V and 8 A.h. The
(A.h) rating remains equal to that of a single cell. voltage and ampere-hour rating of this battery would be:
V Battery = V rating of 1 cell
Example: Suppose three `D' flashlight cells are con-
= 1.5 V
nected in series.(Fig 4) Each cell has a rating of 1.5 V and
A h Battery rating = A h rating per cell x no. of cells
2 A.h. The voltage and ampere hour rating of this battery
= (8 A h) (4)
would be:
= 32 A h.
V Battery = V per cell x No.of cells
= (1.5V) (3)
= 4.5 V
A.h Battery rating = A.h rating of 1 cell
= 2 A.h
When connecting groups of cells or batteries in
parallel, each group must be at the same voltage
level. Paralleling two batteries of unequal volt-
age levels sets up a difference of potential energy
between the two. As a result, the higher voltage
battery will discharge its current into the other
battery until both are at equal voltage value.
If, by mistake, a cell connection is reversed in a
parallel group, it will act as a short circuit. All Testing primary cells or batteries: A visual inspection
cells will discharge their energy through this will tell you little about the useful life of a cell or battery
short circuit path. Maximum current will flow unless it has deteriorated to the point where acid is
through the short circuit and the cells may be spilling from the case.
permanently damaged. A no-load voltage test of the cell or battery is another
ed
indication of cell or battery life. This test requires the cell
Series parallel connection: Sometimes the require- or battery to deliver only a very small amount of current
bl I
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ments of a piece of equipment exceed both voltage and required to operate the voltmeter.
ish
ampere hour rating of a single cell. In this case a
The best method that is used to check a cell or battery is
Re NI
series-parallel grouping of cells must be used.
an in-circuit test of the cell or battery voltage with the
The number of cells that must be connected in series to normal load connected to it.(Fig 9) A substantial drop in
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have voltage rating is calculated first and then the cell or battery voltage, when normal load is applied,
number of parallel rows of series connected cells is indicates a bad cell or battery.
calculated for required ampere-hour rating.
o ht
Example:: Suppose a battery operated circuit requires 6

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V and a capacity of 4 A h.(Fig 8) Cells rated at 1.5 V and

2 A h are available to do the job. The required arrange-
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ment of cells would then be:

Co
⎛ Vrequired ⎞
No. of cells in series = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ Vper cell ⎠
6V
= = 4 cells
1.5 V
⎛ A. hrequired ⎞
No. of parallel rows = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ A. hper cell ⎠
=
( 4 A.h) = 2 rows.
2 A.h
(Refer Fig 8)
Electronic Mechanic - Measuring Technique
Introduction to measuring instruments

• explain the principle of operation of a PMMC type movement
• explain using a diagram parts of a D’Arsonval moving coil meter movement
• explain the calibration of instruments
• explain the moving iron instruments
• explain multimeter.
To work with electricity and to service electrical appliances, Fig 1 shows the essential parts of such a galvonometer.
requires accurate measurements. To make electrical
measurement the most popular instruments used are
called Meters. Meter is a tool used to measure the basic
electrical quantities such as current,potential
difference(volt) and resistance. Right selection and proper
use of meters can only give accurate readings.
All meters have one thing in common. They contain an

internal standard to which all measured values are
compared. In this respect, an electrical meter is much
like a mechanical balance that compares an unknown
ed
mass to a standard mass.
bl I
pu M
ish
Meters discussed in this lesson make use of electric
Re NI
current/voltage to produce a magnetic force , it then
compares this force to a counter force exerted by a
spring.The resultant of these forces drives a pointer
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which indicates the value of the electric voltage/current

applied to the meter on a graduated scale found on the
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dial of the meter.

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The D’Arsonval Movement

In Fig 1, the coil is mounted on a shaft which rotates
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All meters will have some form of indicating device. between the jewel bearings(not shown in Fig). The Soft
Those that have a Pointer or needle that moves across steel core reduces the total air gap between the magnetic
poles of a permanent magnet. The coil is positioned to
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a fixed scale are based on a mechanism called D’

Arsonval movement.This is named after its invention by turn against precisely made upper and lower control
D’Arsonval Deprez. The principle of D’ Arsonval move- springs. The springs also serve as conductor to carry
ment is similar to a motor, it makes use of the force of current to and from the coil. A light weight pointer/
a magnetic field exerted in a current carrying conductor. indicator attached to the coil indicates how far the coil has
The principle of this movement is similar to that of a rotated. The position of the indicator on the scale tells the
permanent magnet type electric motor. amount of current flowing through the coil.
All D’Arsonval meter movements require current and a Principle of operation of a PMMC type meter move-
magnetic field to cause movement of the indicator. ment
Some meters have permanent magnets that work with
current to move the pointer. Such type are referred to as When no current flows through the coil, the control
permanent magnet moving coil type(PMMC) meters. spring’s tension hold the coil in a position between the
The other type have no permanent magnets;instead they pole faces. This position is defined as “Zero position”.
have current carrying coils to produce the magnetic
fields. These are referred to as Moving Iron type (MI) When the coil carries current (whose value is to be
meters. measured), the force from the magnetic field due to
permanent magnet exerts torque on the current carrying
D’Arsonval meter movements consists of a permanent coil and make it rotate(like the motor principle). The
magnet and a moving coil, also called permenant mag- indicator moves clock-wise in the direction and the
net moving coil galvano meter abbreviated PMMC. The springs controls/resist this motion. The magnetic field
term galvanometer refers to a sensitive current-detect- exerts a torque on the moveable coil making it to
ing device. rotate.The indicator then comes to a rest at a non Zero
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value on the scale where the torque produced by the might not have been checked within the recommended
current and the opposition force of the spring becomes period.
equal.
Calibration is a routine procedure at stated intervals and
Because of the permanent magnet, the strength of the is performed against preserved and trustworthy stand-
magnetic field around the coil is constant. Therefore, the ards. The intervals for calibration depends on several
deflecting force is directly proportional to the current factors such as the type of instrument, place of use,
through the moveable coil. These conditions makes it accuracy and so on. Hence, most instrument manufac-
possible to calibrate the scale of the instrument to read turers specify the interval for calibration and suggest the
the measurement value directly. procedure.
To allow the moving coil to deflect with bare minimum Calibration of Voltmeters and Ammeters
friction, the shaft of the moving coil is tapered to a point
at both ends. The sharp ends rest in a highly polished Among the several methods of calibration for volt meters
jewel bearing as shown in Fig 2. The tapered ends hold and current meters, the two simple and popular methods
the shaft precisely in position to maintain the instru- are;
ment’s accuracy. The bearing (usually Sapphire) re-
duces wear.In addition, the small area of contact keeps – Calibration by potentiometer method
the torque caused by friction very low, so that the meter – Calibration by comparison method.
responds rapidly to any changes in current. Potentiometer method is the fundamental method of
calibration and is necessarily used for the basic standard
instrument. But this method is too slow for the general run
of calibration and is more precise than needed. Hence
the usual portable instruments are calibrated by
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comparison with a high grade standard instrument of
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instuments can be used as standard instrument while
calibrating analog volt/current/ohm meters.
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Advantages : The P.M.M.C. instrument

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- Consumes less power

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- has uniform scale and can cover an arc up to 270o

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Damping in Moving coil type meters - has high torque/weight ratio.

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Damping means to control the swing of the coil so that the - can be modified as voltmeter or ammeter with suitable
pointer comes to rest quickly at its final position. Without resistors
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damping, the pointer attached to the coil swings back and

- has efficient damping.
forth before coming to rest. In such case, it is necessary
to wait till the swinging stops to take the accurate meter
- is not affected by stray magnetic fields, and has no
reading.
loss due to hysteresis.
In permanent magnet moving coil meters, the movable
Disadvantages : The P.M.M.C. instrument
coil is wound on an aluminium frame as shown in Fig 3.
This frame, in addition to supporting the coil winding, the
- can be used only in DC
bobbin also performs the important function of damping
the instrument. - is very delicate
Calibration of Instruments - is costly when compared to a moving iron instrument
While the tolerance figures are generally specified, this - may show errors due to loss of magnetism of the
will not be true if the instrument is in use for a reasonably permanent magnet.
long time. The main reason for this could be the aging of
the instrument. Therfore, to have complete confidence in Moving iron instruments
the instrument used for measurement, it is necessary to
“Calibrate” the instrument regularly. If an instrument isThis instrument derives its name from the fact that a
left uncalibrated, the same reading taken sometime back piece of soft iron which is attached to the spindle and
will be different not because of the any fault in the needle moves in a magnetic field produced by the current
manufacturer’s specification, but because its calibrationor by a current proportional to the quantity of electricity
being measured.
There are two types of this instrument which are used Construction and working of repulsion type moving
either as voltmeter or ammeter. iron instrument
They are: This instrument consists of a coil W wound on a brass

– attraction type bobbin B, inside which two strips of soft iron M and F are
– repulsion type. set axially as shown in Figs 4a & 4b. Strip F is fixed
whereas the iron strip M is attached to the spindle S,
Principle of operation which also carries the pointer P.
The attraction type instrument works on the principle of Spring control is used and the instrument is designed
magnetic attraction, and the repulsion type instrument such that when no current is flowing through W, the
works on the principle of magnetic repulsion between pointer is at zero position and the soft iron strips M and
two adjacent pieces of soft iron, magnetised by the F are almost touching. (Figs 4a & 4b)
same magnetic field.
When the instrument is connected to the supply, the coil
Construction and working of attraction type moving W carries current which, in turn, produces a magnetic
iron instrument field. This field makes the fixed and moving iron F and
M
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This instrument consists of an electromagnetic coil having

an air core as shown in Fig 3. Just in front of the air core,
an oval shaped soft iron piece eccentrically pivoted in a
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spindle is kept as shown in Fig 3. The spindle is free to

move with the help of the jewelled bearings, and the
pointer, which is attached to the spindle, could move
over the graduated scale. When the electromagnetic coil respectively to produce similar poles in the ends. There-
is not connected to the circuit, the soft iron piece hangs fore, the two strips repel each other. The torque set up
vertically down due to gravitational force and the pointer produces a deflection of the moving system and therefore.
shows zero reading. brings into play a controlling torque due to torsion. The
moving system comes to rest in such a position that the
When the electromagnetic coil is connected to the supply, deflecting and controlling torques are equal.
the magnetic field created in the coil attracts the soft iron
piece. (Fig 3) Due to the eccentricity of pivoting of the iron In this type of instrument air damping is used commonly
piece, the enlarged portion of the iron piece is pulled which is provided by the movement of piston PN in a
towards the coil. This, in turn, moves the spindle and cylindrical air chamber C as shown in Fig 2a.
makes the pointer to deflect. The amount of deflection
of the pointer will be greater when the current producing Deflecting torque and graduation of scale
the magnetic field is greater. Further, the attraction of However, in the moving iron instruments the deflecting
the soft iron piece is independent of the current direction torque is proportional to the square of the magnetic force
in the coil. This characteristic enables the instrument to which, in turn, is proportional to the square of the current
be used both in DC and AC. passing through the coil. As such the scale of this

instrument will be uneven. That is, cramped at the They are less costly when compared to the moving coil
beginning and open at the end as shown in Fig 5. instruments.
They are robust owing to their simple construction.
They have satisfactory accuracy levels within the limits
of both precision and industrial grades.
They have scales covering 240o.
Disadvantages
They have errors due to hysteresis, frequency changes,
In order to achieve uniformity of scale, some wave-form and stray magnetic fields.
manufacturers have designed tongue shaped strips as
They have non-uniform scale usually. However, special
moving and fixed soft irons as shown in Fig 6a.
manufacturing designs are utilized to get more or less
uniform scales.
Moving iron Instrument as an ammeter
It may be constructed for full scale deflection of 1 to 30A
without the use of shunts or current transformers. To
obtain full scale deflection with currents less than 0.1A,
it requires a coil with a large number of fine wire turns,
which results in an ammeter with a high impedance.
The range of the instrument, when used as an ammeter,
can be extended by using a suitable shunt across its
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terminals. No problem arises during operation with DC
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using AC.
Multimeter
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The three most commonly measured electrical quanti-

ties are current, voltage and resistance. Current is
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measured by an ammeter, voltage by a voltmeter and

resistance by an ohmmeter.
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A single instrument used for measuring all the above

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three quantities is known as a multimeter. It is a portable,

multi range instrument.
The fixed iron consistss of a tongue-shaped soft iron sheet
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bent into a cylindrical form, while the moving iron is It has a full scale deflection accuracy of ±1.5 %. The
also made of another soft iron sheet and is so mounted lowest sensitivity of multimeters for AC voltage range is
as to move parallel to the fixed iron and towards its 5 K ohms/volts and for the DC voltage range it is 20 K
narrower end as shown in Fig 6b. The torque which is ohms/volts. The lowest range of DC is more sensitive
proportional to the square of the magnetic force/current than the other ranges.
is proportionally reduced by the narrow portion of the
fixed iron resulting in more or less even torque, and,
thereby, getting uniform scale.
These instruments are either gravity or spring controlled
and the damping is achieved by the air friction method
as shown in Fig 6a.
USES, ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Uses
They are used as voltmeters and ammeters.
They can be used on both AC and DC and, hence, are
called unpolarized instruments.
Advantages
They have a small value of friction errors as the torque/
weight ratio is high.
On some multimeters, two switches are used, one to
select a function, and the other the range. Some
multimeters do not have switches for this purpose;
instead they have separate jacks for each function and
range.
Batteries/cells fixed inside the meter case provide the
power supply for the resistance measurement.
The meter movement is that of the moving coil system as
used in DC ammeters and voltmeters. (Fig 8)
Figs 7a and 7b show typical multimeters.

Construction of a multimeter
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A multimeter uses a single meter movement with a
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scale calibrated in volts, ohms and milliamperes. The
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necessary multiplier resistors and shunt resistors are all
Rectifiers are provided inside the meter to convert AC to
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contained within the case. Front panel selector switches
are provided to select a particular meter function and a DC in the AC measurement circuit.
particular range for that function. Parts of a multimeter
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A standard multimeter consists of the main parts and

controls, as shown in Fig 9.
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Controls
The meter is set to measure the current, voltage (AC and
DC) or resistance by means of the FUNCTION switch.In
the example given in Fig 10 the switch is set to mA, AC.

The meter is set to the required current, voltage or
resistance range - by means of the RANGE switch. In
Fig 11, the switch is set to 2.5 volts or mA, depending on
the setting of the FUNCTION switch.
Switches set to resistance, ohms x 100 range. (Fig 15)
The example in Fig 12 shows the switch set to 25V DC of

a meter having the function and the range selected by a
single switch.
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Scale of multimeter
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Separate scales are provided for:
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- resistance
- voltage and current.(Fig 16)
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The example in Fig 13 shows the switches set to 250V AC

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of a meter that uses two function/range switches, one for

DC ranges and the other for AC and resistance (ohms)
ranges.
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The scale of current and voltage is uniformly graduated.

The scale of the ohmmeter is non-linear. That is, the
divisions between zero and infinity (∞) are not equally
spaced. As you move from zero to the left across the
scale, the divisions become closer together.
The scale is usually ‘backward’, with zero at the right.
Switches set to 100 mA DC. (Fig 14) Principle of working
A circuitry when working as an ammeter is shown in Fig 17.
Shunt resistors across the meter movement bypass

current in excess of 0.05 mA at FSD. A suitable value of
shunt resistor is selected through the range switch for the
required range of current measurement.
A circuitry when working as a voltmeter is shown in

Fig 18.
The voltage drop across the meter coil is dependent on The purpose of the variable resistor is to adjust the
the current and the coil resistance. To indicate voltages current so that the pointer is at exactly zero when the
greater than 50 mV at FSD as per the circuit, multiplier leads are shorted. It is used to compensate for changes
resistances of different values are connected in series in the internal battery voltage due to aging.
with the meter movement through the range switch for
the required range of measurement. Multiple range
A circuitry when working as an ohmmeter is shown in Fig 19. Shunt (parallel) resistors are used to provide multiple
ranges so that the meter can measure resistance values
To measure resistance, the leads are connected across from very small to very large ones. For each range, a
the external resistor to be measured as shown in Fig 19. different value of shunt resistance is switched on. The
This connection completes the circuit, allowing the internal shunt resistance increases for the higher ohm ranges and
battery to produce current through the meter coil, causing is always equal to the centre scale reading on any range.
deflection of the pointer, proportional to the value of the
external resistance being measured. Digital Multimeter (Fig 20)
Zero adjustment Digital multimeters are high input impedance and better
accuracy and resolution. It converts an input analog
When the ohmmeter leads are open, the pointer is at full signal into its digital equivalent and displays it. the analog
left scale, indicating infinite ∞ resistance (open circuit). input signal might be digital voltage, an a.c. voltage, a
When the leads are shorted, the pointer is at full right resistance or an a.c/d.c current. The Figure 20 shows the
scale, indicating zero resistance. top view of the digital multimeter
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Measurement of resistance using multimeter meter, it is necessary to add resistance in series with the
meter circuit. In order to measure a.c. voltage, rectification
A moving coil meter can be used to measure unknown is required. The principle of generating a.c. is by electro-
resistance by using a circuit configuration. With the test magnetic induction is higher. While measuring unknowing
probes short circuited, the ohms adjust control is turned voltage levels with multimeter, always range switch
so that the current through the total circuit resistance should be set to the highest available range and work
deflects the meter to the full scale. Now by connecting the down from there Unit of voltage is volts.
test probes across the unknown resistance, the current is
decreased, and the deflection on the scale gives you the Measurement of current:
resistance value. Ohms law states the output current is
proportional to the applied voltage. Unit of resistance is The moving coil meter is sensitive to the current and is
ohms. therefore an ammeter. For d.c. measurement, the meter
is placed in series with the circuit. So the circuit must be
Measurement of voltage broken to connect the ammeter and it becomes the part
of the circuit. For A.C. measurement, rectifier type
The moving coil meter has constant resistance so that meters are used which will respond to the average value
the current through the meter is proportional to the of the rectified alternating current. Unit of current is
voltage across it. so the current meter can be used to amperes.
measure voltage. To extent, the voltage range of the

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Electronic Mechanic - Measuring Techniques
Classification of electrical meters and essential forces required in an

indicating instrument
• identify electrical instruments with respect to standard, function and operation by the effect of electric
current
• explain the type of forces required for the proper functioning of an electrical indicating instrument
• explain the principle construction and use of ohmmeter, megger and energy meter
• extend the range of MC voltmeter and ammeter
• explain care and maintenance of meter.
Electrical instruments may be classified based on the Accordingly, we have indicating, integrating and
following. recording instruments.
– Manufacturing standards Indicating instruments: These instruments, as shown
– Function in Fig 2, indicate the value of voltage, current power etc.
– Effects of electric current on the instruments. directly on a graduated dial. Ammeters, voltmeters and
Manufacturing standards: The electrical instruments wattmeters belong to this class.
may, in a broad sense, be classified according to the
manufacturing standards into absolute instruments and
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secondary instruments.
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Absolute instruments: These instruments give the
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value of quantity to be measured in terms of deflection
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and instrument constants. A good example of an absolute

instrument is the tangent galvanometer shown in Fig 1.
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In this instrument the value of current could be calculated

from the tangent of the deflection produced by the
current, the radius and number of turns of wire used and
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the horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field. Integrating instruments: These instruments measure
No previous calibration or comparison is necessary in
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the total amount, either the quantity of electricity or the

this type of instruments. These instruments are used electrical energy, supplied to a circuit over a period of
only in standard laboratories. time. Ampere hour meters and energy meters belong to
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this class. Fig 3 shows the Kilowatt hour/energy meter.

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Secondary instruments: In these instruments the value

of electrical quantity (voltage, current, power, etc.) to be Recording instruments: These instruments register
measured can be determined from the deflection of the the quantity to be measured in a given time, and are
instruments on the calibrated dial. These instruments provided with a pen which moves over a graph paper.
should be calibrated in comparison with either an abso- With this instrument, the quantity can be checked for any
lute instrument or with one which has already been particular date and time. Recording voltmeters,ammeters
caliberated. All the instruments used commercially are and power factor meters belong to this class. Fig 4 shows
secondary instruments. such a recording instrument.
Functions
Secondary instruments are further classified according

to their functions, that is, whether the instrument
indicates, or records the quantity to be measured.
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Effects of electric current used on electrical instru- When the instrument is not connected to the supply, the
ments: Secondary instruments may also be classified control weight and the balance weight attached to the
according to the various effects of electricity upon which opposite end of the pointer make the pointer to be at zero
their operation depends. The effects utilised are as position as shown in Fig 5. When the instrument is
follows. connected to the supply, the pointer moves in a clockwise
direction, thereby displacing the weights as shown in
– Magnetic effect dotted lines in the figure. Due to the gravitational pull, the
– Heating effect weights will try to come to their original vertical position,
– Chemical effect thereby exerting a controlling force on the movement of
– Electrostatic effect the moving system.
– Electromagnetic induction effect
Essential forces required for an indicating

instrument:
Spring control: The most common arrangement of

spring control utilises two phosphor-bronze or beryllium-
copper spiral hair-springs A and B, the inner ends of
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which are attached to the spindle S as shown in Fig 6. The
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The following three forces are essential requirements of outer end of the spring B is fixed, whereas that of A is
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an indicating instrument for its satisfactory operation. attached to the end of a lever `L' pivoted at P, thereby
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They are enabling the zero adjustment to be easily effected when

needed.
– deflecting force
The two springs A and B are wound in opposite directions
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– controlling force
so that when the moving system is deflected, one spring
– damping force.
winds up while the other unwinds, and the controlling
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force is due to the combined torsions of the springs.

Deflecting force or operating force: This causes the
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moving system of the instrument to move from its `zero' These springs are made from such alloys that they have:
position, when the instrument is connected to the supply.
– high resistance to fatigue (can be wound or unwound
To obtain this force in an instrument, different effects of
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several times without loosing the tension)

electric current, such as magnetic effect, heating effect,
– non-magnetic properties (should not get affected by
chemical effect etc. are employed.
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external magnetism)
– low temperature cofficient (do not elongate due to
Controlling force: This force is essential to control the
temperature)
movement of the moving system and to ensure that the
– low specific resistance (can be used for leading
magnitude of the deflction of the pointer is always the
current ìn' and òut' of the moving system).
same for a given value of the quantity to be measured.
As such, the controlling force always acts opposite to the Spring controlled instruments have the following
deflecting force, and also brings the pointer to zero advantages over the gravity controlled instruments.
position when the instrument is disconnected from the
supply.
The controlling force could be produced by any one of the
following ways.
– Gravity control
– Spring control
Gravity control: In this method, small adjustable weights
are attached to the opposite extension of the pointer as
shown in Fig 5. These weights are attracted by the earth's
gravitational pull, and thereby, produce the required
controlling force(torque). The instruments with gravity
control are to be used in the vertical position only.

ment 'M', a limiting resistance R1 and a battery 'E' and a
pair of terminals of A and B to which the unknown
resistance 'Rx' is to be connected and shunt resistance R2
is connected in parallel to meter 'M' which is used for
adjusting the zero position of the pointer.
Working: When the terminals A and B are shorted
(unknown resistor RX= zero), maximum current flows in
the circuit. Meter is made to read full scale current (Ifsd)by
adjusting the shunt resistance R2. The full scale current
position of the pointer is marked zero(0) ohm on the
scale. When the ohmmeter leads (A & B terminals) are
open, no current flows through the meter movement.
Ohm meter Thereby the meter does not deflect and the pointer
Resistances could be broadly classified according to remains on the left hand side of the dial. Therefore the left
their values as low, medium and high resistances. side of the dial is marked infinity (∞) which means that
there is infinite resistance (open circuit) between the test
Low resistance: All resistances of the order of 1 ohm leads.
and below, may be classified as low resistances.
Intermediate marking may be placed in the dial (scale) by
Example: Armature and series field resistances of large connecting different known values of Rx, to the instrument
D.C. machines, ammeter shunts, cable resistance, con- terminals A and B.
tact resistance, etc.
The accuracy of the ohmmeter greatly depends upon the
Medium resistances: Resistances above 1 ohm and condition of the battery. Voltage of the internal battery
may decrease gradually due to usage or storage time. As
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upto 100,000 ohms are classified as medium resistances.
such the full scale current drops, and the meter does not
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read zero when the terminals A and B are shorted. The
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Example: Heater resistance, shunt field resistance,
relay coil resistance etc. variable shunt resistor R2 in Fig 7 provides an adjustment
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to counteract the effect of reduced battery voltage within
High resistances: Resistances above 100000 ohms are certain limits. If the battery voltage falls beyond a certain
value, adjusting the zero adjusting resistance R2 may not
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classified as high resistances.

bring the pointer to zero position, and, hence, the battery
Example: Insulation resistance of equipment, cables should be replaced with a good one.
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etc. As shown in Fig 8, the meter scale will be marked zero

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Medium resistances could be measured by instruments

like Kelvin's bridge, Wheatstone bridge, Slide wire bridge,
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Post Office box and ohmmeter. Also special designs of

the above instruments allow measurement of low
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resistances accurately.
However for measuring high resistances, instruments
like megohmmeter or Megger is used.
ohms at the right end and infinite ohms at the left end.
Ohmmeter: The ohmmeter is an instrument that
measures resistance. There are two types of ohmmeters, This ohmmeter has a non-linear scale because of the
the series ohmmeter, used for measuring medium inverse relationship between the resistance and current.
resistances, and the shunt type ohmmeter, used for This results in an expanded scale near the zero end and
measuring low resistances. The ohmmeter, in it basic a crowded scale at the infinity end.
form, consists of an internal dry cell, a P.M.M.C. meter
movement and a current limiting resistance. Multiple ohmmeter range: Most of the ohmmeters
have a range switch to facilitate measurement of a wide
Before using an ohmmeter in a circuit for resistance range of resistors, say from 1 ohm up to 100000 ohms.
measurement, the current in the circuit must be turned off The range switch acts as the multiplying factor for the
and also any electrolyte capacitor in the circuit should be ohms scale. To get the actual value of measurement,the
discharged, as the ohmmeter has its own source of scale reading needs to be multiplied by the Rx factor of the
supply. range switch.
Series type ohmmeter The range switch arrangement is provided either through
a network of resistances powered through a cell of 1.5V
Construction: A series type ohmmeter shown in Fig 7 or through a battery of 9 or 22.5 volts. The latter arrange-
consists essentially of a P.M.M.C. (`D' Arsonval) movement is shown in Fig 9. The resistance value of R3 is so

Use: This type of ohmmeter is particularly suitable for
measuring low value resistors.
Necessity of megohmmeter: Ordinary ohmmeters and

resistance bridges are not generally designed to meas-
ure extremely high values of resistance. The instrument
designed for this purpose is the megohmmeter. (Fig 12)
A megohmmeter is commonly known as MEGGER.
Types of insulation testers: There are two types of

chosen that the full scale current is passed through the insulation testers as stated below.
meter at the enhanced source voltage.
– Magneto-generator type
Use: This type of ohmmeter is used for measuring – Transistorised type
medium resistances only, and the accuracy will be poor Magneto-generator type Insulation tester: In this tester,
in the case of very low and very high resistance the testing voltage is produced by a magneto-generator
measurements. when the handle is cranked at a speed of 160 r.p.m.
approximately, whereas the transistorised insulation
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Shunt type ohmmeter: Fig 10 shows the circuit diagram tester is incorporated with cells which power the tester.
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of a shunt type ohmmeter. In this meter the battery 'E' is However a testing voltage in the order of 250V to 5000 V
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in series with the adjustable zero ohm adjust resistor R1 DC is produced by internal circuitry
and the PMMC meter movement. The unknown resist-
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ance RX, which is connected across the terminals A and

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B, forms a parallel circuit with the meter. To avoid Construction: The megohmmeter consists of (1) a
draining of the battery during storage, the switch S is of small DC generator, (2) a meter calibrated to measure
spring-loaded push button type. high resistance, and (3) a cranking system. (Fig 13)
Working: When the terminals A and B are shorted (the

unknown resistance RX= zero ohm), the meter current is
zero. On the other hand, if the unknown resistance RX =
μ (A and B open) the current flows only through the
meter, and by a proper selection of the value R1, the
pointer can be made to read its full scale.
The shunt type ohmmeter, therefore, has the zero mark

at the left hand side of the scale (no current) and the
infinite mark at the right hand side of the scale (full scale
deflection current) as shown in Fig 11. When measuring
resistance of intermediate values, the current flow di- A generator commonly called a magneto is often de-
vides in a ratio inversely proportional to the meter signed to produce various voltages. The output may be
resistance and the unknown resistance. Accordingly the as low as 500 volts or as high as 1 megavolt. The current
pointer takes up an intermediate position. supplied by the megohmmeter is in the order of 5 to 10
milliamperes. The meter scale is calibrated: either in kilo-
ohms (kW) or in megohms(MW).
Working principle: (Fig 13) The permanent magnets Electronic insulation tester (transistorised Megger)
supply the flux for both the generator and the metering Fig 14.
device. The voltage coils are connected in series across
This transistorised Megger converts low DC voltage
the generator terminals. The current coil is arranged so
(from dry cell) to high DC voltage by using an oscillator,
that it will be in series with the resistance to be measured.
step up transformer and a converter as shown in Fig 14.
The unknown resistance is connected between the
terminals L and E. The voltage generated at the test terminals of the insulation
tester is in the order of 250V or 500V or 1000 V depending
When the armature of the magnet is rotated, an emf is upon the design which is again based on the requirement.
produced. This causes the current to flow through the A moving coil meter (D. Arsonval instrument) with a high
current coil and the resistance being measured. The resistance in series forms a series ohmmeter and has a
amount of current is determined by the value of the dial graduated in megohms similar to the conventional
resistance and the output voltage of the generator. The Megger dial.
torque exerted on the meter movement is proportional to
the value of current flowing through the current coil. A spring loaded push-button switch in the cell circuit
connects the battery only during measurement so as to
The current through the current coil, which is under the increase the life of the battery. A variable resistance used
influence of the permanent magnet, develops a clockwise in the oscillator circuit varies the oscillating amplitude of
torque. The flux produced by the voltage coils reacts with the wave-form so as to vary the DC test voltage. The
the main field flux, and the voltage coils develop a instrument provides initial zero adjustment which
counter-clockwise torque. For a given armature speed, compensates the voltage variation as the cell discharges.
the current through the voltage coils is constant, and the Initially, for every testing, the zero reading must be
strength of the current coil varies inversely with the value adjusted by shorting the terminals.
of resistance being measured. As the voltage coils
deflect counter-clockwise, they move away from the iron Ratings:: The rated resistance in megohms and the rated
ed
core and produce less torque. A point is reached for each voltage of the insulation resistance testers having the
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value of resistance at which the torques of the current and following ranges are recommended by I.S.2992 of 1980.
pu M
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voltage coils balance, providing an accurate measurement
Rated voltage Rated resistance
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of the resistance. Since the instrument does not have a
controlling torque to bring the pointer to zero, when the (DC volts) (megohms)
meter is not in use, the position of the pointer may be
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anywhere on the scale. 250V 20 megohms

50 megohms
The speed at which the armature rotates does not affect
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500V 20 megohms
the accuracy of the meter, because the current through
100 megohms
both the circuits changes to the same extent for a given
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1000 megohms
change in voltage. However, it is recommended to rotate
the handle at the slip speed to obtain steady voltage. 1000V 200 megohms
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2000 megohms
Because megohmmeters are designed to measure
20000 megohms
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very high values of resistance, they are frequently

used for insulation tests. 2500V 5000 megohms
50000 megohms
Ranges of magneto-generator type insulation tester:
5000V 100000 megohms
The instrument with the following specification is
The multi-range insulation testers are also available with
recommended for testing high tension equipment,
rated voltage and rated resistance values selected from
transformers, mains etc. and apparatus having a high
the above table. The multi-range insulation tester may be
degree of insulation and considerable capacitance.
provided with a selector switch to change the range
Ranges up to 50,000 megohms, 2500 volts.
Connection for measurement: When conducting
The instrument with the following specification is insulation resistance test between line and earth, the
recommended for contractors and inspectors for testing terminal È' of the insulation tester should be connected
power circuits, motors etc. operating on 500 volts and for to the earth conductor.
testing mains having moderate capacitance.
Precautions
Ranges up to 2,000 megohms, 1000 volts.
—
A megohmmeter should not be used on a live system.
The instruments with the following specification is suitable
for testing house wiring, small motors etc. operating on —
The handle of the megohmmeter should be rotated
voltages not exceeding 250 volts. only in a clockwise direction or as specified.
Ranges up to 50 megohms, 500 volts.

—
Do not touch the terminals of a megohmmeter while two coils in induce current in a disc and produce a torque
conducting a test. to rotate it (disc). One coil (potential coil) carries current
—
proportional to the voltage of the supply and the other
Support the instrument firmly while operating. (current coil) carries the load current (Fig 1) Torque is
—
Rotate the handle at slip speed. porportional to the power as in wattmeter. The watt-hour
meter must take both power and time in to consideration.
Uses of a megohmmeter The instantaneous speed is proportional to the power
passing through it. The total number of revolutions in a
—
Checking the insulation resistance given time is proportional to the total energy that passes
through the meter during that period of time.
—
Checking the continuity
Parts and functions of an energy meter: The parts of
Examples the induction type single phase energy meter are as
shown in Fig 1.
a) Between Earth (metallic body) and winding/element/
conductor. Iron core: It is specially shaped to direct the magnetic
flux in the desired path. It directs the magnetic lines of
b) Between two windings/conductor.
force, reduces leakage flux and also reduces magnetic
reluctance.
Potential coil (voltage coil): The potential coil is con-

nected across the load and is wound with many turns of
fine wire. It induces eddy current in the aluminium disc.
ed
Current coil: The current coils, connected in series with
load, are wound with a few turns of thick wire, since they
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must carry the full load current.
Energy meter
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Disc: The disc is the rotating element in the meter, and
is mounted on a vertical spindle which has a worm gear
at one end. The disc is made of aluminium and is
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positioned in the air gap between the potential and

current coil magnets.
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Spindle: The spindle ends have hardened steel pivots.

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The pivot is supported by a jewel bearing. There is a

worm gear at one end of the spindle. As the gear turns
the dials, they indicate the amount of energy passing
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through the meter.

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Permanent magnet/brake magnet: The permanent

magnet restrains the aluminium disc from racing at a high
speed. It produces an opposing torque that acts against
the turning torque of the aluminium disc.
Necessity of energy meter: The electrical energy
supplied by the electricity board should be billed based Functioning of energy meters: The rotation of the
on the actual amount of energy consumed. We need a aluminium disc in Fig 16 is accomplished by an
device to measure the energy supplied to a consumer. electromagnet, which consists of a potential coil and
Electrical energy is measured in kilowatt hours in practice. current coils. The potential coil is connected across the
The meter used for this is an energy meter. load. It induces an eddy current in the aluminium disc.
The eddy current produces a magnetic field which reacts
In AC, an induction type of energy meter is universally with the magnetic field produced by the current coils to
used for measurement of energy in domestic and industrial produce a driving torque on the disc.
circuits.
Principle of a single induction type energy meter:
The opeartion of this meter depends on the induction

principle. Two alternating magnetic fields produced by

Meter movement: A basic current meter movement by
itself can be used to measure voltage. You know that
every meter coil has a fixed resistance, and, therefore,
when current flows through the coil, a voltage drop will be
developed across this resistance. According to Ohm's
Law, the voltage drop (E) will be proportional to the
current flowing through the coil of resistance R (E = IR).
For example, in Fig 8 you have a 0-1 milliampere meter
movement with a coil resistance of 1000 ohms. When 1
milliampere is flowing through the meter coil and is
causing F.S.D. the voltage developed across the coil
ed
resistance will be:
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The speed of rotation of the aluminium disc is proportional E = IMRM = 0.001 x 1000 = 1 volt.
ish
to the product of the amperes (in the current coils) and the
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volts (across the potential coil). The total electrical If only half that current (0.5 milliampere) was flowing
energy that is consumed by the load is proportional to the through the coil, then the voltage across the coil would
number of revolutions made by the disc during a given be:
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period of time. E = IMRM = 0.0005 x 1000 = 0.5 volt.

A small copper ring(shading ring) or coil (shading coil) is
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placed in the air gap under the potential coil, to produce It can be seen that the voltage developed across the coil
is proportional to the current flowing through the coil.
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a forward torque, large enough to counteract any friction

produced by the rotating aluminium disc. Also, the current that flows through the coil is proportional
to the voltage applied to the coil. Therefore, by calibrating
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This counter torque is produced when the alumi- the meter scale in units of voltage instead of in units of
nium disc rotates in the magnetic field established by current, the voltage in various parts of a circuit can be
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the permanent magnet. The eddy currents, in turn, measured.

produce a magnetic field that reacts with the field of the
permanent magnet, causing a restraining action that is Although a current meter movement inherently can
proportional to the speed of the disc. The faster the disc measure voltage, its usefulness is limited because the
rotates, the greater the induced eddy currents, and current that the meter coil can handle, as well as its coil
greater the restraining action. This restraining action is resistance, are very low. For example, the maximum
necessary to make the speed of rotation proportional to voltage you could measure with the 1 milliampere meter
the current taken by the load and also to stop the disc movement in the above example is 1 volt. In actual
from further rotation due to inertia when the supply is practice, voltage measurements higher than 1 volt will be
disconnected. required.
Creeping error and adjustment: In some meters the Multiplier resistors: Since a basic current meter move-
disc rotates continuously even when there is no current ment can only measure very small voltages, how can it
flow through the current coil i.e. when only the pressure measure voltages greater than the IMRM drop across the
coil is energised. This is called creeping. The major coil resistance? The voltage range of a meter movement
cause for creeping is over-compensation for friction. The can be extended by adding a resistor, in series. The
other causes for creeping are excessive voltage across value of this resistor must be such that, when added to
the pressure coil, vibrations and stray magnetic fields. the meter coil resistance, the total resistance limits the
In order to prevent creeping, two diameterically opposite current to the full-scale current rating of the meter for any
holes are drilled in the disc (Fig 17). The disc will come applied voltage.
to rest with one of the holes under the edge of a pole of
the potential coil magnet, the rotation being thus limited For example, suppose one wanted to use the
to a maximum of half a revolution. 1-milliampere, 1000-ohms meter movement to measure

voltages up to 10 volts. From Ohm's Law, it can be seen Multiplying factor (M.F)
that, if the movement is connected across a 10-volt
source, 10 milliamperes would flow through the move-
Proposed voltmeter range (V) V
ment and would probably ruin the meter (I = E/R = 10/ MF = =
1000 = 10 milliamperes). But the meter current can be Voltage drop across MC at FSD v
limited to 1 milliampere if a multiplier resistor (RMULT) is
added in series with the meter resistance (RM). Since a Calculating the multiplier resistance using M F
maximum of only 1 milliampere can flow through the
meter, the total resistance of the multiplier resistor and RMULT = (MF 1) RM
the meter (R TOT = RMULT + RM) must limit the meter current where
to one milliampere. By Ohm's Law, the total resistance is
RMULT = Multiplier resistance
RTOT = E MAX/I M = 10 volts/0.001 MF = Multiplying factor
ampere RM = Meter resistance
= 10,000 ohms. A 1 mA meter has a coil resistance of 1000 ohms. What
But this is the total resistance needed. Therefore, the value of multiplier resistor is needed to measure 100V?
multiplier resistance is
RMULT= RTOT RM = 10000 1000 = 9000 ohms. V
MF =
v
v = IM × R M
= 1 × 10 -3 × 1000 = 1V
V 100
MF = = = 100
ed
v 1
bl I R MULT = (MF - 1)R M = (100 - 1)1000

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ish = 99,000 ohms.
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Sensitivity of voltmeter
voltmeter: An important characteristic of
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any voltmeter is its impedance or ohms per volt (ohms/

volt) rating. Ohms/volt rating is the voltmeter sensitivity.
The ohms/volt rating is defined as the resistance re-
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quired (RM + RMULT) for full scale deflection. For example,

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the 1mA 1000 ohms meter movement indicates 1 volt at

full scale deflection. Therefore its òhm/volt' rating is
1000/1 or 1000 ohms/volt (Fig 20) ohms/volt = EMAX/IM.
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The basic 1-milliampere, 1000-ohms meter movement

can now measure 0-10 volts, because 10 volts must be
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applied to cause a full-scale deflection. However, the

meter scale must now be re-calibrated from 0-10 volts,
or, if the previous scale is used all the reading should be
multiplied by 10. (Fig 19)
Multi-range voltmeters: In many types of equipment,

one encounters voltages from a few tenths of a volt up to
hundreds, and even thousands, of volts. To use
single-range meters in these cases will be impractical,
and costly. Instead, multi-range voltmeters that can
measure several ranges of voltage, can be used.
A multi-range voltmeter contains several multiplier resis-
tors that can be connected in series with the meter
movement. A range switch is used to connect the proper
resistor, or resistors, for the desired range.(Fig 21) Also,

in some cases, separate terminals for each range are behavior of current flow through two resistors connected
mounted on the meter case. (Fig 22) in parallel. It has already been made clear that current will
divide between two resistors in parallel.
It was also made clear that the current through each
resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance; that is,
if one resistor has twice the resistance of another, the
current flowing through the larger resistor will be half the
current through the smaller one. (Fig 24)
Current flow divides between two resistors parallel in a

ratio inversly proportional to their resistance.
Resistor R2 is twice as large as resistor R1. Therefore, the
current through R2 will be one-half the current through R1.
ed
bl I Every meter coil has definite DC resistance. When a
pu M
ish
shunt is connected in parallel with the coil, the current will
divide between the coil and the shunt, just as it does
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between any two resistors in parallel. By using a shunt of

proper resistance, the current through the meter coil will
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be limited to the value that it can safely handle, and the

remainder of the current will flow through the shunt.
The resistance of the multiplier should not change with
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temperature. Therefore the material used for multipliers Voltage drops in parallel circuits:
circuits Examine the parallel
should have very low temperature coefficient of circuit shown in Fig 25. It can be seen that the voltage
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resistance. The temperature co-efficient of resistance of across both resistors is the same. As already explained
Manganin and constantan are 0.000015 and 0.00001 Ohm's Law states that the voltage across a resistor
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respectively. Therefore, Maganin and constantan as equals the current through the resistor times the value of
used for multipliers. the resistor.
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Extension of range of MC ammeters

Shunts:: Moving coils of basic meters by themselves
cannot carry large currents, since they are made of fine
wire. To measure a current greater than that which the
moving coil can carry, a low resistance, called a SHUNT,
is connected across the instrument terminals as shown in
Fig 23.
Since the same voltage appears across R1 and R2 then

ER1 = ER2. From this we deriveIR1R1 = IR2R2. This equation
can be used to calculate the shunt needed for a particular
The shunt, therefore, makes it possible to measure current measurement.
currents much greater than that could be measured by Therefore, the voltage across R1 is ER1 = I1R1 and the
the basic meter alone. voltage across R2 is
To understand how a shunt can be used to extend the ER2 = I2R2.
range of a current meter, it is important to understand the

However, since the same voltage is across both R1 & R2 in the overall circuit when the pointer is deflected full
then scale. (Fig 27)
ER1 = ER2, therefore,
IR1R1 = IR2R2.
This simple equation, with very slight modifications, can
be used to calculate the value of a shunt for a current
meter for any application.
The shunt equation: A meter and shunt combination is
identical to the parallel circuit shown in Fig 26. Instead of
labelling the top resistor R2, it can be labeled RM, which
represents the resistance of the moving coil. Resistor R1
can be labelled RSH to represent the resistance of the
shunt. IR1 and IR2 then become ISH and IM to indicate the
current flow through the shunt and through the meter.
This means that the equation IR1R1 = IR2R2
can now be written as ISHRSH = IMRM.
Therefore, if three of these values are known, the fourth

can be calculated. Since the shunt resistance RSH is
always the unknown quantity, the basic equation
IM = 1 mA (0.001 A)
I R
ISHRSH = IMRM becomes R SH = M M I = Current to be measured = 10mA
ed
ISH
bl I RM = 27 Ohms
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ish ISH = I – IM = 10 mA – 1 mA
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= 9 mA (0.009 A)
0.001 × 27
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IMR M
R SH = = = 3 ohms.
ISH 0.009
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Shunt material: The resistance of shunt should not vary

due to the temperature. The shunt is usually made of
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Manganin which has negligible temperature coefficient

of resistance. A high current shunt of a switch board
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instrument is shown in Fig 28.

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From this equation, shunts can be calculated to extend

the range of a current meter to any value,
where RSH = shunt resistance

IM = meter current
RM = resistance of moving coil instrument
ISH = current flow through shunt.
The value of current through the shunt(ISH) is simply the
Multi-range ampere meters: In only some applications,
difference between the total current you want to meas-
it is practical to use an ampere meter having only one
ure, and the actual full-scale deflection of the meter.
range; for example, only 0-1 ampere or 0-100
ISH = I IM where I = total current. milliamperes, 0-10 ampere, and so on.
The meter and shunt act like R1 and R2 in parallel. In many places, particularly when trouble shooting, it
IMR M would be impractical to use a number of separate ampere
So, R SH = ISH
meters to measure all of the currents encountered in a
piece of equipment. In these cases, a multi-range ampere
Calculating shunt resistance: Assume that the range meter is used. (Fig 29)
of a one milliampere meter movement is to be extended
to 10 milliamperes, and the moving coil has a resistance
of 27 ohms. Extending the range of the meter to 10
milliamperes means that 10 milliamperes will be flowing
Keep test leads in good condition-No cracked insulation,
keep probes sharp, connectors tight.
Do not place the instrument in a place where it may be
pulled off and onto the floor or onto other circuitry.
If using an ammeter that requires that it be inserted in
series with the measured circuit, turn OFF the power,
make your connections, the turn ON the power and
measure. Repeat procedure when disconnecting the
meter.
Clamp-on type ammeters do no require the circuit to be
opened for insertion of the meter; Safer and faster to use.
When using a HI-POT tester, keep the area clear of these
who are not part of the testing.
A multi-range ampere meter is one containing a basic
meter movement and several shunts that can be con- Always start tests with output control at zero, and the
nected across the meter movement. A range switch is switch in the “OFF” condition. Make sure all equipment
usually used to select the particular shunt for the desired grounds are tight, and that the device is connected and
current range is shown in (Fig 29) Sometimes, however, used accroding to manufaturer’s instructions .
separate terminals for each range are mounted on the Make sure that the power cannot be turned on to the
meter case is shown in (Fig 30) circuits you are testing unless or until you want it turned
on. Stand on a rubber mat, concrete is a good electrical
conductor.
ed
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ish
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Care and Maintenance of meters

Always start by starting the range switch at a value higher
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than that which you reasonably expect to measure. If not,

you could damage the instrument.
Make sure your multi-tester is set in the right mode.
Trying to measure voltage with the mode set on “AMPS”
could destroy the meter and possibly cause harm to the
operator. Also, some meters are destroyed by trying to
measure voltage if meter is set to measure resistance.
If you have a choice of finding a fault in a circuit with
dangerous voltages on it by either testing voltages or
measuring resistance, turn off the power and use the
latter.

Controls and functions in Oscilloscopes

• explain the use of X5 and X10 magnification of vertical deflection factor control
• explain the use of different coupling modes of the vertical input.
• explain the use of CH1 and CH2 inputs of a dual trace oscilloscope effectively
• explain the use of Alternate and Choped modes for two inputs
• list the use of different triggering modes such as INT, EXT, EXT/5 orEXT/10
• list the use of different trigger source coupling modes such as LF reject, HF reject
• list the use of different sweep display modes
• explain the use of X-Y mode of operation
• explain the use of Z -axis input
• measure by using distance oscilloscope and LCR meter.
Introduction horizontal and vertical position controls but still have not
been able to see the beam trace. Beam find control can
In addition to the standard front panel controls of a be used to locate the beam irrespective of where it is.
general purpose oscilloscopes, certain of the controls Pressing this button compresses the range of horizontal
and functions which are essential while displaying the and vertical position controls and the result is a dot
measurand clearly are discussed in this lesson. Also somewhere on the screen. Keeping the button pressed,
ed
some tips while using the oscilloscope are also discussed adjust the two position controls to bring the dot to the
in this lesson.
bl I centre of your scope’s screen. Release the button and
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ish
you will see a trace right in the middle of the screen.
Focus and Intensity
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Horizontal and Vertical position

When the oscilloscope is switched on with the power on
be @
switch, the first thing to do is to get a beam trace on the Horizontal position (indicated on some scopes as <--->
oscilloscope screen. Focus and intensity controls to-
↔
and vertical position (indicated on some scopes as ) are
gether help to get a sharp, low intensity trace. Lower used to shift the trace horizontally and vertically respec-
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intensity not only allows to focus the display to a very fine tively. There is usually a common horizontal position
trace, but also increases the life of the CRT of oscilloscope. control in a dual trace oscilloscope. The position control
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The trace intensity should never be so bright that it burns shifts both the traces in the horizontal direction simulta-
a hole in the phosphor coating on the CRT screen. neously. However, there are two separate vertical position
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controls for the two channels.

The damage to the CRT with an extra bright trace is much
Co
more severe, particularly when you are working at slower Calibration

sweep speeds.
All oscilloscopes have a CAL output. The amplitude and
Astigmatism the frequency of the calibration signals are indicated on
the front panel by the side of the output. The calibration
Some oscilloscopes have astigmatism control that should signal can be used to check the amplitude and the time
be so adjusted that the focus control is effective on the base calibration of the oscilloscope.
horizontal and vertical portions of the trace. Simultane-
ously, astigmatism control should be adjusted with a Some oscilloscopes provide two calibration signals, both
pulsed waveform displayed on the screen. having the same frequency but different amplitudes.
Oscilloscope may have two calibration signal outputs i.e.
Trace rotation 2Vp-p at 1 kHz and 200mvp-p at 1KHZ should be
checked with both the signals. Scope’s calibration should
It can be used to make the beam trace perfectly horizontal be adjusted at regular intervals.
in the absence of any input signal. It is usually a trimmer
whose adjustment screw can be seen on the scope’s front In some oscilloscopes, the output of calibration is indi-
panel or on the rear panel. cated by a glowing LED. You will find an LED near the
time base setting and LEDs near the vertical deflection
Beam find factor selector switches of the vertical input channels.
Calibration signal is also employed to adjust the probe.
Often we come across a situation where we have switched The conditions of an under compensated or an
the oscilloscope ON, increased the intensity level, overcompensated probe can be easily seen with the
selected the auto sweep mode and tried to adjust the calibration signal used as a reference.
83
Bandwidth limit signal to the Y amplifier. In the ground position, the input
of the Y amplifier is grounded. Hence, care should be
Many high sensitivity, high bandwidth oscilloscopes have taken to ensure that the input signal is not grounded in the
bandwidth limit control. Though higher bandwidth capa- ground position and that only the input point of the Y
bility lets you capture high frequency signals, the unwanted amplifier in the oscilloscope is grounded.
high frequency noise also creeps in. It is particularly
troublesome when we are viewing a very low level signal Vertical input coupling modes
(say a few millivolts) of moderate frequency. Due to high
bandwidth capability of the scope, the desired signal is All oscilloscopes have two vertical input coupling modes,
often seen accompanied by a lot of hash. namely AC coupling and DC coupling as shown in Fig 1.
In DC coupling selection, the signal to vertical input BNC
Volts/div and time/div controls receptacle is directly routed to the input of the relevant
vertical amplifier as shown in Fig 1 inside the scope. As
Volts/div and time/div are the controls that need frequent a result, what you see on the oscilloscope is what you
adjustment while viewing and analysing signals. While feed into it.
the former selects vertical sensitivity and is set as per the
amplitude of the signal to be viewed, the latter sets sweep
speed and its setting is governed by the signal frequency.
Both these controls have a selector switch setting and a
fine control. The fine adjustment control in both cases
should be kept in the calibrated position. The selectable
positions in case of these controls are in the decades of
1-2-5.
ed
In most oscilloscopes, there is provision for X5 magnifi- The DC coupling mode is used in majority of oscilloscope
measurements whether it is measuring DC amplitudes or
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cation in the vertical deflection factor control which
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seeing logic low and high levels over analysing transient
ish
makes the oscilloscope more sensitive by a factor of 5.
That is, 5 mV/div to 5V/div range becomes 1mV/div to and repetitive AC waveforms over the specified bandwidth
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1V/div. But then we must always remember that this of the oscilloscope. However, when it comes to measuring
enhancement in vertical sensitivity is at the cost of only the amplitude of a certain DC voltage with no
be @
reduced accuracy. Accuracy specification of typically ±3 intention of analysing the quality of DC or looking for
percent may deteriorate to ±5 percent. This magnification presence of any noise spikes, the oscilloscope in the DC
is usually obtained by pulling the fine adjust control knob coupling mode does the job.
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in the vertical deflection factor selector switch.

In the AC coupling mode, the applied signal is routed to
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Similarly, a magnification of X10 is usually available in the vertical amplifier input through capacitor (Fig 1) with
the time base setting, which means that sweep speed at the result that DC, if any, in the signal gets blocked and
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any setting can be increased by a factor of 10 by using only the AC or the time varying part is able to get through
this feature. This enhancement is also at the expense of and reach the vertical amplifier input. So the displayed
Co
degradations in sweep speed accuracy. The change in waveform is not what you actually feed. For instance, if
accuracy may again be from ±3 percent to ±5 percent. you want to analyse noise spikes or ripple content riding
X10 magnification is also achieved by pulling the fine on a DC you would have no option other than going in for
control adjust knob in the base selector switch. the AC coupling mode.
In some oscilloscopes, the time base selector has two In the DC coupling mode, the beam would go off the
switches and a fine adjust. One of the two switches, screen as you increase the vertical sensitivity to get an
selectable by bigger of the two knobs, is used to select the expanded display of comparatively much smaller ripple
main sweep speed. There is another switch concentrically amplitude. In the AC coupling mode, you could expand
located with a smaller knob. This is used to choose the the display and make the ripple portion fill the entire
delayed sweep speed. This second rotary switch is screen for detailed analysis.
present only in oscilloscopes having delayed sweep
facility. Also, the two switches are so internally arranged There is a ground position (designated GND) available
that the delayed sweep speed can never be set to be on the coupling selector. In this position, the input of the
slower than the main sweep speed. vertical amplifier is grounded and this position can be
used to know the position of the beam for zero input.
Input coupling
Input impedance
The coupling selector is a three-way switch, to select
either DC or AC coupling and ground. In DC coupling, the This is the impedance at the Y input point and is normally
input signal is fed directly into the amplifier, while AC specified as 1 M ohms shunted by 25 pF. It is actually the
coupling enables blocking of the DC component of the effective resistance and capacitance across the Y input.
input signal and passes only the AC component of the All oscilloscopes have a standard input impedance of 1M
ohm paralleled approximately by 25 pF. slower time base settings), and an ALT mode for viewing
high frequency signals (or faster time base settings). The
Maximum input voltage range of time base setting for which the scope offers a
CHOP mode or an ALT mode is usually indicated on the
It is the maximum voltage that can be safely applied to time base selector switch.
the Y input of the oscilloscope. For example, a model
specifying the maximum input voltage to be 400V (DC + In the front panel of a oscilloscope you would notice a
peak AC) means that the voltage of the signal to the input light coloured semi-circular band from 0.5 s/div setting to
cannot exceed 400V, which includes both the DC voltage 1 ms/div setting indicating the CHOP mode and another
and the peak AC voltage of the signal. dark semi-circular band from 1 ms/div indicating ALT
mode.
Vertical operating modes and relevant controls
LF Rejection
In a dual trace oscilloscope, if the two vertical input
channels are designated CH1 and CH2, the available This is a method of coupling the trigger signal with the
vertical operating modes usually are CH1, CH2, ALT trigger circuit. The trigger signal is fed to the trigger circuit
(alternate), CHOP (chopped) and CH1 + CH2. CH1 via a high-pass filter, where the low frequency component
mode selection implies that the beam traces the waveform (less than 10 kHz) is eliminated. Thus, triggering is
applied to the channel-1 vertical input every time it effected only by the high frequency component. When
sweeps across the screen. the trigger signal contains low frequency noise (particular
hum) it is eliminated so that the triggering is estabilished.
With CH1 + CH2 mode selected, each sweep across the
screen traces channel 2 vertical input waveform. When HF Rejection
CH1 + CH2 mode (also referred to as ADD mode) is
ed
selected, what we see on the screen is sum of CH1 and In this method, the trigger signal is fed via a low-pass filter
CH2 signals as a function of time. Alternate (ALT) or where the high frequency component (more than 30 kHz)
bl I
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chopped (CHOP) modes are selected when we intend to is eliminated. Triggering is effected only by the low
see two different signals simultaneously. frequency component.
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Alternate or chopped Triggering modes and relevant controls

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ALT and CHOP modes are used in two different situations. All modern oscilloscopes are triggered sweep oscillo-
In the ALT mode, CH1 and CH2 signals are traced on scopes, i.e. each sweep across the screen is initiated by
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alternate sweeps, i.e if nth sweep traces CH1 signal then a trigger signal either generated inside the scope or
(n+1)th sweep would trace the CH2 signal, (n+2)th would supplied externally. The source of trigger signal, the way
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trace the CH1 signal again and the process would it is coupled and the controls like ‘trigger slope’, ‘trigger
continue. If the sweep speed is low, say slower than 10 level’ and ‘trigger hold off’ enable you to make full use of
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ms/div or so, we will see a blinking display of the two the equipment and get a stable display of many a
sweeps. For faster sweep speeds, the two displays complex waveforms or trigger on the most elusive
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appear to be present at the same time. The ALT mode transient events.
display of two channels thus gives an uncomfortable
display when the signal frequencies are low. This mode Source of trigger signal
should preferably be used for viewing high frequency
signals. This first relevant control is the one that selects the
source of trigger signal. The available options in most of
In the CHOP mode, each sweep across the screen the oscilloscope are internal (INT) line, external (EXT).
switches the beam between CH1 and CH2 at a very fast
rate (the chopping frequency is typically 50 kHz to 100 When we have selected the INT source of trigger, the
kHz). In fact, we can see this chopping effect by selecting trigger signal is generated from the signal to be viewed.
the CHOP mode and choosing a time base setting faster A small part of the vertical input signal is taken off,
than the chopping frequency. CHOP mode is not suitable amplified, shaped and then treated as the trigger signal.
for viewing very high frequency signals as you are likely In a dual channel oscilloscope, where we have two
to miss vital signal information during the time period vertical inputs, a separate control decides whether it is a
when the sweep is tracing the other signal. CHOP mode part of CH1 signal or CH2 signal that is to be used for
is, however, the right mode to select for viewing signals generating the trigger signal. Here, if we select ALT, the
having frequencies of a few kilohertz or more. trigger signal source is according to the vertical mode
displayed. We should also remember that selection of
In some oscilloscopes (usually the ones with lower CH1 signal or CH2 signal or ALT trigger arises only when
bandwidth) we do not have a separate select button for trigger source selection is on INT.
CHOP and ALT modes. Instead, we have the dual mode
in which the oscilloscope has in built circuitry to give a
chopped sweep operation for lower frequency signals (or
When the trigger source is line, the oscilloscope picks up The trigger level decides the signal level (positive or
50 Hz signal from its power transformer and uses this for negative) where the triggering takes place. If the signal
producing trigger signal. It is suitable for getting a stable has both positive as well as negative amplitudes, we can
display of signals having power line frequency like ripple trigger on a positive slope and a negative level or a
on a power supply. negative slope and a positive level as well. When we
select a positive slope, the waveform can be triggered
In the EXT mode, the trigger signal is applied externally. anywhere on the positive slope of this waveform, i.e.
The trigger signal amplitude requirements are specified from negative peak towards positive peak. The level can
by the manufacturer. Some scopes also have EXT/5 or be either negative or positive. Similarly, when we select
EXT/10 trigger inputs. The trigger signal applied to this a (-Ve) slope, the waveform can be triggered anywhere on
input is alternated by the given factor before it is applied the negative slope, i.e. from positive peak towards
to the trigger circuit. This mode is used when the external negative peak. The level can either be positive or negative.
trigger signal level is too high.
Trigger hold-off control
Trigger source coupling mode
This control can be used to adjust the pause between
The coupling mode selector determines the way the initiation of two successive sweeps and is particularly
trigger signal is coupled to the trigger amplifier. The useful for viewing signals that do not repeat symmetrically.
available options on most of the 100 MHz oscilloscopes In the absence of trigger hold-off feature, it may be
are DC, AC, Low Freq Rej (low frequency reject), High difficult to get a stable display of waveform of this kind.
Freq Rej (high frequency reject) and TV. The Low Freq The trigger hold-off control can be used to trigger the
Rej coupling mode is usually not present in lower band- sweep at the right time.
width oscilloscopes (upto 50 MHz bandwidth).
Sweep modes and relevant controls
ed
In DC coupling of trigger source, the trigger signal is
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directly coupled to the trigger circuitry. This mode is used The first selection that we have got to do is that of the
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when triggering is required to be effected including the sweep triggering modes. Usually, three modes are
DC component of the trigger signal. It is suitable for available on almost all oscilloscopes. They are auto
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viewing DC and low frequency signals. (automatic), normal and single sweep modes.
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In AC coupling, the trigger signal is AC coupled to the In the auto sweep mode, the sweep generator is a free-
trigger circuit. This is the most commonly used trigger running oscillator if there is no triggering signal, internal
source coupling mode as stable triggering can be achieved or external. That is, if the trigger source has been chosen
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without being affected by the DC component of the input to be INT, we will see a beam trace even in the absence
signal. of any vertical input. When a triggering signal is applied,
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the scope becomes a triggered sweep one and the trigger

In the Low Freq Rej mode any frequency component signal initiates the sweep as per slope and level settings.
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below a few kilo-hertz present in the trigger signal The auto mode is quite convenient when we are interested
attenuated. This mode should be used when low frequency in seeing DC voltages or simple waveforms.
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components, 50 Hz hum for instance, is present in the

trigger signal. High Freq Rej mode is used when any high In the normal sweep mode, the triggering signal only
frequency components present in the triggering signal initiates the sweep. In the absence of any trigger, we do
are creating problems in getting a stable display. In this not see any trace on the oscilloscope screen. In the
mode, high frequency components greater than 50 kHz normal mode, we have to carefully select the slope and
present in the trigger signal are attenuated. adjust the level to get a display of the signal. This mode
is suitable for viewing complex waveforms and single
The TV coupling mode is used exclusively for viewing TV shot events.
video signals. The signal is AC coupled to the TV sync
separator circuit. The sync separator picks up the sync In the single sweep mode, when a triggering signal is
signal which is then used as the trigger signal. With this applied, the first genuine trigger initiates a sweep and
mode we can obtain a stable display of TV video signals. after that all subsequent triggers are ignored. So there is
only a single sweep. When the single sweep mode is
Trigger slope and level selected, the oscillosope gets ready to receive the trigger.
This mode is very useful for viewing single-shot events.
Trigger slope selection determines the slope of the
trigger signal that triggers the sweep. When we select a Sweep display modes
(+) slope, the sweep is triggered anywhere on positive
going or low-to-high transition of the signal. In case of The second selection that needs to be done is that of the
(-) slope, the sweep is triggered anywhere on the negative sweep display mode. The available choices are the main
going or high to low transition of the signal. sweep, delayed sweep, intensified sweep, triggered de-
layed sweep. These may be designated as A-sweep
(mainsweep), B-delayed sweep (delayed sweep), A- B Ends A mode
intensified (intensified sweep) where the two input
channels are referred to as A and B. Sometimes it is observed that when the delayed sweep
to main sweep speed ratio is very high, the expanded
The main sweep is what we have been referring to so far. display in the delayed sweep mode has somewhat reduced
Its speed is set by the main time/div selector switch. It is intensity. B Ends A mode can be used to increase the
suitable for most measurements. But what happens intensity of delayed sweep display by ending the main
when we want to view a small part of a comparatively sweep at the minimum required point and increasing the
lower frequency signal on an expanded scale to look for display time for the delayed sweep. This happens because
noise glitches? If we try to expand the time base, the the slow main sweep runs for the full screen and there is
desired portion on the waveform is likely to go off the very little time for the much faster delayed sweep.
screen and all our efforts to bring it to the centre of the
oscilloscope screen with the horizontal position control Some oscilloscopes also have triggered delayed sweep
are rendered unless. One method to overcome this is to facility. Operationally, it is similar to delayed sweep. In
use X10 magnifier available with the main sweep. the delayed sweep mode, the delay time multiplier can be
Engaging the magnifier expands the time base by a adjusted to smoothly move the intensified portion on the
factor of 10 around the centre of the screen with the result screen. In the triggered delayed sweep, the intensified
that the desired portion stays on screen. This process is portion jumps from one level transition to the next as the
known as magnified sweep. adjustment is done. After selecting the desired transition
level where you want to trigger the delayed sweep and
Magnified sweep too has its own problems. First, the after selecting a proper slope (+) for positive going and
intensity of the sweep diminishes quite a bit on expansion (-) for negative going transition - the delayed sweep is
and second, this expansion may not be sufficient to engaged. This mode gives a highly reduced display jitter
permit a view of very fast glitches, for instance, a few as the sweep is triggered by a definite trigger signal level.
ed
nanoseconds wide glitch sitting somewhere on a waveform
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with a time period of a few milliseconds. X-Y operation
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Delayed sweep is what comes to our rescue in such In the X-Y mode, the horizontal axis of the oscilloscope
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cases. As mentioned earlier, we have at our disposal two also represents a voltage rather than time as is the case
independent time base settings, one for the main sweep in the usual oscilloscope operation. The time base circuitry
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and the other for the delayed sweep. To make use of the gets bypassed. The signal to be represented on the
delayed sweep facility, set the delayed time base at a horizontal or X-axis is applied to the horizontal deflection
much faster speed than the main time base. There is also input available on the front panel of the oscilloscope
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a delay time multiplier (a multiturn potentiometer) control having X-Y mode feature.
on the panel. Set that to the centre of its range. Engage
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the intensified sweep button. We would notice a small CH3 input is the horizontal input. It has two selectable
portion of the waveform being viewed on main sweep horizontal deflection factors of 100mV/div. and 1V/div.
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getting intensified. This implies that we have engaged i.e. 100mV signal (in case of 100mV/div. selection) and
the delayed sweep. The width of this intensified portion 1V signal (in case of 1V/div. selection) will sweep the
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depends upon the time base setting of the delayed beam horizontally by one division. The other signal is
sweep. applied to the vertical input (one of the two vertical inputs
in a dual channel oscilloscope). The result is the desired
The photograph is for a delayed sweep of 5ms/div. The X-Y display.
width becomes narrower as we make the sweep faster.
Thus, faster the delayed sweep, narrower is the intensified A major problem with this kind of X-Y mode of operation
portion and larger is the magnification that we get. The is that it offers an uncalibrated fixed sweep speed. This
position of this intensified portion is as per the part of the problem is, however, overcome in majority of modern
waveform we wish to expand. dual channel scopes by letting one of the two vertical
inputs to be used as a horizontal input in the X-Y mode.
After having adjusted the two things, engage the delayed The oscilloscopes having this provision will have the
sweep mode. The intensified portion fills the entire letters ‘X’ and ‘Y’ written near the input connectors of the
screen. In this mode, we can achieve much higher two channels to indicate X and Y inputs when we select
magnification without sacrificing the intensity. In some the X-Y mode. Thus, both horizontal and vertical axes
scopes, there is a provision for viewing the main sweep have variable calibrated deflection factors.
signal and the intensified delayed signal simultaneously.
Most of the 100 MHZ oscilloscopes have this facility. The One can also notice that the vertical position control
availability of this feature is indicated by the ALT sweep corresponding to vertical channel being used for X-input
display mode. To use this facility, depress ALT sweep in X-Y mode can be used to deflect the X-Y display
display instead of main sweep. horizontally. X-Y operational mode has numerous
applications like plotting transfer characteristics of devices
and circuits, measuring phase difference between two
given signals having same frequency, measuring an L.C.R. Meter
unknown frequency etc.
The LCR meter is an electronic test equipment used to
measure among other parameters the impedance of a
Z-axis input
component (fig 1 and 2)
The oscilloscope display has three components: the Usually the device under test (DUT) is subjected to an
horizontal component (X-axis component), the vertical AC voltage source, then the voltage over and current
component (Y-axis component) and the beam intensity through device under test are measured. The measured
(Z-axis component). The intensity remains constant for a inpedance consists of real and complex components.
particular setting of the intensity control during normal The phase angle is also an important parameter.
operation. Most of the scopes have an external Z axis
input located on the rear panel. A signal fed to this input Fig 1
can be used to modulate the intensity of the display. Use
of this input in conjunction with vertical inputs has many
interesting applications.
This class room session is expected to be highly interac-

tive and brainstorming. In this session, the instructor
should take-up each of the objective listed above sepa-
rately and guide the trainees to develope a procedure for
carrying out the task. For example, in this classroom
session, the instructor should first take-up the first objec-
CEC52711
tive “procedure to calibrate the given CRO using
internal calibration signals” and brief the trainees the
ed
nature of task (calibration of CRO).
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Fig 2
ish
The instructor should then divide the class into 4 groups
and instruct them to draft the procedure to carry out the
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task in hand (“to calibrate the given CRO using internal

calibration signals”). To aid the trainees work, they
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should be provided with copies of the oscilloscope

manuals, related reference books (available in the library)
and advised to refer previous lessons on oscilloscope.
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With these reference materials in hand and the

demonstration witnessed by them in the previous
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exercises, the trainee groups should draft the procedure

for carrying out the task in hand (each group should
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develop one draft).

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The draft developed by each group should be discussed

with the entire class. During the discussion, the trainees
should be motivated to point out procedural errors in the
drafts and suitable correction to it. After discussing all the
drafts (4 drafts in a class of 16 trainees), the instructor
should generate a procedure taking all vital points from
the drafts. This shall be used as the final procedure for
carrying out the task in the laboratory.
CEC52712
L.C.R. METER
– Do not waste time in drawing beautiful
colourful sketches of the test setup. Just
rough pencil sketches will do.
– Refer to books and or consult your instruc-
tor when you are in doubt.
– Give opportunity for every trainee in you
batch to give his idea.
– Jot down ideas given by the group mem-
bers. This will help you finalize the draft
more easily and in less time.
Instructor to refer IG for more tips on conduct-
ing this brainstorming session.
Signal generators
• list the classifications of signal generator based on signal waveform produced
• list the classification of signal generator based on frequency coverage
• explain principle, specification and applications of AF generator, RF generator, FM generator, sweep
generator
• explain the advantage of digital frequency synthesizers.
A signal generator with a multimeter and an oscilloscope 10 hertz to 100 kilohertz for the square wave section. The
forms the trio work-horse instrument of an electronic rise time of the square wave at full-scale deflection will be
mechanic. The signal generator generate a wide variety generally less than 750 nanoseconds and the tilt is
of signal waveforms covering broad signals. Therefore,
signal generators are classified in two main subdivisions
based on waveforms produced and frequency ranges
covered. Based on the signal waveforms produced the
following main types are popular;
1 The sine-wave generator

It is most common for general-purpose testing. It is
ed
widely used in both continuous-wave (CW) and amplitude-
modulated (AM) forms.
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2 The square-wave generator
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It is also commonly found in laboratories and is used for approximately 5 percent at 20 hertz. The peak-to-peak
amplifier response testing and in performing other wave-
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square-wave output will be generally 6 volts, with provision

shaping functions. for attenuation in steps of 10 decibels each. Direct output
3 Pulse generator upto 73 volts (p-p) is also provided by-passing the
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attenuator section.
With a facility for broad selection of pulse duration and
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repetition rates, these are employed for example for Square wave generator
timing and testing electronic circuits both analog and
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digital. A typical laboratory square-wave generator, produces

square waves with flat horizontal portions, free of any
Square-wave generators
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noticeable overshoot and ringing. The square waves will

generally have a rise time of less than 0.02 microsecond
Generators for producing this type of waveform fall into (20 nanoseconds) over the frequency range of 25 hertz
two main groups: the combination sine and square-wave to 1 megahertz. The frequency, obtained by the setting
generators and the square-wave generators. of a step switch and a continuously variable fine-frequency
control can be read directly from the meter provided on
The first group offers a choice of either waveform but
the equipment.
does not give the precision of square-wave output of the
second group. The square wave generators provides Signal generators based on its frequency coverage
only square waves with high precision. In relatively
inexpensive combination generators, a pseudosquare The frequency range in a signal generator can affect its
wave is often produced by simply clipping the original operational characteristics markedly. Ranges vary from
sine wave either by diode clipping or overdriven amplifier audio frequency (AF from 20 to 20,000 hertz) to radio
action. As a result, the products of such action retain the frequency. The R-F ranges in telecommunication alone
rise and fall portions of the sine wave. In such cases, only extend well into the gigahertz region, covering ranges
an approximate square wave is produced, suitable only where the higher frequencies are millions of times greater
for limited wave-shaping observations. than the lower R-F frequencies as given in the Table
below.
Combination generator
A typical laboratory combination generator generates

true square waves as shown in Fig 1 with a Schmitt-
trigger circuit. It generally provides frequency ranges of
89
Table : Regions of the frequency spectrum
Region Frequency band ITU Band* No.

3 4
(VLF) Very low frequencies 3 x 10 to 3 x 10 (30 kHz) 4
(LF)Low frequencies 3 x 104 to 3 x 105 (300 kHz) 5
5 6
(MF) Medium frequencies 3 x 10 to 3 x 10 (3 MHz) 6
(HF) High frequencies 3 x 106 to 3 x 107 (30 MHz) 7
(VHF) Very high frequencies 3 x 107 to 3 x 108 (300 MHz) 8
8 9
(UHF) Ultrahigh frequencies 3 x 10 to 3 x 10 (3 GHz) 9
(SHF) Superhigh frequencies 3 x 109 to 3 x 1010 (30 GHz) 10 (or 1cm)
10 11
(EHF) Extremely high frequencies 3 x 10 to 3 x 10 (300 GHz) 11 (or 1cm)
*International Telecommunication Band Number decade bands. The first covers 5 to 60 hertz and the last
50 to 600 kilohertz. At all frequencies, output can be as
The more common name microwave frequencies is
generally used to span the regions of SHF and EHF.
Radar bands in these regions have distinctive names,
such as the X-Band at around 10 gigahertz.
Useful frequency regions are being explored at both the
ed
lower and upper edges of the electromagnetic spectrum
shown graphically in Fig 2.
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ish
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Audio frequency generators great as 20 volts runs on open circuit; when delivering a
signal to a 600 ohm load, the voltage across the load is
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Signal generation is based on the oscillator. in addition to one-half the open-circuit voltage, or 10 volts. The power
the common regenerative feed-back amplifier with LC in this matched load is thus E2/R or
resonant circuit various RC combinations can be used for
the oscillating circuit of a signal generator. The one 10 x 10 volts/600 ohms = 1/6 watt or 167 milliwatts
almost universally employed in practical AF generators
is the Wien-bridge circuit. Although 167 milliwatts does not look to be large value
remember that it represents a comparatively large voltage
An LC circuit would require bulky nonlinear inductors for under ordinary test conditions. For any given setting of
changing frequency ranges at lower frequencies. The RC the amplitude control, the output signal is stable as the
circuit changes range by the use of precision resistors. frequency is varied and remains undistorted within the
Moreover, the stability of the RC circuit against changes tolerances below.
in load is much better than the stability of an LC circuit,
which reacts to load changes with variations in both the Frequency coverage: 5 hertz to 600 kilohertz (or 1 hertz
frequency and amplitude of the output. Thus even though to 100 kilohertz in alternate model)
the RC circuit requires more stages of amplification that
required in an LC circuit, the resulting circuit is much Calibration accuracy: ±2 percent under normal condi-
more suitable for laboratory purposes and for use in tions
practical instruments.
Frequency response: Within ±1 decibel (of a 1000
The AF oscillator shown in Fig 3 generates practically hertz reference) over entire frequency range.
pure sinusoidal waveforms over the range 5 hertz to 600
kilohertz. This range includes signals in the subsonic, Frequency stability: Negligible shift in output frequency
audio and ultrasonic bands. There are five overlapping for ±10 percent line-voltage variations.

Distortion: Less than 1/2 percent below 500 kilohertz frequency dial to around 1 percent is sufficient, if this dial
(less than 1 percent above 500 kilohertz) independent of frequency can be checked against a crystal calibrator
load impedance. whenever greater precision, usually upto ±0.01 percent
is desired.
Balanced output: May be obtained (at maximum output)
with better than 1 percent balance; or may be operated Besides being able to generate a reliably known frequency
single-ended (with low side grounded), at an internal the standard signal generator must also provide that the
impedance of 600 ohms, for any portion of output signal be accurately calibrated in microvolts of amplitude
attenuator. and be capable of being modulated to a known percentage.
The known amplitude calibrated in microvolts is provided
When desired, the output can be obtained ungrounded by a low-impedance, variable attenuator, monitored by a
by using only the high and low output terminals and meter generally labeled carrier microvolts. The low
leaving the ground terminal unconnected. The circuit impedance is necessary to maintain constant output as
retains its desirable characteristics throughout a variety the generator is fed into various loads. The output of the
of AF and even RF testing conditions where a pure sine- generator is normally provided by a coaxial cable
wave signal of constant amplitude over a wide frequency terminated in a low resistance, generally of 50 ohms. The
range is required in the laboratory. impedance seen by the load, which is this resistor in
parallel with the attenuator is usually much lower. This
Other version of the AF signal generator using the Wien- low output impedance is maintained at all settings of the
bridge arrangement, offers some interesting additional attenuator, which can vary the output from a few microvolts
features. One such is that it can be synchronized from an up to calibrated values of 100,000 microvolts and also
external source and extended frequency range of 2 hertz upto 1 or 2 volts uncalibrated.
to 2 megahertz.
Typical specifications of a RF generator
ed
When an external signal of atleast 1 volt is introduced
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into the ext sync jack, the oscillator locks in when it is Frequency range: 75 kilohertz to 30 megahertz in
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ish
within ±3 percent of the frequency of the introduced different ranges. Each range is push-button selected,
signal. This lock-in range can be increased proportionally and the frequency dial set for any frequency within that
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as the external sync signal becomes greater. If it is a 10 range by a reversible motor, which turns the variable
volt sine wave, the frequency of the oscillator may be capacitors.
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locked within 30 percent either side of the input signal.

Besides the obvious synchronizing application of locking Modulation: Continuously variable from 0 to 100 percent
the oscillator output to a crystal-frequency standard, either at 400 or 1000 hertz or from an external source.
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other applications include service as a phase shifter in an

amplitude modulation source and an automatic phase- Output: Continuously variable from 0.1 microvolt to 2.2
t t rig
controlled oscillator. volts, at an output impedance of 5 ohms (upto 2

megahertz) rising to 25 ohms (at 30 megahertz). Incidental
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Radio frequency generator frequency modulation is less than 0.01 percent at 30

percent amplitude modulation.
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A radio-frequency generator suitable for laboratory appli-

cations as a “standard signal generator” must be able to The amplitude and frequency stability of standard-signal
generate frequencies from, around 100 kilohertz upto RF generator is obtained by careful design of amplifying
about 30 megahertz. Also it must have an output signal and isolating circuits, as well as of the primary circuits,
stable both in frequency and amplitude. It is easy to get whose function is to produce stable oscillations.
an oscillator to oscillate in this range; but difficult to keep
the frequency and amplitude constant in spite of slight
changes in normal operating conditions.
A ±1 percent change in a nominal output frequency of

1000 hertz (or ±10 hertz) might easily be tolerated for an
AF signal; the same change in a 10 megahertz signal
would shift the frequency of 100,000 hertz and might
easily detune a high-Q tuned circuit. Maintaining and
checking the frequency stability of high frequency circuits
is greatly simplified by the use of crystal oscillator and
crystal calibration circuits. The crystal oscillator is
inherently very stable and can provide constant frequen-
cies within much better than 0.01 percent (or 1 part/
10,000). When used in a crystal oven it will furnish
accuracies of 1 part/1,000,000 (±0.0001 percent). For
most laboratory applications, direct reading of the variable-
E&H Electronic (NSQF - 5) - Mechanic Related Theory for Exercise 1.3.40 91

Electronics & Hardware Related Theory for Exercise 1.4.41- 1.4.44
Electronic Mechanic - Soldering and Desoldering
Soldering of wires
• state the meaning of soldering, and tinning
• explain the purpose of solder and flux and their types
• describe soldering technique
• describe features of soldering iron
• explain desoldering and desoldering tools
• study the soldering and desoldering station and their specification
• explain the desoldering by using pump and wick.
SOLDERING [2] The electrical joint made should be strong enough to

withstand vibrations, physical shock, bumps etc,
Soldering is a process of connecting any two metallic without causing any deterioration to the quality and
surfaces such as copper, brass and alloys of these strength of the joint.
metals. Some types of solder joints are shown in Fig 1
[3] The electrical joint should be able to withstand corrosion
and oxidation due to adverse atmospheric conditions.
All the above requirements of an electrical joint can be
ed
achieved by making a solder joints.
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ish
Solder
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In a soldered joint, the solder is a mixture of metals,

generally TIN and LEAD. It is made to melt at a certain
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temperature. It acts as a filler between the parts of the

connection/joint to form a continuous, low resistance
metallic path for conduction of electricity.
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In soldering, as the metal surface is wetted (free flow of

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liquid solder over a surface) by the solder, a complex

chemical reaction, bonds the solder to the metal surface.
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The tin content of the solder diffuses with the metal

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There are two types of soldering, surface to form a layer of a completely new alloy. The
alloy so formed will have the same structure as the
[1] Hard soldering or brazing used for joining large constituent metals and retain their metallic properties
metal parts as shown in Fig 1a. and strength.
[2] Soft soldering used to form good electrical joints/ Soldering and soldering irons
connections between electrical/electronic parts as
shown in Fig 1b.
Soft soldering is used extensively for electronic circuit

wiring. In this lesson only soft soldering is discussed.
Hard soldering or brazing is out of scope of this lesson.
From now on in this book, soldering means

soft soldering.
Need for soldering

Requirements of an electrical joint
[1] The electrical joint must provide ideally zero resistance
or at least a very low resistance path, for the flow of
current.
92
While soldering, the solder is made to melt between the Solders are available in many forms as shown in Fig 4.
metallic surfaces of the joint, using a soldering iron, as The type to be chosen depends on, the type of soldering
shown in Fig 2. A soldering iron is an instrument used to be carried out. The wire type solder shown in Fig 4 is
to produce the required heat to carry out soldering. the most commonly used solder for hand soldering work,
using low wattage soldering iron.
Soldering irons of different wattage ratings starting from
10 watts to more than 150 watts are available Solders available in the market may have different tin-
commercially. Depending on the type, size and heat lead proportion in it. For general electronic circuit
sensitivity of the components being soldered, the most soldering work, solder with 60% tin and 40% lead is most
suitable wattage soldering iron should be chosen. Most suited. This solder is commonly called 60/40 solder. This
of these soldering iron work on 240V, 50Hz AC mains solder has been specially developed to possess superior
supply. There are special type irons which work on dc properties required for electronic circuit work.
supply also. For soldering delicate components, soldering
irons with temperature controlling facility are used. Soldering FLUX
These are known as soldering stations.
A protective oxide layer forms on the exposed surface of
Soldering iron tips most metals. The rate at which the oxide layer is formed
varies from metal to metal. The layer forms quickly on
Soldering irons are designed to take, a variety of tip newly exposed metal, and over time, the layer slowly
sizes and shapes as shown in Fig 3. The choice of the become quite thick.
iron and the tip to use depends on, the nature of the joint
to be soldered. A proper selection of the soldering iron This oxide layer on metals interferes with soldering.
and tip is important for obtaining good quality soldered Hence, it must be removed before a soldered joint can
joint. To solder effectively, the tip of the soldering iron be made.
ed
must be kept clean all times.
The purpose of flux is to first dissolve the thin layer of
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ish
oxide from the surface of the metals to be joined, and
then form a protective blanket over them until the solder
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can flow over the joint surfaces to form the joint.

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However, thick layers of oxide must be removed using

an abrasive method as all types of flux are not capable
of dissolving their oxide layers.
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Types of flux
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There are several types of fluxes used in different types

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of soldering. The type of flux used for soldering electronic

Types of solders
components is called rosin. Rosin is made from a resin
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obtained from the sap of trees.
Rosin flux is ideal for soldering electronic components

because, it become active at the soldering temperature,
but revert to an inactive state when cooled again. An
additional advantage is that it is non-conductive.
The rosin has activators or halides added to it. The

activators used in rosins are mild acids that become very
active at soldering temperatures. These acids dissolve
the oxide layer on the metals to be soldered.
Organic and inorganic acid fluxes are available. These

fluxes are not suitable for soldering electronic circuits.
Common forms of flux
Flux is available in a variety of forms to suit various types

of application. Flux is available as a liquid, paste or a
solid block. For most applications flux is often put in the
solder itself during manufacture.
Not all flux types are available in all forms. For
hand soldering work on electronic circuits,
the best form for the flux is either as a liquid
or a paste.
Rosin cored solder

Several manufacturers produce solder wire with the flux
already included in one or more cores running along its
length as shown in Fig 5. This is known as cored solder.
The most popular type of cored solder for electronic
hand soldering contains rosin type flux. Such solder is – use 22 gauge for small joints
known as rosin cored solder.
– use 18 gauge for medium joints
– use 16 gauge for large joints.
Soldering Technique
Soldering a joint
Selection and preparation of the soldering materials is

the most time consuming phase of making a solder joint.
Heating the joint and applying solder is the least time
consuming but, it is the most important part of the
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soldering process.
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ish Critical factors during soldering
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1) Controlling the temperature of the workpiece

When the solder is heated, the rosin flux melts before the
2) Limiting of time that a workpiece is held at soldering
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solder. The rosin then flows out over the surface to be

temperature.These factors are specially critical while
soldered ahead of the solder.
soldering electronic components like resistors,
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The amount of flux contained in the core is carefully capacitors, transistors, ICs etc., Failure to correctly
controlled by the manufacturer and for most applications time and coordinate the heating of the joint and add
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it will be sufficient. However, it is a common practice to solder, will result in a poor quality joint and may even
apply additional liquid flux or flux paste to the joint, just damage the components.
prior to making the joint. This additional flux ensures
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that, sufficient flux available while the joint is being Stages in soldering
made. When the soldering has been completed, excess
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The soldering process can be divided into several distinct

flux if any has to be removed. stages or phases as given below:
1 Selection and preparation of materials.

2 Heating the joint and adding solder.
3 Cooling the joint.
4 Cleaning the joint.
5 Inspecting the joint.
Rosin-cored solder is available in different gauges as SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF MATERIALS

shown in Fig 5. It is important to choose a size suitable
Selection of soldering iron wattage
for the job at hand as given below;
Soldering irons are available in different wattage ratings
starting from 10 watts to several 100 watts. The wattage
of a soldering iron specifies the amount of heat it can
produce. As a thumb rule, higher the physical dimension
of the workpiece, higher should be the wattage rating of
the soldering iron. Some of the suggested wattage
choices are given below:
i) For soldering less temperature sensitive components Selection of tip shape
such as, resistors on lug boards, tag boards, use 25
to 60W iron. For soldering on printed circuit boards, Suggested soldering tip shapes selection table is given
use 10 to 25 W iron. below;
ii) For soldering highly temperature sensitive Type of soldering work Soldering tip
components such as, diodes, transistors and shape to choose
integrated circuits, use 10 to 25 watts iron.
Wires, resistors and other CHISEL TIP
Selection of soldering iron tip passive components on to
lug/tag boards
To ensure that the joint is heated to the required
temperature ideally, All miniature electronic BEVEL TIP
components except ICs on
– the area of the tip face should be approximately equal to lug boards and printed
to the area of the joint to be soldered circuit boards (PCB)
– the tip should be long enough to allow easy access to
the joint. Integrated circuits (ICs) on to CONICAL TIP
printed circuit boards (PCBs)
– the tip should not be too long, as this may result in too
low temperature at the tips working face.
Selection of solder and flux
There are several sizes of the cored solders whose
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choice depends on the size of the joints to be soldered.
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combinations of solder need different temperatures for
it to melt and reach the liquid state.
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For electronic soldering applications, solder of tin and

lead of 60/40 proportion is used. This solder proportion
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has a melting point of 200°C which is the required

temperature for general purpose soldering irons.
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In most soldering irons, the tip can be easily removed While soldering to make a strong solder joint the flux
and replaced as shown in Fig 8.
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Selection of tip temperature
Good quality soldering iron tips have numbers punched should melt first, and then the solder. Therefore, while
on them as shown in Fig 9. These numbers indicate the using rosin cored solder, cut off the first 5 to 10mm of the
temperature to which the tip can be heated. solder using a side cutter (as shown in Fig 10), so that
any earlier melted portion of the solder blocking the rosin
Tip No. Temperature °C Temperature °F
core is removed.
5 260 500
For ease of application, the flux used in addition to the
6 316 600 cored flux in solder should be of paste form.
7 371 700
Flux is a chemical substance which has acidic properties.
8 427 800 Therefore, it is advised not to touch flux by hand. Use a
stick or a thin stiff brush to apply flux on workpieces. Do not allow the flux to flow outside the area to be
Hands should be washed after soldering work. soldered.
Soldering stand – Place the iron tip at the connection such that the tip
gets maximum contact with parts to be joined as
Soldering stand plays an important role of retaining the shown in Fig 12.
soldering iron tip temperature around the required
soldering temperature. The soldering stand should not
allow the external temperature to cool the bit. At the
same time the stand should not contain all the heat
generated.
– Slowly feed the solder into the joint starting close to

the soldering tip and moving towards the edge of the
joint as shown in Fig 13.
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Soldering stands are specially designed as shown in
Fig 11 to fulfill the above requirements. Such a design
also prevents accidental burn injuries to the user of the
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soldering iron.
– Continue applying the solder to the joint until complete
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Another important requirement of a soldering stand is its wetting of the joint has been achieved and the joint
mechanical stability. When the iron is taken out or has a concave fillet as shown in Fig 14.
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placed in the stand frequently, the stand should not

topple. An unstable stand is sure to cause burn injuries
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while carrying out serious soldering work.

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Inspection of soldering iron
Most soldering irons are powered by AC mains voltage.

This voltage level is high and can give shock if one is
careless. Soldering irons will generally have lengthy – After enough solder has been applied and solder
mains cable. While using the iron, the mains cable gets removed, keep the soldering iron tip on the joint for
twisted and will have to bear physical strain. Because of a moment to ensure that all the flux on the joint has
this strain, the insulation of cable may get cut. This may reached the soldering temperature. This will allow
lead to live wires protruding out. The live wires give majority of the acids within the joint to break down,
severe electrical shocks if it touches the user. which otherwise will corrode the joint after a period of
time.
Hence, a thorough inspection of the soldering iron is a
must before using through it. Generally the time taken to make a good soldered
joint is between 3 to 7 seconds from applying the
Preparation of soldering iron for soldering soldering iron.
HEATING THE JOINT AND ADDING SOLDER COOLING THE JOINT
Tips for heating and applying solder to a joint to be Tips for cooling a solder joint are given below:
soldered are given below:
– Allow the joint to cool without assistance. Do not blow
– Do not apply additional flux required for a joint in one air from your mouth or from any other source to cool
place. Apply a small amount of flux around the joint. the joint. Forced cooling, cools the joint much earlier
than it has to, resulting in a dry or brittle solder joint
which will lead to mechanical and electrical defects Don't 's While Soldering
of the joint.
• Do not use a poorly tinned soldering tip.
– Do not move any part of the joint while it is cooling. • Do not cool the tip of the iron by wiping it
This disturbs the chemical bonding taking place. excessively on a damp sponge.
Movement of the joint while it is cooling results in a
dry joint. • Do not allow the solder to be carried to the
joint on the tip of the soldering iron.
CLEANING THE JOINT • Do not attempt to speed up the cooling of
the joint by blowing on it.
When a solder joint is made, the amount of flux applied
should be just sufficient to make a good joint. But, quite • Do not move the soldered joint until the
often, there will be a brown waxy substance left on the solder has cooled to solid state.
joint. This is nothing but the flux residue. In its original • Do not try and improve a bad solder joint
state this residue is corrosive. Hence, the flux residue or by reheating. All the original solder must
excess flux must be removed from the joint before be removed and the joint preparation and
soldering can be considered as complete. soldering should be redone.
If the flux residue and excess flux are not properly Features of soldering iron
removed, their corrosive nature of the flux will gradually
destroy the component leads and the circuit board. The There are a number of features that the soldering irons
flux residue is also tacky and, if not removed, will collect posse need to be examined before a choice of a particular
dust and debris often leading to circuit failure. soldering iron is made. These include: size, wattage or
power consumption, voltage method of temperature
ed
Removal of flux residue requires the use of solvents. control, anti-static protection, type of stand available,
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and general maintenance and care issues.
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The type of solvent depends on the flux used.
Size: There is a wide variety of sizes of soldering iron
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IsoPropyl Alcohol (IPA) is one of the solvents used for available. Obviously those that are smaller will be more
removing residual flux. It is available either undiluted or suited to fine work, and those that are larger will be more
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pre-mixed with water and can be obtained in pump suited to the solder of items that are less delicate. The
sprays, aerosols, cans and drums depending on the physical size will also run in parallel with the wattage or
quantity and style of use. power consumption of the iron.
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Cleaning using water/IPA solution Wattage or power consumption: The power

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consumption or wattage of a soldering iron is often

Determine the right method of application. (spray or quoted. The wattage can vary. For basic non-temperature
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liquid). Apply the solvent to the soldered joint. Use a controlled irons, a wattage of 40 watts may be good for
clean acid brush, or some other type of stiff brush, to general work, and higher if heavy soldering is envisaged.
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gently scrub the joint as shown in Fig 15, to help dissolve For small PCB work, 15 or 25 watts is good value. For
the residue, taking care to avoid splashing the mixture. temperature controlled irons slightly higher wattages are
common as the temperature control acts more quickly if
more heat can be directed to the bit more quickly to
compensate for removal of heat via the work item.
Voltage: While most soldering irons on sale in a
particular will country have the correct mains voltage,
230V AC and there are also soldering irons that can run
from 12 V. Some irons may be made for specialist
applications where they need to run from low voltages.
Temperature control: Soldering irons use two main
varieties of temperature control. The less expensive
irons are regulated by the fact that when they come up
to temperature, the loss of heat is the same as the heat
When the residue has been dissolved, dry the joint with generated. In other words they employ no form of
a lint-free cloth to remove as much of the dissolved electronic regulation. Other, more costly types have
residue as possible. thermostatic contol. This naturally regulates the
temperature far better.Usually the temperature can be
adjusted to the required value.These irons come into
their own because when heat is drawn away by a large
object being soldered,they will maintain their temperature
far better. Those with no regulation may not be able to
maintain their temperature sufficiently when soldering a De-soldering the connection
large object,with the result that it is more difficult to melt
the solder under these conditions. De-soldering is a process of heating a soldered joint, to
melt the existing solder and removing the molten solder
Anti-static protection: With the increasing susceptibility
from the joint.
of many electronic components,particulary the very
advanced integrated circuit chips,static protection is
De-soldering makes it easy to separate or pull-out the
becoming more of an issue. While most components
components,wires from the joint without unnecessary
being used by home constructors are often not damaged
damage to the components and wires.
by static,some are. It is therefore a wise precaution to at
least consider whether the soldering iron that is bought The heat required to melt the solder is supplied by a
is one that has static protection. soldering iron. But removal of the molten solder from the
Stand: The stand used for the soldering iron can be very joint requires the use of one of the following;
important. With irons reaching temperatures of around
300°C it is necessary to ensure they are well protected. – Plunger de-soldering tool or desoldering pump
A good stand is essential therefore (Fig 16) – Wicking braid
Fig 16 But, in many cases, desoldering is done using a nose

plier and a soldering iron. First, the joint to be disconnected
is heated using the soldering iron. Once the solder at the
joint melts, the component lead is pulled away using a
nose plier. This method of desoldering can be used for
heavy components with strong leads. But this method
should not be used for desoldering thin lead delicate
ed
components such as transistors, integrated circuits etc.,
This is because, in this method there is likelyhood of
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component getting overheated or the leads getting cut or
leads getting detached from the body of the component.
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Maintenance: When using any soldering iron it is

essential that spare parts can be obtained. The soldering PLUNGER DE-SOLDERING TOOL
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iron “bits” used to undertake the actual soldering have a

limited life and eventhough the rest of the iron may work A typical plunger de-soldering tool is shown in Fig 17.
for many years,it will be necessary to change the bits at
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regular intervals. Additionally it is worth ensuring for the

more expensive soldering irons,such as those with
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temperature control,that spare parts are available should

they need repair.
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Desoldering and desoldering tools

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Desoldering
Many a time it may be necessary to disconnect/remove
components and wires from a soldered or wired circuit
due to the following reasons;
- Component failure(open,short etc).

- Incorrect component installation(polarity,position etc).
- Faulty or defective solder connections(dry solder
etc).
- Circuit modifications(replacing,removing components
etc).
Disconnecting a component or wire from any soldered

circuit involves two separate actions. These are: Plunger type desoldering tool is the most commonly
used desoldering tool. This tool works on the principle of
1 DESOLDERING THE CONNECTION - this action air suction. When the plunger head is pushed fully inside
involves removal of the solder from a joint
2 REMOVAL OF THE COMPONENT - this action

involves removing the component lead from the
joint.
as shown in Fig 18, it gets locked inside with the help of After several operations, the waste solder collected
the plunger button. This is known as cocking tool. within the tool will begin to interfere with its operation. To
prevent clogging of nozzle, this solder must be removed
periodically and the tool must be cleaned and lubricated
as shown in Fig 21.
In this condition, the nozzle of the desoldering tool is

kept almost touching the joint to be desoldered. If the
joint is heated, the solder at the joint melts. If the plunger
button of the desoldering pump is pressed, it releases
the spring tension and moves the plunger up with a jerk.
This causes the air to be sucked-in through the nozzle.
Since the nozzle is now in contact with the molten
solder, the molten solder is also sucked-in through the
nozzle and gets collected in the collection chamber as
shown in Fig 19.
WICKING BRAID
Wicking braid as shown in Fig 22 is another simple de-

soldering aid. This is made of copper and is soaked in
ed
flux. Wicking braid is nothing but a tape made of thin
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strands of copper knitted to form a mesh as shown in
ish Fig 22.

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When the solder is removed using a plunger de-soldering

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tool, all the molten solder of a joint may not be sucked

by the de-soldering tool at the first attempt, the joint must
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be reheated and the solder removed in two or three A wicking braid relies on the tendency of the hot solder
attempts. to flow towards the heat source. When a soldered joint
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is heated via a wicking tape as shown in Fig 23a, the

After doing one suction of molten solder, while cocking molten solder gets drawn into the wicking braid as shown
the tool for second suction, face the nozzle into a dirt in Fig 23b. Thus the joint is now free from solder and the
collector. This is because, the solder collected at the tip component can be removed easily.
of the nozzle gets pushed out every time the tool is
cocked as shown in Fig 20.
The flux content of the wicking braid varies from brand It may sometimes be possible to repair a broken PCB but
to brand. Generally, the higher the level of flux in the it is very difficult process. Locating the cracked copper
braid, the more efficient it will be at drawing the solder trace on the PCB is the most difficult part of the repair
from the joint. PCBs get damaged very easily. A little rough handing
during installation or troubleshoot will invite a crack in
Wicking braids are available in small, hand-held rolls the trace. While placing or removing PCBs from their
and is supplied in a range of sizes from 0.8 to 6 mm wide sockets, one needs to put little extra force. This itself
so that the correct width of wicking braid can be selected might cause a crack in the trace. Similarly when a
for the joint to be de-soldered as shown in Fig 24. component on a PCB is removed or inserted a little more
heat for a little long period will make copper trace to
come off the board's substrate. There may result a
microscopic crack in the trace.
Repair of broken trace using a conductive pen
1. Locate the broken trace to be repaired.

2. Using the Emery cloth, remove the protective green
overcoat from the broken trace. Clean the trace ½
inch to both sides of the break until it shows a bright
De-soldering using a wicking braid is commonly used for copper colour.
removing miniature components soldered on printed 3. Using the Silver Conductive ink pen, apply a liberal
circuit boards(PCB’s). coating of ink across the break and let the board set
until the ink is completed dry. Different inks have
ed
Removal of component different drying times so read the data sheet that
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When solder is removed from the joint, the component
ish
can then be removed from the circuit board. If a 4. Using the Green Overcoat pen, apply a generous
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component was soldered using clinched lead method as coating of the protective coating and let the board set
shown in Fig 25, it is essential to remove the bridge of until dry.
solder holding the lead.
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5. Set your DMM to the Ohms range and take a reading

across the repaired section of the trace. The meter
should read 0 Ohms. Some meters will read the
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resistance of their internal fuse so if you get a reading

0.5 Ohms or less your repair was a successes.
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If the circuit board is subject to vibration or flexing,

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conductivity ink or paint isn't the repair method of

choice.
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Bridging the Gap

To remove the solder bridge, follow the steps shown in
Fig 26
1. Locate and prepare clean the broken trace as you did
in steps one and two mentioned above. Plug in the
There are other special tools used for de-soldering such
soldering iron or turn on the soldering station. When
as De-soldering iron and multi-contact de-soldering
hot, clean the tip on the wet sponge.
block.
2. "Tin" the freshly cleaned tip by applying a thin coating
of Rosin Core solder. A properly tinned tip will appear
bright, silver in color. A properly - tinned tip conducts
heat faster and you are less apt to do further damage
to the PC Board during the repair .
3. Tin the trace to be repaired by coating the copper
trace with solder
4. Cut a short piece of hook - up wire and strip ¼ inches
of insulation from each end.
Soldering and desoldering station 5. Tin the bare copper ends of the jumper.
Printed circuit board have changed the face of Electronics 6. Solder the jumper across the break in the trace
industry. Comparing the today's PCBs with the old
hardwired, steel chassis devices, they lack the strength
making them vulnerable to cracks and related defects.
Soldering and Desoldering Stations PCB,we first heat up the solder joint with the soldering
iron till the solder liquefies/melts. At the same moment
A typical competitive soldering station with ESD safe by we actuate the soldering pump by pressing the trigger
design will comprise of hot air station soldering, LED lever and bring the tip over the molten metal and pull the
double digital display. This kind of stations will come trigger back by pressing a button shown in the below
with PID controlled closed loop of sensor. The desolder image fig 28 At this instant the lever is pulled back and
station can give rapid heating, precise and stable the tip of the pump sucks the molten solder. This process
temperature, suitable for soldering and de-soldering is repeated until all the residue solder is sucked by the
surface mounted. Such as QFPM PLCC, SOP, BGA etc pump and the hole on the PCB is clear to solder a fresh
package of ICs. Hot air station and intelligent cooling component.
system, adopts imported heating wire, for a long life.
Fig 28
There are normally light portable handle and suitable
for mounting and reworking SMD component by hand
for a long time.
Typical specifications of a Solder and Desolder

stations :
Hot Soldering Station :

Air Flow : 0.16 - 1.2 Nm3/h
Above image (fig 28) shows a desoldering pump -
Pump Consumption : 45W head,trigger and button of the soldering pump are
marked.To actuate the pump the lever is pressed until
ed
Temp. Control : 150-450°C
there is a click sound which indicates that the lever will
Heater :
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250W Metal
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remain locked in the same position. (Fig 29)
Rated Voltage :
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110V/220V 50/60Hz AC
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Fig 29
Power Consumption : 270W
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Air Pump : Membranous

Solder Equipment :
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Power Consumption : 60W

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Output Voltage : 24V AC

Temp. Control : 200-480
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Ground Resistance : 20 ohms

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Heater : Ceramic Heating Element The desoldering pump’s buttom head contians a hole
A typical station look like as shown in Fig 27 through which the molten solder is sucked when the
pump is triggered. The head is designed such that the
extracted solder does not solidify and block it,
Fig 27
consequently the sucked metal can be removed and
discarded easily. (Fig 30)
Fig 30
Desoldering by using pump and wick

DESOLDERING is the process of removing soldered
components from a circuit made on PCB. Desoldering
pump along with the soldering iron is used for this Desoldering Wick/ braid
purpose. A desoldering pump also known as solder Place the braid over a connection and heat the opposite
sucker is a small mechanical device which sucks the side with an iron (fig 28) Sometimes adding a small
liquid/molten solder from the joint where the components amount of solder to the iron tip can actually speed up the
are mounted. In order to desolder a component from the process because that solder will help the iron transfer
E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) -Related Theory for Exercise 1.4.41 to 1.4.44 101
heat into the braid faster. Cut off and discard tyhe dused resin - based flux that will leave a non-corrosiv e, non-
wick. The only concern with using desoldering wick/ conductive, and environmentally friendly residue the
braid is that the components and pads can easily become residue can be cleaned with alcohol if desired for cosmetic
overheated, especially surface mount pads. As always, reason, but unless you are making military spec devices,
try to minimize the time parts are heated. This wick is 1” cleaning should not be necessary. The casing is ESD
wide and 5 feet long, which should be statisfactory for safe.
most through-hole and many surface mount connections.
Width is important because it dictates how much solder Fig 31
a certain length of braid can hold. Too thin, and the
solder will quickly fill up the braid and stop it from
absorbing. Too thick, and it will be hard not to touch
neighboring joints. This particular braid is coated in pure
ed
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Electronic Mechanic - Soldering and De-soldering
Switches
• classify, specify, identify and state the uses of the different switches used in electronic industries
Electrical accessories: An electrical accessory is a

basic part used in wiring either for protection and
adjustment or for the control of the electrical circuits or for
a combination of these functions.
Controlling accessories: The accessories which are

used to control the circuits or an electrical point like
switches are called `controlling accessories'. All the
switches are specified in accordance with their function,
place of use, type of mounting, current capacity and
working voltage. For example - S.P.T. (Single pole
tumbler) flush-mounted switch 6 amps 240 volts. are used in staircase lighting where one lamp is controlled
from two places. Though four terminals could be seen,
Types of switches according to their function and two are short circuited and only three terminals are
place of use available for connection.However, both single way and
ed
two-way switches with their cover look alike as shown in
1 Single pole, tumbler switch
bl I Fig 2b but can be differentiated by looking at the bottom.
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2 Single pole, two-way switch Single way switches will have two terminal posts whereas
3 Intermediate switch two-way switches will have four terminal posts.
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4 Bell-push or push-button switch

5 Pull or ceiling switch Intermediate switch: This is a four-terminal device
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6 Double pole switch (D.P. switches) capable of making or breaking two connections from two
7 Double pole, iron clad (D.P.I.C.) switch. positions as shown in Fig 3. This switch is used along with
8 Three-pole, iron clad (T.P.I.C.) switch.
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2 way switches to control a lamp from three or more

9 Single pole single throw switch (SPST) positions.
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10 Single pole double throw switch (SPDT)

11 Double pole single throw switch (DPST)
12 Double pole double throw switch (DPDT)
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13 Toggle switch 14 piano switch

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Of the above 1,2,3,4 and 6 may be either surface

mounting type or flush-mounting type.
Single pole, tumbler switch: This is a two terminal

device, capable of making and breaking a single circuit Bell-push or push-button switch: This is a two-
only. A knob is provided to make or break the circuit. It is terminal device having a spring-loaded button. When
used for controlling light or fan or 6 amps socket circuits. pushed it `makes' the circuit temporarily and attains
One - way switch is as shown in Fig 1. `break' position when released.
Pull or ceiling switch (Pendent switch): This switch

shown in Fig 4 is normally a two-terminal device function-
ing as a one-way switch to make or break a circuit.
This switch is mounted on ceilings. As the user could

operate the switch from a distance through the insulated
cord, this could be used safely for operating water
heaters in bathrooms or fan or lights in bedrooms.
Single pole, two-way switch: This is a three terminal

device capable of making or breaking two connections
from a single position as shown in Fig 2. These switches
103
Double pole switch (D.P.switch): This is a switch with
two poles, the two poles being mechanically coupled
together. It is operated with a knob. It is also provided – current rating
with a fuse and a neutral link. These switches are used as – voltage rating
main switches to control main or branch circuits in – type of enclosure (sheet steel or cast iron)
domestic installation. – whether with neutral link or otherwise
– rewirable type fuse carriers or HRC type fuse carriers.
Double pole iron-clad main switch : This switch shown
in Fig 5 is also referred to as D.P.I.C. switch and is mainly Switches used in electric industry
used for single phase domestic installations, to control
the main supply. It controls phase and neutral of the Switching is the most fundamental function in electronics
supply simultaneously. This switch consists of two fuse- and plays a vital role in every system
carriers. The one in the phase circuit is wired with the fuse
ed
and the other in neutral is linked with a brass plate or thick Most widely used switch configurations in the industry
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copper wire. These switches should be earthed properly
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today are:
to safeguard the user. The current rating of the switch
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varies from 16 amps to 200 amperes. 1 Single Pole Single Throw (SPST)
2 Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT)
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3 Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT)

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Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) is an analog switch

used in many industrial instruments and consumer devices
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to implement test interfaces etc. It consumes very low

power with maximum current in the range of 690 nA
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Normally open SPST switch can isolate multiple periph-

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erals from source and select the required one. (Fig 7)
Specification of these switches should have:

– current rating
– voltage rating
– type of enclosure
(sheet steel or cast iron).
Triple (three) pole iron-clad main switch: This is

shown in Fig 6 and is also referred to as TPIC switch and
is used in large domestic installation and also in 3-phase
power circuits, the switch consists of 3 fuse carriers, one
for each phase. Neutral connection is also possible as
some switches are provided with a neutral link inside the Normally closed SPST switch can connect at all times to
casing. a peripheral and when not desired the output can be
totally stopped by a press of a switch. (Fig 8)
These switches need to be earthed through an earth
terminal or screw provided in the outer casing.
The current rating of the switch varies from 16 to 400
amps. Specification of these switches should have
Simultaneous enable is normally open and upon control
by master gets enabled remain enabled till disabled.
The symbol of dual SPST switch is shown in (Fig 11)
A DPDT switch is a dual SPDT switch into a single select
pin as shown in (Fig 12)
A circuit using digitial switch is shown in fig (13)
The application of dual SPDT in the circuit are shown in
Fig13 and fig 14.
Some SPDT switches have a select pin and other will

have a enable pin. The master in the design for digital
control chooses the required trigger action. (Fig 9)
Schmitt trigger action at select and enable control pins

results in higher reliability.
ed
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Digital bus switches are widely used multiple peripheral

and host selection functions, power and clock
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management, sample and hold circuits, test and debug

interfaces etc.
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A dual SPDT switch in (Fig 10) can be used

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Features and Benefits of Digital Switches
High performance switches can be categorized as digital

switches. These offer a very high bandwidth with excel-
lent frequency response for high speed designs. The key
parameters of digital switches are rise and fall times, jitter
and skew and overshoot and undershoot of signals.(Fig
15)
1 to route the audio signal from either base band

processor to speaker
2 to wirelessly route the audio signals between cell
phone and an external hands-free device.
The dual SPDT and dual SPST switches are available
either for simultaneous selection or for simultaneous
enable.
Simultaneous select is to connect one of the two signal
points or peripherals
E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.4.45 & 1.4.46 105
Dual SPDT switch in hands-free application
Digital switch model
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Different types of analog switches are shown in fig 16
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Specifications of Analog Switches
Description Ron (Typ) Packages
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Low Ohmic Single Pole Single Throw - 0.3 Ohm 5 pin PicoGate
Normally closed analog switch
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Low Ohmic Single Pole Double Throw - 0.5 Ohm 6 pin MicroPak
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Analog switch with over voltage tolerant 6 pin MicroPak

control input
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Dual low voltage, low Ohmic SPDT 0.5 Ohm 10 pin HVSON
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switch with voltage transmission 0.5 Ohm 10 pin XQFN

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Dual low Ohmic Single Pole Double 0.5 Ohm 10 pin XQFN10U
Throw Analog Switch
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A low Ohmic double Pole Double 0.5 Ohm 16 pin HXQFN16U

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Throw Analog Switch
2 Channel Analog MUX/DeMUX 6 Ohm 8 pin TSSOP

or a single SPDT Analog switch 8 pin XSON8U
8 pin MicroPak
Single Pole Single Throw Normally - 6 Ohm 5 pin PicoGate

Open Analog Switch 6 pin MicroPak
Specifications of Digital Switches
Description Vcc Packages
2 Bit switch with two independent 4.5V to 5.5V 8 Pin SO

channels 8 Pin TSSOP
1 Bit switch with rail to rail switch 2.3V to 3.6V 5 Pin PicoGate
voltage at data I/Os 5 Pin MicroPak
4 Bit bus switch with 4 independent 4.5V to 5.5V 16 Pin QSOP

lines 14 Pin TSSOP
10 Bit bus switches with 5 bit output 4.5V to 5.5V 24 Pin SSOP
enables 24 Pin TSSOP
Quad 1:2 MUX/DeMUX 4.5V to 5.5V 16 Pin TSSOP

16 Pin DHVQFN
24-Bit bus switch with 4.5V to 5.5V 56 Pin SSOP

12-Bit Output enables 56 Pin TSSOP
12 bit 1-of-2 MUX/DeMUX 4.5V to 5.5V 56 Pin TSSOP
24-Bit bus exchange switch with 4.5V to 5.5V 56 Pin SSOP
ed
12-Bit Output enables 56
56 Pin TSSOP
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Electronic Mechanic - Active and Passive component
Active electronic components

• state difference between the passive and active components
• explain about the active components
Resistors : The components used in electronic circuits can

be broadly grouped under two headings.
- Passive components.
- Active components.
Passive components : Components like resistors,
capacitors and inductors used in electronic circut are
called as passive components. These components by
themselves are not capable of amplifying or processing an
electrical signal. However these components are equally
important in electronic circuit as at of active components,
Without the aid of passive components, a transistor (active
components) cannot be made to amplify electrical signal. SCR (Silicon controlled rectifier) : Figure 4a shows the
physical appearance of one type of SCR and the symbol is
ed
Circuits formed with passive components obey the electrical shown in Fig 4 b. SCRs are also called thyristors and used
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circuit laws such as Ohm's law, Kirchoff's Laws etc., as switching devices.
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Active components : In electronic circuits, components
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other than resistors, capacitors and inductors are also
used. Namely transistors, diodes, vacuum tubes, SCRs,
diacs, zener-diode etc. The application of electrical circuit
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laws (Ohm’s law etc.) in the circuit containing the above

components will not give correct results. i.e. these
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components do not obey Ohm’s law, Kirchoff’s law etc.

These components are called active components.
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The different active components and the method of repre-

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senting them by symbols in the circuit diagram are given

below. Diac : A diac (Fig 5a) is a two-lead device like a diode. It
is a bidirectional switching device. Its symbol is shown in
Co
Fig 5b.
The different types of diodes (Fig 2) used for specific

purposes are represented by the symbols given.
Triac : A triac is also a semiconductor device with three
leads like two SCRs in parallel. The triac can control the
circuit in either direction. (Fig 6)
Transistor : Figure 3a shows the physical appearance of

transistors. There are two symbols to represent a transis-
tor. (Fig 3b). The selection of a symbol is based on either
the NPN or the PNP type of transistor.
111
UJT (Uni-junction transistor) : It has two doped regions
with three leads and has one emitter and two bases.
FET (Field effect transistor) : Fig 9a give a pictorial view

of the component, and the related symbol to represent the
Bridge rectifier or diode bridge : It is a single package field effect transistor is shown in Fig 9b. The selection of
of four semiconductor diodes connected in bridge circuit. the symbol is based on whether the FET is a ‘N’ channel
The input AC and the output DC leads are marked and or a ‘P’ channel one.
terminated as shown in the Figure 7.
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Note:- The devices like transistor, SCR, triac, UJT & FET
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may look alike due to similarity in encapsulation. They can

be identified only by the code numbers and relevant data
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books.
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112 E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5)- Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.47
Electronic Mechanic - Active and Passive components
Resistors
• state the function of a resistor in a circuit
• name the two broad classifications of resistors
• list the classifications of fixed value resistors based on their construction and material used
• state about power rating of resistors
• name the methods to indicate ohmic value of a resistor on its body.
• state about tolerance in a resistor
• give examples to find the value of a resistor using colour code
• state the constructional details of fixed and variable resistors.
Resistors Unit of RESISTANCE

Resistors are electronic components, used to reduce, or The property of the resistor to limit the flow of current is
limit, or resist the flow of current in any electrical or known as resistance. The value, or quantity of resistance
electronic circuit. Chart 1 at the end of this lesson shows is measured in units called ohms denoted by the symbol
different types of resistors. W.
Fig 1 shows a circuit in which the bulb glows brightly. Fig Resistors are called passive devices because, their resist-
2 shows the same circuit with a resistor, and the bulb glows
ed
ance value does not change even when the level of applied
dim. This is because, the current in the circuit is reduced voltage or current to it is changed. Also, the resistance
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by the 1000 ohms resistor. If the value of this resistor is value remains same when the applied voltage is AC or DC.
ish
increased, current in the circuit will be further reduced and
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the light will glow even dimmer. Resistors can be made to have very small or very large
resistance. Very large values of resistances can be repre-
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sented as given below;

1000 W = 1 x 1000 W = 1 x kiloW =1KW
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10,000 W = 10 x 1000 W = 10 x kiloW = 10 K W

100,000 W = 100 x 1000 W = 100 x kilo W = 100 K W
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1000,000 W = 1000 x 1000W = 1000 x kiloW = 1000 KW

= 1Mega W = 1MW
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Classification of Resistors
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Resistors can be classified under two main categories as

shown in Fig 3.
Resistors are made of materials whose conductivity fall in-

between that of conductors and insulators. This means,
the materials used for making resistors have free elec-
trons, but not as many as in conductors. Carbon is one
such material used most commonly for making resistors.
When a large number of electrons are made to flow through

a resistor, there is opposition to the free flow of electrons.
This opposition results in generation of heat.
113
Fixed value resistors Fixed resistors are manufactured using different materials
and by different methods. Based on the material used and
Its ohmic value is fixed. This value cannot be changed by
their manufacturing method/process, resistors carry differ-
the user. Resistors of standard fixed values are manufac-
ent names.
tured for use in majority of applications.
Fixed value resistors can be classified based on the type
of material used and the process of making as follows.
FIXED VALUE RESISTORS
Carbon composition Wire-wound Film resistors Printed

resistors resistors resistors
Carbon - film Metal film Metal oxide film Cermet film Integrated
resistors resistors resistors resistors resistors
Physical appearance of some types of fixed value resistors sizes of different wattage resistors. If the product of V and
is shown in Chart 1 at the end of this lesson. I exceeds the maximum wattage a resistor can dissipate,
the resistor gets charred and loses all its property. For
Carbon Composition Resistors instance, if the applied voltage across a 1 watt resistor is
10 volts resulting in 0.5 Amps of current through the
ed
Construction resistor, the power dissipated (VI) by the resistor will be 5
bl I watts. But, the maximum power that can be dissipated by

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These are the simplest and most economical of all other the 1 w resistor is much less. Therefore, the resistor will get
types. Brief constructional detail of the simplest type of
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overheated and gets charred due to overheat.
carbon composition resistors commonly called carbon
resistor is shown in Fig 4.
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A mixture of finely powdered carbon or graphite(A), filler Hence, before using a resistor, in addition to its ohmic
and binder is made into rods or extruded into desired value, it is important to choose the correct wattage rating.
shapes. Leads(B) made of tinned copper are then attached If in doubt, choose a higher wattage resistor but never on
to the body either by soldering or embedding(C) in the the lower side. The power rating of resistors are generally
body. A protective layer/tube(D) of phenolic or Bakelite is printed on the body of the resistor.
moulded around the assembly. Finally its resistance value
is marked on the body. Resistor values - coding schemes
For using resistors in circuits, depending upon the type of
Power rating
circuit in which it is to be used, a particular type, value and
As already discussed, when current flows through a wattage of resistor is to be chosen. Hence before using a
resistor, heat is generated. The heat generated in a resistor resistor in any circuit, it is absolutely necessary to identify
will be proportional to the product of applied voltage (V) the resistor’s type, value and power rating.
across the resistor and the resultant current (I) through the
resistor. This product VI is known as power. The unit of Selection of a particular type of resistor is possible based
measurement of power is watts. on its physical appearance. Chart 1 at the end of this
lesson illustrates the physical appearance of most com-
The physical size of a resistor should be sufficiently large monly used fixed value resistors. The resistance value of a
to dissipate the heat generated. The higher the physical resistor will generally be printed on the body of the resistor
size, the higher is the heat that a resistor can dissipate. either directly in ohms as shown in Fig 6a or using a
This is referred to as the power rating or wattage of typographic code as shown in Fig 6b or using a colour code
resistors. Resistors are manufacturerd to withstand differ- as shown in Fig 6c.
ent power ratings. Fig 5 illustrates comparative physical
114 E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5)- Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.48 - 1.5.50
placed between the test prods of an ohmmeter as shown
in Fig 7a, the meter shows nearest to the exact resistance
of the resistor directly on the graduated meter scale.
Multimeters are also used to measure the value of resistors
as shown in Fig 7b.
When a multimeter is used for resistance measurement,

the resistance range switch on the meter should be put to
the most suitable resistance range, depending upon the
value of resistance being measured.
Table No.11 of Pocket table book suggest the meter

ranges for measuring different resistor values accurately.
Colour band coding of resistors
Colour band coding as shown in Fig 6c is most commonly
used for carbon composition resistors. This is because the
physical size of carbon composition resistor is generally
small, and hence, printing resistance values directly on the
resistor body is difficult.
Tolerance
In bulk production/ manufacturing of resistors, it is difficult
and expensive to manufacture resistors of particular exact
values. Hence the manufacturer indicates a possible
ed
variation from the standard value for which it is manufac-
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tured. This variation will be specified in percentage toler-
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ance. Tolerance is the range(max -to- min) within which the
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resistance value of the resistor will exist.
Table No.6 of pocket table book gives a list of commercially

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available standard resistor values.

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Refer to the Pocket Table book, table nos 7, 8 and 9 for

methods to read the value of resistors and their tolerance
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for resistors using 3 band, 4 band and 5 band colour coding

schemes.
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Wire-wound Resistors
Typo graphical coding of resistors Resistors, in addition to having a required ohmic value,
Co
In the typographical coding scheme of indicating resist- should also be capable of dissipating the heat produced.
ance values, the ohmic value of the resistor is printed on the Carbon by its nature has a limitation in the maximum heat
body of the resistor using a alpha-numeric coding scheme. it can dissipate. Carbon resistors become too hot when
A few examples of the generally used typographical codes high current flows through them. This increased heat in
and their meanings with examples are given in Table No.10. carbon resistors changes the ohmic value of the resistors.
Sometimes the resistors may even burn open due to
Some resistance manufacturers use a coding excessive heat. Hence carbon resistors are suited only in
scheme of their own. In such cases it will be low power circuits safely up to 2 watts.
necessary to refer to the manufacturer’s guide.
This limitation in carbon resistors can be overcome by
Applications using wires of resistive materials like Nichrome, Manganin
etc., instead of carbon. Resistors made using wires of
Carbon composition, fixed value resistors are the most resistive materials are known as wire-wound resistors.
widely used resistors in general purpose electronic circuits These resistors can withstand high temperature, and still
such as radio, tape recorder, television etc. More than 50% maintain the exact ohmic values. In addition, wire-wound
of the resistors used in electronic industry are carbon resistors can also be made to have fractional ohmic values
resistors. which is not possible in carbon composition resistors.
Measuring ohmic value of resistors Construction
It is not possible to read the exact ohmic value of a resistor Typical construction of a fixed value wire-wound resistor is
from colour/other coding schemes due to manufacturing shown in Fig 8 . Over a porcelain former (A), resistive wire
tolerance built into the resistors. To find the exact ohmic (B) such as Nichrome, Manganin or Eureka is wound. The
value of resistors ohmmeters are used. When a resistor is
E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5)- Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.48 - 1.5.50 115
number of turns wound depends on the resistance value ratings are required. A few applications are : regulated
required. The wire ends are attached to terminals(D). power supplies, amplifiers, motor controls, servo control
circuits, TV receivers etc.
Special types of fixed value wire wound resistors

In applications where more than one fixed value wire-wound
resistor is required to be used, a tapped wire wound resistor
with more than one value, made in a single unit as in Fig 9
can be used.
The entire construction, except the terminals are coated

using an insulating binder(C) such as shellac/ceramic
paste to protect the wire-wound resistor from corrosion etc.
In very high voltage/current application, the resistive wires
are coated with vitreous enamel instead of shellac. The
vitreous enamel coating protects the wire-wound resistor Tapped resistors, whose tapings can be adjusted by
from extreme heat and inter-winding firing/discharge. adjusting the position of the sliding collar are also available
as shown in Fig 10. This gives the flexibility of varying the
Resistor values resistance value between the tapings.
ed
Wire-wound resistors are available from a fraction of an
ohm to 100’s of Kilo ohms, with a power ratings of 1 watt
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to several 100s of watts. The higher the power rating, the
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thicker the resistive wire used, and bigger will be the
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physical size of the wire-wound resistor.

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Applications
Wire-wound resistors are commonly used in electronic
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circuits where small values, precision values, high wattage

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Comparison of fixed value carbon and wire-wound resistors

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Characteristics Carbon resistors Wire-wound resistors

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Size Small Comparatively large
Values available From 1 ohm to several Fraction of an ohm to

10’s of Mega Ohms several 10’s kilo ohms
Tolerance Generally 5% to 20% As low as 1% available
Wattage Generally up to 2 watts As high as 100 watts
Suitability in circuit Suitable for high frequency Unsuitable for high frequency circuits
circuits (Suitable up to 200 KHz)
Noise generated Less noisy Very noisy operation
Voltage Low voltage rating Wide voltage rating
Other types of resistors 1 Never bend the component as shown in Fig 12b. Bend
the lead as shown in Fig 12a.
Brief constructional details of some types of resistors is
given in Chart 2 at the end of this lesson.
2 Bend the lead at least 2mm away from the resistor as
shown in Fig 12c.
Resistors lead bending
The most delicate portion of a resistor is the joint between
the leads and the resistor body. The leads give electrical
connection to a resistor with the external circuit. While
connecting a resistor in a circuit, the leads may come
across vibration, shock, rough handling etc. In spite of
these,the leads must maintain perfect electrical contact
with the resistor. If the lead joint is loose with the body, it
may lead to intermittent electrical contact resulting in the
malfunctioning of the circuit.
Resistors are the most common components in any

electric and electronic circuits. The circuits may be wired
on, lug boards or on printed circuit boards. When resistors
are to be soldered on boards, it becomes necessary to
bend the leads of the resistors to different shapes as shown
in Fig 11.
ed
Types of resistor leads
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ish ment as shown in Fig 13. This makes it easy for the user
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to mount the resistors in different ways on lug boards,
PCBs and other types of circuit boards.
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While bending the resistor leads, the following two vital

points should always be kept in mind. Otherwise, the strain
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on the lead may make the resistor’s body-to-lead connec-

tion weak.
Co
118
Chart 1 for Lesson 1.5.48
CARBON TYPES CERAMIC TYPES WIRE WOUND TYPES SPECIAL TYPES
10 W
CARBON COMPOSITION 9221A1
PEC C11 14 W
8K2 5%
E
C
P
5
PE 5% 4K C
5
A
31
24R P14 5
92 P0S %
2W 0D
923
5W
1W
1/2 W 017
915
CC
2 RADIAL LEADS PRECISON RESISTOR
1/4 W PE %
35
OR
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1/8 W 10 W
PEC
PEPO2
100R
0.05%
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METAL FILM 1W METAL FILM RESISTOR
PEC G1
9230B3
220R
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2W
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3W
2W
DIAMOND
DIAMOND
1W
RADIAL LEADS 10K Ω
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1/2 W C
NETWORK RESISTORS
PE %
3 5 B1
3K 9
912
1/4 W
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C
PE
1K
B1
9129
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10 W
150K
1% RCC
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1W
PEC
689
P2A
10 W
LOW OHM METAL FILM
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METAL OXIDE
ed
M
P
C
70
2W INTEGRATED RESISTOR
3W
DIAMOND
DIAMOND
VERTICAL MOUNT 10K Ω
2W
1W
E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5)- Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.48 - 1.5.50
1/2 W 1W
PEC M105
1K 5% 9148A1
CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF
CARBON COMPOSITION WIRE-WOUND INTEGRATED RESISTORS PRINTED RESISTORS

RESISTORS RESISTORS
A resistive paint or ink made of
DIFFUSED RESIS- THIN FILM RESISTORS finely powdered graphite or
A mixture of finely powdered Resistive wires such as
TORS other resistive agents sus-
carbon or graphite with filler Nichrome, Manganin, Eureka,
pended in a suitable binder
Co
A suitable quantity of im- These are formed by
and binder is made into rods etc., are wound on porcelain
pure material gets diffused vacuum deposition or sput- such as shellac is applied on
or extruded into desired former. Resistance depends on
into a monolithic IC sub- tering of Nichrome, tanta- the surface of the Printed cir-
shapes. Leads made of type of wire, dia and number of
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strate. The value of resis- lum or cermet (Cr-Sio) on cuit board(PCB) at required
tinned copper is attached to turns. Wire ends are attached
tance depends on the im- points in the circuit on the places. The value of resistance
the body by soldering or em- to metallic terminals. Entire
purity and the cross-sec- surface of the substrate of depends upon the length, width
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bedding. A protective layer construction is coated with shel-
tion of the doped region. an Integrated circuit. Typi- and thickness of the paint
of phenolic or bakelite is lac, ceramic paste or vitreous
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The maximum resistance cal resistor values lie in applied.The resistance value
moulded over the body. enamel. Available from fraction
values attainable are 100 the range from 100Ω to 10 can be adjusted by pruning the
Available from few ohms to of an ohm to few kilo ohms and
be @
ohms to 10 kilo ohms with kΩ with ±2% tolerance. edges and the top of the de-
megaohms in 1/8 to 2 watts. upto 100 watts. Superior to
2%.
tolerance of ±2%. posit. Drying of paint is done
Tolerance generally 5% and carbon composition resistors but
by air and sometimes by bak-
above. are bulky.
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ing. After completion, the
printed resistors are protected
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by a coat of lacquer.
FILM RESISTORS
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CARBON-FILM RESISTORS METAL-FILM RESISTORS METAL-OXIDE FILM RESISTOR CERMET FILM RESISTORS
A film of carbon is deposited on a ceramic, glass cylinder/
ed
A film of metal or metal A film of metal oxide, typically A mixture of metal and ce-
rod. The value of the resistor depends on the thickness alloy deposited on an insu- tin oxide, deposited over an ramic is deposited/coated
and length of the film. Leads are attached and the assem- lating substrate such as insulating substrate such as as a thin film, generally in
bly is moulded in phenolic housing or coated with an ceramic, glass etc. Con- ceramic, glass etc. Construc- the shape of a spiral over
insulating varnish and a plastic sleeve slipped over it for struction details similar to tion details similar to carbon- an insulating substrate, usu-
protection. Externally the carbon-film resistor resembles carbon-film resistors. film resistors Metal-oxide really an alumina core. Avail-
the carbon composition resistor, and is marked with the These are superior to car- sistors of 10,000 megaohms able in resistance values
same colour code. This type of resistor has greater bon-film resistors. Availabil- with accuracy as fine as 0.5% from 10 ohms to 1
stability of resistance with in temperature and humidity.
E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5)- Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.48 - 1.5.50
ity-same as carbon-film re- available. This type of resistor megaohms with 1% toler-
These are often made in small square shape with leads to sistors. is of great importance in ultra ance. Highly stable even at
fit on a PCB.
high-resistance applications very high temperatures.
119
Variable Resistors Types of variable resistors
In fixed value resistors the value of resistance is fixed, at the Variable resistors of different types are available in the
time of manufacture, whereas, variable resistors are manu- market. These types can be categorized as follows:
factured such that its resistance value can be changed by
the user. A typical variable resistor, commonly known as 1 Based on the type of control as shown in Fig 17.
potentiometer is shown in Fig 14.
For example, in a variable resistor of 10 KW, it is possible In rotary type of variable resistors, the resistance across
to set the resistance of the variable resistor, to any value the terminals X-Y increases as the shaft is rotated clock-
between 0 W to 10 KW. wise whereas in sliding type, resistance across X-Y
increases as the slider is moved from A to B.
Any variable resistor will have a minimum of three termi-
ed
nals. Referring to Fig 14, the maximum resistance exists 2 Based on the resistive material used as shown in
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across the end terminals X & Z. The resistance across Fig 18.
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ish
terminals X & Y or across Z & Y can be varied by rotating
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the shaft.
Different symbols used to represent variable resistors are

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shown in Fig 15.

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Variable resistors are also known as Potentiometers or

Pots. The term potentiometer is used for variable resistors Fig 15 illustrates the brief constructional detail of carbon
because, a variable resistor can be used to adjust the type and wire wound type variable resistors. In carbon type,
potential difference (voltage) applied to a device or a circuit the resistive material used is carbon or graphite. Wire
as shown in Fig 16. wound type variable resistors uses several turns of resistive
wire such as tungsten or manganin.
3 Based on variation of resistance with reference to

shaft position (no. of turns) as shown in graph at
Fig 19.
In linear variable resistors, the resistance across the

resistor terminals increases or decreases linearly with
respect to the shaft position as shown in the graph at
Resistance values of potentiometers are printed on their
Fig 19.
body either directly in ohms or in a coded form. The value
printed always refers to the maximum value that In logarithmic variable resistors, the resistance across the
potentiometer can have. Hence the minimum value to terminals increases or decreases logarithmically (as shown
which it can be set is always 0 W. in graph at Fig 19) with respect to the shaft position.
resistive wire will be wound on an insulating former as
shown in Fig 18.
Variable resistors are commonly used in electronic cir-

Percentage variation of resistance at different shaft cuits. For ease of mounting and controlling, variable
positions of the linear and logarithmic resistors is given resistors are available in different shapes, sizes. Depend-
in Fig 20 below; ing on their type and use they are called by different names
such as, Potentiometer or POTs, Presets, Rheostats and
so.. on. Refer to Chart 1 given at the end of this lesson for
the most commonly used types of variable resistors.
ed
bl I
pu M
ish
Re NI
be @
o ht
t t rig
No py
Co
Constructional details of variable resistors

Brief construction of a typical carbon type rotary shaft,
variable resistor is shown in Fig 21.
The resistive material carbon or graphite with a suitable

synthetic resin is deposited over an arc (A). The ends of the
deposit are terminated to lugs (X and Z). The rotatable slider
or wiper (W) made of a good conductor, makes contact with
the deposited graphite. The other end of the wiper is
terminated to the middle lug (Y). The wiper is mechanically
coupled to a shaft (S). As the shaft is rotated, the wiper
makes contact at different points on the carbon deposit and
the resistance value across X & Y or Z and Y terminals
increases or decreases.
In the case of wire-wound type variable resistors, instead

of carbon/graphite deposit, suitable number of turns of
122
Types of Variable Resistors
CARBON POTS WIRE WOUND
ROTARY SINGLE TURN SLIDING ROTARY PRESETS
LONG SHAFT SCREW TYPE SHAFT TYPE

LONG SLIDE SHORT SHAFT
(Metal or plastic
shaft)
Co
SHORT SHAFT
(Metal or plastic
No py
shaft) RHEOSTAT
TRIM POTS
t t rig
SHORT SLIDE
o ht
WITH ON / OFF
be @
Re NI
MULTI-TURN POTS
pu M
SCREW TYPE
GANGED
SLIDING
M
U
bl I
LT
IT
U
R
GANGED SLIDE
N
RHEOSTAT
ish
ed
DUAL
E&H Electronic Mechanic - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.48 - 1.5.50

SHAFT TYPE
MU
LT
IT
UR
N
Chart 2 for Lesson 1.5.48 - 1.5.50
Defect Defect WIPER NOT MAKING CONTACT Defect CARBON TRACK PEELED OFF
code TERMINAL TAG LOOSE code AT SOME PLACES. code OR EXCESSIVELY WORN OUT
1 2 3
WIPER
GAP
Co
No py
NO CARBON DEPOSITION
CARBON DEPOSIT
SIDE VIEW
t t rig
SLIDER DOES NOT STOP AT ENDS
Defect SINGLE TURN POT SHAFT ROTETES Defect CRACKED BODY / BASE BOARD Defect TERMINALS BROKEN OR TOO
ENDLESSLY
o ht
code code code SMALL TO SOLDER WIRES
4 5 6
be @
SLIDER DOES NOT STOP
AT ENDS.
Re NI
POT. SHAFT ROTATES
ENDLESSLY.
pu M
bl I
ish
Defect SHAFT ROTATION VERY TIGHT Defect Defect WORN OUT TERMINAL / NUT
ed
code code code THREADS
7 8 9
E&H Electronic Mechanic - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.48 - 1.5.50

SHAFT SHAKEY
SHAFT SHAKEY
SHAFT ROTATION VERY TIGHT
SHAFT SHAKEY
123
Ohm's Law
• state Ohm’s law
• calculate current in a circuit with one resistor
• calculate the total resistance of series resistance circuits
• calculate the power
• design a simple voltage divider circuit using resistors
• calculate the total resistance of parallel resistance circuits
• calculate the current flowing through branches of a parallel resistance circuit
• calculate the total resistance of series-parallel resistive circuits
• calculate the resistance value required to limit current in simple circuits
• calculate and connect resistors to obtain non-standard resistance values.
OHM’S LAW This statement holds good not only for a resistor, but in
The quantity of current flowing through a resistor depends common to all resistive circuits.
on two factors:
Example 1 : Using ohms law, find the current flowing
1 The ohmic value of the resistor. through the resistor in Fig 1.
2 The voltage applied across the resistor.
ed
If the voltage applied across a resistor is kept constant,
bl I
pu M
higher the resistance of the resistor, lower will be the
ish
current flowing through it. In other words current (I) through
Re NI
a resistor is inversely proportional to resistance(R) value of

the resistor.
be @
On the otherhand, if the applied voltage (V) across a fixed

value resistor is increased, the current flowing through the
o ht
resistor also increases. In other words current (I) through Solution :

a resistor is directly proportional to the applied voltage(V) Applied voltage across the resistor is : 10 volts
t t rig
across the resistor.

Resistance value of the resistor is given as 10 ohms.
No py
Combining the above two relationships between

resistance(R), current (I) and applied voltage(V), it can be Therefore current( I ) through the resistor by Ohm’s law
written as,
Co
is;
V V 10 volts
I = . I = Amps. = = 1 amp.
R R 10 ohms
This relationship of I = V/R was found by the scientist
George Simon Ohm and hence this is referred to as ohm’s Current through the resistor is 1 ampere.
law. Example 2 : Find the current flowing through the circuit in
Fig 2.
The relationship of I = V/R can be expressed mathemati-
cally in different forms as
V V
I = or V = I x R or R = .
R I
These formulas are used invariably while designing or
testing electrical/electronic circuits.
Generalising, ohm’s law can be stated as follows:
Under a given constant temperature, the current flowing

through a resistor is directly proportional to the voltage
across the resistor and inversely proportional to the value
of resistance.
124
Solution : Therefore in a series circuit, the quantity of current will be
the same at all the points (a,b,c,d) of the circuit as shown
Let the total circuit current be I t. in Fig 3c.
From Ohm’s law
The quantity of current flowing through the series path is
Total voltage applied to the circuit (V) decided by both the resistors put together or the effective
It = .
Total circuit resistance (R) resistance of the circuit.
In the given circuit ,
total applied voltage = 10 volts.
Total circuit resistance = resistance of the only resistor =
100W.
This is because the given circuit consists of one
resistor and that is the only component in the
circuit.
Total current through the circuit It is equal to Example : Find the total circuit current( It) in the circuit
at Fig 4.
V 10 V
It = = = 0.1 amps = 100 mA. Solution :
R 100 Ω
Resistors R1 & R2 are in series. Therefore, the effective
Resistors in series resistance of the circuit = R1 + R2
When resistors are connected end to end as shown in Fig
ed
3, the resistors are said to be in series with each other. = 3.3K ohms + 330 ohms.
= 3300 + 330 = 3630 ohms.
bl I
pu M
ish
Total resistance of resistors in series
Circuit current I
t
Re NI
When resistors are connected in series, the total resist- V 12 V
ance of the series connection will be equal to, the sum of = = = 0.0033 amps = 3.3 mA.
R 3630 Ω
individual resistance values. In Fig 3, total resistance
be @
across points a-d will be equal to R1 + R2. Example : Calculate the voltage drops across R1 and R2
for the circuit at Fig 4.
o ht
t t rig
No py
Co
Solution :
In the circuit (Fig 4), R1 and R2 are in series. Hence the
current through both the resistors is the same. This current
Example : In Fig 3, if R1 is 1 K ohms and R 2 is 2.2K ohms.
is 3.3 mA as calculated in the previous example.
The total or effective resistance between the terminals a
and d will be,
From Ohm’s Law
(R1 and R2 are connected in series).
Therefore the voltage drop across R1
= R1 + R2 = I x R1 volts
= 1.0 K W + 2.2 K W = 3.2 K W. = 3.3 mAmps x 3.3 kilo ohms
Current through a series circuit = (3.3 x 10-3) x (3.3 x 103)
When resistors are connected in series as shown in Fig 3, = 3.3 x 3.3 = 10.89 volts.
the current that flows through R1 can only flow through R2 Similarly the voltage drop across R2
. This is because = (3.3 x 10-3) x 330 ohms
– there is no other path for any other extra current to = 1089 milli-volts
flow through R2 = 1.089 volts.
– there is no other path for the current through R1 to
escape from flowing through R2.
E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5)- Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.51 125
Verification of solution Method 2
Since R1 and R2 are in series, the sum of the voltage drops Power dissipated is given by,
across R1 and R2 must be equal to the applied battery P = I2 x R = I x I x R .......[1]
voltage of 12V. From Ohm’s law
i.e, 10.89 + 1.089 = 11.979 » 12 volts = applied battery substituting this in equation .......[1]
voltage.
V
Power dissipated = Ix IxR= x IxR = VxI
Power dissipation in resistors R
When current flows through a resistor heat is generated. This formula for the power dissipated is advantageous
This is because, the voltage driving the current through the because, by measuring the total circuit current and the
resistor is doing some amount of work in overcoming the applied circuit voltage, power consumed by the circuit can
opposition to the flow of electrons. It is found through be found out easily without knowing the value of the
experiments and analysis that, the amount of work done by resistors.
the voltage is directly proportional to the ohmic value(R) of Using this formula for the circuit as given in Fig 5,
the resistor and square of the current(I2) flowing through the
resistor. This work done is dissipated in the form of heat Power dissipated = (6 x 10-3) amps x 12 volts = 72 milli-
generated by the resistor. This heat dissipating capacity is Watts.
known as the power or wattage of a resistor. The unit of
power is Watt. The power dissipated by the circuit found using method 2
is same as that calculated using method 1.
Power dissipated by a resistor = I2 x R Watts.
Where, Try to derive alternative formulas for calculat-
ing power.
ed
I is the current through the resistor
bl I Use of resistors in series as a voltage divider
pu M
and R is the resistance of the resistor.
ish
Example : If 10 mA flow through a resistor of 10 K ohms, Given a single voltage source, several circuits requiring
Re NI
what is the power dissipated by the resistor ? smaller voltages can be obtained using a set of resistors
connected in series. This is called a voltage divider. Some
be @
Power dissipated by the resistor = I2 x R = (Ix I) x R simple voltage divider circuits are shown in Fig 6.
= (10 x 10-3) x (10 x 10-3) x (10 x 10 3)

o ht
= 1000 x 10-3 = 1000 milli-watts = 1 watt.

t t rig
The power dissipated by the resistor is 1 watt.

No py
Example : What is the total power dissipated by the

circuit given at Fig 5.
Co
Solution :
Method 1
Current through the circuit is It = V/R
= 12V/ 2 KW = 6 mA
Power dissipated by the circuit is Designing voltage divider circuits using resistors
2
= (circuit current) x circuit resistance Example : Given a 12 volts DC power supply, design a
= (36 x 10-6) x (2 x 103) voltage divider using resistors to obtain three voltages of
= 72 x 10-3 watts 2 volts, 4 volts and 6 volts.
= 72 milli-watts = 0.072 watts.
Solution :
Draw the divider diagram as shown in Fig 7. Assume the
voltage across resistors as given in Fig 7.
Let the resistor values be R1,R2 & R3.
Assume a value of 1KW will have a drop of 1volt across

it.
Therefore to obtain 2 volts we need R1 = 2K ohms.
Similarly for 4 volts R2 = 4K ohms

for 6 volts R3 = 6K ohms
Resistors in parallel
Compare the circuits at Fig 9 and Fig 10. Both the circuits
are carrying the same current although Fig 9 is having
large resistor values than Fig 10.
This means that, the two resistors connected in parallel as
shown in Fig 9 has effective or total resistance equal to that
of a single resistor that is shown in Fig 10.
ed
bl I
pu M
ish
Re NI
Easier method [ Ratio method ]

be @
Find the ratio of the three different voltages required:
2V:4V:6V = 1:2:3.
o ht
Add up the ratios 1+2+3 = 6.

t t rig
Divide 12 volts by 6. 12/6 = 2. Fix 2 ohms or 2 K ohms or

2 M ohms as the resistance value of R1 required to drop 2
volts.
No py
Let us fix R1 = 2K ohms for the present (reasons in later

Co
lessons).
Multiply 2 K ohms by the next ratio value i.e 2.
2x2K ohms = 4 K ohms.This is the value required to drop

4 volts.
Analysing both circuits, it can be concluded that;
Multiply 2 K ohms by the next ratio value i.e 3.
when resistors are connected in parallel as shown in
Fig11, the effective resistance(RT) across the terminals
2x3K ohms = 6 K ohms. This is the value required to drop
x & y will be equal to,
6 volts.
1 1 1
Values of the resistors of the voltage divider should, = +
RT R1 R2
therefore, be, R1 = 2 K ohms, R2 = 4 K ohms and R3 = 6 K
ohms. or
The voltage divider circuit designed above can also be R1 x R 2

RT =
designed in a different way as shown in Fig 8. R1 + R 2
Discuss merits and demerits of the above two

designs.
However the current through the resistors ( I 1 & I 2)
depends on the value of the independent resistors.
Hence, power dissipated/ consumed by each resis-
tor can be calculated separately using the formula P
Similarly, if 3 resistors are connected in parallel, the
= I2R or P = VI. The sum of the power consumed by each
effective resistance RT will be,
resistors will be the total power consumed by the circuit.
R1 x R2 x R 3
RT = . Total power consumed can also be found if the total circuit
R 1 R 2 + R2 R 3 + R 1 R 3 current and the effective resistance of the circuit are found.
As a thumb rule When resistors are connected in parallel, Example: Calculate the power consumed by the circuit in
the effective resistance will always be less than the least Fig 12.
resistance value of the resistor in the parallel connection.
Solution :
Example: In circuit in Fig 11, if the value of the resistors
ed
were, Method 1:
bl I Power consumed by the circuit = (I12 x R1) + (I22 x R2)

pu M
R1 = 10 ohms , R2 = 1 K ohm, what is the effective
resistance?
ish I1 = V/R1 = 12/1K = 12 mA. I2 = V/R2 = 12/2K = 6 mA.
Re NI
Solution :
Power dissipated by R1 = (12 x 12 x 10-6) x (1 x 103)
be @
= 144 mWatts
R1 x R 2
Using the formula R T =
o ht
R1 + R 2 Power dissipated by R2 = 6 x 6 x 10-6 x 2 x 103

= 72 mWatts
t t rig
3
(10) × (1× 10 ) 10000
RT = = = 9.9 Ohms. Total power consumed by the circuit is
3
(10) + (1× 10 ) 1010 = 144 + 72 milli watts = 216 milli-watts.
No py
Effective resistance of 10 ohms & 1 K ohm in parallel is 9.9 Method 2:

Co
ohms or approximately 10 ohms. From this, it can be R1 x R 2

understood when a very small value resistor is connected Total circuit resistance R T =
R1 + R 2
in parallel with a very large resistor, the effective resistance
of the parallel connection will be approximately equal to the
values of the very small resistance itself. 3 3
(1× 10 ) × (2 × 10 )
= 3 3
= 666.7Ω
The effective value of resistance becoming lower than the 1 × 10 + 2 × 10
lowest value resistor in the parallel connection is called the
LOADING effect. This effect is very important in electronic Circuit current It = I1 + I2
circuits. Effect of loading is discussed in detail in further
lessons. 12V
= = 0.018 Amps
666.7 Ω
Power dissipation in parallel resistive circuits
When resistors are connected across a voltage source in Power consumed by the circuit = It2 x RT
parallel as in Fig 12, the voltage across each resistor will = (0.018)2 x (666.7)
be the same and equal to the source/battery voltage. = 0.216 watts
= 216 mwatts
Series-Parallel resistive circuits Some applications of series,parallel and series-par-
allel connection of resistors in circuit.
As shown in Fig 13, when several resistors are connected,
in which some resistors are in series and some in parallel, 1 Series resistor to drop excess voltage.
then, such a circuit is called a series-parallel circuit.
2 Series resistor to obtain non-standard resistor values.
To find the effective resistance of such series-parallel

circuits, follow the steps illustrated in Fig 14.
3 Parallel resistor used to divert excess circuit current.
ed
bl I
pu M
ish
Re NI
be @
4 Parallel resistor to obtain non-standard resistor

values.
o ht
t t rig
No py
Co
5 Resistors in series, parallel to drop voltage and divert
Once a complex series parallel circuit has been simplified

and total circuit resistance is found, it is easy to calculate
the circuit current and power consumed by the circuit.
Using Ohm’s law, it is also easy to calculate the voltage
drop and power dissipated by individual resistors.
Electronic Mechanic - Active and Passive component
Kirchhoff's Laws
• state Kirchhoff’s current law
• write Kirchhoff’s current equation for resistive circuits
• state Kirchhoff’s voltage law
• write Kirchhoff’s loop equation for resistive circuits
• calculate voltage and currents at different points in a resistive circuit.
When a circuit consists of several resistors in a complex From equation 2, Kirchhoff’s current can also be stated as
series - parallel arrangement as in Fig 1, it is difficult to The algebraic sum of currents entering and leaving any
calculate the currents and voltages in the circuit using point in a circuit must be equal to zero .
Ohm’s law.
To determine the algebraic sign of currents,
– consider all currents going into a point as positive and

all currents going away from that point as negative.
In Fig 2 , I1 & I2 will have positive sign as they are going into
ed
point whereas I3 will have negative sign as it is going out of
the point X.
bl I
pu M
ish Hence we can also write the Kirchhoff’s Current equation
Re NI
To find current and voltage drops in a complex series - as,

parallel circuit, an easy method was found by a German
At point X,
be @
physicist GUSTAV R. KIRCHHOFF. He formulated two

(+I1) + (+I2) + (–I3) = 0
basic laws called,
Simplifying, I1 + I2 – I3 = 0
o ht
1. Kirchhoff’s Current law

2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage law.
t t rig
Substituting current values given in Fig 2,

2Amps + 3Amps - 5Amps = 0.
1 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW:
No py
For the circuit shown in Fig 3, Kirchhoff’s Current equation

This law is illustrated in Fig 2.
at nodes X and Y can be written as follows:
Co
KIRCHHOFF’s Current law states that The sum of

currents entering any point in a circuit is equal to the sum At node X IT – I1 – I2 =0
of currents leaving that point. 7A – 4A – 3A = 0.
In Fig 2 currents I1 and I2 are entering a point X. Current I3 At node Y I1 + I2 – IT =0

is leaving the point X. 4A + 3A - 7A = 0.
Example : Write the current equations at nodes p and q

From Kirchhoff’s current law, I1 + I2 = I3 ....[ 1 ]
in the circuit at Fig 4.
This equation can also be written as, At node P IT – I2 – I3 =0
I1 + I2 – I3 = 0 ....[ 2 ] or IT = I2 + I3
130
At node Q I2 + I3 – I1 =0
or I2 + I3 = I1
Taking clockwise direction for going through the loop, start

from point a of Fig 6. Go through the chosen loop a-c-d-b-
a and write down the voltage drop across the resistors
including their signs and equate it to zero as given below;
KIRCHHOFF’s VOLTAGE LAW
+ V1 + V2 + V5 - VT = 0 ......[ 1 ]
In the circuit shown at Fig 5a, consider the two closed
paths a-c-d-b-a and a-e-f-b-a as shown in Fig 5b. These Rewrite the equation as,
closed paths are called as loops. Each closed path has + V1 + V2 + V5 = VT.
several resistors and there will be a voltage drop across Similarly for the closed path a-e-f-b-a,
each resistor. KIRCHHOFF’s voltage law states that The
algebraic sum of voltages around any closed path is zero. considering clockwise direction, start from point a of Fig
6. Go through the chosen loop a-e-f-b-a and write down
the voltage drop across the resistors including their
ed
signs and equate it to zero as given below;
bl I + V1 + V3 + V4 + V5 - VT = 0 ......[ 2 ]
pu M
ish Rewriting the equation,
Re NI
+ V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 = VT.
Equations [1] & [2] above state that; In any closed loop,
be @
the sum of voltage drops across resistors is equal to the

applied voltage
voltage. This can be written as:
o ht
S Vd = VT ,
t t rig
where, S Vd is the sum of voltage drops across resistors VT

is the applied voltage.
No py
Example : Write the loop equations for the circuit given at

Fig 7.
Co
To find the algebraic sum of voltages around a closed path,

– start from any point, go around the path and come back
to the same point from where you started.
Example: Referring to Fig 5b, the method of going through
a closed path is,
– start from point a, go through points c,d,b and return to
point a.
To determine the signs for voltage drop across the resistors
in Fig 5b,
For the loop a-c-d-b-a, +V1 + V2 - VT = 0
– mark the polarity of each voltage, based on the polarity
of source voltage as shown in Fig 6 or V1 + V2= VT
– go around the path and give +ve sign for the voltage Verification
whose +ve terminal is reached first or give -ve sign for 60 + 60 = 120
the voltage whose -ve terminal is reached first.
For the loop a-e-f-b-a +V1 + V3 + V4 + V5 - VT = 0
Write the loop equation considering the voltage sources or V1 + V3 + V4 + V5 = VT
also.
Verification
To write the loop equation for the closed path a-c-d-b-a of
Fig 6, proceed as follows: 60 + 10 + 20 + 30 = 120
E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5)- Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.52- 1.5.54 131
For the loop c-e-f-d-c Step 2: Mark the polarity of voltage across each resistor as
shown in Fig 9c consistent with the assumed direction of
+V3 + V4 + V5 - V2 = 0 the current.
or V3 + V4 + V5 = V2
Verification
10 + 20 + 30 = 60
Circuit with more than one voltage source

Kirchhoff’s voltage law is applicable even when, there are
more than one voltage source in a circuit. The method of
writing loop equations remains the same.
Example: Write the loop equations for the circuit shown

in Fig 8.
ed
bl I
pu M
ish Step 3: Write the loop equations which cover the two
Re NI
battery sources as given below;
For the loop a-c-d-b-a, For the loop a-c-d-b-a,

be @
+V1 + V2 - Vb1 =0 + V1 + V3 – VT1 =0

o ht
V1 + V2 = Vb1 or V1 + V3 = VT1
t t rig
60 + 60 = 120 V1 + V3 = 84 ......[1]
No py
For the loop a-e-f-b-a, For the loop c-e-f-d-c,

Co
+V1 + V3 + Vb2 + V4 - Vb1 =0 – V2 + VT2 – V3 =0

V1 + V3 + Vb2 + V4 = Vb1 or V2 + V3 = VT2
60 + 10 + 20 + 30 = 120 V2 + V3 = 21 ......[2]
For the loop c-e-f-d-c, Using the known values of R1, R2 & R3, write IR drops, V1,
V2 and V3.
+V3 + Vb2 + V4 - V2 =0
V3 + Vb2 + V4 = V2 V1 = I1.R1 = I1 x 12 = 12.I1 ......[3]
10 + 20 + 30 = 60 V2 = I2.R2 = I2 x 3 = 3.I2 ......[4]
V3 = I3.R3 = (I1+I2) x 6 = 6.I1 + 6.I2 ......[5]
To find current and voltages in a circuit using
kirchhoff’s law
Substitute equations 3,4 and 5 in the loop equations 1 and
Example: In the circuit at Fig 9a, find the branch currents 2, we have,
and voltage drop across resistors R1, R2 and R3.
Substituting for equation 1,
Solution :
Step 1: Assume that the current flow is from the +ve of V1 + V3 = 84
the battery to the -ve of the battery (conventional
current direction) and write direction of current as or (12.I1) + (6.I1 + 6.I2) = 84
shown in Fig 9b.
132 E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5)- Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.52- 1.5.54
18.I1 + 6.I2 = 84
The Minus sign indicate that, the assumed
direction of I2 in Fig 9b was opposite to that of
the actual direction of the current. However the
(Dividing RHS & LHS by 2) numerical value of I2 remains unchanged.
9.I1 + 3.I2 = 42 ......[6]
From known value of I1, I2 and I3 = (I1 + I2), find the voltage
drop across resistors as given below;
Substituting for equation 2,
V1 = R1.I1 = 12x5 = 60 volts
V2 + V3 = 21
(3.I2) + (6.I1 + 6.I2) = 21
V2 = R2.I2 = 3x1 = 3 volts
6.I1 + 9.I2 = 21
V3 = R3.I3 = R3.(I1–I2) = 6x(5-1) = 24 volts.

(Divide RHS & LHS by 3)
2.I1 + 3.I2 = 7 ......[7]
Solving equations ..[6] and ..[7], 1. The method used for finding branch cur-
rents and voltage drops in the above discus-
9.I1 + 3.I2 = 42 sion is called Branch current method.
2.I1 + 3.I2 = 7 2. To solve similar problems, other methods
known as, Node voltage method, Mesh cur-
———————
rent method can also be used. Refer refer-
ed
7.I1 = 35 ence books listed at the end of this book to
———————
bl I practice these methods or consult your in-
pu M
or
ish structor.
Re NI
Substituting value of I1 in equation ...[7]

be @
2 x 5 + 3.I2 =7
o ht
3
Therefore I 2 = – = – 1 amp.
t t rig
1
No py
Co
E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5)- Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.52- 1.5.54 133
Inductors and inductance

• state meaning of inductor and inductance
• explain sudden changes in current due to inductor
• state the meaning of self induction
• list factors determining the value of an inductor and formula for finding inductance of a coil
• list the different classification of inductors
• list a few types of inductors their application areas and energy storage in inductors
• name the instrument need for measuring inductance values
• explain self induction
• explain mutual inductance
• explain find the value of inductors in series and parallel
• explain the time constant in L-R circuits
• explain Q factor.
Inductive reactance/DC resistance of Inductance Thus, the inductance in a coil of wire, carrying current,
opposes any rise or fall of current through it and tries to
Inductors are components consisting of coil of wire as keep the current through it constant.
shown in Fig 1. The basic function of an inductor is to
store electric energy in the form of magnetic field,
ed
It should be noted that, the inductance cannot completely
when current flows through the inductor. stop the increase in current because, the induced voltage
bl I
pu M
is caused by the increasing flux, and the increasing flux
ish depends on the increasing current. Therefore, an inductor

Re NI
can restrict only, the rate at which the current can increase
or decrease through it.
be @
Example: A Resistor of 1 W is connected to a DC source

of 3 volts, as shown in Fig 2a. The moment switch S is ON,
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current will increase from 0 to its steady state value of

3Amps instantaneously, as shown in graph. When the
t t rig
switch is opened, the current drops back to zero just as fast

as it raised.
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Inductance is the electrical property of inductors. Letter

‘L’ is used as a symbol to represent Inductance. Induct-
ance, is the ability of a device to oppose any change in the
current flowing through it. This opposition to change in
current, is achieved by the energy stored by it, in the form
of magnetic field.
Inductance, and thus an inductor, chokes off or restricts

sudden changes in current through it. The change may be
either increasing or decreasing. Hence inductors are also
sometimes called as Chokes.
Principle of operation
Recall that, when current begins to flow through a conduc-
tor, magnetic flux rings start to expand around the conduc- Whereas, when the same DC voltage is applied to an
tor. This expanding flux induces a small voltage in the Inductor having a coil resistance of 1W as shown in Fig 2b,
conductor called back-emf or counter emf. This induced the current will not increase instantaneously from 0 to its
voltage has a polarity that opposes the source voltage steady value because the inductor in the circuit does not
which creates the induced voltage. allow it to happen. The current will reach the steady state
value after a time delay as shown in graph. The amount of
134
delay depends on the value of inductance and the ohmic
resistance of the inductor.
Once the current through the circuit in Fig 2b reaches its

steady state value of 3Amps, which is decided by the
ohmic value of the inductance, the magnitude of current
remains constant and hence the inductive effect stops. At
this point, the only opposition the inductor offers is its
ohmic/DC resistance.
When the switch S of Fig 2b is opened, the back-emf(bemf)

or counter emf(cemf) of the inductor becomes very high,
much greater than the source voltage. This high
voltage(cemf), prevents the current from instantaneously
dropping to zero. It does this by ionizing the air between the
switch contacts as the switch opens. This causes the
switch contacts to arc and burn as shown in Fig 3. This Fig 5 shows an inductor across an AC voltage source.
is known as inductive kick. As the energy stored in the When the applied voltage is increasing from 0 to +ve peak
inductors magnetic field gets used up, the switch contacts as shown in Fig 5a, the counter emf at end P of inductor will
deionize and current stops. have +ve polarity opposing the increasing source voltage.
In Fig 5b, when the source voltage is decreasing from +ve

peak to zero, the cemf at end P of the inductor will have -
-ve polarity opposing the decreasing source voltage.
ed
Factors determining value of Inductance
bl I
pu M
ish The inductance of an inductor is primarily determined by
the following four factors:
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be @
a)
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This property of a coil to induce an emf within the coil due

to a changing current through it is termed as SELF
t t rig
INDUCTANCE.
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Unit of inductance - The Henry

The basic unit of measure of Inductance is Henry abbrevi-
Co
ated as H.. The unit henry is defined in terms of, the amount
of cemf produced when the amplitude of current through the
inductor is changing. Based on this , One Henry is that b)
amount of Inductance which develops 1 V of cemf in the
coil when the current changes at the rate of 1 Amp/sec.
From the above definition, referring Fig 4,

VL
Inductance, L =
di / dt
1) The number of turns of wire
Where, VL = Induced voltage
di 2) The material on which the coil is wound or the core
and = rate of change of current. Refer Fig 4. material
dt
Polarity of Induced emf 3) The spacing between turns of wire and
The induced emf (voltage) in an inductor (cemf) has polarity 4) The diameter of the coil
that always opposes the source voltage (Lenz’s law).
Fig 6 illustrates the effect of these factors on the induct-
ance value.
Given the parameters listed above, the inductance of a coil

can be calculated using the formula,
N 2A N2 A
L = μ Henries Inductance of the coil, L = μ
ι ι
where,
μ = Permeability of the magnetic core around which the coil
4π × 10
−7 2
× 50 × 1 × 10 ( −4
)m 2
−6
= = 15.7 × 10 H
is wound, in Wb/At-m (μ = μoμr) ( 2 × 10
−2
) m
2
N = Number of turns of the coil Values of inductance less than 1 Henry can be represented
A = Area of cross-section of the core in square metres, m 2 as follows;
l = length of the coil in meters. 1 x 10-3 Henries = 1 milli Henry = 1 mH
1 x 10-6 Henries = 1 micro Henry = 1 μH
1 x 10-9 Henries = 1 nano Henry = 1 nH
Hence the value of inductance calculated in the example
above was 15.7 μH.
In the above example if an iron core of relative permeability

(μr) 200 is inserted in the hollow core as shown in Fig 8,
calculate the new value of inductance.
ed
bl I
pu M
ish
Re NI
The changed permeability of core is μ = μr x μo

be @
= 200 μo.
Hence, the new value of L is,
o ht
200 × 4π × 10
−7
× 50 × 1 × 10
2
( −4
)m 2
t t rig
= 3.1mH
( 2 × 10 ) m
= −2
Example: In Fig 7, a coil of 50 turns is wound on a
No py
hollow card board tube of cross sectional area 1 cm2.

The tube is 2 cms long. Calculate the inductance of A mere insertion of the iron core increases the inductance
Co
the coil. by a factor of almost 200. This indicates the major influence
of core permeability on inductance value of an inductor.
Higher the permeability of the core material used, higher
will be the inductance value of an inductor.
In the above example, if the number of turns of coil is
doubled, i.e., increased from 50 to 100 turns, inductance
value will increase four fold. The new inductance value
would be L = 4 x 3.1 mH = 12.4 mH.
The permeability of materials, iron for example varies
widely with the amount of flux density (B) and naturally the
current in the coil. This means that the inductance of any
coil with a magnetic core is never constant. The inductance
SOLUTION: value varies with the amount of current (flux) in the coil. For
Since the card board tube is non magnetic and hollow, its this reason many coil manufacturers quote the value of
permeability (μ) is nothing but permeability of air. inductance at some specified current. For example, a coil
may have 8H of inductance at 85 mA, but if operated at only
Therefore in this case μ = μo = 4p x 10-7 Wb/At-m 1 mA, the inductance would be 14H.
Area of cross section = 1 cm2 = 0.0001 m2 = 1 x 10-4 m2
Practical inductors and types
Length of the core = 2 cm = 2 x 10-2 m
From above data, For practical applications, inductors are manufactured to
give a specified amount of inductance. Value of practical
inductors range from a few micro henries for application in Shielded/Screened inductors will have a metal cover
high frequency communication circuits upto several hen- over the inductor. The shield is usually made of copper or
ries for power supply ripple filter circuits. aluminum. The reason for shielding is to isolate the coil
from external varying magnetic field and to minimize the
Inductors can be classified under various categories as
effect of the coils RF current on external circuits.
shown in Chart-1 given at the end of this lesson. Illustration
of different types of inductors are shown in Chart-2 at the While making a shield/screen for an inductor the following
end of this lesson. points are to be noted;
Air core coils have practically no losses from eddy i) metal used as cover should be a good conductor
currents or hysteresis. However inductor with air core have ii) clearance between the sides of the coil and the metal
their values limited to low values in the range of micro to milli should be equal to or greater than the coil radius. If the
Henries. Air core inductors are used in high frequency clearance is less, the shield reduces the inductance
applications. value drastically.
Laminated Iron Core is formed using a group of individual Moulded inductors, looks like resistors with their values
laminations. Each lamination is insulated by a thin coating colour coded. The coding scheme is same as in resistor,
of iron oxide, silicon steel or varnish. This insulation except that the value of L are given in microhenry (μH). For
increases the resistance reducing eddy current losses. example, a coil with yellow, red and black stripes or dots
These type of inductors are generally used for mains as shown in Fig 10, has inductance value of 42 μH.
frequency of 50/60 Hz and lower audio frequency range,
upto 10 KHz.
Powdered Iron Core is used to reduce the eddy currents
in the core when used at radio frequencies. It consists of
individual insulated granules pressed into one solid form
ed
called slug.
bl I
pu M
Ferrite Core is made from synthetic ceramic material
ish
which are ferromagnetic. They provide high value of flux Laboratory type variable inductor are available in the
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density like iron, but have the advantage of being insula- form of a decade boxbox. In this decade-inductance box
tors, thus reducing the eddy current losses to bare mini- precision inductors are switched in-to or out-of circuit by
mum. Because of this advantage, inductors with ferrite
be @
means of rotary switches. Decade variable inductor is used

core are used for high to very high frequency application. to carryout experiments and in Inductance (L) meters.
o ht
Variable Inductors unlike fixed Inductors, variable inductors Special types of Inductors
have the facility to vary its inductance value either in steps
t t rig
or continuously. The inductance can be varied by any one Certain electronic circuits use a special type of Inductor
of the methods as shown in Fig 9. called Thin-film inductors. These inductors are thin metal
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films deposited in the form of a spiral on a ceramic or epoxy

Methods (a) & (b) shown in Fig 9 are generally used in low base. These are tiny sized and have very low value of
inductance.
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frequency application.
Method (c) is used in coils with ferrite as core. These are Copper tube Inductors: At high frequencies, current has
used in high frequency applications. a tendency to flow in the skin of the conductor, this is
known as skin effect. Therefore at high frequency & high
power applications hollow copper tube coil is used as
inductor instead of solid copper wire.
Variometers: If different radio frequencies are to be

received using a single antenna, the electrical length of the
antenna will have to be varied, to respond to different wave
lengths. Variable inductors used to achieve this are called
variometers.
INDUCTANCE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Instruments that operate on the principle of Wheatstone
bridge are used to measure inductance of inductors. These
instruments are known as Impedance Bridge, RLC Bridge
Method (d) is known as Variometer arrangement. In this, and so on.
the position of one coil is varied within the other. The total
While measuring inductance value using these bridges, an
inductance will be minimum when the coils are perpendicu-
internally generated 1 KHz signal is used for measure-
lar to each other.
ment. However an external signal generator may be used
to measure the Q of coils at any desired frequency (Q Energy storage in inductors
stands for quality-factor: discussed in further lessons).
Energy storage: An inductor stores energy in the magnetic
These instruments can be used to measure inductance field created by the current. The energy stored is expressed
values from 1 μH to 1000 H. as follows.
1 2
Digital Instruments are also available to measure induct- W = LI
ance values ranging from 1 μH to 10 H. These Digital meters 2
are simple to operate and are also highly accurate. The
where I is in amperes,
meters are commonly known as Digital LC Meters, Digital
RLC meters and so on. L is in henries and
W is energy in joules or watt-second
What should we do when correct values of inductors are not
available?
To obtain the desired value of inductors, some series and
parallel combination of inductors can be used.
ed
bl I
pu M
ish
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be @
o ht
t t rig
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CHART – 1
TYPES OF INDUCTORS
INDUCTORS
Depending upon the Depending upon the Depending upon the

Type of core material Control over inductance Frequency range
Co
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Air core Ferrite core Fixed
Low frequency
t t rig
inductors
o ht
HOLLOW
10 Hz to 10 KHz High frequency
inductors
be @
100 KHz & above
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Depending upon
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Iron core Variable
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ish
ed
Laminated iron core Powdered iron core Tapped Continuous Screened Unscreened
AL OR CU
E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.55

TUBE
L1 L2 L3
GND
139
COIL TERMINAL
CHART - 2 PHYSICAL APPEARANCE OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF INDUCTORS
IRON-CORE INDUCTOR OR CHOKE AIR-CORE INDUCTORs
Fig 1 IRON CORE INDUCTOR OR CHOKE Fig 2
LAMINATED
STEEL CORE HOLLOW CORE
WINDINGS
A C
B
C
B
A TAPED AIR - CORE
FERRITE-CORE INDUCTORS
Fig 3
MOVEABLE CORE
ADUSTMENT
WINDING
ed
bl I
pu M
Fig 4 SHIELDED INDUCTORS
ish SHIELD Fig 5 HIGH FREQUENCY INDUCTORS

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SHIELD
be @
BOBBIN
COIL
o ht
SHIELD
t t rig
SHIELD
SHIELD
SHIELD
No py
Co
MOULDED INDUCTORS
Fig 6 Fig 7 TOROID FERRITE CORE INDUCTOR
TOROID CORE
WINDING
Fig 8 PRINTED CIRCUIT INDUCTOR/THIN FILM INDUCTOR
EPOXY
OR
HYLAM SHEET
COPPER
PATTERN
N N
ER ER
ATT ATT
P P
ER ER
PP PP
CO CO
Space for the trainees to fill
Statically induced emf: When the induced emf is Core (2a): If soft iron is used as a core material instead of
produced in a stationery conductor due to changing magnetic hardened steel, the coil will have more inductance.
field, obeying Faraday’s laws of electro magnetism, the
induced emf is called as statically induced emf. If all the factors are equal, an iron core inductor has more
inductance than an air core inductor. This is because iron
There are two types of statically induced emf as stated
has a higher permeability, that is, it is able to carry more
below:-
flux. With this higher permeability there is more flux
1 Self induced emf produced with in the same coil change, and thus more counter induced emf (cemf), for a
2 mutually induced emf produced in the neighbouring given change in current.
coil
Number of turns (Fig 12b): Adding more turns to an
Self-induction: When an alternating current flows in a
inductor increases its inductance because each turn adds
conductor and the current periodically changes the direc-
more magnetic field strength to the inductor. Increasing
tion, the magnetic field it produces also reverses the
the magnetic field strength results in more flux to cut the
direction. At any instant, the direction of the magnetic field
conductors (turns) of the inductor.
is determined by the direction of the current flow.
Spacing between turns of wire (Fig 12c): When the
With one complete cycle, the magnetic field around the
distance between the turns of wire in a coil is increased, the
conductor builds up and then collapses. It then builds up
inductance of the coil decreases. Fig 13 illustrates why this
in the opposite direction, and collapses again. When the
is so. With widely spaced turns (Fig 13), many of the flux
magnetic field begins building up from zero, the lines of
lines from adjacent turns does not link to gether. Those
force or flux lines expand from the centre of the conductor
lines that do not link together produce no voltage in other
outward. As they expand outward, they can be thought of
turns. As the turns come closer together (Fig 13b) only a
as cutting through the conductor.
fewer lines of flux fail to link up.
According to Faraday’s Laws, an emf is induced in the conduc-
ed
Cross sectional area (Fig 13b):For a given material having
tor. Similarly, when the magnetic field collapses, the flux
bl I same number of turns, the inductance will be high with
pu M
lines cut through the conductor again, and an emf is
ish
large cross-sectional area and will be low for smaller cross-
induced once again. This is called self-inductance. (Fig 11)
sectional area.
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be @
o ht
t t rig
No py
Co
:Inductance (L) is the electrical property of an

Inductance:Inductance
electrical circuit or device to oppose any change in the
magnitude of current flow in a circuit.
Devices which are used to provide inductance in a circuit
are called inductors. Inductors are also known as chokes,
coils, and reactors. Inductors are usually coils of wire.
Factors determining inductance: The inductance of an

inductor is primarily determined by four factors.
– Type of core permeability of the core mr
– Number of turns of wire in the coil ‘N’
– Spacing between turns of wire (Spacing factor)
– Cross-sectional area (diameter of the coil core) ‘a’ or ‘d’.
The amount of inductance in a coil of wire is affected by the
physical make up of the coil. (Fig 12.)
The two coils L 1 and L 2 of Fig 14, are said to have a
mutual inductance (M), in addition to their own self-
inductances (L).
Mutual inductance, like self-inductance, is also measured

in units of Henrys. The definition is given below;
Two coils are said to have a mutual inductance of

1 Henry, when a current changing at the rate of 1
Amp/sec in one coil induces an emf of 1V in the
other coil.
Coefficient of coupling
The amount of mutual inductance (M) between two coils
depend upon, the self inductance of each coil and the
amount of mutual flux between the two coils.
Symbol and unit of Self-inductance: The property of a
coil or conductor to self-induce an emf, when the current The amount of mutual flux, that links both coils is depend-
though it is changing, is called the coil’s (conductor’s) self- ent on the physical placement of the two coils. This is
inductance of simply inductance. The letter symbol for indicated by the term Coefficient of coupling, k.
inductance is L; its basic unit is henry, H.
Coefficient of coupling k, between the two coils is given by,
Henry: A conductor or coil has an inductance of one henry
Mutual flux between two coils ø m
, in Webers
if a current that changes at the rate of one ampere per k =
Total flux set up by one coil, in Webers
ed
second produces a induced voltage (cemf) of 1 volt.
bl I
The inductance of straight conductors is usually very low, Maximum value of k can be 1. This occurs when all the flux
pu M
ish
and for our proposes can be considered zero. The (ø) set-up by one coil is linking with the other coil. For
inductance of coiled conductors will be high, and it plays example; when both the coils are wound as shown in Fig
Re NI
an important role in the analysis of AC circuits. 15a, almost all the flux set-up in one coil is interacting with
the other coil. In other words there is very little or zero
be @
Mutual Inductance (M) leakage of flux. In such cases k is practically equal to 1.

This condition of k=1 is also known as tight coupling.
When two inductors L1 and L2 are placed side by side close
o ht
to each other shown in Fig 14a or Fig 14b, although the two
coils are not electrically connected, the two coils are said
t t rig
to be magnetically inter-coupled.
No py
Co
The changing current i1 in coil L1 not only self induces an

emf (V1) in L1, but also causes a voltage (V2) to be induced In Fig 15b, if only 30% of the flux set-up by coil 1, links with
in L2. The voltage V2 induced in L2 causes a current i2 that coil 2, the coefficient of coupling is only 0.3.
sets-up its own changing flux around L2. This in turn, not
only self induces a voltage in L2, but also induces an In Fig 15c and Fig 15d where the coils are placed far apart
additional voltage in L1. That is, a changing current in one or when the two coils are placed perpendicular to one
coil will induce an emf in other nearby coil. This effect is another, the coupling is minimum and will be close to zero.
known as mutual induction. It can be shown that mutual inductance (M) between the
given two coils L1 and L2 can be found out using the formula,
M = k L 1 . L 2 Henrys.
Where,
k is the coefficient of coupling which has no units
L1 and L2 are inductance values, in henrys
M is the mutual inductance, in henrys
INDUCTORS IN SERIES
In order to obtain a desired value of inductance, inductors
can be connected either in series or in parallel.
Fig 16 shows two inductances connected in series. The

spacing between the inductors are large enough so that
there exists no mutual inductance between the two coils.
Hence in Fig 16 k=0. In Fig 16, since the direction of current
is same through both coils, the self-induced voltages are
additive. Therefore the total inductance of such series
connection is given by,
ed
bl I Dot notation
pu M
ish Whether two coils are connected series-aiding or series-
Re NI
opposing, it is often indicated by using dot notation as
Series coils with mutual inductance shown in Fig 19. When current enters both dots or leave
both dots as shown in Fig 19a the mutual inductance is
be @
Unlike in Fig 16, when two inductors L1 and L2 are

additive.
connected in series close to each other as in Fig 17 the
total inductance (LT) will be larger than just the sum of L1
o ht
and L2. How much larger will this be depends on the mutual
inductance M.
t t rig
LT = L1 + L2 + L3 + ...........+ Ln Henrys (H)

No py
where, LT is the total inductance across end terminals.

Co
L1, L2 .......Ln are individual inductance values.
When the current enters one dot and leaves the other dot,
as shown in Fig 19b, the mutual inductance is subtractive.
In general, the total inductance of two series-connected In other words the dots indicate the in-phase ends of each
coils, with mutual inductance M is given by; other.
LT = L1 + L2 ± 2M Dot notation is used in transformers and loud speakers to

show correct phasing.
Whether it will be + 2M or - 2M depends on, whether the
inductors are connected in series-aiding as shown in Fig Example (1): Two inductors are10H and 15H connected
18a or in series-opposing as shown in Fig 18b. in series. Calculate the total inductance?
SOLUTION
LT = L1 + L2 = 10H + 15H = 25H
Example (2): If the above two inductors are connected
parallel to each other on a common core with a mutual
inductance of 4H and connected in series, calculate,
(a) LT of coils when connected series-aiding (Fig 18a).

(b) LT of coils when connected series-opposing (Fig 18b).
(c) Coefficient of coupling k.
SOLUTION
(a) LT = L1 + L2 + 2M = 10H + 15H + 2 x 4H = 33H

(b) LT = L1 + L2 - 2M = 10 + 15 - 2 x 4H = 17H
(c) M = k L1 . L 2
M 4
or, k = = = 0.33
L1 L2 10 x 15
L-R Time constant (t)
Inductors in parallel Consider a circuit with a resistor and a pure inductor as
shown in Fig 21a. The steady state current of the circuit is
When two inductors are connected in parallel as shown in
not achieved instantaneously but after a lapse of some
Fig 20a, the total inductance is given by,
definite time, as shown in Fig 21b and Fig 21c.
ed
1 1 1
= + Henrys (H)
LT L1 L2
bl I
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LT =
L 1 . L2
Henrys
ish
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L1 + L2
be @
This is similar to finding effective value of

resistors in parallel
o ht
In general, when several inductors are connected in parallel

as shown in Fig 20b the total inductance is given by
t t rig
1 1 1 1 1
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= + + + ....... + Henrys (H)

LT L1 L2 L3 Ln
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Measurement of mutual inductance

The mutual inductance (M) and coefficient of coupling (k)
between two coils can be measured as follows;
First : Measure the total inductance with fields aiding,

i.e., LTaid = L1 + L2 + 2M .......[1]
Second: Measure the total inductance with fields

opposing,
i.e., LTopp = L1 + L2 - 2M .......[2]
This delay for the current to reach its final value If is
Solving equations 1 and 2 we get, because, the Inductor opposes changes in circuit current.
LTaid - LTopp = 4M or It is found that, the amount of this time delay depends on,
the ratio of values of L and R. This time delay is referred to
L taid – L TOPP as time constant, of L-R circuit.
M =
4
knowing values of L1, L2 and M, k can be found out using The Time constant t of an inductive circuit is defined
the formula. as, the time required for the circuit current to reach
M 63% of its final or steady state current If..
M = k L1 . L2 or k =
L1 . L 2 Mathematically,
L The Q of a coil can be defined as the ability of a coil to
Time constant, t = seconds produce self-induced voltage. The Q factor of a coil can also
R
be defined as the capability of the coil to store energy.
Where, Hence the Q factor of a coil is also known as the storage
factor.
t is the time constant of the circuit in seconds
L is the inductance of the circuit in henrys, H If Q of a coil is 200, it means, that the XL of the coil is 200
times more than it's Ri. Q of coils range from than 10 for a
R is the resistance of the circuit in ohms, W low Q coil up-to 1000 for a high
Referring to graph shown in Fig 21b, the circuit current will

rise to 63.2% of its final value(If) within one time period t.
For the circuit to rise to 99.3% of the final or the steady

state value (If), as can be seen from Fig 21c, it takes five
time-periods or 5t periods. For practical purposes, 99.3%
of steady state value can be taken as steady state value
(100% of final current If). Hence, in a L-R circuit, 5t time is
required for the circuit current to reach its steady state
value.
Example 1: In the RL circuit shown at Fig 21, when

switch S is closed find;
ed
(i) Time constant t
(ii)
bl I
Time required t, for the circuit current to reach
pu M
ish
steady state value
Re NI
SOLUTION:
(i) Time constant t is given by;
be @
L 1H
t = sec = = 0.1 sec
R 10Ω
o ht
t = 0.1 sec (shown in dashed lines in Fig 2)

t t rig
(ii) Time required for the circuit current to reach

steady state value (If) is given by;
No py
t = 5 x t = 5 x 0.1 sec = 0.5 sec.

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Actually it requires slightly more than 0.5 sec

for the circuit to reach its final value of 14 (10V/
10W). However after 5 t since the current
reaches 99.3% (0.9934) it can be taken as almost
the steady state current or the final current.
Quality factor - Q of coil

Aligh frequencies, how useful is a coil is not only judged by
its inductance, but also by the ratio of its inductive
reactance to its internal DC resistance of the coil. This ratio
is called the quality factor or merit or Q of the coil.
Q of a coil is given by, 1
Xc
Where,
XL is the reactance of the coil in ohms
Ri is the internal resistance of the coil in ohms
Since XL and Ri have the same units of measure,

Q has no unit.
Capacitors & Capacitance

• state about function of capacitor, capacitance, capacitive reactance.
• describe storing of energy in capacitor
• list factors that determine capacitance value
• list functions of dielectric in a capacitor
• list types of fixed value capacitors
• list the specifications that goes with capacitors
• list constructional details of capacitors
• connect the capacitors in series, parallel and series and parallel.
Capacitors and Capacitance Capacitor action of storing charge

Capacitors are electronic components which can store When electric charge is forced on to the plates of a
electric energy in the form of electric charge. The charge capacitor by some energy source, such as a battery, the
storage ability of a capacitor is called the Capacitance of capacitor stores these charges.
a capacitor. Symbols used to represent capacitors are
shown in Fig 1. Alphabet ‘C’ is used to represent the
capacitance of a capacitor.
ed
bl I
pu M
ish
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A simple capacitor consists of two pieces of conductors

be @
separated by an insulator as shown in Fig 2.

o ht
t t rig
No py
When a capacitor is connected to a battery as shown in

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Fig 4, electrons from the negative terminal of battery move

through the connecting leads and pile up on one of the
plates of the capacitor. At the same time free electrons
from the other plate of the capacitor (remember that plates
In capacitors the conductors shown in Fig 2 are called of a capacitor are conductors having free electrons) move
plates and the insulator is called dielectric. through the connecting lead to the positive terminal of the
battery. This process is known as ‘charging of capacitor’.
The plates of a capacitor can be of any size and shape and As the process of charging continues, the net result is that,
the dielectric may be any one of several insulator materials. one plate of the capacitor ends up with excess of electrons
Depending on the type of insulator/dielectric used capaci- (Negative charge) and the other plate with deficiency of
tors are called as paper, mica, ceramic, glass, polyester, electrons (Positive charge). These charges on the plates of
air electrolyte capacitors etc., as shown in Fig 3. the capacitor represent a voltage source similar to that of
the charges on the terminals of a battery/cell. The process
of charging stops once the energy stored on the capacitor
develops a voltage equal to that of the battery.
It is important to note that during the process of charging,

although electrons were moving from and to the capacitor
plates causing current flow in the circuit (you can connect
an ammeter to measure it), no electrons moved nor did
current flow from one plate through the dielectric to the
other plate of the capacitor. The charging current through
146
the circuit stops when the voltage across the capacitor generally used:
becomes equal to, and in opposition to, the battery voltage.
-6
This charged capacitor can be disconnected from the 1 Microfarad or 1μF = 1/1000000 F or 10 farads
circuit and used as a new energy source as shown in Fig5. 9 -9
1 Nanofarad or 1 nF = 1/10 F or 10 farads
12 -12
1 Picofarad or 1pF = 1/10 F or 10 far-
ads
Example: What is the capacitance (C) of a capacitor

that requires a charge (Q) of 0.5 coloumbs to build a
voltage(V) of 25 volts across its plates?
SOLUTION
Given: Charge (Q) = 0.5 Coloumb
Voltage (V) = 25 Volts
If a voltmeter is connected across this disconnected Using the formula,
charged capacitor, the voltmeter reads the voltage equal to
that of the battery which charged it. Q Coloumbs
Capacitance, C = Farads
V Volts
If a lamp is connected across this charged capacitor, 0.5
the bulb glows for a moment indicating current flow Capacitance, C = = 0.02 Farads
25
through it.
Factors that determine the value of capacitance
ed
The instructor to demonstrate charging of a
The capacitance of a capacitor is determined by the
capacitor, voltage across a disconnected
bl I following three main factors;
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charged capacitor and discharge of a charged
ish
capacitor through a lamp using a suitable
1 Area of the plates
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demonstration circuit.
2 Distance between the plates
3 Type of dielectric material (dielectric constant k)
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The charge stored in the capacitor is sufficient to supply

current through the bulb only for a short duration after which
the charge filed up on the capacitor plates gets exhausted. Chart 1 at the end of this lesson illustrates the relationship
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A capacitor has limited use as a primary storage device of between the above factors and the value of capacitance.
energy for two reasons:
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1 For its weight and size, the amount of energy it can In addition to the above factors affecting the value of
store is very small when compared with that of a battery. capacitance, the temperature of the capacitor also affects
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the capacitance although not very significantly. Increase or

2 The voltage available from the capacitor diminishes decrease in temperature affects the characteristics of
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rapidly as energy is removed from the capacitor. dielectric material which in-turn increases or decreases
the capacitance value. Some dielectrics cause an in-
crease in capacitance as temperature increases. These
Unit of capacitance are called positive temperature coefficients, abbreviated as
The ability of capacitor to store electrical energy in the form P. Other dielectric materials have negative temperature
of electrostatic field is known capacitance. The unit used coefficient, abbreviated as N, in which case, increase in
to measure capacitance is Farad abbreviated as F. temperature decreases the capacitance. There are dielec-
tric materials having zero temperature coefficient abbrevi-
A capacitor is said to have a capacitance(C) of 1 Farad, if ated as NPO. The temperature coefficient of a capacitor is
it stores a charge(Q) of 1 coulomb when a voltage(V) of 1V specified by the capacitor manufacturer in parts per million
is applied across its plates. per degree Celsius (PPM).
Therefore, capacitance can be mathematically expressed
as, The following expression gives the relation between the
three factors that determine the value of capacitance of a
Charge capacitor;
Capacitance = A
Voltage C = εr ε o Farads
d
Q
C = Farads The term e o is the permittivity of free space (air) = 8.85 x
V
10-12 C2/Nm2 and er is called the relative permittivity of the
Farad(F) is a very large quantity of capacitance. As most
dielectric material.
circuits use capacitance values much lower than one farad
(F), smaller quantities of capacitance given below are
The expression for capacitance (C) of a capacitor can permanently damaging the capacitor.
alsobe written as,
A This maximum voltage that a capacitor can withstand is
C = k εo Farads listed as one of the specifications of capacitors as direct
d
current working voltage, DCWV. As an example: if a
The ratio of the capacitance with dielectric to the capaci-
capacitor has a DCWV of 100 volts, it can be operated at
tance with air is called relative permitivity or dielectric
100 volts for long periods of time without any deterioration
constant, k.
in the working of the capacitor. If the capacitor is subjected
to 125V or 150V DC, the dielectric may not break down
Substituting the value of eo in the above equation, value of
immediately but the life of the capacitor gets greatly
a capacitor using any dielectric can be found using the
reduced and may become permanently defective any time.
formula;
–12 A Function of a dielectric in a capacitor
C = (8.85 x 10 )k Farads
d
1 Solves the mechanical problem of keeping two metal
where,
plates separated by a very small distance.
C = Capacitance in farads
(8.85 x 10-12) = ε o (permitivity of air)
2 Increases the maximum voltage that can be applied
k = dielectric constant of the insulator used between the before causing a breakdown, compared with air as
plates dielectric.
A = area of one side of the plate in square meters, m2
d = distance between the plates in meters, m 3 Increases the amount of capacitance, compared with
air, for a given dimension of plates and the distance
Example: Two metal plates, each 5 x 6 cms are sepa- between them.
ed
rated from each other by 1mm. Calculate the capaci-
bl I
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tance if the dielectric material used between the plates Types of capacitors
was,
ish Capacitors can be classified under two main categories:
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1) air
1 Fixed value capacitors
2) glass
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The capacitance value of these capacitors is fixed at the

time of manufacture. This value cannot be varied/altered by
SOLUTION:
the user.
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kair = 1
2 Variable capacitors
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C = (8.85 x 10-12) k The capacitance of such capacitors can be varied between

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the specified minimum to the specified maximum values by

= (8.85 x 10-12) x 1 x (5x10-2 m x 6 x 10-2 m)/(1 x 10-3 m) the user.
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= 26.55 x 10-12 Farads Amongst fixed value capacitors, many different types of
= 26.55 pico farads capacitors are manufactured to satisfy the needs of the
C = 26.55 pF electronic industry. These different types of capacitors are
named according to the
2 From PTB table no.18 1 Type of dielectric material used in capacitor
kGlass = 5 Example:
C = (8.85 x 10-12) x 5 x (5x10-2 m x 6 x 10-2 m)/
a If paper is used as dielectric, the capacitors are
(1 x 10-3 m)
called paper capacitors.
= 5 x 26.55pF
b If ceramic is used as dielectric, the capacitors are
C = 132.75 pF
called Ceramic capacitors.
Working voltage or voltage rating of capacitor 2 Type of construction of the capacitor
Example:
The dielectric strength of the insulating material used
between the plates of a capacitor gives the capacitor the a If the foils of the conductor and dielectric are rolled
ability to withstand a potential difference between the to form a capacitor, such capacitors are called as
plates without causing arcing. Therefore, a specific capaci- Rolled foil capacitors.
tor using a specific type of dielectric can withstand only up
b If the plates and dielectric are in the form of Discs,
to a specific voltage across it. If the voltage is further
such capacitors are called as Disc capacitors.
increased, the dielectric breaks down or gets punctured.
This causes a burn out or a hole in the dielectric material
Different types of fixed value capacitors, their sub types, 3 The DC working voltage (DCWV) will be marked directly
available values, rated voltage and a few applications are as,
given in Chart 2 at the end of this lesson. Also refer to Chart
3 for illustration of some of the popular fixed value capaci- 16V - meaning 16V DC - marking scheme used in
tors. electrolytic capacitors
Specifications of capacitors 400V - meaning 400V DC - marking scheme used in

paper capacitor
While ordering capacitors, one has to indicate the speci-
fications needed to ensure that the desired capacitor is 2 - meaning 200V DC - marking scheme used in
received. The minimum specifications to be indicated while ceramic disc/plastic capacitors
purchasing/ordering capacitors for general use are;
4 The tolerance of capacitors will be marked either
1 Type of capacitor directly as 10%, 20% or in a coded form as K (meaning
10%), M-meaning 20% and so...on. Refer to PTB for
For example: Ceramic, disc, styroflex, electrolytic and
other tolerance codes.
so...on.
2 Capacitance value 5 The temperature coefficient will generally be marked in

For example: 100μF, 0.01μF, 10pf and so....on. the coded form as, P, N or NPO.
3 DC working voltage rating (DCWV) Many capacitors may not have all the markings
on their body. However, specification can be
For example: 100μF-12V, 100μF-100V, 0.01μF-400V and obtained for a particular type from its manufac-
so...on. turer.
ed
4 Tolerance
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ish
Like resistors, capacitors also have tolerances over its
rated value. Tolerance of capacitors may range from ±1%
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to ±20%. Some capacitors may have tolerance specified

as -20%, +80%.
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5 Temperature coefficient
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The temperature coefficient of capacitors can be Positive

(P), Negative (N) or zero (NPO). The temperature coeffi-
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cient is expressed in parts per million (ppm) per degree

Celsius. Example: +750ppm
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The above listed capacitor specifications, the manufactur-

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er’s name/code and the month and year of manufacture are

generally marked on all capacitors.
While identifying the specification of a given capacitor the

following points are to be noted.
1 The type of capacitor may not be marked on the capaci-

tors. In such cases the type has to be identified
depending on the physical appearance of the capacitor.
2 Capacitance value of capacitors may be marked di-

rectly as μF, pF etc or might be colour coded. It should
be noted that the capacitance value formed using colour
code is always in Picofarads(PF).
Different capacitor manufacturers adopt differ-

ent coding schemes for indicating the capaci-
tance value on the capacitor. Refer PTB Table
Nos. 19 to 22 for different colour coding schemes.
CHART - 1
Physical dimensions versus Capacitance value
FACTOR LESS CAPACITANCE MORE CAPACITANCE FACTOR
DOUBLING
AREA OF CROSS THE PLATE
SECTION (A) OF ARE DOUBLES
PLATES
2
THE
2
CAPACITANCE
d
A= l x l A=2 l x2 l
= l2 =4 l 2
ed
REDUCING THE
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DISTANCE DISTANCE
BETWEEN PLATES
ish BETWEEN
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PLATES BY
HALF
d
d 0.5 DOUBLES THE
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CAPACITANCE.
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CAPACITANCE
TYPE OF INCREASES
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DIELECTRIC AS MANY
MATERIAL TIMES
AS THAT OF
d INCREASE IN
d
MICA DIELECTRIC VALUE OF k
CONST, K = 5
CHART - 2
Main types of fixed value capacitors
Type Main sub-types Dielectric used Construction Available Rated voltage Applications
capacitances
Paper Foil type Impregnated special
& craft paper
Rolled foils 0.001-1μF 200-1600VDC Motor - starting, PF correction
Metallized type Special tissue paper power supply- filters.
Plastic Foil type i) Polystyrene 0.001-1μF 100-200VDC- General purpose, high stability.
film & ii) Polyster (Mylar capacitor)- 0.001-1μF 100-600VDC- General purpose.
Metalised type iii) Poly propylene- 0.001-0.47μF 400-1600 VDC- RF circuits.
Co
iv) Poly carbonate - Rolled foils 0.01-18μF 50-200 VDC- General purpose.
v) Metallized polypropyene- 4-60μF 400 VAC, 50 Hz AC motors.
vi) Metallized polyester- 0.01-10μF 100-600 VDC Coupling, RF filtering.
No py
vii) Polystyrol (Styroflex)
Ceramic Disc type Class-1
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(Non ferro-electric)
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-Steatite (Talc) Drawn ceramic films 1PF -1
-1μF 50-500 VDC General purpose, RF.
-Mix of MgO, TiO2
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Tube type -TiO2, CaO Moulded tubes 1PF-1000PF 500-5K VDC General, VHF.
Monolithic (chip type) Class-2
(Ferro-electric) Substrate- 1pF-10
1pF-10μF 50-200 VDC VHF, RF coupling.
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-Barium titanate Screening-sintering
-Ba, Sr, TiO2+Mg, Zr
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Feed-through- Coupling in VHF range.
stand-off- Decoupling in VHF range.
bl I
button type HF circuit feeders.
Electro- Aluminium (polor, non- Aluminium oxide Rolled foil - 1-500,000
1-500,000μF 5-500 VDC Power supplies, filters.
ish
lytic polar)(Wet, dry type) metallic can
Tantalum (polar, non- Tantalum pentoxide Rolled foil - 0.1-1000
0.1-1000μF
0.1-1000μ
μ 3-125 VDC Space electronics.
ed
polar)(Wet, dry type) Can/cup/tank
Nonpolar Al and Ta capacitors are
used in loudspeaker cross-overs.
Mica Stacked mica- White mica, Rose mica, 5 pF-10,000pF 50-100 High frequency
E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.56

Silvered mica Amber mica Stacked 5pF-3300pF 50-500 High frequency
Button type H.F line feeders
Glass Thin layer of glass Stacked 5 pF-5000pF VHF applications
Vitreous Mixture of silica, Deposited in 50-500
Enamel Potassium, lead oxide and layers
151
fluorides
CHART - 3 : Physical appearance of types of fixed value capacitors
PAPER CAPACITORS CERAMIC CAPACITORS

DISC
D
MF F
68 C 1μ C
0.0 0VD VD 33
60 600 33
02 .0015 10% 10% 0.5MFD
METALLIZED TYPE X2
(sealed in metal tube)

PAPER TUBULAR RANGE: 0.005 - 2 μ F
RANGE: 0.0001 - 2 μ F DCWV: 200 - 600 VOLTS
DCWV: 100 - 1000 VOLTS UP TO 18 μ F AT 150 DCWV
TUBULAR PIN - UP
MP
MP/05/1/400
1/400/40 DIN 41195
MP F
2 μ 0V
MP 08/8/630/2 60
8μ F+ -- 10%
630V
G8/630/40/ DIN 41197
HPF 560-14/MPJ
25° / + 85°C 9.75 H
BATHTUB TYPE
RANGE: 0.05 - 2 μ F
DCWV: 600 VOLTS
ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS FEED - THROUGH FLAT
ALUMINIUM TYPE
27P
ed
+
10 μ F
47 μ F +
+
35V
2200 μ F +
+
25V +
25V +
100 μ F
2μ F
+
6V
87 DB +
100V
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ish
+
1μ F +
6V +
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STAND - OFF
10P
100μ f 350 DCWV
60μ f 350 DCWV
60μ f 350 DCWV
60μ f 350 DCWV
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TANTALUM TYPE MONOLITHIC

MONOLYTHICCHIP
CHIP BUNDELED TUBE
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WET TYPE POLARISED

100 μ F
25V
+
+
+
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+
3.3 μ F +
Co
75V +
BUTTON
DRY TYPE POLARISED
+22
35V +15
35V
2.2
35V μ F +
+1 MICA CAPACITORS
35V
STACKED MICA
RANGE: SPF - 10,000PF
SILVERED MICA
RANGE: 5PF - 0.01 μ F
DCWV: 500 volts
PLASTIC FILM CAPACITORS
022
63 TC/K
1
0.0 V =
400
022
63 HEAVY - DUTY MICA
500 PF @ 12,500 volts
TO 0.1 F @ 500 volts
Construction of Capacitors
Although all capacitors in general have plates and dielec-
trics, depending upon the type of dielectric used and the
type and nature of the plates, construction of capacitors
varies drastically. Some of the main types of capacitors
and their construction are illustrated in Chart-4.
Common defects in capacitors
order of 500 to 1000 MΩ. or more. For electrolytic capacitors
Short circuited capacitors: In the course of normal the normal resistance will be of the order of 200 KΩ to 500
usage, capacitors can become short-circuited/shorted. KΩ.
This is because of the deterioration of the dielectric used
due to aging. Usually such a defect occurs when the A capacitor is said to have become leaky when the
capacitor is used over a period of years under the stress of resistance across it is less than normal when read with any
changing voltage across it. This period gets reduced if the average quality ohmmeter.
capacitor is operated at higher temperatures. Short-
circuiting of capacitors is more common in paper and Checking capacitors
electrolytic capacitors than in the other types. Short The two simple methods to check a capacitor is by carrying
circuiting of capacitor also occurs due to puncturing of the out,
dielectric when voltages much higher than its rated are
applied. A shorted capacitor cannot store energy. i capacitor action-normal resistance test, using a ohm-
meter/multi-meter (This test is also referred as quick-
Open capacitors: A capacitor may become open due to test)
loose/broken lead connections or due to the electrolyte. In ii charging-holding test, using a battery and voltmeter/
electrolytic capacitors, the electrolyte develops high re- multi-meter.
ed
sistance with age, particularly when operated at high
Capacitor action-normal resistance test
bl I
temperatures. After a few years of usage, the electrolyte
pu M
ish
may dry up resulting in open-circuit of the capacitor. An When an ohmmeter is connected across a fully discharged
open capacitor cannot store energy.
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capacitor, initially, the battery inside the meter charges the
capacitor. During this charging, at the first instance, a
The storage (shelf) life of wet type electrolytic capacitors is reasonably high charging current flows. Since more current
be @
shorter because the electrolyte dries up over a period of through the ohmmeter means less resistance, the meter
time. pointer moves quickly towards zero ohms of the meter
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scale as shown in Fig 7a.

Leaky capacitors/leakage resistance
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Theoretically, the current that flows in a pure capacitive

circuit results from the charge and discharge currents of
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the capacitor. The dielectric, which is an insulator, should

prevent any current flow between the plates. However, even
Co
the best dielectric conduct very small current. The dielec-

tric, then, has some high value of resistance, known as
leakage resistance.. This leakage resistance, as shown in
Fig 6, allows some leakage current to flow. This leakage
current tends to reduce the capacitance value.
In a good capacitor, the leakage resistance is generally of

the order of several tens of megohms, and hence can be
considered negligible for most applications. As the capaci-
tor ages, the leakage resistance could reduce. Generally,
the leakage resistance is lower with high-value capacitors
than with low value capacitors. The reason for this is that,
larger capacitors have larger plate areas that are closer
together. Therefore, their dielectrics must have large areas
and be thin. Recall, resistance reduces as the cross-
sectional area is increased or when the length or thickness
is decreased. So, larger the capacitor, lower the leakage
resistance, and higher is the leakage current.
Normal leakage resistance across a good capacitor has to

be very high. Depending upon the type of dielectric used,
the normal resistance varies. For paper, plastic, mica and After the initial charging, the charging current to the
ceramic capacitors the normal resistance will be of the capacitor slowly decreases (as the voltage across the
capacitor increases towards the applied voltage). Since In this test, when the capacitor is tried for charging, if the
less and less current through the ohmmeter means high capacitor does not charge at all even after connecting the
and higher resistance, the meter pointer slowly moves battery for a considerable period of time, it can be con-
towards infinite resistance of the meter scale as shown in cluded that the capacitor is either short-circuited or fully
Fig 7b. Finally, when the capacitor is completely charged open circuited.
to the ohmmeter internal battery voltage, the charging
current is almost zero and the ohmmeter reads the normal If the capacitor is unable to hold the charge even for a
resistance of the capacitor which is a result of just the considerably small period of time, then it can be concluded
small leakage current through the dielectric. This changing that the capacitor is excessively leaky.
effect, commonly known as Capacitor action indicates,
The following points are important and are to be noted to get
whether the capacitor can store charge, whether the
correct results from this test :
capacitor is excessively leaky, whether the capacitor is
fully short-circuited or whether the capacitor is fully open- 1 If the capacitor to be tested is marked with + and - at its
circuited. terminals (polarised-capacitor) then connect the bat-
tery with the same polarity. If a polarised capacitor is
The capacitor-action test is most suitable for high value
tried for charging with opposite polarity, the capacitor
capacitors and specially electrolyte capacitors. When
may get permanently damaged.
small value capacitors such as ceramic disc or paper
capacitors are tested for capacitor-action, due to the 2 Use a FET input voltmeter or high ohm/volt voltmeter to
extremely low charging current the capacitor-action can- monitor the holding of voltage across the charged
not be observed on the meter dial. For such small value capacitor. This is because a low ohm/volt voltmeter will
capacitors the capacitor-charging-holding test is preferred. draw current from the charged capacitor resulting in the
However if small capacitors are subjected for capacitor- early discharge of stored charges on capacitor.
action test, if the meter shows high resistance the capaci-
ed
tor can be taken as not shorted and hence may be taken The term FET stands for a type of transistor
as good. discussed in subsequent units. A FET input volt-
bl I
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meter is a high quality voltmeter having very high
Charging-holding test on capacitors
ish ohms/volts. This meter draws almost zero current
Re NI
In this test, a given capacitor is charged to some voltage while measuring voltage across any two termi-
level using an external battery as shown in Fig 8a. nals. Other average voltmeters draw current in
be @
the range of a few hundreds of micro-amps to a

Once the capacitor is charged to the applied voltage level, few milli-amps while measuring voltage.
the battery is disconnected and the voltage across the
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capacitor is monitored as shown in Fig 8b. The voltage is

t t rig
No py
Co
monitored for a period of time to confirm whether the

capacitor is able to hold the charge atleast for a small
period of time (of the order of a few seconds).
CHART - 4
CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF FIXED VALUE CAPACITORS
PAPER CAPACITORS CERAMIC CAPACITORS
PRINCIPLE CERAMIC CAPACITORS
LEAD CERAMIC DISK INSULATING

METAL FOIL (DIELECTRIC) COVER
(SOLDERED
1st LAYER
TO PLATE)
METAL DISK CERAMIC
(PLATE)
PLATE
METAL FOIL
2nd LAYER
LEADS
DIELECTRIC LEADS
TAD TYPE
TUBULAR CERAMIC CAPACITOR
LAYERS OF (CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW)
IMPREGNANTED
PAPER
OUTER COATED PLATE INNER
COATED
PLATE
TAB CERAMIC
TUBE
ANODISED FOIL INNER PLATE
ed
WIRE LEAD
OUTER PLATE
bl I WIRE LEAD
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ish
EXTENDED FOIL TYPE
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CERAMIC CAPACITOR
FOIL EDGE SOLDERING ELECTRODES

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CRIMPED & AREAS

SOLDERED
EXTENDED FOIL
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CERAMIC
No py
METALISED PAPER CAPACITOR ELECTRODES

CONTACT
UNMETALISED
Co
MARGIN
FOILS OF METAL-
LISED PAPER
MICA CAPACITORS
g 15
(A) PRINCIPLE
INSULATING
DISC MICA
CASTELLATED TYPE
(B) STACKED MICA CAPACITOR
PAPER CAPACITOR
UNMETALISED SILVER COATING
MARGIN
METALISED LEAD
PART
MICA SHEET
SILVER COATING
(C) SILVER MICA CAPACITOR
GLASS CAPACITORS ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS
ALUMINIUM TYPE
SPECIAL
GLASS - TO -METAL
METAL SEAL
LEAD
GLASS
STAND-OFF CAPACITOR CATHODE
PLATE
DIELECTRIC SYNTHETIC BODY
ALUMINIUM
ANODE
CHASSIS
GASKET
PLATE ALUMINIUM CHIP ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR
ALUMINIUM
FOILS
NUT
ELECTROLYTIC
FEED-THROUGH CAPACITOR IMPREGNATED
PAPER DIELECTRIC
SHIELD
PLATE 1 TERMINAL LUG
ed
SOLDER
DIELECTRIC
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PLATE 2
ish
TERMINAL BUSHING
SEALING RING
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DIELECTRIC
SOLDER
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PLATE 1
SHIELD METAL CASE
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CAPACITOR ROLL
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TANTALUM CAPACITORS
COPPER +VE LEAD

Co
MANGANESE
GRAPHITE DIOXIDE
INSULATOR AND SEAL
TANTALUM TANTALUM FINE SILVER CASE

PENTOXIDE
SOLDER POROUS ELECTROLYTE
INSULATION TANTALUM ANODE BASE
ANODE SUPPORT
--VE LEAD
SOLDER
TANTALUM
MANGANES DIOXIDE
TEFLON MOUNTING
FLUID ELECTROLYTE BODY

TANTALUM -- VE
GASKET LEAD
TINNED TINNED +VE
Cu LEAD Ni LEAD
SINTER TEFLON
TANTALUM CHIP CAPACITOR
BODY STOPPER
OXIDE
SILVER CUP LAYER Ta 2 O2
Necessity of grouping of capacitors: In certain in-
stances, we may not be able to get a required value of
capacitance and a required voltage rating. In such in-
stances, to get the required capacitances from the avail-
able capacitors and to give only the safe voltage across
capacitor, the capacitors have to be grouped in different
fashions. Such grouping of capacitors is very essential.
Methods of grouping: There are two methods of grouping.

_
Parallel grouping
_
Series grouping
Parallel grouping
Conditions for parallel grouping
—
Voltage rating of capacitors should be higher than the
supply voltage Vs.
—
Polarity should be maintained in the case of polarised
capacitors (electrolytic capacitors). General formula for parallel capacitance: The total
capacitance of parallel capacitors is found by adding the
Necessity of parallel grouping: Capacitors are con-
individual capacitances.
nected in parallel to achieve a higher capacitance than
what is available in one unit. CT = C1 + C2 + C3 +.............+ Cn
where CT is the total capacitance,
ed
Connection of parallel grouping: Parallel grouping of
capacitors is shown in Fig 9 and is analogous to the
bl I C1,C2,C3 etc. are the parallel capacitors.
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ish
connection of resistance in parallel or cells in parallel.
The voltage applied to a parallel group must not exceed the
Re NI
lowest breakdown voltage for all the capacitors in the
parallel group.
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Example:
Example: Suppose three capacitors are connected in
parallel, where two have a breakdown voltage of 250 V and
one has a breakdown voltage of 200 V, then the maximum
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voltage that can be applied to the parallel group without

damaging any capacitor is 200 volts.
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The voltage across each capacitor will be equal to the

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applied voltage.
Total capacitance: When capacitors are connected in Charge stored in parallel grouping: Since the voltage
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parallel, the total capacitance is the sum of the individual across parallel-grouped capacitors is the same, the larger
capacitances, because the effective plate area increases. capacitor stores more charge. If the capacitors are equal
The calculation of total parallel capacitance is analogous in value, they store an equal amount of charge. The charge
to the calculation of total resistance of a series circuit. stored by the capacitors together equals the total charge
that was delivered from the source.
By comparing Figures 10a and 10b, you can understand QT= Q1+ Q2 + Q3+.....+ Qn
that connecting capacitors in parallel effectively increases where QTis the total charge
the plate area.
Q1,Q2,Q3.....etc. are the individual
charges of the capacitors in parallel.
Using the equation Q = CV,
the total charge QT = CTVS
where VS is the supply voltage.
Again CTVS = C1VS + C2VS + C3VS
Because all the VS terms are equal, they can be
cancelled.
Therefore, CT = C1 + C2 + C3
Example: Calculate the total capacitance, individual
charges and the total charge of the circuit given in Fig 10.
Conditions for series grouping
— If different voltage rating capacitors have to be con-
nected in series, take care to see that the voltage
drop across each capacitor is less than its voltage
rating.
— Polarity should be maintained in the case of
polarised capacitors.
Connection in series grouping: Series grouping of
Solution capacitors, as shown in Fig 12 is analogous to the
connection of resistances in series or cells in series.
Total capacitance = CT
CT = C1 + C2 + C3 + C4
CT = 250 micro farads.
Individual charge = Q = CV
Q1 = C1V
= 25 x 100 x 10–6
= 2500 x 10–6
= 2.5 x 10–3 coulombs.
Total capacitance:When capacitors are connected in
Q2 = C2V
series, the total capacitance is less than the smallest
= 50 x 100 x 10–6 capacitance value, because
ed
= 5000 x 10–6 – the effective plate separation thickness increases
bl I
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= 5 x 10–3 coulombs. – and the effective plate area is limited by the smaller
Q3 = C3V
ish plate.
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= 75 x 100 x 10–6 The calculation of total series capacitance is analogous to

the calculation of total resistance of parallel resistors.
= 7500 x 10–6
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By comparing Figs 12a, 12b and 12c you can understand

= 7.5 x 10-3 coulombs. that connecting capacitors in series increases the plate
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Q4 = C4V separation thickness, and also limits the effective area so

= 100 x 100 x 10-6 as to equal that of the smaller plate capacitor.
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= 10000 x 10-6
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= 10 x 10-3coulombs.
Total charge = Qt= Q1+ Q2 + Q3 + Q4
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= (2.5x10-3) + (5x10-3)
+(7.5x10-3) + (10x10-3)
= (2.5+5+7.5+10) x 10-3
= 25 x 10-3 coulombs.
or QT= CTV
= 250 x 10-6x 100
General formula for series capacitance: The total
= 25 x 10-3 coulombs. capacitance of the series capacitors can be calculated by
Series grouping using the formula
Necessity of grouping of capacitors in series: The If there are two capacitors in series
necessity of grouping capacitors in series is to reduce the
total capacitance in the circuit. Another reason is that two
or more capacitors in series can withstand a higher
potential difference than an individual capacitor can. But,
the voltage drop across each capacitor depends upon the
individual capacitance. If the capacitances are unequal,
you must be careful not to exceed the breakdown voltage
of any capacitor.
If there are three capacitors in series
If there are `n' equal capacitors in series
Maximum voltage across each capacitor: In series

grouping, the division of the applied voltage among the
capacitors depends on the individual capacitance value
according to the formula
The largest value capacitor will have the smallest voltage

because of the reciprocal relationship.
Likewise, the smallest capacitance value will have the
largest voltage.
ed
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The voltage across any individual capacitor in a series
pu M
ish
connection can be determined using the following formula.
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where Vx - individual voltage of each capacitor

Cx - individual capacitance of each capacitor
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Vs - supply voltage. Charge stored in series grouping: Based previous

t t rig
The potential difference does not divide equally if the knowledge, we know that
capacitances are unequal. If the capacitances are unequal – the current is the same at all points in a series circuit
No py
you must be careful not to exceed the breakdown voltage the current is defined as the rate of flow of charge.
of any capacitor. (I = Q/t) or Q = It
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The same current is flowing for the same period through the
different capacitors of the series circuit. So the charge of
each capacitor will be equal (same), and also equal to the
total charge QT.
QT= Q1=Q2=Q3=.............=Qn
But the voltage across each one depends on its capaci-
tance value (V = Q/C)
By Kirchoff's voltage law, which applies to capacitive as
well as to resistive circuits, the sum of the capacitor
Example: Find the voltage across each capacitor in Fig 14. voltages equals the source voltage.
Solution V = V1+V2+V3+.........+Vn
1
Total capacitance: CT
Capacitive Reactance
Capacitor oppose changes in voltage with the flow of
electrons onto the plates of the capacitor being directly
proportional to the rate of voltage change across its plates
as the capacitor charges and discharges. Unlike a resistor
where the opposition to current flow is its actual resistance,
the opposition to current flow in a capacitor is called
reactance.
Like resistance, reactance is measured in Ohm's but is The impedance of an AC capacitance
given the symbol X to distinguish it from a purely resistive
Impedance, Z which has the units of Ohms, Ω is the
R value and as the component in question is a capacitor,
" Total" opposition to current flowing in an AC circuit that
the reactance of a capacitor is called capacitive reactance,
contains both resistance, (the real part) and reactance
(X c) which is measured in Ohms.
(the imaginary part). A purely resistive impedance will
Since capacitors charge and dicharge in proportion to the have a phase angle of 0° while a purely capacitive imped-
rate of voltage change across them, the faster the voltage ance will have a phase angle of -90°.
changes the more current will flow.
However when resistors and capacitors are connected
Likewise, the slower the voltage changes the less current together in the same circuit, the total impedance will have
will flow. This means the reactance of an AC capacitor is a phase angle some where between 0° and 90° depending
" inversely proportional " to the frequency of the supply as upon the value of the components used. Then the imped-
shown. ance of our simple RC circuit can be found by using the
impedance triangle.
Capacitive reactance
Where: Xc is the capacitive reactance in Ohms, f is the The RC impedance triangle
frequency in Hertz and C is the AC capacitance in Farads,
symbol F.S
1
X =
c 2ΠΠf
1
X =
C ωC
ed
When dealing with AC capacitance, we can also define
bl I
pu M
ish
capacitive reactance in terms of radians,where Omega, w Then: (impedance)2 = (Resistance)2 + ( j Reactance)2
equals 2Πf. where j represents the 90° phase shift.
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By using Pythogoras theorem the negative phase angle,

1
X = θ between the voltage and current is calculated as.
be @
C ωC
Phase angle
o ht
Z 2 = R 2 + X C2
t t rig
R Xc Xc
Cosφ = , Sinφ = , tanφ =
Z Z R
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The impendance of an AC Capacitance

The impe of an AC capacitance
Circuit breakers
Objectives:At the end of this lesson the trainees shall be able to
• state the definition of a circuit breaker
• list the various types of circuit breakers and their uses
• explain the types of closing mechanisms
• explain the types of trip mechanisms
• explain the types of protective devices used in a circuit breaker.
Circuit breakers are used in electrical installations to make 6 Use in small flats/quarters/rooms. Many large indus-
or break the circuit with or without load. They also incorpo- tries and project houses build quarters for their employ-
rate protective devices. ees/workers wherein fixed light and domestic connec-
tions are provided. The electricity bills are not charged
Definition: A circuit breaker is a device capable of making as per consumption. A low monthly charge is levied.
and breaking a circuit under normal conditions as well as Sometimes free electricity is provided. In such in-
under abnormal conditions such as those of short circuit. stances, it is essential that the user does not connect
higher load appliances, leading to overheating of wires
The following are the different types of breakers in common and burning of supply equipments.
use in electronic industries
1 Miniature circuit breaker(MCB)
ed
2 Earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCB)
bl I
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Miniature circuit breakers(MCB)
ish
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Construction:: The Fig 1 shows the internal construction

details and parts of a typical MCB. In these MCB’s there
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is no serviceable part as such when they found defective,

the whole unit should be replaced.
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Over load trips:: The overload trips incorporated in the

MCBs may be thermal or of the magnetic type or a com-
t t rig
bination of these two types.

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Advantages of using MCB’s over switch fuses

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1 MCBs are essentially tamper-proof as they have enclo- In such cases load rated MCBs can be used as the main
sures of a sealed type. incoming circuit breakers. In the event of extra load being
2 MCBs afford closer protection than the rewireable and connected /drawn, the circuit breaker will trip and cut off
HRC fuses in common use, because of the narrowly supply.
controlled tripping factor i.e. ratio of minimum trip
For such applications, the MCBs can be provided in
current/rated current.
enclosures, with padlocking devices so that only the
authorised persons has to be approached for re-switching
3 These are available in plug-in design also, in which case on the supply. Some manufacturers produce such enclo-
they can be pushed into circuit bus-bars even in sures with MCBs as well.
energized condition. Thus replacement is easy.
For other general small flats/rooms, it is advantageous to
4 These are modular in design which permits their use in
install a circuit breaker of 10 amps or 15 amps for over-all
various combinations. In the case of triple pole types,
protection.
since they are gang operated, there is no possibility of
single phasing.
Availability of MCBs: MCBs are available indegeneous in
5 MCBs can assume the function of a switch as well as the various combinations of poles and current ratings.
a protective device and consequently they may be used
i) Single pole MCB. Current rating 5 to 60 amps.
to control, as well as protect, the circuits and appara-
tus. ii) Double pole MCB (i.e. two MCBs with common trip bar)
5 to 60 amps.
161
iii) Triple pole MCB (i.e. three MCBs, with common trip bar) However, when there is any leakage in the circuit, the line
current rating 5 to 60 amps. current differs from neutral current, thus inducing a voltage
iv) Four pole MCB (i.e. four MCBs with common trip bar) in the secondary and the trip coil opens the circuit. Working
current rating 5 to 60 amps. of the ELCB could be checked by the test button at
intervals. Specification for ELCB should contain normal
Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB): Earth leakage rated current, leakage current and the time duration within
circuit breakers are the devices designed to provide protec- which the ELCB should trip. Some state electricity
tion against accidents by rapidly interrupting dangerous authorities in India insist on the use of ELCB in each of the
contact voltages which may be present in the faulty domestic installation as a safety measure.
electrical equipment as a result of ground faults, insuffi-
cient insulation, insulation failure or misuse and sabotage. Types of closing mechanism in circuit breakers:
Basically the ELCBs are of two types, voltage operated Various mechanisms are devised to close the circuit
ELCBs and current operated ELCBs. breaker contacts. The main types are :
Over the years, it has been established that current 1) spring-operated closing mechanism
operated ELCBs are much more reliable in operation, 2) solenoid-operated closing mechanism
easier to install and maintain. Besides, there is no danger- 3) air-pressure operated closing mechanism.
ous ageing of the protective system components involved,
as in the voltage operated ELCBs, where the earth elec-
Spring-operated closing mechanism: It can be of three
trode resistance changes with time and hence the earth
types as explained below.
loop impedance does not remain constant over a period.
This leads to dangerous touch voltages on the metal
Manually operated spring press mechanism: This
enclosures without being sensed by the voltage operated
normally consist of a handle as shown in Fig 3 which has
ELCBs, whereas current operated devices are safer as
to be pushed by a downward stroke to close the circuit. As
they operate on the principle of the vector sum of the line
ed
the handle is brought down, the springs are compressed as
currents and the neutral current. Any current even in
shown in Fig. The final part of the stroke releases the
bl I
milliamperes which is not returning to the source through
pu M
ish
springs and closes the breaker.
the neutral is assumed to be flowing through the earth or
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through any insulating body. This differential current is
immediately sensed by the current operated ELCB which
switches off the electricity supply, protecting the people
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from dangerous electrical shocks and the insulations from

failing and inviting dangerous fires.
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They also provide a high degree of protection against earth

t t rig
faults and fires. Fig 2 shows the circuit diagram of a residual

- current earth leakage circuit breaker. The essential part
of the ELCB is a toroid type core transformer with two
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opposed windings called primary. One is connected in

series with the line and the other in series with the neutral.
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As far as there is no leakage current, the line current is

equal to the neutral current and the magnetic flux produced
by the two primary windings oppose and cancel each other.
Thus the secondary winding which is connected to the trip Spring press: The spring press consists of a rotatable
(operating) coil does not induce any voltage. handle as shown in Fig 4. This spring press provides a
means of closing the circuit breaker without the use of
auxiliary electrical supplies. A number of springs are
slowly compressed by winding the handle. At the end of
the winding, the springs are released by a catch and the
circuit breaker closes.
be operated manually. The tripping lever is generally kept
locked. When the trip bar is lifted the mechanism opens the
breaker contacts.
Motor driven spring press: Either an AC or DC motor

could be used to automatically charge the springs. The
springs can be released electrically by a small spring re-
lease solenoid or manually. This type of circuit breaker is
shown in Fig 5.
Trip coils: When remote operation is desired, trip coils are

used. The trip coils are small solenoids either operated by
AC or DC supplies. Fig 8 shows the general arrangement
ed
of the trip coil mechanism. A plunger moves freely inside
bl I the solenoid. When the solenoid is energised by the trip
pu M
ish switch the plunger moves up and releases the lock which
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holds the trip bar. Further the trip coils are also actuated by
short circuit/overload and under-voltage relays as de-
scribed in the following paragraphs.
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Solenoid-operated closing mechanism:: Fig 6 shows

the circuit breaker having a solenoid operated closing
o ht
mechanism. In this mechanism a plunger is free to move

inside a solenoid. When the solenoid is energised, the
t t rig
plunger is attracted to the pole piece, lifting the plunger

rod. The plunger rod operates the circuit breaker closing
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mechanism.
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Shunt trip coils: The shunt trip coil requires an auxiliary

supply, a C.T. and a relay. The relay can be set to give time-
graded protection. The relay closes the trip coil circuit
when the load current exceeds the stipulated value. This
relay is shown in Fig 9.
Trip mechanism: Trip mechanism is incorporated in the

circuit breaker to switch off the circuit breaker at faulty
condition either automatically or manually at the desired
time.
Fig 7 shows the arrangement. When the circuit breaker is

closed, the mechanism is locked in position by a system
of linkages. This lock can be released by lifting the trip bar.
Trip bar is attached to the tripping lever which in turn can
Series trip coil: The series trip coil mechanism shown in Under voltage release coils: The under-voltage release
Fig 10 consists of a series solenoid with a plunger coil is used in installations where detection and isolation of
controlled by a spring. When current in the load become abnormally low voltage is required. The construction of the
excessive the plunger rises and trips the mechanism. under-voltage trip coil shown in Fig 11 is similar to the trip
coils discussed above except that the plunger is held away
from the pole piece by a coiled spring. Under normal
operating conditions, the solenoid is energised and the
plunger is held down against the force of the spring. When
the supply voltage falls, the under-voltage release coil will
not be in a position to hold the plunger down against the
spring tension. Thus the plunger moves up and pushes the
trip bar to trip the circuit breaker.
The current necessary to trip the circuit breaker is regu-

lated by a screw which adjusts the tension of the spring
controlling the plunger. Time-lag can be adjusted by the
position of the dash pot which holds the piston of the
plunger in the oil bath.
ed
In three-phase circuit breakers, there are three series trip
bl I
coils, three dash pots, three plungers. They can operate
pu M
ish
the trip mechanism together or independently.
Re NI
be @
o ht
t t rig
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Relays
• state the meaning of magnet and magnetism
• list the properties of magnets
• differentiate between temporary and permanent magnets
• state about flux and flux density.
• list the magnetic materials
• state the classification of magnetic materials
• state the type of magnetic field around a current carrying conductor
• state faraday's law and lenz's law of electro magnetic induction
• explain relay types, construction and specification
• list different types of contacts.
Magnets and magnetism MAGNETIC FIELD AND MAGNETIC FLUX (Ø)

Magnets are those which have the power to attract iron or The property of magnetism in any magnet is because of an
alloys of iron (ferrous materials). Magnets available in invisible field of force between the two poles at the
nature are called natural magnets or lodestones as shown opposite ends of the magnet as shown in Fig 2. From
in Fig 1. Fig 2 it can be seen that the magnetic field is strongest at
ed
poles. Magnetic field exists in all directions, but
the poles.
decreases in strength, as you go away from the
bl I
pu M
poles(decreases inversely as the square of the distance
ish from the poles). The magnetic lines can be considered to

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flow outward from the north pole and enter the magnet at the
south pole. The entire group of magnetic lines, which can
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be considered to flow outward from the north pole of a

magnet, is called the magnetic flux. The magnetic flux is
symbolically represented by the Greek letter ø (phi). The
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more the magnetic flux ø, the stronger is the magnetic field,

The property of a material to attract pieces of ferrous and hence, the magnet.
t t rig
materials is called magnetism.

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Natural magnets are of very little practical use these days

because it is possible to produce much better magnets by
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artificial means.
Magnetic and non-magnetic materials

All materials cannot be made magnets artificially. Materi-
als which are attracted by magnets are called magnetic
materials and only such magnetic materials can be made
as artificial magnets. All other materials are called non-
magnetic materials. A list of a few magnetic and non- PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS
magnetic materials is given below:
• Unlike poles attract each other.
Magnetic materials Non-magnetic materials
When the north pole of a freely movable permanent magnet
IRON ALUMINIUM is brought near the south pole of a second permanent
magnet, an invisible force causes the two poles to be
STEEL COPPER attracted to each other as shown in Fig 3a. The two unlike
COBALT BRASS poles actually stick to one another. The force of attraction
between unlike poles increases as the distance between
NICKEL LEAD the poles decreases. Actually, the force of attraction varies
inversely as the square of the distance between poles.
Poles of a magnet
The magnetic strength of a magnet is concentrated at two The magnetic field along unlike poles will be similar to that
points on the magnet. These points are called the poles of shown in Fig 3b.
a magnet.
165
What is happening in Fig 5 is that, the magnetic lines of
force generated by the permanent magnet, make the
internal molecular magnets in the iron bar line up in the
same direction as shown in Fig 6b. An unmagnetised iron
as shown Fig 6a, the molecules will be in random direc-
tions. Note from Fig 5 that, the induced poles in the iron bar
have opposite polarity from that of the poles of the perma-
nent magnet.
• Like poles repel each other.

When the north pole of a freely movable permanent magnet
is brought near the north pole of a second permanent
magnet, an invisible force causes the two poles to repel It should be noted that inducing magnetism was possible
each other as shown in Fig 4a. The two unlike poles only because the unmagnetised material shown in Fig 7
actually move away with a jerk. This force of repulsion was a magnetic material. In Fig 6 instead of iron, a copper
increases as the distance between the poles decreases. bar is used, the permanent magnet will not induce magnet-
Actually, the force of repulsion varies inversely as the ism in copper as copper is a non-magnetic material. The
ed
square of the distance between poles. magnetic field lines will be unaffected by the non-magnetic
bl I materials when placed in the magnetic field of a magnet as

pu M
ish
The magnetic field around like poles will be similar to that shown in Fig 7.
shown in Fig 4b.
Re NI
be @
o ht
t t rig
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TYPES OF MAGNETS
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Magnets are available naturally, and can also be made

artificially. When magnets are made artificially, depending
• Induces magnetic properties to magnetic materi- on the type of material magnetism is retained for different
als. durations. For example, if a piece of soft iron and a piece
A permanent magnet can induce magnetism to an of steel are magnetized. The magnetism in steel remains
unmagnetised iron bar such that the iron bar become a for a much longer duration than in soft iron. This ability of
magnet. To induce magnetism, it is enough if the perma- a material to retain its magnetism is called retentivity of the
nent magnet comes close to the iron bar as shown in Fig material. Depending upon the retentivity of the material,
5. artificial magnets can be classified as temporary magnets
and permanent magnets. Temporary magnets lose their
magnetic power or magnetism once the magnetizing force
is removed.
The magnetism that remains in a magnetic material, once

the magnetizing force is removed, is called residual mag-
netism. This term is usually only applicable to temporary
magnets.
Permanent magnets retain magnetism for a long period of

time.
166 E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.58 - 1.5.60
Classification of magnets, popularly used types of mag- As an example the flux density B for a 1 lb magnet will be
nets and their applications are given in Chart 1 at the end 1000 G at the poles.
of this lesson.
Example : With a flux of 10,000 Mx through a perpendicu-
Units of magnetic flux ø lar area of 5 cm2, what is the flux density in gauss?
Maxwell
ø 10, 000 Mx 2
B = = 2 = 2000 Mx cm
One Maxwell (Mx) unit equals one magnetic field line. In Fig A 5 cm
8, for example, the flux illustrated is 6 Mx because, there
are six field lines flowing in or out of each pole. A one pound B = 2000 G.
magnet can provide a magnetic flux ø of about 5000 Mx.
Typical values of flux densities are ,
Maxwell is a unit of magnetic field in CGS system of units. Earth's magnetic flux density is about 0.2 G.
A large laboratory magnet produces flux den-
sity of 50,000 G.
Since gauss is a small unit, flux density if often measured

in kilogauss
1 kilogauss = 103 Gauss.
In SI units of measurement, the unit of flux density B, is

webers per square metre (Wb/m2). One weber per square
ed
metre is called a tesla, abbreviated as T.
bl I
pu M
ish
This is a larger unit of magnetic flux. One weber (Wb) Tesla is a unit of flux density in SI system of units.
equals 1 x 108 lines or maxwells. Since weber is a large unit
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for typical fields, microweber (μWb)

Wb) unit can be used. Example : A flux of 400 μWb passes through an area of
0.0005 m2, What is the flux density in tesla units?
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1μWb = 10-6Wb.
–6
For a one lb magnet producing the magnetic flux of 5000 ø 400 x 10 Wb
B = =
o ht
–4
Mx, corresponds to 50 μWb. A 5 x 10 m2
t t rig
400 –2 –2
Weber is a unit of magnetic field in SI system of units. = x 10 = 80 x 10 Wb/m 2
5
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FLUX DENSITY (B) B = 0.80 Tesla

The flux density is the number of magnetic field lines per
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Tesla is a larger unit than gauss 1 T = 1 x 104 G. For

unit area of a section perpendicular to the direction of flux
example, the flux density of 20,000 G is equal to 2 T.
as shown in Fig 8.
CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
As a formula,
Based on the strong magnetic property of iron, other
ø flux materials are classified as either magnetic or non-mag-
B = =
A Area netic materials. However, a more detailed classification is
In magnets, the flux density will be higher close to the poles given below;
because flux lines are more crowded near the poles. 1 Ferromagnetic materials
Units of flux density 2 Paramagnetic materials
Gauss: One Gauss is equal to one flux line per square 3 Diamagnetic materials
centimeter, or 1 Mx/cm2. Ferromagnetic materials
Gauss is a unit of flux density in CGS system of units. These are materials which become strongly magnetized.
These materials gets magnetised in the same direction as
As for example in Fig 8, the magnetizing field. These materials have high values of
permeability in the range of 50 to 5000. Examples of
total flux ø is 6 lines, or 6 Mx
ferromagnetic materials are iron, steel, nickel, cobalt, and
commercial alloys such as alnico and permalloy. Permalloy
At point P in this field, the flux density B is 2 Gauss
has a μr of 100,000 but gets saturated at relatively low
because there are 2 lines per cm2.
values of flux density.
Paramagnetic materials Carbon steel
These are materials which become weakly magnetized. This was the only material used for permanent magnets in
These materials gets magnetised in the same direction as olden days. It has poor magnetic materials and not in much
the magnetizing field. The permeability of paramagnetic use today.
materials is slightly more than 1. Examples of paramag-
netic materials are aluminum, platinum, manganese, and Carbon steel is now used only for applications where low
chromium. cost is more important than magnetic performance.
Diamagnetic materials Carbon steel is used in making compass needles, thin

sheet magnets and magnets for toys.
These are materials which become weakly magnetized.
These materials gets magnetised in the opposite direction
Tungsten and chromium steels
of the magnetizing field. The permeability of diamagnetic
materials is less than 1. Examples of diamagnetic mate- The addition of tungsten and chromium to carbon steel
rials are bismuth, antimony, copper, zinc, mercury, gold gives a group of alloys having better magnetic properties
and silver. than carbon steel. These materials can be rolled or forged
to different shape and are machinable.
The basis of the above three classifications is the motion
of orbital electrons in atoms. Large quantities of instrument magnets are produced from
steel containing approximately 6% tungsten.
There are two kinds of electron motion in the atom;
Chromium steel is cheaper to produce but slightly less
1 The electron revolving in its orbit: This motion provides
effective than tungsten steel as a permanent magnet.
a diamagnetic effect. However, this magnetic effect is
Instrument magnets are made by punching out the shape
weak because of the thermal agitation at normal room
ed
required from steel strips containing 3% chromium.
temperature. This results in random directions of mo-
bl I
tion that neutralizes the magnetic effect of each other.
pu M
Cobalt steel
ish
2 The magnetic effect from the motion of each electron The addition of cobalt to chromium steel considerably
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spinning on its own axis: The spinning electrons works increases the magnetic strength of the material.
as a tiny permanent magnets. Opposite spins provide
be @
opposite polarities. Two electrons spinning in opposite To meet all reasonable industrial requirements, a range of
directions form a pair, neutralizing the magnetic fields. five cobalt steel alloys, each having a different cobalt
In the atoms of ferromagnetic materials, however, there
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composition are produced. These alloys can be rolled or

are many unpaired electrons with spins in the same cast and machined before hardening.
direction, resulting in a strong magnetic effect.
t t rig
Cobalt steel alloys are used for making rotating magnets,

Iron, cobalt and nickel are said to be very good magnetic telephone receivers, speedometer magnets, multi-pole
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materials. Alloys of these three metals make up almost the rotors used in electric clocks and hysteresis motors.
entire range of magnetic materials used by the electrical,
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electronic and communication industries. Iron-aluminimum-nickel
Temporary and permanent magnets In 1931 an alloy of iron, aluminum and nickel was discov-
ered. This alloy gives a better magnetic performance as a
Another classification of magnetic materials based on their permanent magnet when compared to all the other com-
application are: mercially produced permanent magnetic materials.
1 Temporary magnets
Most permanent magnets produced today are made from
2 Permanent magnets
Alnico and Alcomax group of alloys. These have iron-nickel
Soft and hard magnetic materials and aluminium with additions of cobalt and copper.
Magnetic materials can be classified as: Magnets made from these alloys can only be produced by
1 Hard magnetic materials the processes of casting and sintering. They are very brittle
and cannot be machined except by grinding.
2 Soft magnetic materials
Soft magnetic is a term which covers the range of
Hard magnetic is a term is used to cover the range of materials which are easy to magnetize and demagnetize.
materials used for making permanent magnets. They are used for the cores of electromagnets or temporary
magnets.
Some of the hard magnetic materials commonly used and
a brief of their magnetic properties are given below; Soft magnetic materials used for making electromagnets
are easy to magnetize and demagnetize. They have low
hysteresis loss, higher saturation value (B), higher
permeability and low coercivity values when compared with
hard magnetic materials.
Soft magnetic materials are generally used for making

laminated, transformer cores, motor & generator arma-
tures and other electrical equipments which are subject to
continual reversal of magnetization.
Some of the soft magnetic materials commonly used and

their magnetic properties are given below;
Mild steel
It is an inexpensive material to produce, and, therefore, an
ideal material to use where cost is important and the
magnetic properties required not so stringent. As the
carbon content in mild steel is increased, the effect is to
lower the magnetic properties.
Iron-silicon alloys
A range of iron-silicon alloys, containing silicon between
0.3% to 4% is produced as sheets or strips and used for
making laminations. Iron with a small amount of silicon has
better magnetic properties than pure iron.
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These alloys have low hysteresis loss, high saturation and
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are used for the magnetic circuits of electrical equipment
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operated at power frequencies of 50 Hz such as power
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transformers, alternators and electric motors of all sizes.

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Due to the brittleness of the higher silicon alloys, it is not

possible to make it into very thin sheets or strips.
Fig 9a and 9b shows the magnetic flux generated by the
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Magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor electric current passing through the centre of the coil.
Therefore, a one-turn coil acts as a little magnet. It has a
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When current is passed through a conductor, a magnetic

field is produced around it. It is important to note the magnetic field with an identifiable N pole and S pole.
following two factors about the magnetic lines of force Instead of a single turn, a coil may have many turns as
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around a current carrying conductor. shown in Fig 9c. In this case, the flux generated by each
of the individual current -carrying turns, tends to link-up and
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1 The magnetic lines are circular and the field is sym- pass out-of one end of the coil and back into the other end
metrical with respect to the current carrying wire in the as shown in Fig 9c. This type of coil, also known as a
centre. solenoid has a magnetic field pattern very similar to that of
2 The magnetic field with circular lines of forces is in a a bar magnet.
plane perpendicular to the current in the wire.
The right hand rule for determining the direction of flux from
a solenoid is illustrated in Fig 9d. When the solenoid is
The direction of the magnetic lines around the conductor
gripped with the right hand such that, the fingers are
can be determined by the right hand screw rule. The
pointed in the direction of current flow in the coils, the
direction of magnetic lines reverses, if the direction of
thumb points in the direction of the flux as shown in Fig
current through the conductor is reversed. This magnetic
9d. The coil now behaves like an electromagnet.
field around a single conductor is too weak to make the wire
behave as a useful magnet.
The solenoid acts like a bar magnet whether it has an iron
core or not. Adding an iron core in a solenoid increases the
Magnetic field around a coil
flux density inside the coil. In addition, the field strength will
Consider the effect of passing a current through a one-turn then be uniform for the entire length of the core. It should
coil of wire as shown in Fig 9a. be noted that, adding an iron core into a solenoid does not
change the N and S pole positions of the solenoid.
When the direction of the current through the coil is

changed, it changes the direction of magnetic lines,
thereby changing the poles of the solenoid.
Applications of electromagnet means, a relay enables a comparatively weak current to
bring into operation a much stronger current or currents as
Electromagnets are used in various applications such as
shown in Fig 11a and Fig 11b.
electrical circuit breakers, relays, door bells etc.
In Fig 11a, a 150mA relay current can switch-ON or switch-
Faraday's law
OFF a high power motor which draws 15 Amperes. In Fig
Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic lines of force, an emf 11b, by operating the relay, multiple circuits can be
is induced in the conductor. This is known as Faraday’s law switched-ON or switched-OFF.
of Electromagnetic Induction.
Lenz’s Law
The basic principle used to determine the direction of
induced voltage or current is given by Lenz’s Law.
Lenz’ law states that the direction of induced

current is such that the magnetic field set-up
due to the induced current opposes the action
that produced the induced current.
Relays
Introduction
In addition to solenoids, one other most popular application
of electromagnets is in what are called electromagnetic
ed
relays.
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Important similarities and differences between a solenoid
and a relay is illustrated in Fig 10.
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Construction and operation of a simple relay
Electromagnetic relay is basically a switch or a combina-
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tion of switches operated by magnetic force generated by

a current flowing through a coil.
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Essentially, a typical relay shown in Fig 12 consists of the

following parts;
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– an electromagnet comprising of a core and coil

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– a movable armature,pivoted and held in tension by a

spring
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– a set of contacts
– a frame to mount all these components.
As shown in Fig 12, a typical relay consists of a core
surrounded by a coil of wire. This is mounted on a metal
frame. The movable part of the relay is the armature. One
end of the armature is hinged and connected to a spring.
On the armature is mounted a contact arm carrying
movable contacts. The fixed relay contacts and its termi-
nals are mounted on an insulated terminal board.
Electromagnetic relays
The term relay was used for the first time, to describe an
invention made by Samuel Morse in 1836. The device
invented by Morse was a Telegraph Amplifying Electro-
magnetic Device. 'This device enabled a small current
flowing in a coil to switch-ON a large current in another
circuit, and thus helped in relaying of telegraph signals.
In any application, the object of a relay is generally to act

as a remote switch or as a electrical multiplier switch. This
Operating delay of relays
When an energizing voltage is applied to a relay coil, the
relay does not work instantaneously. It takes some time,
usually a few milliseconds to operate. Reasons for this
delay are given below:
– Due to inductance of the relay coil, current grows slowly

and takes some time to reach the required current
value.
– Due to inertia, the armature takes sometime to move
from one position to another.
When rated voltage is applied to terminals of a relay coil,

the gradual build up of current in the coil is due to the initial
When the relay is OFF or not energized, the contact arm opposition to the current flow by the self-inductance of the
touches the top contact. When the relay is energized by coil. After some delay, when sufficient magnetization is
applying voltage to the coil terminals, the metallic armature built up and when the force of attraction is sufficient to
is attracted. The armature and contact arm assembly move overcome the opposition of the tension due to return spring
downward so that the contact arm mounted on the arma- plus, tension of contact springs, the armature is attracted
ture touches the bottom contact. Thus, the relay is doing and it closes the relay contacts. The relay is then said to
the function of a single pole, double throw (SPDT) switch. be energized or pulled-in or picked.
On removing the voltage applied to the coil, the spring Once the relay is energised then, only a small amount of
ed
attached to one end of the armature returns the armature energy is required to maintain it in energized condition. The
to its original position and the contact arm touches the top
bl I rest of the electrical energy is wasted as heat.
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contact.
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The constructional details of a commercially available, When the current through the coils falls below a certain
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most common type of relay known as a clapper type relay value, the relay gets de-energised and the return spring
is shown in Fig 13. The working principle of this relay is pulls the armature back. This is called as relay drop-out.
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same as explained for the relay as shown in Fig 12.

From above it can be seen that, very little amount of
electrical power is consumed for the switching of relay
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whereas most of the power is consumed while holding.

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Parts of a Relay
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Each part of a relay is as important as the other in the

overall performance of the relay. Details of the parts of a
relay and their purpose are given below:
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Frame and core : One of the main function of the relay

frame is to provide a base for mounting other relay parts.
But, the most important function is, the frame forms a part
of the complete magnetic path between the armature and
core. The core, frame and armature are made of an easily
magnetizable material such as iron.
Hinges : The hinges connect the armature to the frame. A

good hinge must be as free from friction as possible. They
must also be strong enough to support the weight of the
armature and contacts. The hinges must provide low
reluctance to the magnetic flux in its path from the core
through the frame and the armature.
Return springs : The springs are usually very thin and

cannot concentrate any large amount of flux. Spring steel,
which has a lower reluctance than other materials acts to
retain its magnetism and remain attracted to the core after
the relay is de-energised. Springs also have a disadvan-
tage of being stiff and are likely to break after a few
operations.
Relay coil : The coil is usually wound on a former and Size of the contacts determines the current handling
slipped over the magnetic core in the relay frame. This capability. The larger the contacts, the more current they
permits easy replacement of damaged coils by new ones. can switch without excessive deterioration.
Coil Specifications The contact arms or springs are made thick and wide
enough to carry the current for which the contacts are
Generally relays are made to operate at different voltages
rated. They are also made spongy enough to ensure good
such as, 6, 12, 18, 24, 48, 100 or 240 volts AC or DC. A coil
contact. If the springs are too soft they may vibrate when
resistance chart is usually given with relays which helps in
the relay opens, causing contact bounce when the con-
calculating the coil current and power dissipation. Maxi-
tacts open and close repeatedly. This bounce can also
mum wattage, maximum permissible temperature and the
occur on closing. The bouncing of contacts is always
wattage for satisfactory operation, are specified along with
undesirable. Contact debouncing circuits are used to
relays.
overcome the undesirable effects of contact bouncing in
Operate current – is the minimum current required to sensitive circuits such as digital electronic circuits.
energize a relay.
Switching circuits with switching speed of 10 to 25 msec
Hold current – is the minimum coil current required
require gold contacts. Also the contacts should be made
to continue to hold the relay ener-
of similar metals or alloys to avoid temperature differential
gized.
which will introduce uncompensated thermocouple voltages.
Release current – is the maximum current which re-
leases the relay.
Types of relay contacts
Relay coils are always insulated from the frame of the relay. There are several types of relay contacts of which a few
The electrical resistance between the coil and the body is basic types of contacts are shown in Chart 1 at the end of
a measure of the isolation of energising voltage from the this lesson.
ed
ground. Similarly, the electrical resistance between the
bl I Instructor to use transparency types of contacts
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coil and the contacts is a measure of the electrical isolation
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between the energising driving and the driven circuits. and discuss their working.]
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These resistances will be of the order of hundreds or
thousands of megohms. The simplest and most common forms of contacts are:
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Relay contacts Form A: Normally Open Contact (abbreviated as N/O)

which closes when the relay gets energized.
The contacts on a relay are the parts that actually perform
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the electrical switching of the controlled circuits. Also, Form B: Normally Closed Contact (abbreviated as N/C)
these contacts are the ones that cause most trouble and
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and the contact gets broken when the relay is de-energized.

require frequent maintenance as compared to any other
part of a relay. Form C: Change Over Contact (Break before make)
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Contact materials and design Form D: Make before break contact - the long arm is
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contacted first, then it is pushed away from the short arm.

The relay contacts are made of material which are very In practice this type of contact is very useful as it decides
good conductors as well as corrosion-resistant. the switching sequence.
An arc is created when the contacts open and close. This Form E: It is basically a type D contact combined with a
arc burns and oxidises the contacts. An oxide coating type B contact.
make the contacts either poor conductors or non-conduc-
tors. For this reason, contacts are made of silver, palladium Form F,G,H and J are pile-ups where multiple contacts are
and palladium-iridium alloys, gold alloys, gold plated silver, made or broken when the relay picks up.
tungsten and alloys of other highly corrosion-resistant
A single relay can have a pile of contacts and operate all
materials that do not oxidize easily.
of them simultaneously as shown in Fig 14.The contact
Even with these materials, some oxidation still takes assembly can contain a variety of contact types shown in
place. To get rid of the oxide, the contacts are designed to Chart 1.
have a wiping action. As the contacts close and open, the
Common relay contact defects
surfaces rub together. This action rubs off any oxide or dirt
which might cause poor contact. Due to continuous switching the relay contacts and springs
develop defects. Some of these defects are illustrated in
Contacts come in many shapes and sizes, and in a variety Chart 2 at the end of this lesson. In most relays, the contact
of contact arms. These contact arms are generally called spring assembly can be replaced if they are found defective.
contact springs because they maintain good contact
pressure.
Circuit breakers - relays used as protective devices to
interrupt circuits when they become overloaded.
General purpose relays - relays used for general appli-

cations.
Telephone type relays - relays used by telephone

departments for switching lines and other metering pur-
poses.
Miniature relays - relays used for mounting on printed

circuit boards(PCBs) as component of electronic circuit.
3 Relays can also be classified as;

Ask your instructor to show defective contacts
and springs and new springs used for replace-
ment. Voltage operated relays - these relays usually will have
high coil resistance and draw small amount of current at the
Classification of Relays rated voltage for its operation. These are usually connected
in parallel with the voltage sources.
1 Relays can be classified according to the type of
mechanism used to operate the contacts. Examples Current operated relays - these relays usually have low
clapper, ratchet, stepper, solenoid, meter, reed and coil resistance and are connected in series with other
thermal relays. circuits.
ed
2 Relays can also be classified based on their applica-
tions as given below;
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Contactors - relays with contacts that normally carry 30

or more amperes of current.
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Motor starter relays - relays used in motor circuits to

control the starting current.
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CHART 1 : TYPES OF RELAY CONTACTS
A NO type contact B NC type contact C BREAK BEFORE MAKE

(NO=Normally Open) (NC=Normally Closed)
D MAKE BEFORE BREAK E BREAK BEFORE MAKE F MAKE-MAKE PILE UP

BEFORE BREAK
ed
G ONE BREAK - BREAK
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H ONE BREAK - MAKE - I ONE BREAK - BREAK -
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PILE UP
ishMAKE PILE UP MAKE PILE UP
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CHART 2 : COMMON RELAY CONTACT/SPRING DEFECTS

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BENT SPRINGS/BUSHINGS CREASE IN SPRINGS

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NEEL
GREASE
FILLET
ARMATURE
BUSHING CREASE CAUSES SPRINGS TO BREAK
MISALIGNED CONTACTS
MISALIGNED
CONTACTS
Space for trainees to fill
Time constant for RC circuit

• explain the importance of RC time constant
• state the need of universal time constant curve
• list a few applications of RC time delay circuits
• explain the use of oscilloscope in measuring time delay.
RC time constant t while charging Fig 2 shows the charging curve of the resistor - capacitor
When a capacitor is connected across a battery or a (RC) circuit shown in Fig 1 and its relationship with RC time
source of dc voltage as shown in Fig 1a, it charges almost constant, t.
instantaneously. This is because there is no resistance in
the charging circuit to limit the charging current. On the
other hand, if a resistor is connected in series with the
capacitor, as shown in Fig 1b, the resistance limits the
maximum current that can flow in the series circuit. This
limiting of charging current causes delay in the time
required for the capacitor to charge up-to the source
voltage.
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Hence, the capacitor is considered to be fully charged only

after a period of more than five time constants or atleast five
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Even if a resistor were not connected in the circuit , the time constants.
resistance due to connecting wires, leads internal re-
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RC time constant while discharging

sistance of the supply source acts as a lumped resistance
to delay the charging. The exact time required for the As in charging, while a capacitor is discharging, there is
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capacitor to charge depends on both the resistance (R) in time delay in discharging the stored charges depending
the charging circuit, and the capacitance (C) of the upon the value of resistance and capacitance. This
capacitor(recall higher capacitance value allows higher discharge time constant t, is also given by RC. This time
current in the circuit, I = CV/t). constant gives the time required for the voltage across a
discharging capacitor to drop to various percentages of its
This relationship between resistance, capacitance and the maximum value as shown in graph at Fig 3.
charging time is expressed by the equation,
t = RC
where t (spelled as tow) is the capacitive time constant or
RC time constant, representing the time required for the
capacitor to charge to 63.2% of its full charge voltage.
It is interesting to note that, in each succeeding time
constant t , the voltage across the capacitor increases by
an additional 63.2 % of the remaining voltage. Thus, after
the second time constant (2t ) the capacitor would have
charged to 86.4 % of its maximum voltage,
– after 3t, 94.9 percent, of its maximum voltage,
– after 4t, 98.1 percent, of its maximum voltage
and – after 5t, more than 99 percent of its maximum
voltage.
175
Notice the similarity between the capacitive time constant
and the inductive time constant, discussed in previous
lessons. The similarity is that, the voltage across a
capacitor and the current through an inductor builds up/
rises and drops off/falls exactly in the same way.
Application of capacitor in camera flash units

A typical circuit of a flash unit is shown in Fig 4. A flash unit
produces a short duration, high current pulse without
drawing a large current from the supply.
SOLUTION
τ = R1C
= 220 x 103W x 10 x 10-6F
= 2.2 seconds.
Allowed charge time t = 3.5s

Equivalent number of time constants is equal to
3.5s
= = 1.59 τ ≈ 1.6 τ
2.2s/ τ
When the flash unit is charging, switch SW is in position
From the universal graph
1. The lamp resistance RC will be large. This high resist-
ed
ance limits the peak charging current IC to a low value such where τ = 1.6 τ , VC is almost = 80% of V (the final value).
bl I
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that the capacitor charges gradually with a large time
ish
Therefore,
constant τ1 = RC C.
VC = 80% of 12 volts
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= 0.8 x 12 V = 9.6 volts.

When the switch is thrown to position 2, the low resistance
Rd of the flash lamp allows a high discharge current through
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While calculating the discharge time constant,

it. Hence the bulb glows very brightly for a very small the total series resistance R1+R2 must be
duration. The duration of this current is determined by the considered.
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time constant τ2 = RdC.

Measurement of voltage levels and capacitance us-
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All similar system of obtaining high surge current is used ing oscilloscope
in applications like, electric spot welding, radar transmitter
A charging and discharging wave-form of a R-C circuit can
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tubes etc.
be seen using an oscilloscope. However, it is difficult to
view the charging and discharging of a R-C circuit having a
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Universal time-constant curves

switch similar to the one shown in Fig 5. This is because,
To determine the voltage and current in a capacitor at times the wave-forms appear and disappear on the screen.
other than 1τ, 2τ,....5τ time constants, the universal time- Hence, instead of a switch, a square wave signal as shown
constant curves are used. Refer pocket table book, table in Fig 6b, whose voltage level changes between 0 and V,
no.14 for the universal time-constant curve. just as a switch repeatedly switched ON and OFF, can be
more conveniently used.
The universal time-constant curves give the instantaneous
voltage across the capacitor as a percentage of the initial The advantage of using a square waveform is that, the rate
or final values, with time given in time constants τ. From the of switching (ON/OFF) can be increased or decreased by
graph, note that at one time constant τ, the capacitor would increasing or decreasing the frequency of the wave-form
have charged to 63% of its final steady-state voltage. Also (more optly known as pulse repetation rate, PRF).
at this point the charging current has dropped to only 37%
of its initial maximum value current. Note that, in either The output of a square wave signal generator is connected
case, a change of 63% occurs in one time constant. to the capacitive circuit as shown in Fig 6a. The frequency
of the waveform (rate of switching ON/OFF of circuit) is
From these curves it can also be confirmed that, the adjusted until the voltage wave-form across the capacitor
Charging or discharging of a capacitor is complete after is similar to that as in Fig 6c. Here, half-period of the square
five time constants. wave output (T/2) is equal to or greater than five time
constants, that is T/2 ³ 5 RC(τ).
For the circuit at Fig 5, using the universal time
constant curves, determine the capacitor
voltage after 3.5 seconds.
Application of R-C delay circuits
An RC circuit with a large time constant can be used to
introduce delay in a circuit as shown in Fig 7.
Here, the neon lamp acts as an open circuit until a firing

voltage of the lamp is reached(50-60V). When the circuit is
switched ON, the voltage across the capacitor charges
toward the final value of 100V, with a time constant of (R1
+ R2)C. When the charge across the capacitor reaches a
value between 50 to 60 volts, the firing voltage of the neon
lamp is reached and the lamp fires. The capacitor, hence,
discharges through the neon lamp, lighting it up. Because
of the low resistance of the neon lamp, the capacitor
voltage drops quickly and the lamp gets extinguished after
ed
being lighted for a brief period of time(flashing). The lamp
bl I once again becomes an open circuit and the capacitor

pu M
ish starts recharging, providing a controlled delay time before
the lamp one again fires. The rate of flashing can be varied
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by adjusting R2.
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With the oscilloscope connected across the capacitor, as The delay introduced by the R-C in circuit in Fig 7 can be
shown in Fig 6a, the time required to reach 63% of the final used for several other useful purposes. For example, if it is
voltage is the time constant, τ.. The voltage levels at 1
1τ,, 2
2τ required to delay the switching ON of a DC relay following
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etc can be easily measured if the Time/Div of the CRO is the application of voltage to the relay coil, the circuit at
made equal to the time constant τ.
t t rig
Fig.7 can be used.

If the total resistance of the circuit is known, the capaci-
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tance of the capacitor, if unknown, can be calculated using

the formula,
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τ
C= (Derivedfrom the formula,τ = RC)
R
R.C. Differentiator
• define R.C. differentiator
• connect capacitor and resistance in series
• explain about single pulse R.C. differentiator.
RC Differentiator
The passive RC differentiator is a series connected RC
network that produces an output signal which corresponds
to the mathematical process of differentiation.
For a passive RC differentiator circuit, the input is connected
to a capacitor while the output voltage is taken across a
resistance being the exact opposite to the RC integrator
circuit.
A passive RC differentiatior is nothing more than a
capacitance in series with a resistance. It is a frequency
dependant device which has reactance in series with a RC differentiator circuit
ed
fixed resistance. Just like the integrator circuit, the output
For an RC differentiator circuit, the input signal is applied
voltage depends on the circuits RC time constant and input
bl I to one side of the capacitor with the output taken across the
pu M
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frequency.
resistor, then Vout equals VR. As the capacitor is a frequency
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Thus at low input frequencies the reactance, XC of the dependent element the amout of charge it takes a time for
capacitor is high blocking any d.c. voltage or slowly varying across the plates is equal to the time integral of the current
input signals. While at high input frequencies the capacitors capacitor to fully charge as the capacitor can not charge
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reactance is low allowing rapidly varying pulses to pass instantaneously only charge exponentially.
directly from the input to the output.
Resistor voltage
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This is because the ratio of the capacitive reactance (Xc) to

We said previously that for the RC differentiator the output
resistance (R) is different for different frequencies and the
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is equal to the voltage across the resistor , that is Vout

lower the frequency the less output. So for a given time
equals VR and being a resistance, the output voltage can
constant, as the frequency of the input pulses increases,
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change instantaneous only.

the output pulses more and more resemble the input
pulses in shape. However, the voltage across the capacitor cannot change
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instantly but depends on the value of the capacitance, C as

The effect of passive high pass filters and if the input signal
it tries to store an electrical charge, Q across its plates.
is a wave, an RC differentiator will simply act as a simple
Then the current flowing into the capacitor, that is it
high pass filter (HPF) with a cut off or corner frequency that
depends on the rate of change of the charge across its
corresponds to the RC time constant (tau, T) of the series
plates. Thus the capacitor current is not proportional to the
network.
voltage but to its time variation giving: i = dQ/dt.
Thus when fed with a pure sine wave an RC differentiator
As VOUT equals VR where VR according to ohms law is
circuit acts as a simple passive high pass filter due to the
equal too: iR x R. The current that flows through the
standard capacitive reactance formula of XC = 1/(2Πfc).
capacitor must also flow through the resistance as they
But a simple RC network can also be performed are both connected together in series. Thus :
differentiation of the input signal. The rate at which the
VOUT = VR = R X iR
capacitor charges (or discharges) is directly proportional to
the amount of resistance and capacitance giving the time As iR = iC, therefore:
constant of the circuit. Thus the time constant of a RC
differentiator circuit is the time interval that equals the dv
V = RC IN
product of R and C. Consider the basic RC series circuit out dt
below. (Fig 1)
Thus the standard equation given for an RC differentiator
circuit is :
178
RC Differentiator Formula Single pulse RC differentiator
dv When a signle step voltage pulse is first applied to the input

V = RC IN of an RC differentiator, the capacitor " appears" initially as
out dt a short circuit to the fast changing signal. This is because
the slope dv/dt of the positive-going edge of a square wave
We can see that the output voltage, VOUT is the derivative is very large (ideally infinite), thus at the instant signal
of the input voltage, VIN which is weighted by the constant appears, all the input voltage passes thorugh to the output
of RC. Where RC represents the time constant, T of the appearing across the resistor.
series circuit.
RC Differentiator Output Waveforms
ed
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We can see that the shape of the output wave form depends For the output to resemble the input, we need RC to be ten
on the ratio of the pulse width to the RC time constant. times (10RC) the value of the pulse width, so for a capacitor
When RC is much larger (Greater than 10RC) than the value of say, 1uF, this would give a resistor value of : 100kΩ.
pulse width the output waveform resembles the square Likewise, for the output to resemble a sharpe pulse, we
wave of the input signal.When RC is much smaller (less need RC to be one tenth (0.1 RC) of the pulse width, so for
than 0.1 RC ) than the pulse width, the output waveform the same capacitor value of 1 uF, this would give a resistor
takes the form of very sharp and narrow spikes as shown value of: 1kΩ, and so on.
above
Example for RC differentiator
So by varying the time constant of the circuit from 10RC to
0.1 RC we can produce a range of different wave shapes.
Generally a smaller time constant is always used in RC
differentiator circuits to provide good sharp pulses at the
output across R. Thus the differential of a square wave
pulse (high dv/dt step input ) is an infinitly short spike
resulting in an RC differentiator circuit.
Lets assume a square wave waveform has a period, T of 20
mS giving a pulse width of 10mS ( 20mS divided by 2). For
the spike to discharge down to 37% of its initial value, the So by having an RC value of one tenth the pulse width (and
pulse width must equal the RC time constant, that is RC in our example above this is 0.1 x 10mS = 1mS) or lower
= 10mS. If we choose a value for the capacitor, C of 1 uF, we can produce the required spikes at the output, and the
then R equals 10kΩ. lower the RC time constant for a given pulse width, the
sharper the spikes. Thus the exact shap of the output
waveform depends on the value of the RC time constant.
ed
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Electronic Mechanic - Active & Passive components
R.L.C. Series and parallel circuit

• define inductive reactance
• describe resistance and inductance in AC series circuit
• describe resistance and capacitance in AC series circuit
• describe resistance inductance and capacitance in AC series circuit
• describe resistance and inductance in AC parallel circuit
• describe resistance and capacitance in AC parallel circuit
• describe resistance, inductance and capacitance in AC parallel circuit
• explain series and parallel resonance circuit.
Inductive reactance (XL)

When a DC voltage is applied to an inductor, the inductor
has its effect only during switching ON and switching OFF
of the circuit . With steady current in circuit, inductance
has no effect. Instead of DC, if a sinusoidal AC current is
made to flow through an inductor, as shown in Fig 1a, since
the magnitude of sinusoidal current is continuously varying,
as shown in Fig 1b, the inductor continuously keep
ed
opposing these changes. This continuous opposition is
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entirely dependent on the induced emf in the coil and has
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nothing to do with opposition due to the DC resistance of
the coil. The effective opposition to the flow of alternating
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current, due to the self induced emf. The inductive reactance

can be calculated by the equation XL = 2πfL fL generated by
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an inductor (L) and the frequency (f) of the current.

As in a resistive circuit, where opposition to current is given
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by,
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R = VR / IR
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where, VR = Voltage across the resistor

and IR = Current through the resistor
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similarly, the opposition to current by a pure inductance is

given by,
XL = VL / IL
where,
XL is the inductive reactance in ohms, W
VL is the voltage across the pure inductor in volts, V
IL is the current through the inductor in amperes, A
Power consumed by a pure inductor
The power consumed by a pure resistor is given by;

and ø = Phase angle difference between V and I
P = I2R = I.V ( V=I.R)
In a pure inductor, as shown in Fig 3b, phase difference
The power consumed by a components having both resistive between V and I is 90°. Therefore, the power consumed by
and reactive component is given by P = V.I.Cosø a pure inductor is Pinductor = V.I.Cos90°
where,
Cos 90° = 0 (Refer trigonometric tables)
V = Voltage applied across the component
Therefore Pinductor = V.I.0 = 0.
I = Current through the component
181
R-L series circuit Reactive power due to the reactive component.
Referring to Fig 1a, the circuit current(I) is limited by both
The power consumed by a reactive component
the ohmic resistance R and inductive reactance XL. Each
is referred to as reactive power.
has its own series voltage drops IR and IXL. Here the
circuit current is labeled as I, instead of IL, because In the series R-L circuit at Fig 3a, Apparent power Ps is the
current I flows through both the series components R and vectorial sum of True power (P) and the reactive power (Pq)
L. as shown in Fig 3c.
In this way, the total inductance (Lt) is equal to the sum of
individual inducatance (L1, L2, L3, .....)
Graph at Fig 1b shows the instantaneous values of i, VR,

VL and the source voltage VS. A vector diagram of VR, VL
and I is shown in Fig 1c. The vector diagram at Fig 1c,
shows that the current I lags behind the voltage VL by 90°.
But the current I is in phase with VR.
From the graph at Fig 1b, VR is maximum(100V) when VL
is minimum and vice versa. This is again because of the
phase difference. Because of this the series voltage drops
VR and VL cannot be added arithmetically to get the applied
source voltage VS. The method of adding VR and VL is
shown in Fig 2.
Fig 2a shows the vectorial addition method to get VS Apparent power (Ps) is also given by the product of source
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knowing VR and VL. voltage VS and total circuit current It.
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Fig 2c gives the total resultant opposition to current flow
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due to R and XL. This total resultant opposition due to Apparent power = Vs x It in volt-ampers, VA ...[5]
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resistance R and inductive reactance XL is called Impedance

in ohms with the symbol Z. The impedance Z, takes into To distinguish from reactive power and apparent power,
the power dissipated in a resistor in the form of heat (or in
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account the phase relationship between R and XL.

any other form), the term Real power or True power is used.
The impedance Z of the circuit given at Fig 2c is,
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True power = VR x IR watts, W

...[4]
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Quality factor - Q of coil

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Power consumed in a Resistance - Inductance Circuit (R- At high frequencies, how useful is a coil is not only judged
L circuit) by its inductance, but also by the ratio of its inductive
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reactance to its internal DC resistance of the coil. This ratio

The total power consumed in a R-L circuit will contain the is called the Quality factor or merit or Q of the coil.
True power due to the pure resistive component and the
Q of a coil is given by,
where,
XL is the reactance of the coil in ohms
Ri is the internal Resistance of the coil in ohms
Since XL and Ri have the same units of measure,

Q has no unit.
The Q of a coil can be defined as the ability of a coil to

produce self-induced voltage. The Q factor of a coil can
also be defined as the capability of the coil to store energy.
Hence the Q factor of a coil is also known as the storage
factor.
If Q of a coil is 200, it means, that the XL of the coil is 200
times more than it’s Ri. Q of coils range from less than 10
for a low Q coil up-to 1000 for a high Q coils. R.F coils have
Q in the range from 30 to 300.
R-C series circuit: Vector diagram of voltages and their use to deter-
mine pf angle θ. (Fig 6)
In a circuit with capacitance, the capacitive reactance (XC)
decreases when the supply frequency (f) increases as
shown in Fig 4.
VR = IR drop across R (in phase with I)

VC = IXC drop across capacitor (lagging I by 90o )
VR2 + V 2C = (IR) + (IX C )

2 2
=V = I R2 + X 2
C
V V
XC α
1 ∴ I = =
R2 + X 2 Z
f C
When the capacitive reactance XC increases the circuit
current decreases. ∴ Z= R2 + X 2
C where Z is the impedance of the
1 circuit.
Iα
Xc Power factor, cos θ = R/Z.
From pf cos θ the angle θ can be known referring to the
ed
Therefore the increase in frequency (f) results in the in- Trignometric table.
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crease of the circuit current in the capacitive circuit. When
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resistance (R), capacitance (C) and frequency f are known Example 1: In RC series circuit shown in the diagram
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in a circuit, the power factor cos θ can be determined as (Fig 7) obtain the following.
follows. (Fig 5)
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– Impedance in ohms
– Current in amps
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1 – True power in watts

Xc =
2ΠΠf – Reactive power in VAR
– Apparent power in volt amp.
– Power factor
Solution
R
Power factor, Cos θ = 1. Impedence Z
Z
= = R 2 + X 2C = 30 2 + 40 2 2500 = 50Ω.
Power consumed in a R-C series circuit can be determined
using the formula. V 200
2. Current =I = = 4A
P= VI Cosφ where P = Power in watts, I = Current in Z 50
ampere Cosφ = Power factor 2 2
3. True power W = I R = 4 x 30 = 480W
(Power consumed by capacitoir = zero)
VC = IXC = 4 x 40 = 160 V
4. Reactive power VAR = VCI = 160 x 4 = 640 VAR
Apparent power VI = 200 x 4 = 800 VA
R 30
PF cos θ = = = 0.6
Z 50
The impedance triangle, power triangle and voltage trian-
gle are shown in Fig 8
Solution
a) V = VR2 + VC2 = 12 2 + 16 2 = 144 + 256
= 400 = 20V
RLC Series circuit

Assume an AC single phase circuit consisting a resistance,
inductor and capacitor in series. Various parameters could
be calculated as shown in the example.
Example : The value of the components shown in Fig 11
ed
Example:2 In the circuit in Fig.9 calculate a) the capacitive is R = 40 ohms L = 0.3 H and C = 50mf. The supply voltage
is 240V 50 Hz. Calculate the inductive reactance, capaci-
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reactance and b) The capacitance of the capactior
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tance reactance, net reactance, impedance, current in the
circuit, voltage drops across the R, L and C power factor,
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active power, reactive power and apparent power. Also

draw the impedance triangle, voltage triangle and power
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triangle.
Calculate the resulting reactance in RLC circuit :
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Inductance and capacitance have directly opposite effects

in an AC circuit. The voltage drop caused by the inductive
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VR = IR = 0.16 x 50 = 8V reactance of the coil leads the line current by 90o. The
voltage drop across the inductor coil and the capacitor are
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Vc = V 2 - VR2 = 12 2 - 8 2 = 80 = 9V (App.) 180 degrees apart and oppose each other. To calculate the
net reactance in the above example:
V 9
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XC = = = 56Ω. Inductive reactance

I 0.16
1 X = 2πfL = 314 × 0.3 = 94.2 Ω
XC =
2πfC
Capactive reactance
1 1 10 6
C = = = = 57 μF 1 1 1
= 63.69 Ω
2πfX C 314 x 56 314 x 56 X = = =
2πfC 314 × 0.00005 0.0157
Net reactance = X L − X C = 94.2 − 63.69 = 30.51 Ω
Example 3: In the circuit shown (Fig.10)
a) calculate the voltage V
b) draw the voltage triangle. (Fig.11)
Calculate the impedance: From the circuit given above
the impedance can be found. The impedance is the
resultant combination resistance and reactance. In this
circuit, the impedance is the combination of the 40 ohms
resistance and 30.51 W resultant reactance. The
impedance for this circuit is
Z = R 2 + (X L − X C ) 2 = 40 2 + 30.512
= 1600 + 930.86 = 2530.86 = 50.30 Ω

Draw the impedance triangle: Draw the horizontal line
(X axis) indicating the circuit current.
Current in given RLC series circuit: Current in this
series circuit is I = E/Z = 240/50.3 = 4.77 amps.
Identifying whether the current flow is leading or

lagging the voltage in a RLC series circuit: As this is
a series circuit, the current is the same in all parts of the
circuit, but the voltage drop across the resistor, the inductor
coil and capacitor are
ed
ER = IR = 4.77 x 40 = 190.8 volts
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EL = IXL = 4.77 x 94.2 W = 449.33 volts
ish
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EC = IXC = 4.77 x 63.69 = 303.80 volts.

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The vector sum of the voltage of 190.8 volts across the

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Draw along with current vector the value of R to a suitable resistor and 145.53 volts across the net reactance of
scale i.e. 1cm = y ohms. 30.51W is equal to the line voltage of 240 volts as
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draw the vertical line perpendicular to the current vector in shown below.
+y axis indicating the value of inductive reactance to the
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scale selected (1cm = y ohms)

E = E 2 R + (EL − E C ) 2
draw a vertical line perpendicular to the current vector in _y
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axis indicating the value of capacitive reactance to the

scale selected (1cm = y ohms). = 190.8 2 + (449.33 − 303.80) 2
Substract the value of XC from, XL as shown in Fig 13 the net = 190.8 2 + 145.53 2
reactance value is equal to 30.51 ohms. Complete the
vectors by closing the parallelogram the reactance of the ∴ E = 240 volts.
parallelogram is the impedance of the series RLC circuit.
The voltage vector diagram could be drawn as shown in
Mathematically what we determined the values of net
reactance and impedance could also be determined by the fig.15
above vectorial method.
Measurement of current and voltage drop in RLC
circuit. The voltage drop across R =ER across L = EL and
drop across C = EC and the formula for finding their values
and given below. (Fig 14)
ER = IR
EL = IXL
EC = IXC
Calculate the power factor: Power factor of the RLC
series circuit can be found from the impedance triangle or
voltage triangle as shown below
R E
Power factor = Cos θ = or R
Z V
R 40
Power factor = = = 0.795
Z 50.3
ER 190.8
= = = 0.795
V 240
Calculate the active power (RA): Active power can be
calculated by using anyone of the formulae given below
P = EI Cos q = I2R
In this type of series circuit, the current is used as a
= EI Cos q = 240 x 4.77 x 0.795
horizontal reference line. The voltage value of 145.53 volts
across the portion of the inductive reactance which is not = 910 walts
cancelled out by the voltage across the capacitive
reactance. The PF = ER/E = 190.8/240 = 0.795 lag or PF = I2R = 4.772 x 40
= R/Z = 40/50.30 = 0.795 lag PF. In this circuit the phase
ed
= 910 watts.
angle is 37.3o lagging. This means that current lags the
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line voltage. Calculate the reactive power Pq: Reactive power can
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In an RLC series circuit, if XL is greater then the voltage be calculated using the formula
appearing across the inductor is high and that can be Pq = EI sin q Vars
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found out by IXL. In the same way if the XC value is greater

in an RLC series circuit, the voltage appearing across the = 240 x 6.77 x 0.6074
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capacitor is more and can be found out by IXC. The voltage = 695 Vars
vector diagram shown in Fig 16a and 16b represents the
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above conditions respectively. Cos q = 0.795

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In the example given above, the voltage drop across q = 37o3’

resistance 40 W = 190.8 volts.
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Sin q = Sin 37o3’

Voltage drop across inductance 0.3 H = 449.33 volts. = 0.6074
Voltage drop across capacitor of 50 mf = 303.80 volts.
Calculate the apparent power (PAPP): Apparent power
From these values it is clear that the voltage drop across can be calculated using the formula
the inductor and capacitor is higher than the supply voltage.
PAPP = EI volt-amperes
Hence while connecting the meter to measure the voltage
drop across inductor and capacitor it should be noted that = 240 x 4.77
the range of this should be high (in this case 0 - 500 volts) = 1145 Volt-amperes.
Draw the power triangle: Power triangle is shown in

Fig 17.
Resonance circuit: When the value of XL and XC are equal, Note: Supply voltage is referred as V or E inter-
the voltage drop across them will be equal and hence they changeably.
cancel each other. The value of voltage drops VL and VC
An admittance may be resolved into two compo-
may be much higher than the applied voltage. The nents.
impedance of the circuit will be equal to the resistance
value. Full value of applied voltage appears across R and – A component in phase with the applied voltage called
the conductance denoted by g.
the current in the circuit is limited by the value of resistance
– A component in quadrature (at right angle) with the
only. Such circuits are used in electronic circuits like radio/
applied voltage called susceptance, denoted by b.
TV turning circuits. When XL = XC the circuit is said to be
in resonance. As current will be maximum in series
resonant circuits it is also called acceptor circuits. For a
known value of L and C the frequency at which this occurs
is called as resonant frequency. This value can be
calculated as follows when XC = XL
1 1b R
2πfL = g = YCosφ = x
2πfC
Z Z
1 R R
Hence resonant frequency f = = =
2π LC 2 2 2
Z R +Z
ed
Note: Power factor angle is commonly denoted 1 X X
b = Y sin φ = x =
bl I
by Theta q. In some pages of this text it is denoted Z Z Z2
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in this text. ish
by Phi f. As such these terms are used alternatively
X
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=
2 2
R +X
R-L Parallel circuit
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When a number of impedances are connected in parallel

The unit of admittance, conductance and susceptance
across an AC voltage, the total current taken by the circuit
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is the phasor sum of the branch currents. is called the mho symbol .
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There are two methods for finding the total current.

– Admittance method
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– Phasor method
Admittance method (Fig 18)
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E
The current in any branch I =
Z
1 1
= Ex where
Z Z
is called the admittance of the circuit i.e. admittance is
the reciprocal of impedance. Admittance is denoted by U.
1 I
I = Ex = EY or Y =
Z E
total current
∴ Totaladmittance(YT ) =
commonappliedvoltage
Phasor sum of branch currents
=
commonappliedvoltage
= Phase sum of separate admittance
Relationship between branch current and supply voltage
IC = current flow through the resistance and induct-

ance of the coil
ECR = voltage drop in the coil due to resistance and
in phase with IC
In a R-L parallel circuit, the voltage across resistor (ER)
ECL = voltage drop in the coil due to inductance and
and inductor (EL) are the same and equal to the supply
voltage E as shown in Fig 19. Hence E is the reference leads the current by 90o
vector. The current through resistor (IR) in phase with ER
is E. (Fig 20) The current through inductor (IL) is lagging
the EL is E by 90o. In short the current through resistor
IR is in phase and the current through inductor IL, lags
with applied voltage (E) by 90o. The power factor of R-L
parallel circuit is cosf where f is the angle in between the
total current and applied voltage.
ed
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IR = current through resistor in phase with E
ish IC = current through coil lagging with E by a

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IT = total current lagging E by an angle f.

The power factor of the above circuit is cos f where f is the
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phase angle between the applied voltage and total current.

Representation of two branch currents and total cur-
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rent in the circuit containing R, R coil, XL coil and circuits In a parallel RC circuit, one or more
Parallel RC circuits:
supply voltage resistive loads and one or more capacitive loads are con-
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nected in parallel across a voltage source. Therefore,

IR = branch current through resistor resistive branches, containing only resistance and
IC = branch effective current through coil
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capacitive branches, containing only capacitance.

(Fig 24) The current that leaves the voltage source divides
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among the branches; so there are different currents in

different branches. The current is, therefore, not a com-
mon quantity, as it is in the series RC circuits.
In a parallel circuit, the voltage across R (ER) and across

coil (EC) is the same. Due to the applied voltage across
coil (EC) the coil current (IC) flows through the coil. The
current flowing through the coil is the effective current.
The same current flows through the resistance and
inductance of the coil.
Voltage: In a parallel RC circuit, as in any other parallel
circuit, the applied voltage is directly across each branch.
The branch voltages are, therefore, equal to each other, as
well as to the applied voltage, and all three are in phase.
(Fig 25) So if you know any one of the circuit voltages, you
know all of them. Since the voltage is common throughout
the circuit, it serves as the common quantity in any vector
representation of the parallel RC circuits. This means that
on any vector diagram, the reference vector will have the
same direction, or phase relationship, as the circuit volt-
age. The two quantities that have this relationship with the
circuit voltage, and whose vectors, therefore, have a
direction of zero degrees, are the capacitor voltage and the
current through the resistance.
Branch current: The current in each branch of a parallel

RC circuit is independent of the current in the other
branches. The current within a branch depends only on the
voltage across the branch, and the resistance or capacitive
reactance contained in it. (Fig 26)
The current in the resistive branch is calculated from the
equation: IR = EAPP/R.
The current in the capacitive branch is found with the
ed
equation: IC = EAPP/XC .
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The current in the resistive branch is in phase with the
ish
branch voltage, while the current in the capacitive branch
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leads the branch voltage by 90 degrees. Since the two
branch voltages are the same, the current in the capaci-
tive branch (IC) must lead the current in the resistive branch
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(IR) by 90 degrees. (Fig 26)

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Line current: Since the branch currents in a parallel RC

circuit are out of phase with each other, they have to be
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added vectorially to find the line current. The two branch

currents are 90 degrees out of phase, so their vectors
form a right triangle, whose hypotenuse is the line
current. Fig 27 The equation for calculating the line current,
I LINE , is
ILINE = IR 2 + IC 2
If the impedance of the circuit and the applied voltage are

known, the line current can also be calculated from Ohm’s
Law.
E
ILINE =
Z
here cos φ is the power factor.
Current wave-forms: Since the branch currents in a
parallel RC circuit are out of phase, their vector sum rather
than their arithmetic sum equals the line current. This is the
same condition that exists for the voltage drops in a series
RC circuit. By adding the currents vectorially, you are
adding their instantaneous values at every point, and then
finding the average or effective value of the resulting current.
This can be seen from the current wave-forms shown. The
wave-forms for the circuit solved on the previous page. (Fig
30)
In as much as the current in the resistive branch of a parallel

RC circuit is in phase with the applied voltage, while the
current in the capacitive branch leads the applied voltage
by 90 degrees, the sum of the two branch currents, or line
current, leads the applied voltage by some phase angle
less than 90 degrees but greater than 0 degrees (Fig 28).
The exact angle depends on whether the capacitive current
or resistive current is greater. If there is more capacitive
current, the angle will be closer to 90 degrees; while if the
ed
resistive current is greater, the angle is closer to 0 degrees.
In cases where one of the currents is 10 or more times
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greater than the other, the line current can be considered
to have a phase angle of 0 degrees. if the resistive current
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is the larger. The value of the phase angle can be calculated

from the values of the two branch currents with the
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equation: Impedance: The impedance of a parallel RC circuit rep-

Impedance:
I resents the total opposition to the current flow offered by
tan θ = C
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IR the resistance of the resistive branch and the capacitive

reactance of the capacitive branch. Like the impedance of
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a parallel RL circuit, it can be calculated with an equation

that is similar to the one used for finding the total resistance
of two parallel resistances. However, just as you learned
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for parallel RL circuits, two vector quantities cannot be

added directly, vector addition must be used. Therfore,
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the equation for calculating the impedance of a parallel

RC circuit is
(Fig 29) where is the vector addition of the resistance

By substituting the quantitites IC = E/XC and IR = E/R in
and capacitive reactance.
the above equation, two other useful equations for
calculating the phase angle, θ can be derived, they are: In cases where you know the applied voltage and the circuit
R R line current, the impedance can be found simply by using
tan θ = Cos θ = Ohm’s law in the form:
EC Z
Once you know the line current and the applied voltage in
a parallel RC circuit, you can find the circuit power using
the same equations you learned for parallel RL circuits.
These are: The impedance of a parallel RC circuit is always less than
P = E .I the resistance or capacitive reactance of the individual
APPARENT APP LINE branches.
P =E .I .Cos φ The relative values of XC and R determine how capacitive or
TRUE APP LINE
resistive the circuit line current is. The one that is the
smallest, and therefore, allows more branch current to to be more capacitive. The opposite is true if R is smaller
flow, is the determining factor. Thus, if XC is smaller than than XC. When XC or R is 10 or more times greater than the
R, the current in the capacitive branch is larger than the other, the circuit will operate for all practical purposes as
current in the resistive branch, and the line current tends if the branch with the larger of the two did not exist.
Comparison of series and parallel RC circuits (Fig 37)
Quantity Series RC circuit Parallel RC circuit
Current It is the same everywhere in circuit. It divides between resistive and capacitive
Currents through R and C are, therefore, branches.
in phase.
ITOT = IR 2 + Ic 2
E APP E APP
IR = IC =
R XC
Current through C leads current through R by 90o.

Voltage Vector sum of voltage drops across R Voltage across each branch is the same as
and C equals applied voltage. applied voltage. Voltages across R and C are,
E APP = ER 2 + EC 2 therefore, in phase.
ed
Voltage across C lags voltage across
R by 90o. bl I ER = EC = EAPP
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ish
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Impedance It is the vector sum of resistance and It is calculated the same way as parallel
capacitive reactance. resistances are, except that vector addition is
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used.
RX C
Z =
o ht
2
Z = R2 + X C R 2
+ XC2
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Phase angle θ It is the angle between the circuit current It is the angle between line current and applied
and the applied voltage. voltage.
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EC XC IC R
tan θ = = tan θ = =
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ER R IR XC
R R
Cos θ = Cos θ =
Z Z
Power Power delivered by source is apparent power. Power actually consumed in the circuit is true
power. Power factor determines what portion of apparent power is true power.
PAPPARENT = EAPPI PTRUE = EAPPI Cos θ P.F. = Cos θ
Effect of Xc decreases, which in turn causes the Xc decreases, the capacitive branch current
increasing circuit current to increase. Phase angle increases, and so line current also increases.
frequency decreases,which means that the circuit phase angle increases, which means that
is more resistive. the circuit is more capacitive.
Effect of Phase angle decreases, which means Phase angle increases, which means that the
increasing that the circuit is more resistive circuit is more capactive
resistance
Effect of Phase angle decreases, which means Phase angle increases, which means that the
increasing that the circuit is more resistive circuit is more capactive
capacitance
Parallel connection of R, XL and XC: XL and XC oppose
each other, that is to say, IL and IC are in opposition, and
partly annul one another. (Fig 33)
Known: Ohm’s Law
IT = (IC −IL ) 2 + IR 2
IX = IC - IL or IL - IC, depending on whether the capacitive
or inductive current dominates. Solution
Graphic solution: when IL > IC
1 V as common value 10 V
IC = = 0.0157 A = 15.7 mA
2 IR in phase with V 637 Ω
3 IC leads by 90o 10 V
4 IL lags by 90o
IL = = 0.0064 A = 6.4 mA
1570 Ω
ed
5 IX = IL - IC
10 V
6 I as resultant
bl I IR =
1000 Ω
= 0.01 = 10 mA
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7 <) ϕ (in this case inductive, I lags)
(0.0157 − 0.0064) 2 + 0.012
Re NI
IT =
= 0.0137 A = 13.7 mA
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10V
Z = = 730 Ω
0.0137 A
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Z 1 1
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P.F = Y = and g =
R Z R
730
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= = 0.73
1000
g 1 1 Z
PF in admittance triangle = = x =
Y R 1 R
Z
Particular case: XL and XC are equally large - IL and IC Power = VI Cos φ
cancel each other. Z = R; parallel resonance occurs.
= 10 × 0.0137 × 0.73
Currents in the reactances may be greater than the total = 0.1 Watt or 100 mw.
current.
The calculation of the resonant frequency is the same as

for the series connection.
Example: Calculate the value of IT Z power factor and

power for the circuit in Fig 33.
Given
VT = 10V
R = 1000 W
XL = 1570 W
XC = 637 W
Assignment
If the capacitive reactance was smaller than
inductive reactance the net reactance of the
This assignment should be completed and handed
circuit would have been inductive.
over to the Instructor for valuation within 3 days
on completion of the Exercise 1.5.63 All though the unit of measure of reactance and resistance
is the same(ohms), the impedance, Z of the circuit is not
1 An inductive circuit, in parallel with a non-inductive given by the simple addition of R, XL and XC. This is
circuit of 20 ohms is connected across a variable volt- because, XL is +90° out of phase with R and XC is -90° out
age 50 Hz supply. The inductive circuit current is 4.3 A of phase with R.
and the non-inductive current is 2.7 A for a particular
Hence the impedance Z of the circuit is the phasor addition
supply voltage. The total current is 5.8 A. Find:
of the resistive and reactive components as shown by
a) the power observed by the inductive resistance dotted lines in Fig 34c. Therefore, Impedance Z of the
circuit is given by,
b) its inductance and
( )
c) the power factor of the combined circuit. 2 2
2 A circuit connected to 115V, 50 Hz supply takes 0.8A = Z R + XC - XL
at a power factor of 0.3 lagging. Calculate the resist-
ance and inductance of the circuit assuming - If XL were greater than XC, then the absolute value of
impedance Z is will be,
a) the circuit consists of a resistance and inductance
R + (XL - XC )
in series 2 2
=Z
b) the circuit consists of a resistance and inductance
in parallel. For the circuit in Fig 34(a), total impedance Z is,
ed
Series resonance circuits
bl I =Z
2
(
R + XC - XL
2
)
pu M
ish
Impedance of series resonance circuit
Re NI
A simple series LC circuit shown in Fig 36a. In this series= 2 2

Z 40 + 3 30
0
LC circuit,
Ω,, Capacitive (because XC > XL )
be @
Z = 50Ω
50Ω,
50
– resistance R is the total resistance of the series
circuit(internal resistance) in ohms, Current I through the circuit is given by,
o ht
– XL is the inductive reactance in ohms,

and =Z
2
R + XC - XL ( 2
)
t t rig
– XC is the total capacitive reactance in ohms.

No py
In the circuit at Fig 34, since the capacitive V 100

I= = =
2 Amps
reactance(90W) is larger than inductive reactance(60W), Z 50 Ω
Co
the net reactance of the circuit will be capacitive. This is Therefore, the voltage drop across the components will be,
shown in Fig 34b.
VR = voltage drop across R = I.R = 2x40 = 80 volts
VL = voltage drop across L = I.XL = 2x60 = 120 volts
VC = voltage drop across C = I.XC = 2x90 = 180 volts.
Since V and V are of opposite polarity, the net reactive
L C
voltage V is = 180-120 = 60V as shown in Fig 35.
X
Note that the applied voltage is not equal to the sum of

voltage drops across reactive component X and resistive
component. This is again because the voltage drops are
not in phase. But the phasor sum of V and V will be equal
R X
to the applied voltage as given below,
=Z
2
R + X ( C
- XL )2
2 2
V = 80 + 60 = 100 volts(applied voltage). As shown in Fig 36, at a particular frequency called the
T
resonance frequency, f , the sum of X and X becomes
r L C
Phase angle q of the circuit is given by, zero( X – X = 0).
L C
From Fig 36 above, at resonant frequency f ,
X −X r
−1 C L – Net reactance, X = 0 (i.e, XL = XC)
θ = tan
R – Impedance of the circuit is minimum, purely resistive
Condition at which current through the RLC Series and is equal to R
ed
circuit is maximum – Current I through the circuit is maximum and equal to
bl I
pu M
V/R
ish
From the formula,
– Circuit current, I is in-phase with the applied voltage V
Re NI
( )2 it is clear that the total impedance Z

2 (i.e. Phase angle q= 0).
=Z R + X - XL
C At this particular frequency f called resonance frequency,
r
be @
of the circuit will become purely resistive when, reactance the series RLC is said to be in a condition of series
XL = XC resonance..
resonance
o ht
In this condition, the impedance Z of the circuit will not only Resonance occurs at that frequency when,
be purely resistive but also minimum.
t t rig
XL = XC or 2πfL = 1/2πfC
Since the reactance of L and C are frequency dependent,
at some particular frequency say f , the inductive reactance Therefore, Resonance frequency, f is given by,
r
No py
r
X becomes equal to the capacitive reactance X . 1
L C f = Hz .... (1)
Co
r 2π LC
In such a case, since the impedance of the circuit will be
purely resistive and minimum, current through the circuit Reactance of series RLC above and below resonance
will be maximum and will be equal to the applied voltage frequency fr
divided by the resistance R.
Fig 37 shows the variation of net reactance of a RLC circuit
Series resonance with the variation in frequency.
From the above discussions it is found that in a series RLC From Fig 37 above,it can be seen that the,
circuit,
=
Impedance Z
2
(
R + X
C
- XL )2
V
Current I = , and
Z
X −X
Phase angle θ = tan − 1 C L
R
If the frequency of the signal fed to such a series LC
circuit(Fig 36a) is increased from 0 Hz, as the frequency is
increased, the inductive reactance(X = 2πfL) increases
L
linearly and the capacitive reactance (X = 1/2pfL) de-
C
creases exponentially as shown in Fig 36.
– net reactance is zero at resonant frequency fr Therefore,
– net reactance is capacitive below the resonant frequency X 2 πf L
fr Q of coil = L = r
_ net reactance is inductive above the resonant frequency R R
fr since,
Selectivity or Q factor of a series RLC circuit 1
f =
Fig 38a and 38b two graphs showing the current through r 2π LC
series two different RLC circuits for frequencies above and
Q of the series RLC circuit is given by,
below f . f and f are frequencies at which the circuit
r 1 2
current is 0.707 times the maximum current,I or the - 1 L
max Q = .
3dB points. ...[3]
R C
Fig 38 indicates that series RLC circuits select a band of
Application of series resonance circuits
frequencies around the resonant frequency, f . This band(f
r 1
to f is called the band width f of the series RLC circuit. A series resonance circuit can be used in any application
2
where it is required to select a desired frequency. One such
Bandwidth =Df = f2 – f1 Hz.
application is shown in Fig 39.
ed
bl I
pu M
ish
Re NI
be @
o ht
t t rig
No py
In Fig 39, the radio receiver antenna intercepts all the

frequencies available in air. The series LC circuit when
Co
tuned to 720KHz(f ) will allow only the signal corresponding

r
to Chennai-A radio station and rejects all other signal
frequencies.
A series resonance circuit can also be used to reject an
undesired frequency(used as wave trap) as shown in
where, f is called the upper cut off frequency and f is Fig.40.
2 1
called the lower cut off frequency of the resonant circuit. A wave trap is a resonant LC circuit tuned to the frequency
Comparing Figs 38a and 38b, it is seen that the bandwidth to be rejected. Thus the output of the tuned amplifier in Fig
of 38b is smaller than that of 38a. This is referred to as the 40 will not have the frequency for which the trap is tuned.
selectivity or quality factor, Q of the resonance circuit. This is because, at resonance the series LC of the wave
The RLC circuit having the response shown in Fig 38b is trap, provides very low impedance. As the trap is con-
more selective than that of Fig 38a. The quality factor, Q of nected across the collector and ground, the rejection
a resonance circuit is given by, frequency component is grounded.
f f Such wave traps are extensively used in very high and ultra-
Q =r = r high frequency circuits such as television receivers, com-
Quality factor = ∆ f −f ...[2] munication receivers etc.
f 2 1
If Q is very large, the bandwidth f will be very narrow and
vice-versa. The Q factor of the series resonance circuit
depends largely upon the Q factor of the coil(inductance)
used in the RLC circuit.
Zero current in the circuit means that the impedance of the
parallel LC is infinite. This condition at which, for a
particular frequency, fr, the value of XC = XL, the parallel LC
circuit is said to be in parallel resonance.
Summarizing, for a parallel resonant circuit, at resonance,
XL = XC,
Zp =¥
IL = IC
1
fr =
2π LC
v
=I ≈0
Zp
In a parallel resonance circuit, with a pure L(no resist-

ance) and a pure C(loss-less), at resonance the imped-
ance will be infinite. In practical circuits, however small,
the inductor will have some resistance. Because of this,
PARALLEL RESONANCE at resonance, the phasor sum of the branch currents will
not be zero but will have a small value I. This small current
The circuit at Fig 41, having an inductor and a capacitor
ed
I will be in phase with the applied voltage and the
connected in parallel is called parallel LC circuit or parallel
impedance of the circuit will be very high although not
bl I
resonance circuit. The resistor R, shown in dotted lines
pu M
infinite.
ish
indicate the internal DC resistance of the coil L. The value
Re NI
of R will be so small compared to the inductive reactance, Summarizing, the three main characteristics of parallel
that it can be neglected. resonance circuit at resonance are,
be @
From Fig 41a, it can be seen that the voltage across L and – phase difference between the circuit current and the
C is same and is equal to the input voltage VS . applied voltage is zero
– maximum impedance
o ht
– minimum line current.

t t rig
No py
Co
By Kirchhoff’s law, at junction A,

I = IL + IC.
The variation of impedance of a parallel resonance circuit
The current through the inductance IL (neglecting resist- with frequency is shown in Fig 42.
ance R), lags VS by 90°. The current through the capacitor
IC, leads the voltage VS by 90°. Thus, as can be seen from In Fig 42, when the input signal frequency to the parallel
the phasor diagram at Fig 41b, the two currents are out of resonance circuit is moved away from resonant frequency
phase with each other. Depending on their magnitudes, fr , the impedance of the circuit decreases. At resonance
they cancel each other either completely or partially. the impedance Zp is given by,
If XC < XL, then IC > IL, and the circuit acts capacitively. L
Zp =
If XL < XC, then IL > IC, and the circuit acts inductively. CR
If XL = XC, then IL = IC, and hence, the circuit acts as a purely At resonance, although the circuit current is minimum, the
resistive. magnitudes of IL & IC will be much greater than the line
current. Hence, a parallel resonance circuit is also called in it. The current inside the LC circuit switches the stored
current magnification circuit. energy back and forth between L and C. If the inductor had
no resistance and if the capacitor was loss-free, then, no
Bandwidth of parallel resonant circuits more external energy would be required to retain this flip-
flop or oscillation of charging and discharging. But, in a
As discussed in series resonance, all resonant circuits
practical circuit, since ideal L and C cannot be obtained,
have the property of discriminating between the frequency
some amount of the circulating energy is lost due to the
at resonance(fr), and those not at resonance. This
resistance of the coil and the loss due to capacitor. This
discriminating property of the resonant circuit is expressed
lost energy is the only energy the power supply source(VS)
in terms of its bandwidth(BW). In the case of series
must supply in the form of circuit current,I. This current,
resonant circuits the response of the circuit at resonance
therefore, is called as make-up current. It is this storage
frequency(fr) is in terms of the line current(which is
action of the parallel-resonant circuit which gives rise to the
maximum), and in a parallel resonant circuit, it is in terms
term tank circuit, often used with parallel resonant circuits.
of the impedance(which is maximum).
Hence, parallel resonant circuits are also called tank
The bandwidth of a parallel resonant circuit is also defined circuits.
by the two points on either side of the resonant frequency
1 Application of parallel resonant circuits
at which the value of impedance Zp drops to 0.707 or 2
of
its maximum value at resonance, as shown in Fig 43. Parallel resonance circuits or tank circuits are commonly
used in almost all high frequency circuits. Tank circuits are
used as collector load in class-C amplifiers instead of a
resistor load as shown in Fig 44.
ed
bl I
pu M
ish
Re NI
be @
o ht
t t rig
Tank circuits are used in circuits known as oscillators

No py
From Fig 43, the bandwidth of the parallel resonance circuit which are designed to generate AC signals using DC
is, supply.
Co
Bandwidth, BW = Df = f2 – f1
Oscillators are discussed in detail in further
As can be seen in Fig 43, the value of Zp is dependent on lessons.
the resistance R of the coil (Zp = L/CR). If R is less Zp will
be larger and vice versa. Since the bandwidth depends on Table below gives a comparison between series resonant
Zp and Zp depends on R, we can say that the bandwidth of and parallel resonant circuit at frequencies above and
a resonant circuit depends upon the resistance associated below their resonant frequency fr.
with the coil. The resistance of the coil in turn decides the
Q of the circuit. Thus, the Q of the coil decides the band
width of the resonant circuit and is expressed as,
(
Bandwidth(BW) = f2 - f1 = )
fr
Q
Storage action of parallel resonance circuit
At parallel resonance, though the circuit current is
minimum(ideally zero), IL and IC will still be there. This IL and
IC will be a circulating current in the closed loop formed by
L and C. This circulating current will be very high at
resonance. This circulating current flip-flops between the
capacitor and inductor, alternately charging and discharging
each. When a capacitor or an inductor is charged, it stores
energy. When it is discharged it gives up the energy stored
Property Series circuit Parallel circuit
At resonant frequency
1 1
Resonant frequency, fr
2π LC 2π LC
Reactance XL = XC XL = XC
Impedance Minimum (Zr = R) Maximum (Zr = L/CR)
Current Maximum Minimum
XL XL
Quality factor
R R
fr fr
Bandwidth
Q Q
Above resonant frequency
Reactance XL > XC XC > XL

Impedance Increases Decreases
Phase difference The current lags behind The current leads the applied
ed
the applied voltage. voltage.
bl I
pu M
Type of reactance Inductive Capacitive
ish Below resonant frequency

Re NI
Reactance XC > XL XL > XC

be @
Impedance Increases Decreases

Phase difference The current leads the The current lags behind the
o ht
applied voltage. applied voltage.

t t rig
Type of reactance Capacitive Inductive

No py
Co
Electronic Mechanic - Rectifiers
Semiconductor diodes
• define semiconductors
• state the types of semiconductors
• list the important names of semiconductors
• state the unique property of a PN junction
• state the resistance of a PN junction in forward and reverse biased conditions
• list the different classifications of diodes
• list the different markings on a diode to identify its terminals
• list the different types of packaging used for diodes
• list a few type numbers/code numbers of diodes.
• explain about forward and reverse bias of diodes
• list the diode specifications.
Semiconductors
Semiconductors are materials whose electrical property
lies between that of Conductors and Insulators. Because
of this fact, these materials are termed as semiconductors.
In conductors the valence electrons are always free. In an
ed
insulator the valence electrons are always bound. Whereas
bl I
in a semiconductor the valence electrons are normally
pu M
ish
bound but can be set free by supplying a small amount of
energy. Several electronic devices are made using semi-
Re NI
conductor materials. One such device is known as Diode.

be @
Semiconductor theory
Basic semiconductor materials like other materials have
o ht
crystal structure. The atoms of this structure, are bonded

to each other as shown in Fig 1. This bonding is known as
t t rig
covalent bonding. In such a bonding, the valence electrons

of the atoms are shared to form a stable structure as shown
No py
in Fig 1.
Co
Intrinsic semiconductors
The most important of the several semiconductor materials
are Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge). Both these semicon-
ductor materials have four valence electrons per atom as
shown in Fig 1. These valence electrons, unlike in conduc-
tors, are not normally free to move. Hence, semiconduc-
tors in their pure form, known as Intrinsic semiconductors,
behave as insulators.
However, the valence electrons of a semiconductor can be
set free by applying external energy. This energy will tear-
off the bound electrons from their bond and make them
available as free electrons as shown in Fig 2. The simplest
method of turning bonded valence electrons into free
electrons is by heating the semiconductor.
The higher the temperature to which the semiconductor is
heated, more the bound electrons becoming free and will
be able to conduct electric current. This type of conduc-
From the above said phenomena, it is important to note
tion in an intrinsic semiconductor (pure semiconductor)
that semiconductors are temperature-sensitive materi-
as a result of heating is called intrinsic conduction.
als.
199
Extrinsic semiconductor creating electron-hole pair. The holes are minority charge
carriers - in N type semi-conductors.
The number of free electrons set free by heating a pure
semiconductor is comparatively small to be used for any
2 P-type semiconductors
useful purpose. It is found experimentally that, when a
small quantity of some other materials such as Arsenic, When a trivalent material like Gallium(Ga) is added to a
Indium, Gallium etc. is added to pure semi conductor pure Germanium or pure Silicon crystal, one vacancy or
material, more number of electrons become free in the deficit of electron results per bond as shown in Fig 4a. As
mixed material. This enables the semiconductor to have every gallium atom creates one deficit of electron or hole,
higher conductivity. the material is ready to accept electrons when supplied.
Hence gallium is called acceptor impurity. Since vacancy
These foreign materials added to the pure semiconductor
for an electron is available, and as this vacancy is a hole
are referred to as impurity materials.
which is of Positive charge, the material so formed is known
The process of adding impurity to an Intrinsic semiconduc- as P-type material.
tor material is known as Doping. Since the doped semicon-
ductor materials are no longer pure, they are called impure
or extrinsic semiconductors.
Depending upon the type of impurity used, extrinsic
semiconductors can be classified into two types;
1 N-type semiconductors
When a pentavalent material like Arsenic (As) is added to
a pure Germanium or pure Silicon crystal, one free electron
results per bond as shown in Fig 3a. As every arsenic atom
ed
donates one free electron, arsenic is called the donor
bl I
pu M
impurity. Since a free electron is available and since the
ish
electron is of a Negative charge, the material so formed by
Re NI
mixing is known as N type material.
be @
o ht
t t rig
When a P-type material is connected across a battery as

No py
shown in Fig 4b, current flows due to the availability of free

holes. As this current is due to flow of holes, the current is
Co
called hole current.
The holes are the majority charge carriers in P type semi

conductor and the electrons are the minority charge
carriers.
P-N junction
When a P-type and a N-type semiconductors are joined,
a contact surface between the two materials called PN-
junction is formed. This junction has a unique characteris-
tic. This junction, has the ability to pass current in one
direction and stop current flow in the other direction as
When a N-type material is connected across a battery, as shown in Fig 5. To make use of this unique property of the
shown in Fig 3b, current flows due to the availability of free PN junction, two terminals one on the P side and the other
electrons. As this current is due to the flow of free on the N side are attached. Such a PN junction with
electrons, the current is called electron current. terminals attached is called a Diode. The typical symbol
of a PN-junction diode is shown in Fig 9a.
In N type semi conductor the current is due to electrons,
When a P and N material is put together, at the junction of
therefore the electrons are the majority charge carriers.
P and N materials, as shown in Fig 6, some electrons from
the N-material jump across the boundary and recombine
The semi conductor materials are temperature sensitive,
with the hole near the boundary of the P-material. This
heating causes the covalent bonds to break down by
In terms of voltage applied across the terminals of the PN
junction diode, a potential difference of 0.7V is required
across the terminals in the case of silicon diode and 0.3V
in the case of Germanium diode for the electrons, in order
to cancel off the barrier potential and cross over the barrier
as shown in Fig 7. Once the barrier potential gets canceled
due to external voltage application, current flows through
the junction freely. In this condition the diode is said to be
forward biased.
When the applied external battery polarity is as shown in
ed
Fig 8, instead of canceling the barrier potential, the external
bl I battery voltage adds up to the barrier potential, and, hence,

pu M
ish no current flows through the junction. In this condition the
diode is said to be reverse biased.
Re NI
be @
o ht
t t rig
No py
Co
Since current flows through a PN junction diode when it is

process is called diffusion. This recombination makes forward biased and does not when reverse biased, the
atoms near the junction of the P-material gaining electrons diode can be thought of to be a unidirectional current
and become negative ions, and the atoms near the junction switch.
of the N-material, after losing electrons, become positive
Fig 9a shows the symbolic representation of a Diode. The
ions. The layers of negative and positive ions so formed
two leads connected to the P and N terminals are known
behave like a small battery. This layer is called the
as Cathode and Anode.
depletion layer because there are neither free electrons nor
holes present (depleted of free carriers). This depletion To forward-bias a diode, the Anode should be connected to
region prevents further the movement of electrons from the the +ve terminal of the battery and the Cathode to the -ve
N-material to the P material, and thus an equilibrium is terminal of the battery, as shown in Fig 9b. When a diode
reached. is in the forward biased condition, the resistance between
the terminals will be of the order of a few ohms to a few tens
The internal voltage set up due to +ve and -ve ions at the
of ohms. Hence, current flows freely when a diode is
junction is called barrier potential. If any more electrons have
forward biased.
to go over from the N side to the P side, they have to overcome
this barrier potential. This means, only when the electrons on On the other hand, when a diode is reverse biased as
the N side are supplied with energy to overcome the barrier shown in Fig 9c, the resistance between the terminals will
potential, they can go over to the P side. be very high, of the order of several tens of megohms.
Hence, current does not flow when a diode is reverse
biased. As a rule, the ratio of resistance in forward to – Point contact diodes: a metal needle connected
reverse bias should be of at the minimum order of 1:1000. with pressure on to a small germanium(Ge) or
silicon(Si) tip. See Chart 1 at the end of this lesson.
– Junction diodes: made by alloying or growing or
diffusing P and N materials on a semiconductor
substrate.
Refer to Chart 1 at the end of this lesson for

llustration of some of the above types of di-
odes.
Types of diode packaging

The type of packaging given to diodes is mainly based on
the current carrying capacity of the diode. Low power
diodes have either glass or plastic packaging. Medium
power diodes have either plastic or metal packaging. High
power diodes will invariably have either metal can or
ceramic packaging. High power diodes are generally of
stud-mounting type. Refer illustrations given in Chart 1 at
the end of this lesson, for illustrations of diode types.
Testing rectifier diodes using ohmmeter

A simple ohmmeter can be used to quickly test the
ed
condition of diodes. In this testing method, the resistance
bl I of the diode in forward and reverse bias conditions is

pu M
ish checked to confirm its condition.
Re NI
Recall that there will be a battery inside an ohmmeter or a

multimeter in the resistance range. This battery voltage
Types of diodes
be @
comes in series with the leads of the meter terminals as

The PN junction diodes discussed so far are commonly shown in Fig 10. In FIg 10, the lead A is positive, lead B
referred to as rectifier diodes. This is because these diodes negative.
o ht
are used mostly in the application of rectifying AC to DC.

If the polarity of the meter leads are not known
t t rig
at first, the polarity of the meter leads can be

Classification of Diodes
determined using a voltmeter across the ohm
1 Based on their current carrying capacity/power
No py
meter terminals.
handling capacity, diodes can be classified as
If the positive lead of the ohmmeter, lead A in the Fig 10,
Co
– low power diodes: can handle power of the order

is connected to the anode of a diode, and the negative
of several milliwatts only
(lead B) to the cathode, the diode will be forward-biased.
– medium power diodes: can handle power of the Current will flow, and the meter will indicate low resis-
order of several watts only tance.
– high power diodes: can handle power of the order
of several 100’s of watts.
2 Based on their principal application, diodes can
be classified as,
– Signal diodes: low power diodes used in commu-
nication circuits such as radio receivers etc. for
signal detection and mixing
– Switching diodes: low power diodes used in switch-
ing circuits such as digital electronics etc. for fast
switching ON/OFF of circuits
– Rectifier diodes: medium to high power used in
power supplies for electronic circuits for converting
AC voltage to DC.
3 Based on the manufacturing techniques used,
diodes can be classified as,
On the other hand, if the meter leads are reversed, the diode OAxx, xx - from 70 to 95. examples:
will be reverse-biased. Very little current will flow because OA79, OA85 etc.,
a good diode will have very high resistance when reverse
biased, and the meter will indicate a very high resistance. BYxxx, xxx- from 100 examples:
onwards, BY127, BY128 etc.
While doing the above test, if a diode shows a very low
resistance in both the forward and reverse biased condi-
DRxxx, xxx- from 25 examples:
tions, then, the diode under test must have got damaged
or more specifically shorted. On the other hand, a diode is onwards. DR25, DR150 etc.,
said to be open if the meter shows very high resistance both
in the forward and reverse biased conditions. 1Nxxxx examples: 1N917 1N4001, 1N4007
etc.
Testing of diodes using digital M.M.
If the digital multimeters are used for testing the diodes,
first the selector switch must be kept at diode testing
position. The +ve terminal of the MM (lead A as in the fig
11 must be connected to the anode of a diode and the
negative terminal (lead) to the cathode, the diode is forward
biased the MM will display the barrier voltage of the diode
in the forward biased condition.
On the other hand, if the meter leads are reversed, the diode
will be reverse biased and MM will display 1.
Fig 11
ed
bl I
pu M
ish
Re NI
be @
o ht
t t rig
No py
Polarity marking on the diodes

The cathode end of a diode is usually marked by a circular
Co
band or by a dot or by plus (+) sign as shown in Chart 1.

In some diodes the symbol of the diode, which itself
indicates the polarities, is printed on the body of the diode.
Type number or diode code number

Unlike resistors, capacitors or inductors, the diodes do not
have any value that can be printed or coded on its body. The
other reason for this is, there are almost innumerable types
of diodes with varied current handling and other specifica-
tions. Hence, instead of printing its specifications on its
body, all diodes will have a type number printed on their
body. This type number carries a set of specifications
which can be found out by referring to a diode data manual.
Diode data manuals give data of several thousands of
diodes from different manufacturers. Some of the popular
type numbers of diodes are
CHART - 1 for Lesson 1.6.66
TYPES OF DIODES AND PACKAGING

LOW POWER - PLASTIC PACKAGE DIODES
A K A K A K
A K A K A K
K
A
K
A
VERY LOW POWER - GLASS PACKAGE DIODE
K
A K
COLOUR BAND
ed
bl I
LOW POWER - METAL PACKAGE DIODE
pu M
K
ish A K A
Re NI
be @
o ht
A
K A K A
A K
K
t t rig
No py
HIGH POWER - METAL PACKAGE DIODE

Co
A
VERY HIGH POWER - METAL PACKAGE DIODES
Behaviour of diode when FORWARD BIASED
Fig 12a shows a forward biased silicon PN junction diode
using a variable DC supply. When the applied voltage is
slowly increased starting from 0 volts as long as the voltage
across the diode VF is less than that of the depletion barrier
potential (0.7 volts for Si diodes), no current or a negligible
current flows through the diode, and, hence, through the
circuit. This is shown in the graph at Fig 12b.
But once the voltage VFacross the diode becomes equal

to or greater than the barrier potential 0.6 to 0.7V, there will
be a canceling effect of the barrier potential. Hence, the
free electrons from the N region get pushed away by the -
ve battery terminal(remember like charges repel) and
cross over the junction, pass through the P region and get
attracted by the + terminal of the battery. This results in the
electron current passing through the diode, and, hence,
through the Load.
In a similar way, the holes in the P region are pushed away

by the +ve battery terminal, cross over the junction, pass
through the N region and get attracted by the -ve terminal
of the battery. This results in hole current through the
diode, and, hence, through the Load.
ed
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pu M
Thus current flows through the diode when the forward bias
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potential is higher than the barrier potential. This current
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flow through the diode is because of both electrons and
holes. The total current in the circuit is the sum of the hole
current and the electron current. Hence, diodes are called
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bipolar devices in which both hole current and electron

current flows.
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From the graph at Fig 12b, it can be seen that, once the
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forward voltage goes above 0.6V the diode starts conduct-

ing, resulting in considerable current through the circuit.
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This voltage level across the diode is referred to as cut-in

or knee or threshold voltage.
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If the applied forward voltage is further increased beyond

the cut-in voltage, the depletion layer further narrows down
allowing more and more current to flow through the diode.
It can be seen from the graph at Fig 12b, that beyond the Behaviour of diode when reverse biased
cut-in voltage, the current increases sharply for very small
voltage increase across the diode. In this region, above the When an external DC voltage is connected across the
cut-in voltage, the forward biased diode behaves almost diode with the polarity as shown in Fig 13, the diode is said
like a closed switch. The only limiting factor for the current to be reverse biased.
at this stage is the maximum current the diode can handle
without getting burnt or the junction getting punctured
permanently. This current limit is given in diode data books
as maximum forward current, If max.
It the applied reverse voltage is kept on increased, say to
hundred volts (this depends from diode to diode), at one
stage the applied voltage VR across the junction is so large
that it punctures the junction damaging the diode. This
results in shorting of the diode. This short results in
uncontrolled heavy current flow through the diode as shown
in graph at Fig 13b. This voltage at which the diode breaks
down is referred to as reverse break-down or avalanche
breakdown.
The maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand

varies from diode to diode. This reverse voltage withstand-
ing capability of a diode is referred to as the peak-inverse-
voltage or PIV of the diode. This value for diodes is given in
the diode data manual. The PIV of diodes varies from a
minimum of 50 volts in small signal diodes to several
thousands of volts in high power diodes.
Minority current in Diodes
When a PN junction is reverse biased, due to the increased

width of the depletion layer, there can be no current through
the diode. But, in practice there will be a small current of
the order of a few nano-amperes or a few micro-amperes
ed
through the diode as shown in Fig 14.
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ish
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No py
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The reason for this small current is due to the creation of

a very limited number of free electrons and holes on both
sides of the junction due to thermal energy. Semiconduc-
tors are highly sensitive to temperature. Even a tempera-
In this condition, when the battery voltage is increased from ture of 25°C is sufficient to create a small number of
0 to several tens of volts, the polarity of the applied voltage electrons and holes resulting in a current of the order of a
instead of canceling the barrier potential, aids the barrier few nano-amperes. These current carriers created are
potential. This, instead of narrowing the depletion layer, referred to as minority current carriers. This current, due to
widens the depletion layer. The widening of the depletion minority current carriers, which flows through the diode
layer results in, not allowing the current to flow through the when reverse biased, is known as reverse current or
junction, and, hence, the load. In other words, the polarity leakage current or saturation current, is. Based on experi-
of the applied voltage is such that the holes and electrons ments, for all silicon diodes, this reverse current doubles for
are pulled away from the junction resulting in a widened each 10°C rise in temperature. For example, if it is 5nA at
depletion region. 25°C, it will be approximately 10nA at 35°C and so on.
Referring to the graph shown in Fig 13b, it can be seen that Effect of temperature on barrier voltage
there is no current even when the voltage VR across the It is known that semiconductors are highly sensitive to
diode is several tens of volts. temperature. Since the functioning of a diode is basically
due to the unique property of its junction and its barrier
voltage, the barrier voltage also depends on the junction – Maximum reverse current, Ivr that flows through the
temperature. If the temperature of the junction is increased diode when the Maximum reverse voltage, PIV is
beyond a limit (25°C), electrons are produced due to applied.
thermal agitation in the semi-conductor crystal structure.
– Maximum forward surge current, IS that can flow through
These electrons, having sufficient energy, drift across the
the diode for a defined short period of time.
junction. This decreases the barrier voltage. It is experi-
mentally found that the barrier voltage decreases by 2 mV/ – The maximum junction temperature in degree centi-
°C increase in temperature. This reduced barrier voltage grade the diode junction can withstand without malfunc-
allows more current through the junction. More current tioning or getting damaged.
heats up the junction further, reducing the barrier voltage
– Suggested application indicates application for which
further. If this cumulative effect continues, the junction will
the diode is designed and produced.
get damaged making the junction no more useful. There-
fore, diodes should not be allowed to go above a specified The above listed specifications go with all rectifier diodes.
temperature. This maximum limit a diode junction can As all these specifications cannot be printed on the
withstand safely is given in the diode manual as junction physically small size diodes, the diodes are printed with a
temperature, Tj max. type number instead. When this type number is referred to
in the manufacturer’s manual, the detailed specifications
Diode specification
for a particular type number of the diode can be obtained.
Introduction
There are hundreds and thousands of diode manufacturers
Semiconductor diodes are used for various applications. all over the world. To bring standardization for the diodes
Some of the major areas of application are listed below. and other components manufactured by different manufac-
turers, the manufacturers and standards associations
– Modulation and demodulation in communication receiv-
have set certain international standards for the benefit of
ers.
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users of the components. The principal industry standard
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– Switching high speed and digital circuits. numbering systems are dealt with here:
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– Low power and high power rectification.
a The JEDEC type code
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– As surge protectors in EM relay and other circuits.

The EIA in USA maintains a register of 1N, 2N types
– For clipping, clamping wave-forms. familiarly known as Jedec types, which have world wide
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acceptance.
For different applications, diodes of different current carry-
ing capacity, different PIV capacity and so on are required. 1N is used as a prefix for semiconductors with one junction.
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Therefore, manufacturers of diodes make diodes to cater to For example all 1N components refer to diodes because
varied applications with different specifications. Before diodes have one junction. Prefix 2N is used with compo-
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using a diode for a particular application, it is a must to find nents having two junctions.
out whether the voltage, current, and temperature charac-
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teristics of the given diode match the requirement or not. b The PRO-ELECTRON type code.
The Association International Pro-electron in Europe main-
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Important specifications of a diodes

tains a register of Pro-electron types which have wide
– The material the diode is made-of: This could be Silicon acceptance in Europe.
or Germanium or Selenium or any other semiconductor
Components in the Pro-electron system have,
materials. This is important because the cut-in voltage
depends upon the material the diode is made-of. For i two letter and numeral code for consumer devices
example, in Ge diodes the cut-in voltage is around 0.3 (Example, BY127 and so on).
V, whereas in Si diodes the cut-in voltage is around ii three letter and numeral code for industrial devices.
0.7V. (Example, ACY17 and so on).
– Maximum safe reverse voltage denoted as VR or Vr that The first letter in the pro-electron type code indicates the
can be applied across the diode. This is also known as type of semiconductor material used in making the device.
peak-inverse-voltage or PIV. If a higher reverse voltage Example, device numbers starting with A are made of
than the rated PIV is applied across the diode, it will germanium. Refer to pocket table book, Table No. 23 for
become defective permanently. further details and examples.
– Maximum average forward current, IFor If that a diode The second and third letter indicate the applications of the
can allow to flow through it without getting damaged. component. Example, in the type code BY127, the second
– Forward voltage drop, VF or Vf that appears across the letter Y indicates that it is a rectifier diode. Refer to pocket
diode when the maximum average current, IF flows table book, Table No. 23 for further details.
through it continuously. The numeral after the second or third letter is the code
number of its detailed voltage, current and temperature
specifications.
c The JIS type code Diode equivalents
In Japan, the JIS, (Japanese Industrial Standards) code is There are several occasions, especially while servicing
used. This system of component numbering is almost electronic circuits, it may not be possible to get a replace-
universal. In this system, all component numbers start with ment for a diode of a particular type number. In such cases
2S, followed by a letter and several numbers. Example. one can obtain a diode having specification closest to the
2SB364. The letters after the S has the following signifi- one to be replaced. Such diodes are referred to as
cance: equivalents.
A = pnp hf
Example: In a circuit, diode 1N 4007 is found to be
B = pnp If defective. If 1N4007 is not available in stock, then, instead
C = npn hf of 1N4007, BY127 can be used because BY127 is the
D = npn If equivalent for 1N4007.
Some components will have type numbers which does not Some data books give the lists of equivalents. Table No.
match with any of the above said international standards. 24 of pocket table book gives the equivalent of some of the
Then, these type numbers are particular to the individual popular diodes used in general electronic circuits.
manufacturers. These codes are generally referred to as
manufacturer’s house code. However, these type numbers [H.I: Write a few popular diode type numbers
may conform to one or more of the international standards. generally used in your institute and instruct
Almost all standard diode data books lists popular manu- trainees to find its equivalents.]
facturers house codes.
[H.I: List a few manufacturers house codes

relevant to your region by referring to any
ed
popular diode data manual. Give one data
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manual each to a batch of 4 trainees. Write a
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few diode type codes on the black/white board
and ask the batches to find the specifications.]
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Transformer
• state the basic function of a transformer
• state and explain important terms used with transformers
• list the different classifications of transformers
• list the common application of different types of transformers.
• explain voltage regulation in transformer
• describe the phase relationship in transformer
• list out losses and efficiency of transformer
• explain the method to determine the efficiency of transformer
• explain the types of power in AC circuit
• state the principle of power factor and its importance.
Transformer is an electrical device used to transfer electric is called the primary winding. In Fig 1 this coil is marked
energy from one AC circuit to another circuit by magnetic Np. The second coil to which, energy from the primary
coupling as shown in Fig 1a. winding is coupled magnetically is called the secondary
winding (Ns in Fig 1b). If a load, say a lamp or a resistor, is
connected across the secondary winding, current flows
through the load although there is no direct AC power
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source connected to it.
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Hence, transformers can be defined as devices that make
ish use of the principle of mutual induction, in transferring

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electrical energy from one ac circuit to another circuit with

out direct electrical connection.
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It is important to note that transformers cannot

transfer DC energy from primary winding to
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secondary winding, because, a DC current

cannot produce changing magnetic field and
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hence cannot develop induced voltage.

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Important terms used with iron-core transformers are

explained below;
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1. Turns Ratio of a transformer

The ratio of the number of turns of coil in the primary (Np)
to the number of turns of coil in the secondary (Ns) is called
the turns ratio of the transformer.
Np
Turns ratio = N
s
A transformer essentially consists of two coils of insulated
conducting material, generally copper. These coils are
wound on a core made of iron or ferrite as shown in Fig 1b. For example, 1000 turns in the primary and 100
These coils are so arranged that magnetic flux developed turns in the secondary gives a turns ratio of 1000/
in one coil will link with the other coil. Hence, mutual 100, or 10:1 which is stated as ten-to-one turns
inductance exists between the two coils with tight-coupling ratio.
(k=1). A change in current through one coil (say Np)
induces a voltage in the other coil (say N s). The magnitude 2. Voltage Ratio of a transformer
of induced voltage in the secondary winding depends on the The ratio of voltage across the primary winding(Vp) to the
number of turns of the coils and on how tight the magnetic voltage available across the secondary winding(Vs) is
coupling(k) is, between the two coils. called the voltage ratio of the transformer.
In a transformer, as shown in Fig 1b, the coil or the winding Vp

Voltage ratio =
to which electrical energy is given from an ac power source Vs
209
When coefficient of mutual coupling(k) between primary
and secondary winding is 1, the voltage induced per turn of
the secondary winding is the same as the self-induced
voltage per turn in the primary winding. The total voltage
appearing across the secondary winding depends on the
number of turns of secondary winding. Therefore, the
voltage ratio is in the same proportion as the turn ratio:
As a check for your calculations, remember that
Vp Np the side with the higher voltage always has the
=
Vs Ns lower current.
This means, if the secondary winding has more turns than
the primary winding (Ns > Np) then, the secondary voltage Classification of Transformers
will be higher than the primary voltage. In other words, in 1. Classification based on the type of Core Material
such a condition the primary voltage is said to be raised or used
stepped-up. Such transformers are called STEP-UP
TRANSFORMERS as shown in Fig 2. Transformers can be classified according to the type of
material used for the core as;
Current Ratio of Transformer
(a) Air core transformers : As shown in Fig 3, air core
transformers consists of a hollow non magnetic core,
made of paper or plastic over which the primary and
secondary windings are wound. These transformers will
have values of k less than 1. Air core transformers are
generally used in high frequency applications because
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In an ideal transformer the power consumed in the secondary

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equals the power in the primary. Mathematically it is given

by,
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Ps = Pp or V s x Is = Vp x Ip
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This equation can be rearranged as,

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Is Vp
=
Ip Vs these will have no iron-loss as there is no magnetic core
material.
Vp Np Is Np
Since = , = Iron-loss is a type of transformer loss due to core material.
Vs Ns Ip Ns
Transformer losses are discussed in detail in further
Np Vp Is lessons.
Summarizing = = .......[1]
Ns Vs Ip
(b) Iron core transformers: Fig 4 shows a laminated iron-
As it can be seen, the current ratio Is/Ip, is the inverse of the core transformer. These transformers have stacked
voltage ratio Vp/Vs. This means voltage step-up in the laminated sheets of silicon steel over which the windings
secondary means current step-down, and vice versa. are wound. This is the most common type of transformer
Example: A transformer with a 20:1 voltage step-down
ratio has 12V across 1 W in the secondary. (a) How
much is Is? (b) How much is Ip ?
SOLUTION:
(a)
(b)
used with mains power supply(240V,50Hz). In these 3 Classification based on the Transformation ratio:
transformers, since the core is a magnetic material and
a Step-up Transformers: Transformers in which, the
due to the shape of the core, the value of k is almost
induced secondary voltage is higher than the source
equal to 1.
voltage given at primary are called step-up transform-
(c) Ferrite core transformers: As shown in Fig 5, these ers.
transformers have Ferrite material as its core. In most
b Step-down Transformers: Transformers in which, the
cases, the primary and secondary windings are wound
induced secondary voltage is lower than the source
on a hollow plastic core and the ferrite material is then
voltage given at primary are called step-down transform-
inserted into the hollow core. These transformers are
ers.
used in high frequency to very high frequency applica-
tions as they have the advantage of introducing mini- c Isolation transformers: Transformers in which, the
mum losses. In these transformer, the position of core induced secondary voltage is same as that of the
can be changed, thus changing the value of M. source voltage given at primary are called one-to-one or
isolation transformers. In these transformers the number
of turns in the secondary will be equal to the number of
turns in the primary making the turns ratio equal to 1.
4 Classification based on the operating frequency:
a Audio frequency (AF) transformers: Refer Fig 4 of
Chart 1. These AF transformers look similar to a mains
voltage tranformer but they are very small in size
comparatively. Most AF transformers are of PCB mount-
ing type. These transformers are designed to operate
over the audio frequency range of 20 Hz to 20 KHz.
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Audio transformers are used in,
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ish
– coupling the output of one stage of audio amplifier to the
input of the next stage (interstage coupling)
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2 Classification based on the shape of core and

relative position of primary and secondary – the amplified audio signal from an amplifier to the
speaker of a sound system.
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windings:
(a) Core type transformers:: Refer Fig 1 of Chart 1 given These transformers are said to have flat frequency re-
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at the end of this lesson. In Core type of transformer, sponse over the entire audio range. This means that the
the primary and secondary windings are on two sepa- transformer behaves equally well over the entire range of
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rate sections/limb of core. Core type transformers are audio frequencies.

less frequently used as their efficiency is low because
the magnetic flux spreads out reducing the number of
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The transformation ratio of audio transformers will be

useful flux lines. The shape of core stampings used for generally less than unity.
these transformers is shown in Fig 1c.
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These transformers also use a colour coding scheme to

(b) Shell type transformers:
transformers: Refer Fig 2 of Chart 1. In this
identify those used as driver transformers (for inter-stage
type, both the primary and the secondary windings are
coupling) or out-put transformers (for amplifier to speaker).
wound on the same section/limb of the core. As the
portion of the core surrounds the two windings, almost
As the colour coding schemes differ from manu-
all the flux is confined to the core of the transformer.
facturer to manufacturer, the colour coding is
Shell type transformers have a higher efficiency as
not given in this lesson.
compared to core type transformers. These are widely
used as voltage and power transformers. The shape of
(b) High frequency transformers: Refer Fig 6 of Chart 1.
core stamping used for these transformers is shown in
The core of high frequency transformers are made of
Fig 2c.
powdered iron or ferrite or brass or air core(hollow core)
(c) Ring type transformers: Refer Fig 3 of Chart 1. In this, as shown in Fig 3,4,5 and 6 of this lesson. These
the core is made up of circular or semicircular lamina- transformers are called Radio frequency transformers
tions as shown in Fig 3c. These are stacked and (RFTs) and Intermediate frequency transformers (IFTs).
clamped together to form a ring. The primary and These transformers are used for coupling any two
secondary windings are then wound on the ring. The stages of high frequency circuits such as radio receivers.
disadvantage of this type of construction is the difficulty The upper frequency limit of these transformers is 30
involved in winding the primary and secondary coils. MHz.
Ring type transformers are generally used as instru-
ment transformers for measurement of high voltage and Another speciality of these transformers is that the position
current. of the core can be altered, which results in varied coupling
and energy transfer. These transformers also have another
electronic component called capacitor connected across Auto-transformers are smaller in size and uses less iron
the windings in parallel. This results in a different behavior than a conventional two winding transformer of the same
of the transformer at different frequencies. Hence these rating.
transformer types are also called Tuned transformers.
Auto-transformers used for variable voltage operation are
These transformers are smaller than even audio frequency referred to the trade name of VARIAC.
(AF) transformers. These transformers will generally be
shielded/screened using a good conductor(recall lesson As shown in Fig 8, auto-transformers has a step-up section
on inductors for need of screening). (shown in dotted lines) which enables the transformer to
develop a variable voltage output from 0 to 270V from a
RFTs and IFTs also have a colour coding scheme to identify 240V input AC supply.
their different places of application.
Auto-transformers are mostly used in laboratories for
Since the coding schemes vary from manufac- conducting experiments.
turer to manufacturer, the colour coding scheme
for RFTs and IFTs are not given in this lesson. 6 Single phase and three phase transformers:
Transformers shown in Fig 4 of Chart are designed for use
(c) Very high frequency transformers: These transform-
with single phase AC mains supply. Hence these trans-
ers also have air or ferrite or brass as core material.
formers will have a single primary winding. Such transform-
These transformers are constructed specially to mini-
ers are known as single phase transformers. Transformers
are also available for 3 phase AC mains supply. These are
known as poly-phase transformers. Refer Fig 7 of Chart 1.
In a 3-phase transformer, there will be three primary
windings. Three phase transformers are used in electrical
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distribution and for industrial applications.
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ish 7. Classification based on application:
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Transformers can also be classified depending upon their

application for a specialized work. Since there are innumer-
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able number of applications, the types are also innumer-

mize energy losses at very high frequencies. Very high able. However a few of these are listed below:
frequency transformers are available in several shapes
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and designs. Some of these find wide application in Current Transformers - used in clip - on current meters,
Television receivers. Fig 6 illustrates a high frequency overload trip circuits etc.,
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transformers used in TV receivers.

Constant voltage transformers - used to obtain stabi-
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5 Auto-transformers:
lized voltage supply for sensitive equipments
Auto-transformer as shown in Fig 7 is a special variety of
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transformers which have only a single winding. Because of Ignition transformers - used in automobiles
single winding, there is no isolation between primary and
Welding transformers - used in welding equipments
Pulse transformers - used in electronic circuits
secondary side. Auto-transformers are used when isola-

tion between input and output is not important. Auto-
transformers can be used for variable voltage operation by
using a sliding contact like a potentiometer. But, it is
important to note that an auto-transformer does not func-
tion as a simple voltage divider.
CHART- 1
TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS
Fig 1 CORE-TYPE
CORE - TYPETRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER Fig 2 SHELL - TYPE TRANSFORMER
SHELL-TYPE TRANSFORMER
PRIMARY
WINDING
(a) (b) (a) (b)
PR
PRIMARY IMA
SECONDARY RY
WINDING WINDING PRIMARY
SE WINDING
CO
ND
AR
Y SECONDARY
SECONDARY
(c) WINDING
WINDING
(c)
UI - CORE STAMPING L - CORE STAMPING EI - CORE STAMPING M - CORE STAMPING TU - CORE STAMPING
Fig 3 RING
RING--TYPE TRANSFORMER
TYPE TRANSFORMER Fig 4
(a) (b)
MAINS FREQUENCY
MAINS FREQUENCY TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER
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PRIMARY SECONDARY (a) (b)
WINDING WINDING
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(c)
R
WE R
PO ORME
SF
AN
TR
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SECONDARY PRIMARY
Fig 5
AUDIO
AUDIOFREQUENCY TRANSFORMER
FREQUENCY TRANSFORMER (c)
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Fig 7
Fig
Fig66
POLY
POLY- -PHASE
PHASE TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER
HIGH
HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSFORMER
FREQUENCY TRANSFORMER
RFT's / IFT's
RFT’s/IFT’s
Voltage Regulation
In some text books, the regulation discussed
For simplicity in understanding, in all the previous lessons above is termed as “% Regulation-Up” some
on transformers, the resistive and inductive effect of the books also use, the term “% Regulation-Down”
primary and secondary windings were neglected. Also, the given by,
effect of load current on the magnitude of secondary
voltage was neglected. In a practical situation, the second- Vo (NL) – V o (FL)
% voltage regulation down =
ary voltage of a transformer decreases as the load/load- Vo (NL)
current is increased.
For example, if a transformer has an output of 13 V
Consider the equivalent circuit of a transformer shown when on no-load and has an output of 11.8 V when on
in Fig 8. its rated resistive load, the regulation of the trans-
former is,
Vo(NL) – Vo(FL)
% Voltage regulation = x 100%
Vo(FL)
13 – 11.8
= x 100% = 10%
11.8
Finding regulation from OC and SC test results
Vo(NL) – Vo(FL)
Voltage regulation = x 100 %
Vo(FL)
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Vo(NL) is the secondary voltage in test obtained from OC
test.
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Vo(FL) is the secondary voltage under rated full load.
From the circuit in Fig 8, the secondary current Is produces
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Vo(FL) can be calculated knowing turns ratios and the data
voltage drops IsRs and IsXs across the resistive and reactive obtained in SC test as follows;
components of the secondary winding. Consequently, the
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output voltage Vo is less than Vs. Ns

Vo(FL) = Vo(FL) x
Np
When load is not connected at the output terminals of the
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where, Vp(FL) = Vp(NL) - Vi(SC)

transformer, no secondary current flows, and hence, no
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voltage drops occur across Rs and Xs. Hence, Vo equals Vs. where, Vi(SC) is the voltage applied to primary at full load in
Thus, the transformer secondary voltage is greatest on no- SC test.
load.
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Phase relationship between primary and secondary

Under loaded condition, the voltage drops across the With Open secondary winding
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resistive and reactive components of the secondary wind- For ease of understanding the phase relation ship between
ing, reducing Vo. The larger the load current, larger will be voltages and currents in primary and secondary of a
the drop across the resistive and reactive components of transformer, consider a transformer having an open sec-
the secondary and hence, smaller will be the value of Vo. ondary. Referring to Fig 9, with open secondary, the
primary winding works similar to that of an inductor.
The percentage change in output voltage Vo, from no-load
to full load is termed the voltage regulation of the trans-
former.
% Voltage regulation =
Vo (No - load) – Vo (Full - load)

x 100%
Vo (Full - load)
Ideally, there should be no change in Vo from no-load to full-
load, (i.e., regulation = 0%). For best possible perform-
ance, the transformer should have the lowest possible
percentage regulation.
Since the secondary voltage lags behind the primary
current by 90°(Fig 11), and since the secondary current
lags behind the secondary voltage by 90°,
– the secondary current is 180° out of phase with

primary current as shown in Fig 11.
As the secondary current changes, it generates its own

magnetic field, whose flux lines oppose those of the
magnetic field created by the primary current. This reduces
the strength of the primary magnetic field. As a result, less
back-emf is generated in the primary. With less back-emf
to oppose the applied voltage, the primary current in-
creases. The amount of increase in primary current is
directly proportional to the amount of increase in second-
ary current. Thus, when secondary current in a trans-
former increases, the primary current automatically
also increases. And when secondary current decreases,
the primary current also decreases.
Applying rated primary voltage, if the secondary of a

transformer is shorted, excessive current will flow in the
primary as well as in the secondary. This excessive current
will not only burn out the transformer, but there is a
This means that,
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possibility that the source supplying power to the primary
– the primary current lags behind the applied volt-
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age Vi by 90° as shown in Fig 9b.
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– From Lenzs’ law the back-emf produced in the primary, The power in a DC circuit can be calculated by using the
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which opposes the cause, therefore lags behind the formula.

primary current by 90° as shown in Fig 9c.
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The voltage induced in secondary is maximum when the - P = E x I watts

primary back-emf is maximum. That means,
- P = E2/R watts.
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– the secondary voltage lags behind the primary current

by 90 degrees and hence the secondary voltage(Vs) is The use of the above formulae in AC circuits will give true
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180° out of phase with the primary voltage. power only if the circuit contains pure resistance. Note that
Fig 10 shows a combined illustration of the phase relation- the effect of reactance is present in AC circuits.
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ship between primary and secondary.

Power in AC circuit: There are three types of power in AC
Co
circuits.
- Active power (True power)

- Reactive power
- Apparent power
Active power (true power): The calculation of active power

in an AC circuit differs from that in a direct current circuit.
The active power to be measured is the product of
V x I x Cos θ where Cosθ is the power factor (cosine of the
phase angle between current and voltage). This indicates
that with a load which is not purely resistive and where the
current and voltage are not in phase, only that part of the
current which is in phase with the voltage will produce
With loaded secondary power. This can be measured with a wattmeter.
When a load is connected to the secondary of a trans-
former, current flows in the secondary. As in any induct- Reactive power: With the reactive power (wattless power)
ance,
Pq = V x I x Sin θ
– the current through the secondary winding lags
behind the secondary voltage that produces it by 90 only that part of the current which is 90° out of phase (90°
degrees. phase shift) with the voltage is used in this case.
Capacitors and inductors, on the other hand, alternatively A circuit with a low power factor require a magnet current
store energy and return it to the source. Such transferred than a unity power factor circuit.
power is called reactive power measured in volt/ampere
Efficiency of transformers
reactive or vars. Unlike true power, reactive power can do
no useful work.
Apparent power: The apparent power, Pa = V x I.
The measurement can be made in the same way as for

direct current with a voltmeter and ammeter.
It is simply the product of the total applied voltage and the
total circuit current and its until is volt-ampere (VA).
The power triangle: A power triangle identifies three different

types of power in AC circuits. In an ideal transformer, the power consumed in the second-
ary is exactly equal to the power consumed in the primary
- True power in watts (P) as shown in Fig 14a.
- Reactive power in vars (Pq)
- Apparent power VA (Pa)
The relationship among the three types of power can be
obtained by refferring to the power triangle. (Fig 12)
Therefore
ed
Pa2 = P2 + Pq2 Volt- amperes (VA)
bl I
pu M
ish
where 'Pa' is the apparent power in volt-ampere (VA)
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'P' is the true power in watts (W)

Pq is the reative power in volt-amperes reactive.
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(VAR)
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Co
Power factor : The ratio of the true power delivered to an

AC circuit compared to the apparent power that the source
must supply is called the power factor of the load. If we
examine any power triangle (Fig 4), you may see the ratio In practice, ideal transformers cannot be made. This is
of the true power to the apparent power is the cosine of the because some amount of power is always wasted in
angle q. transferring the power from primary to secondary. Hence,
P the power consumed in primary will always be higher than
Power factor = V x = Cosθ that available in secondary as shown in Fig 14b. This
Pa difference in the power between primary and secondary is
From the equation, you can observe that the three powers lost or wasted as a result of transformer losses.
are related and can be represented in a right angled power
triangle, from which the power factor can be obtained as the Transformers can be designed and made so that the
ratio of true power to apparent power. For inductive loads, transformer losses are minimum. The degree to which any
the power factor is called lagging to distinguish it from the transformer approaches the ideal condition is called the
leading power factor in a capactive load. (Fig 13) efficiency of the transformer. Efficiency of a transformer is
generally expressed in percentage as,
A circuit's power factor determines how much current is
necessary from the source to deliver a given true power. Efficiency η (in %) =
The letter η is spelled as eta 1. Copper losses
Transformer windings are made of many turns of copper
As an example, efficiency of the ideal transformer
wire. Copper wire although a very good conductor, still has
shown in Fig 14a is,
some resistance. The value of this resistance depends
upon the type of material and the length of wire. As the
Efficiency η (in %) =
number of turns in windings increase, the longer is the
length of wire, and greater will be the resistance. As shown
= in Fig 15, when primary and secondary currents flow
through the windings, due to the ohmic resistance of the
The efficiency of the transformer shown in Fig 14b is, windings, power(I2R) is dissipated in the form of heat.
Efficiency η (in %) =
=
From this example, it can be seen that, smaller the output
power in relation to the input power, the lower is the
efficiency of the transformer.
Efficiency of a transformer is also a measure of the losses

in the transformer. The lower the efficiency of the trans-
former, the higher are the losses in the transformer. These I2R losses are called Copper losses. Copper losses
increase if the currents through primary and secondary
Example: A transformer with 90% efficiency consumes increases. Total copper loss in a transformer is equal to;
ed
50 Watts at primary. What is the power delivered at Copper loss = Ip2.rp + Is2rs
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secondary across a purely resistive load.
ish Copper losses can be minimised by using a thicker gauge

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SOLUTION: copper wire, but this increases the size, weight and cost
of the transformer.
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2 Core losses or Iron losses

Core/Iron losses in transformer are due to two different
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types of losses namely;

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i Hysteresis loss
ii Eddy current loss
Output power = 45 watts.
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i Hysteresis loss
Transformer losses = Input power – Output power
Co
The magnetic field in the iron-core of a transformer under-

= 50 – 45 = 5 watts goes a complete reversal 50 times each second for a
In the above example, if the efficiency of the transformer mains-supply frequency of 50Hz. As shown in Fig 16, every
was 95%, then time the polarity of the supply reverses, the molecules of
iron with its N-S poles change its direction, such that the
direction of magnetic field reverses.
Transformer losses = Input power – Output power

= 50 – 47.5 = 2.5 watts
LOSSES IN TRANSFORMERS
Because of the transformer losses, the transformer heats
up when in operation. The losses in the transformer convert
some of the electrical energy into heat energy as shown in
Fig 1c. As a thumb rule, if a transformer is heating-up while
in operation, the losses in the transformer is high.
Most common types of transformer losses which always

exist with almost all iron-core transformers are explained
below;
Energy has to be supplied to the molecules of the iron core
to make them catch-up with the new direction of magnetic
field. This turning around of molecules, or reversing the
magnetism of iron core, consumes energy in the form of
heat. This loss of energy, appearing in the form of heat, is
proportional to the area of the B-H curve or Hysteresis loop
of the core material as shown in Fig 17.
This loss of power in a transformer due to eddy current in

the transformer core is referred to as eddy current loss.
Eddy current loss in a transformer core can be reduced

by making the core, into thin flat sections as shown in
Fig 20 instead of a solid single piece iron as in Fig 19.
These thin flat sections are called laminations.
This loss of energy in the primary of the transformer in

reversing the magnetism of the iron core is called hyster-
ed
esis loss of the transformer.
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It should be noted that air core transformer will not have
ish
hysteresis loss as air core transformers do not use
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magnetic core material.
ii) Eddy current loss

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Since these laminations have very small cross-sectional

In iron-core transformers, the core material is a conducting areas, the resistance offered to the setting up eddy current
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material. So, the changing magnetic field of transformer is greatly increased and hence the loss due to it is also
induces a voltage in the core. This induced voltage in the reduced.
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core cause small current to circulate within the core as

shown in Fig 18. This current is called eddy current
current. Such laminations, are stacked together as shown in
Fig 21. These laminations are insulated from each other by
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means of an insulation coating, generally shellac. Due to

the insulation between laminations, the eddy currents can
Co
only flow in individual laminations. Hence the overall eddy

current loss of the transformer is greatly reduced.
The induced eddy current is large if the resistance of the

core material is small. Due to this circulating eddy currents
and the resistance of the core material, power loss occurs
(P=ie2rc) in the form of heat as shown in Fig 19. The power loss due to eddy currents is directly proportional
to,
In addition, the induced eddy currents set-up an opposing
flux (ø2) in the core as shown in Fig 19. This results in more a the frequency of current.
primary current trying to maintain the magnetic field in the b the magnitude of current.
core. This further increases the eddy current and hence the
If iron-core transformers are used at high frequencies, the
losses due to it.
eddy current losses become high. Hence iron-core trans-
formers are not preferred in high frequency applications.
It should be noted that air core transformer will not have any
eddy current loss as they do not have core material in which
the eddy current can flow.
Other losses in transformers

In addition to copper losses and iron losses, transformers
have two more types of losses. They are:
1 Loss due to flux leakage

2 Core saturation loss
Loss due to flux leakage

As can be seen from Fig 22, in transformers all the flux lines
produced by the primary and secondary windings does not
travel through the iron core. Some of the magnetic lines
leak from the windings and go out into space as shown in
Fig 22. These leaked magnetic lines cannot do useful work.
This leakage of the flux lines represents wasted energy,
reducing the efficiency of the transformer. Compared with the other two losses, the flux leakage loss
and the core saturation loss are negligible. Also these two
losses can be greatly reduced by good transformer design
and safe current level operation. Hence, the total losses
ed
that occur in a transformer can be found after knowing its
copper losses and iron losses.
bl I
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ish Measuring transformer losses
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To determine losses in a transformer, its turns ratio and

efficiency, two simple tests are conducted. These tests
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are, the no-load test and the full-load test.

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No-load test or open circuit test (O-C test)

Loss due to core saturation
Fig 24 shows the circuit arrangement for O-C test on a
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When the current in the primary winding of an iron-core transformer.

transformer increases, the flux lines generated follow a
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path through the core to the secondary winding, and back

through the core to the primary winding, As the primary
Co
current first begins to increase, the number of flux lines in

the core increases rapidly shown in light gray shade in Fig
23. Additional increases in primary current will produce
only a few additional flux lines less (shown in dark gray
shade in Fig 23) than what it should have produced. The
core is then said to be saturated. Any further increase in
primary current after core saturation, results in wasted
power.
Summing the different types of losses in a transformer, the The AC input voltage (Vi) is set at a rated primary voltage.
total loss is given by, The input power (Pi) is measured by the wattmeter (W). The
input current (Ip) is measured by ammeter.
Total transformer loss = Copper losses(primary + The open-circuit secondary voltage (Vs) is measured by
secondary) + Iron losses voltmeter.
(Hysteresis + eddy current) +
Flux leakage loss + Core satu Since the secondary is open there is no current in second-
ration loss. ary.
As the transformer secondary is open-circuited(Is=0), the
primary current (Ip) is very small. Since Ip is very small, the
voltage drops across the ammeter and wattmeter can be
neglected. So the input voltage (Vi) can be taken as primary
voltage (Vp). Therefore, the ratio of the two voltmeter With Iron loss being zero, the input power measured(Wc)
readings gives turns ratio of the transformer. on the wattmeter is the total transformer copper loss at
rated full-load current.
Np Vp
Turns ratio of transformer = = .
Ns Vs Using the results of the SC test, the phase angle difference
(ø) between the current and the voltage can be determined
The input power (Pi) measured by the wattmeter (W) gives
as given below;
the total transformer core losses because with very small
primary current and zero secondary current the copper True power
losses in the windings are negligible and hence can be Power factor, cos ø =
Apparent power
taken as zero.
True power is the power read on the wattmeter, apparent
Total losses in a transformer = Copper loss + Iron loss power is given by, Vp x Ip voltamps.
= 0 + Iron loss
With copper loss being zero, the input power measured on Therefore, in SC test
the wattmeter(W) is the total transformer Core loss or Iron WC
loss (Wi). Cos ø =
Vp . I p
Full load test or short circuit test (S-C test) ⎛ W ⎞
− 1⎜ ⎟
φ = C os c
⎜ V .I ⎟
Fig 25 shows the circuit arrangement for S-C test on a given
⎝ p p ⎠
transformer.
Transformer rating in VA
From above discussions it is seen that copper loss of a
transformer depends on current and iron loss depends on
ed
voltage. Hence, the total transformer loss depends on volt-
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ampere (VA) and not on the phase angle between the
ish voltage and current. This also means that the transformer
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loss is independent of load-power factor. Hence transform-

ers are rated in VA or KVA instead of W or KW.
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Calculating efficiency from the O-C, S-C test data

Output power (P o )
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Efficiency η % = x 100
Input power (P i )
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With the secondary terminals shorted, the input voltage Since, Input power (Pi) = Output power (Po) + Losses
(Vi) is increased slowly from zero till the ammeter in the
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Po
primary circuit indicates rated full-load primary current, Ip. η% = x 100 ..........[1]
Po + losses
When this occurs, the rated full load secondary current Is
Co
will be circulating in the secondary winding. Efficiency η of a transformer can also be found as follows
Because the secondary terminals are shorted, the voltage Output power (P o )
η =
required at primary,Vp to produce full-load primary and Input power (P i )
secondary current is just around 3% of the rated input
Since, Output power (Po) = Input power - Losses
voltage (Vi).
Input power – Losses
In this condition, the wattmeter measuring input power (Pi) η =
indicates the full-load copper losses for the reasons given Input power
below; Losses
η = 1 –
– With a low level of input voltage (3% of rated), core flux Pi
is minimum. Hence the core losses are so small that Output power Po is given by,
they can be neglected and taken as zero.
Po = VS(FL) x Is(FL) x Cosøs
– Since the winding, both primary and secondary are Is(FL) is the secondary current under full load condition. This
carrying rated full-load currents, the input is supplying can be calculated using the data obtained in S-C test as
the rated full-load copper losses only. follows,
Np
Total losses = Copper loss + Iron loss I s(FL) = Ip(FL) x
Total losses = Copper loss + 0 + Iron loss Ns
For simplicity, assuming the effect of inductance in sec-
ondary is negligible Cosøs can be taken as 1.
therefore, Po = Vo(FL) x Is(FL) ..........[2] Iron losses = Wattmeter reading in O.C test = 2 watts
Core losses is given by wattmeter(Wi) reading in O-C test From SC test:
Short circuit voltage VS(FL) is given by;
.........[3]
Vp(SC – test)
Full load copper losses is given by wattmeter reading in SC Vs(FL) = = 0.0954 volts
test Vp(SC – test)
.........[4]
Vp(OC – test)
x I p(SC – test) (220V)(0.3A)
Knowing [2], [3] and [4], the efficiency of the transformer I s(FL) = = = 3.14
Vp(SC – test) 21V
can be calculated using ..[1].
Copper losses = Wattmeter reading in SC-test = 6 watts
Example: A 36VA rated step down transformer (230V:12V,
3A secondary) on OC and SC tests gave the following Total transformer losses = Copper loss + Iron loss
results; = 6 watts + 2 watts
= 8 watts.
OC test: Vp = 220V,Ip = 0.068A, W = 2 watts
Efficiency of the transformer at rated load of 36VA is
SC test: Vp = 21V, Ip = 0.3A, W = 6 watts
36
Find the efficiency of the transformer at the rated second- η% = x 100% = 0
36 + 8
ary load of 36VA. Assume secondary load P.F(cosø) = 1.
These calculations have not taken into account
From OC test: the effect of inductive reactance of the primary
Apparent power = Vp.Ip = 220 x 0.068 = 14.96 VA and secondary circuit. If the load connected to
True power = W = 2W the secondary of a transformer is going to be a
highly inductive load, then it is necessary to
ed
True power 2
Cos ø = = = 0.1337 consider the power factor (Cos ø). For details
Apparent power
bl I14.96 refer reference books listed at the end of this
pu M
Cosø = 0.1337
ø ~ 82°
ish book for exact calculations of efficiency of
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transformers from the data obtained by O-C
and S-C tests.
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Working principle of zener diodes

• state the need of regulators in power supplies
• state the formula to calculate the % load regulation factor
• list the main differences and similarities between rectifier diodes and zener diodes
• name the main of zener diodes
• list the important specifications of a zener diode
• explain working characteristic, application and specification of varactor diode
• describe working of a half wave recifier
• describe working of a full wave rectifier
• describe working of a bridge rectifier
• describe ripple filters, R.C filters, inductor input filters sand L.C. filters.
Voltage regulators In practice the load regulation of a good power supply

Recall that, the DC output voltage level of power supplies should be less than 0.1 %.
such as, full-wave and bridge rectifiers, tend to decrease Regulating the DC output voltage for variations in the input
or increase, AC level is termed as line regulation. This is discussed in
– when the load current increases or decreases further units.
ed
– when the AC input voltage level decreases or in- The zener diode
creases.
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ish
In a power supply one of the simplest ways of regulating the
Such variations in the output DC voltage level of power DC output voltage (keeping the output voltage constant) is
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supply is not acceptable for most of the electronic circuits. by using a zener diode. With zener in reverse breakdown
Hence, it is required to regulate the DC output of power condition, the voltage across the zener diode remains
supplies so as to keep the DC output level constant,
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constant for a wide range of input and load variations.

inspite of variations in the DC load current or the AC input
voltage. Circuits or components used to keep the DC Because of this property, zener diodes are also known as
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output voltage of a power supply constant are called voltage regulators or voltage reference diodes. Fig 1 shows
voltage regulators. the symbol used for zener diodes.
t t rig
Regulation factor
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The ability of a power supply to maintain a constant DC

output voltage for variations in the load current is referred
Co
to as load regulation. Load regulation of a power supply is

generally given as a percentage.
VNL − VFL
Load regulation factor % = x 100
VNL
where, The difference between a rectifier diode and a zener diode

are listed below;
VNL = DC output at no load or open circuit
– Compared to normal rectifier diodes, zener diodes are
and VFL↔ = DC output at rated full load.
heavily doped.
It should be noted that lower the percentage of load
– Unlike ordinary diodes which do not work in the break-
regulation factor, better is the voltage regulation.
down region, zener diodes work only in the breakdown
region.
Example: The DC output of a power supply is 12 volts at
no-load and 11 volts at full load. – Generally rectifier diodes are used in forward-biased
condition, whereas zeners are always used in reverse-
biased condition.
12 – 11 – The reverse breakdown voltage of zener diodes is very
% Load regulation = x 100 = 8.33%
12 much less (3 to 18V) compared to rectifier diodes
(minimum 50V).
222
The similarities of a zener diode with those of general The cause for this reverse conduction is referred to as the
purpose rectifier diodes are listed below; avalanche effect. The avalanche effect cause, the electrons
to be knocked loose from their bonds in the crystal
– Zener diodes are also PN junction diodes, which are
structure. As more electrons are loosened, they in turn
also generally made of silicon.
knock others and current builds quickly. This action
– Zener diodes also have two terminals (anode and causes the voltage drop across the zener to remain
cathode). constant regardless of the zener current. As shown in
– In physical appearance, the zener diodes and ordinary Fig 2, once the zener voltage is reached, very small voltage
diodes look alike. changes create much greater current changes. It is this
characteristic, which makes the zener useful as a constant
– Like rectifier diodes, zener diodes are also available voltage source or as a voltage regulator.
with glass, plastic and metal casing.
Unlike in a rectifier diode, the reverse current through the
– The anode and cathode marking technique on the body zener is not destructive. If the current is kept within the
is same for both zener and rectifier diodes. specified limits depending upon the wattage rating of the
– The zener can be tested with an ohmmeter in the same zener, using a suitable series resistance, no harm is done
way as in rectifier diodes. to the zener diode.
– Zener requires approximately the same voltage for it to Because the zener diode is designed to operate as a
be forward-biased into conduction as that of an ordinary breakdown device, the zener can be brought out of condi-
diode. tion easily. A zener is brought out of its zener conduction
by lowering the reverse-biased voltage below the zener
Fig 2 shows the conduction characteristics of a typical voltage or by reversing the polarity of the applied voltage.
zener diode. Because of the nature and heavy doping in a
zener, its characteristics are different compared to a Application of zener diodes
ed
rectifier diode.
The most popular use of zener diodes is as voltage
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regulators in DC power supplies. Fig 3 illustrates a simple
ish zener regulated power supply.

Re NI
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No py
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In the circuit at Fig 3, the zener diode is in parallel with the

output or load of the power supply. It is very important to
note that the zener is connected in the reverse-biased
condition. Such a parallel circuit connection is often called
a shunt. When used in this way, the zener is said to be a
Note that, the zener diode acts as a rectifier diode when shunt regulator.
forward biased. It also behaves as a rectifier diode when In Fig 3, the zener begins to conduct in the reverse-biased
reverse-biased, till the voltage across it reaches the break- condition as the voltage across it reaches the zener voltage
down voltage. As can be seen from Fig 2, even the reverse VZ. The voltage across the zener remains constant imma-
or leakage current remains almost negligible and constant terial of the input DC voltage. Since the load is in parallel
despite the increase in the reverse-biased voltage till the with the zener, the voltage across the load VOUT will be
break down voltage, also called zener voltage is reached. same as the voltage across the zener VZ (VOUT = VZ).
But, Once the zener breakdown voltage is reached, the
diode current begins to increase rapidly and the zener If the input DC voltage to the zener increases, as can be
suddenly begins to conduct. In the case of a normal rectifier seen from its characteristics in Fig 2, the current IZ
diode, once the break down voltage is reached the diode through the zener increases but the voltage across the
gets punctured and starts conducting heavily whereas, in zener remains the same due to avalanche effect. Be-
a zener diode, the diode does not get punctured even cause the zener voltage, V Z does not change, the
though it conducts current in the reverse biased condition. output voltage V OUT, does not change and so the
voltage across the load is constant. Thus, the output
is said to be regulated. – Maximum operating temperature : The highest
temperature at which the device will operate reliably.
Referring to Fig 4, the zener can be looked at as an
automatically changing resistance. Total current through These specifications of zener diodes are given in diode data
the resistance RS is given by, books. However a limited list of the most commonly used
zener diodes is given in Table No. 27 of the Pocket Table
book.
The example given below enables you to interpret the
specifications of certain types of zener diodes without the
need to refer diode data book:
Example 1: The type-code printed on a zener is BZ C9V1.
BZ C9V1
B Z C 9V1
silicon zener 5% tolerance 9.1V

IT = IZ + IL
Thus the voltage across RS is,
Example 2: The type-code printed on a zener is 1Z 12.
VR = (IZ+ IL) RS
1Z 12
If the input DC voltage VIN increases, output voltage VOUT,
tends to increase. In the meantime, the zener conducts
ed
1 Z 12
more heavily, causing more current (more IZ) to flow through
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RS. Hence, more voltage drop occurs across RS. This
ish
Means a semiconductor zener No tolerance 12V
increase in drop across RS offsets the increase in the
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with one PN junction code means,
output voltage VOUT, thus retaining the voltage across load
RL at its original value. Likewise, if the value of RL is 10% tolerance
be @
decreased (increased IL), current through the zener IZ

Other popular zener diode type-codes are, 1N750, 1N4000,
decreases, retaining the value of IT through RS. This
ZF27, ZP30, DZ12, BZ148, Z6, etc.
o ht
ensures sufficient load current through the load RL without

decrease in the level of VOUT. Varactor diode or varicap diode
t t rig
Zener specifications Varactor diode is a one kind of semiconductor microwave

No py
Like in rectifier diodes, the type-code number is marked solid-state device and the applications of this diode mainly
generally on the body of the zener. From the type-code involve in where variable capacitance is preferred which can
Co
marked, detailed specifications of the zener can be found be accomplished by controlling voltage. These diodes are
referring to any standard diode data manual. also named as varicap diodes. Even though the outcome
of the variable capacitance can be showed by the normal
Important zener diode specifications are listed below; P-N junction diodes, but these diodes are chosen for giving
the desired capacitance changes as they are special types
– Nominal Zener voltage, VZ:: This is the reverse
of diodes Fig 5. Varactor diodes are specifically fabricated
biased voltage at which the diode begins to conduct in
and optimized such that they permits a high range of
reverse bias.
changes in capacitance.
– Zener voltage tolerance: Like the tolerance of a
resistor, this indicates the percentage above or below
VZ. For example, 6.3 V ± 5 percent.
– Maximum zener current, IZ,max: This is the maxi-
mum current that the zener can safely withstand while
in its reverse-biased conduction (zener) mode.
– Maximum power dissipation, PZ is the maximum
power the zener can dissipate without getting dam-
aged.
– Impedance (ZZ): The impedance of the zener while
conducting in zener mode.
The different types of varactor diodes are available in the
market such as hyperabrupt, abrupt and gallium - arsenide
varactor diodes. The symbol of the varactor diode is shown
in the above figure that includes a capacitor symbol at one
end of the diode that signifies the characteristics of the
variable capacitor of the varactor diodes.
The symbol of the varactor diodes looks like a common PN-
junction diode that includes two terminals namely the
cathode and the anode. And at one end this diode is inbuilt
with two lines that specifies the capacitor symbol.
Working of a Varactor diode
To know the varactor diode working principle, we must
know the function of capacitor and capacitance. Let us
consider the capacitor that comprises of two plates aliented
by an insulator as shown in the figure 6.
We know that, the capacitance of a capacitor is directly
proportional to the region of the terminals, as the region of
the terminals increases the capacitance of the capacitor
increases. When the diode is in the revers biased mode,
where the two regions of P-type and N-type are able to
conduct and thus can be treated as two terminals. The
depletion area between the P-type & N-type regions can be Applications of varactor diode
considered as insulating dielectric. Therefore, it is similar The applications of varactor diode mainly involve within
to the capacitor shown above. the RF design area however, in this article, we are
ed
discussing about the couple of applications of varactor
bl I diodes, to illustrate how these diodes can be used in a
pu M
ish practical. The capacitor in a practical circuit can be
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changed with the varactor diode, but it is necessary to
make sure the tune voltage necessary to set the diode
capacitance. And to ensure that this diode is not influenced
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by the bias voltage in the circuit. By using voltage control

technique in the diode ciruit, changing capacitanc can be
o ht
offered.
Voltage contolled oscillators
t t rig
Consider the circuit of VCO designed by using varactor

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diode ‘D1’ as symbolized in the figure (8). The oscillator

The volume of the depletion region of the diode varies with can be allowed by changing the ‘D1’ diode. The capacitor
C1 is used to stop the reverse bias for the varactor diode,
Co
change in reverse bias. If the reverse voltage of the diode is

increased, then the size of the depletion region increases. also neglects the diode getting short circuited through the
Likewise, if the reverse voltage of the Varactor diode is indicator. The diode can be adjusted by applying bias
decreased, then the size of the depletion region through an R1 resistor (isolating series resistor).
decreases.
Characteristics of varactor diode
The characteristic of varactor diode have the
following:
• These diodes significantly generate less noise com
pare to other diodes.
• The cost of these diodes is available at lower and more
reliable also.
• These diodes are very small in size and very light
weight.
• There is no useful when it is operated in forward bias.
• In reverse bias mode, varactor diode enhances the
capacitance as shown in the graph below. (Fig 7)
RF filters as well as stray capacitance and inductance that may be
exhibited by the device package. This means that device
The varactor diodes can be used in th RF filters to tune. In
with low capacitance levels that may be more suitable for
the receive front to follow the frequency of the incoming
high frequencies will be placed in microwave type package.
received signal which can be restricted using a control
These and other considerations need to be taken into
voltage. Usually, the is offered by microporcessor control
account when choosing a varactor diode for a new design.
through the DAC. A few of the main applications of varactor
diodes can be listed below: As a particular varactor diode type may be available in a
number of packages, it is necessary to choose the variant
• These diodes can be used as frequency modulators
with the package that is most suitable for the application
and RF phase shifters.
in view
• These diodes can be used as freqency multipliers in
microwave receive. Rectifier
• These diodes are used to change the capacitance in Almost all electronic circuits need DC voltage for their
tank LC circuits. working. This DC voltage can be obtained by dry cells and
batteries. Use of a dry cell is practicable only in portable
Specifications of varactor diode electronic circuits such as transistor radio, tape recorders
etc. But in circuits requiring large voltages and currents, like
When choosing a varactor diode, the varactor specifications high power audio amplifiers, television sets etc. batteries will
need to be carefully determined to asses whether it will not only be very expensive but also be voluminous.
meet the circuit requirements.
An alternative method of obtaining DC voltage is by
While there will be many varactor diode specifications that converting the AC mains supply of 240V, 50Hz into DC
are the same as those applied to other types of diode, voltage. This technique is not only convenient but also
including signal diode, etc, there are many other varactor takes very small space compared to battery packs. This
ed
specifications that are crucial to the perfornance of the process of converting AC to DC is known as rectification.
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varactor in any variable capacitance role. Fig 9 shows the principle of converting AC to DC of required
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ish
Many of the difference varactor parameters will be detailed voltage level.
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in the varactor specification sheet that may be accessed
in the manufactures literature.
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Reverse breakdown
The reverse breakdown voltage of a varactor diode is of
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importance. The capacitance decrease with increasing

reverse bias, although as voltages becomes higher the
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decreases in capacitance becomes smaller. However the

minimum capacitance level will be determined by the
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maximum voltage that the device can withstand. It is also The transformer will step-down or step-up the mains AC to the
wise to choose a varactor diode that has a margin between required level. The stepped-up or stepped-down AC from the
the maximum voltage it is likely to expect, i.e. the rail
Co
output of the transformer is then converted to DC using diodes

voltage of the driver circuit, and the reverse breakdown making use of their unique unidirectional property.
voltage of the diode. By ensuring there is sufficient margin,
the circuit is less likely to fail. Half wave rectifier
It is also necessary to ensure that the minimum The simplest form of AC to DC converter is obtained by
capacitance required is achieved within the rail voltage of using one diode. such an AC to DC converter is known as
the driver circuit, again with a good margin as there is half-wave rectifier as shown in Fig 10.
always some variation between devices. At the secondary of the transformer, across terminals P &
Diodes typically operate with reverse bias ranging from Q, when seen on a CRO, the electric signal is a sinusoidal
around a couple of volts up to 20 volts or possibly higher. wave with its peak value of VP and a frequency determined
Some may even operate up to as much as 60 volts, although by the rate at which the alternations (+ve to –ve) are taking
at the top end of the range comparatively little change in place. In Fig 10, the frequency is 50Hz as this voltage is
capacitance is seen. Also as the voltage on the diode taken from 50Hz AC mains supply.
increases. It is likely that specific supplies for the circuits If the voltage across P and Q is measured using an AC voltmeter,
driving the varactor diodes will be required. the voltmeter shows the rms (root mean square) value, Vrms of the
sinusoidal wave which will be less than the peak value. The
Maximum frequency of operation relationship between VPeak and Vrms is given by,
There are a number of items that limit the frequency of
operation of any varactor diode. Th minimum capacitance
of the diode is obviously one limiting factor. If large levels
of capacitance are used in a resonant circuit, this will
reduce the Q.A further factor is any parasitic responses,
3 When the +ve half cycle of the input sinusoidal is
completed, the voltage across the RL will be a positive half
sinewave as shown in Fig 11c. The peak of rectified
voltage is also equal to the peak of the input AC voltage.
4 During the negative half cycle of the input AC, the diode
is reverse biased as the anode of diode is negative as
shown in Fig 11d.
5 Hence, the diode behaves as an open switch and no
current flows through the load and hence there is no
voltage output across load RL as shown in Fig 11d.
6 After completing the –ve half cycle, when the input
signal goes positive again, the whole operation
repeats starting from step 1.
As can be seen from Fig 10, the output of the half-wave
Vrms= 0.707 Vpeak rectifier is always a +ve voltage (DC) although it is pulsat-
........[1] ing. In other words, the output is either positive (during +ve
conversely, half cycle of the AC input) or zero (during -ve half cycle of
AC input) but never negative. Hence, the output of a rectifier
Vrms is a pulsating +ve DC voltage.
=
Vpeak = 2 Vrms
0.707
The circuit at Fig 10 is known as a half-wave rectifier as
When this sinusoidal signal is applied across the diode D the rectification is done by the circuit only during one half
as shown in Fig 10, the diode conducts (behaves as a cycle of the input AC signal.
ed
closed switch) only during the +ve half cycle of the input
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sinusoidal voltage and does not conduct (behaves as a Calculating output DC level in half-wave rectifiers
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ish
open switch) during the -ve half of the input sinusoidal Two important points to note for calculating the output DC
voltage. This process repeats again and again thus producing
Re NI
level of a halfwave rectifier are;
a pulsating +ve wave form at the output across the load, RL
as shown in Fig 10. – the output of a halfwave(HW) rectifier across the load resistor
is a pulsating DC whose peak voltage is equal to the peak
be @
The operation of a half-wave rectifier circuit can be summa- value of the +ve half cycle of the AC input as shown in Fig 12.
rised with the help of Fig 11 as follows: This can be checked using an oscilloscope.
o ht
1 During the positive half cycle of AC input, the diode is The small forward voltage drop of the diode (0.7 for Si)
forward biased as the anode of diode is positive as
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when forward biased is ignored for simplicity in under-

shown in Fig 11a. standing.
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– the pulsating signal level is zero when the input AC is

in the –ve half cycle as shown in Fig 12.
Co
Hence, when a DC voltmeter is connected across the load

resistor RL, the meter reads the average DC value of the
pulsating signal. Ignoring the diode drop, the average DC value
of the pulsating output in a half wave rectifier is given by,
Vaverage or Vdc= 0.318 VP ........[2]
Example: If the total secondary voltage of the transformer
(VS) in Fig 10 is 24 Vrms (measured by AC meter), the output
Vdc will be,
2 Hence current flows from anode to cathode, through

load RL to secondary of transformer as shown in Fig
11b. The IRL drop across load resistor RL is the DC
voltage Vdc with the polarity as shown in Fig 11b.
diode is reverse biased, there is no voltage across the load
RL. Therefore, From Kirchhoff’s voltage law, all the second-
ary voltage appears across the diode as shown in Fig 13b.
This is the maximum reverse voltage that appears across
the diode in the reverse biased condition. This voltage is
called the peak reverse voltage or more commonly as the
peak inverse voltage (PIV). Therefore, in a half-wave
rectifier the peak inverse voltage across the diode is equal
to the -ve peak value of the secondary voltage VS(peak).
Since, the -ve peak voltage and +ve peak voltage in a
sinusoidal wave is same in magnitude, the peak inverse
voltage (PIV) across the diode in a halfwave rectifier can be
taken as a VS(peak).
In the example considered earlier, the PIV across the diode
will be,
To avoid break down of the diode used, the PIV appearing

From ...1, Vp = √ 2 Vrms across the diode of the designed HW rectifier must be less
than the PIV rating of the diode. For instance, in the above
ed
From ...2, Vdc = (0.318) Vp = 0.45 VS(rms) example to avoid break down of the diode, the PIV rating of
.
the diode should be greater than 34 volts.
bl I
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ish
Therefore, for a half-wave rectifier the level of output DC Two diode full wave rectifier
is given by,
Re NI
In a half-wave rectifier there is no rectification action during

Vdc= 0.45 VS(rms) .....[3] the -ve half cycle of the input AC voltage. Because of this
be @
Where VS(rms) is the input rms AC voltage. the output DC level is low (0.318 VS(peak)). This limitation of
a half-wave rectifier can be overcome by using two diodes
In the example considered above, the output DC voltage at and a centre-tap-transformer as shown in Fig 14.
o ht
Fig 10 will be,

In Fig 14, each diode and the common load resistor RL form
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Vdc = 0.45 x VS(rms) = 0.45 x 24 = 10.8 volts. two independent half-wave rectifiers. Because of the cen-
Ripple frequency tre-tapped secondary winding, each diode receives only
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half of the total secondary voltage.

From Fig 12 it is evident that the frequency of the rectified
pulsating DC is same as the frequency of the input AC The opposite ends of the transformer secondary windings
Co
signal. This is true for all half-wave rectifiers. always have opposite polarities with respect to the centre
tap. As shown in Fig 14, when end A of the secondary
Peak inverse voltage winding is positive, the bottom end B will be negative.
Fig 13a shows the half-wave rectifier at the instant the
secondary voltage is at its maximum negative peak.
In this condition, since the diode is reverse biased, it
behaves as an open switch as shown in Fig 13b. Since the
For the polarity shown in Fig 15a, the anode of D1 is

positive and, hence, forward biased. Whereas, the anode
of D2 is negative, and, hence, does not conduct. Current
flows from the transformer(end A) → D1 → RL → back to
the transformer centre-tap. This direction makes point C
across the load RL as the +ve terminal of the output DC
voltage.
During the next half cycle, end B of transformer is +ve and
A is –ve as shown in Fig 15b. Hence the anode of D2 is +ve
and this diode conducts whereas D1 does not. Current
flows from the transformer(end B) → D2 → RL → back to
the transformer centre-tap. This direction of current again
makes point C across the load RL as the +ve terminal of
the output DC voltage.
ed
Output DC level in a two-diode full wave rectifier
bl I
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Since a full wave rectifier is nothing but a combination of two
ish half-wave rectifiers, the average or DC value of a fullwave

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rectifier is naturally twice the output of a half-wave rectifier

It is important to note the following two points; driven by the same secondary voltage.
be @
– At any instant of time either D1 or D2 conducts but never From Fig 16 it is evident that the average or DC value of a
both.
fullwave rectified output is
o ht
– While any of the two diodes is conducting, the rectified

current i, flows through RL in the same direction as Vdc = 0.318 VS(peak)+ 0.318 VS(peak)
t t rig
shown in Fig 15a and Fig 15b. So the DC output voltage Vdc = 0.636 VS(peak)
is positive at the common cathodes of the diodes D1,D2.
where, VS(peak)is the equal peak voltage between the centre-
No py
Fig 16 shows the input and output wave-forms of a fullwave tap and any one end A or B of the transformer secondary.
rectifier. As can be seen from Fig 16, the rectifier works
Co
both in the positive and negative half cycles of the AC input In terms of VS(rms), Vdcof a fullwave rectifier is given by,
to produce a DC output across the load resistor RL. VS(rms) = 0.707 VS(peak)
Although only one diode conducts at a time, the outputs
are combined in RL. Hence, fullwave rectifier provides Vs(rms)
Therefore, Vdc = 0.636 .
double the DC current to the load compared to that of a half- 0.707
wave rectifier.
= 0.9 VS(rms)
Since both the half cycles of the input AC signal are rectified
by the circuit at Fig 14, this circuit is known as a fullwave Example: Suppose the secondary voltage of the trans-
rectifier. Since this fullwave rectifier uses two diodes this former is 24-0-24V(rms), the DC output voltage of a full wave
circuit is also known as two diode fullwave rectifier. rectifier using this transformer will be,
For a two diode fullwave rectifier
Vdc = 0.9 VS(rms)
Therefore, in the given example,
Vdc = 0.9 x VS(rms)= 0.9 x 24 = 21.6 volts.
Ripple frequency in a full wave rectifier

From Fig 16c it can be seen that two cycles of output occur
for each input cycle of AC voltage. This is because, the full
wave rectifier has inverted the negative half-cycle of the
input voltage. As a result, the output of a full wave rectifier 2.16/2 = 1.08 amps. From this it follows that the current
has a frequency double the input AC frequency. If mains AC rating (If(max)) of each diode need only be half the maximum/
is used as input to a fullwave rectifier, since mains rated load current.
frequency is 50 Hz, the output frequency of the pulsating
DC will be 100 Hz. In a halfwave rectifier since there is only one
diode, the current rating of the diode used
Note: This increased ripple frequency has cer- should be the maximum current through the
tain advantages when the pulsating DC is load unlike in the case of a fullwave rectifier in
smoothed. This will be dealt with in further which the current rating of the diodes used is
lessons. only half the maximum current through the
load.
Peak inverse voltage
Example: In a two diode fullwave rectifier, with a load
current requirement of 1.8 amps, what should be the
current ratings of the diodes used?
Since it is a two diode fullwave rectifier, the current rating
of each diode should be 1/2 the total load current.
Therefore, If(max)of diodes should be 1.8 amps/2 = 0.9 amps.
It is fine if a diode of 1 amp current rating is used for this
rectifier circuit.
Disadvantages of TWO DIODE fullwave rectifier
ed
The full wave rectifier using two diodes and centre tap
bl I transformer has the following disadvantages;

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ish
Fig 17 shows the fullwave rectifier at the instant the – A centre-tapped transformer that produces equal
Re NI
secondary voltage reaches its maximum positive value. voltages on each half of the secondary winding is
difficult to manufacture and, hence, expensive.
Applying Kirchhoff's law around the outside loop, we get,
be @
– Centre-tapped transformers are generally bulkier than

2Vs(peak)–Reverse voltage (PIV) across D2
ordinary transformers, and, hence, occupy larger space.
+ Forward voltage across D1 = 0
o ht
– In a two diode full wave rectifier, only half of the

Neglecting the small forward voltage across D1we have, secondary voltage is made use of at a time although it
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2Vs(peak) – PIV across D2 + 0 = 0 works in both +ve and –ve half cycles.
or PIV across D2 = 2Vs(peak)
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The Bridge rectifier

From the above it can be seen that each diode in a fullwave
The disadvantages of a full wave rectifier using two diodes
rectififer must have a PIV rating greater than the peak value
Co
and centre-tap transformer can be overcome by a modified

of the full secondary voltage. (2Vs(peak) )
fullwave rectifier as shown in Fig 18. In Fig 18, since the
In the example considered eariler, the PIV of diodes should diodes are connected in the form of a bridge, this rectifier
be greater than 34V. circuit is commonly known as a Bridge rectifier.
As can be seen in Fig 18, the bridge rectifier does not need
Current rating of diodes in a fullwave rectifier
a centre-tapped transformer. Also, all the secondary volt-
If the load, RL connected in the fullwave rectifier is, say 10Ω, age is used for rectification at any given time.
the DC current through it will be,
Vdc
I dc = .
10Ω
In the example considered above, Vdc= 21.6 volts.
Therefore,
21.6
I dc = = 2.16 amps.
10
It is interesting to note this current I dc is shared by the two
diodes D1 and D2. This is because each diode conducts
only for one half cycle. Therefore, the DC current through
each diode is half the total DC load current Idc. Hence, the
maximum current through each diode with 10Ω load will be
The operation of a bridge rectifier can be summarized in the
following steps;
– When end A of the transformer secondary is +ve, as
shown in Fig 19a, diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased
whereas, D2 and D4 are reverse biased, and, hence, D2
and D4 do not come in the circuit.
– Current flows from the transformer(end A) → D1 → RL →
D3 → back to the transformer(end B). From the
direction of the current flow point C is the positive
terminal of the DC output across RL.
– During the other half cycle of the input (–ve half cycle),
end B of the transformer becomes +ve as shown in Fig
19b. Diodes D4 and D2 are forward biased, whereas D1
and D3 are reverse biased.
– Current flows from the transformer(end B) → D4 → RL →
D2 → back to the transformer (end A). From the
direction of the current flow, point C is again the +ve In a two-diode fullwave rectifier VS(rms)refers to
terminal of the DC output across RL. only half of the total secondary voltage whereas
in a bridge rectifier VS(rms) refers to full second-
ary voltage.
Example: In Fig 19, if the transformer secondary voltage
ed
VS(rms) is 24 volts, the rectified DC voltage Vdc across the
load RLwill be,
bl I
pu M
ish From equation ....2, Vdc for a bridge rectifier is given by,
Re NI
Vdc = 0.9 VS(rms)

In the given example, VS(rms) = 24 volts
be @
Therefore, Vdc = 0.9 x 24 = 21.6 volts

o ht
NOTE: Using the same transformer, a two-diode fullwave

rectifier would have given only 10.8 volts which is half of
t t rig
that of a bridge rectifier output.
Ripple frequency - Bridge rectifier

No py
The pulsating DC output of a bridge is similar to the two

Co
diode fullwave. Hence, as in a two diode fullwave rectifier,

the output ripple frequency of the bridge rectifier is also
twice the input AC frequency.
Peak inverse voltage - Bridge rectifier

Note: The current I is in the same direction
Fig 21 shows a bridge rectifier at the instant the secondary
through RLduring both +ve and –ve half cycles voltage has reached its maximum value.
of the input AC. The result is, a +ve rectified DC
voltage appears at the end of RL connected to
the cathodes of D1 and D4.
Output DC level in a bridge rectifier

Fig 20 shows the input AC and the output pulsating DC
wave-form of a bridge rectifier.
This wave-form is similar to that of the full wave rectifier
using a centre-tap transformer. Hence, the average DC
value of the output is,
Vdc = 0.636 VS(peak)
or Vdc = 0.9 VS(rms)
where, VS(rms ) is the full secondary AC rms voltage.

Diode D4 is ideally short (as it is conducting) and D1 is Encapsulated bridge rectifier modules
ideally open. Summing the voltages around the outside
From the comparative table above it is evident that even
loop and applying Kirchhoff’s law,
though bridge rectifiers need four diodes, it has several
VS(peak) – PIV across D1 + 0 = 0 advantages over the other two types of rectifiers.
Hence,bridge rectifier power supplies are very often
or PIV across D1 = VS(peak)
used for most applications. Because of its popularity,
Therefore, the peak inverse voltage across D4 is equal to the manufacturers are packing bridge rectifiers as a module
peak secondary voltage VS(peak). for easy use in application. For instance, the B 40 bridge
In a similar way, the peak inverse voltage across each rectifier module is a commercially available bridge rectifier
diode will be equal to the peak secondary voltage VS(peak) of assembly as shown in Fig 22.
the transformer secondary. Hence the PIV ratings of the The bridge rectifier module shown in Fig 22 consists of
diodes used should be greater than VS(peak). four hermetically sealed diodes, interconnected and en-
capsulated in plastic to provide a single rugged package.
Example: In Fig 21, if the transformer secondary voltage It has two input pins for feeding the AC voltage from the
VS(rms) is 24 volts, find the minimum PIV of diodes used. transformer secondary and two output pins across which
In a bridge rectifier PIV across the diodes is same and is the rectified DC voltage is available.
equal to VS(peak).
Therefore, in the given example,
VS(rms) 24
PIV = VS(peak) = = = 34 volts.
0.707 0.707
ed
Current rating of diodes in bridge rectifiers
bl I
As in the case of a two diode fullwave rectifier even in a
pu M
ish
bridge rectifier shown in Fig 19, diode pairs D1, D3 and D2,
D4 carry half the total load current I. This is because each
Re NI
diode pair is conducting only during one half of the AC input

cycle.
be @
The only disadvantage of bridge rectifiers, if it is treated as

a disadvantage, is that, this circuit uses four diodes for
o ht
fullwave rectification instead of two as in two-diode fullwave

rectifier. But this disadvantage is compensated by the
t t rig
simple transformer requirement of the bridge rectifier and

higher DC output level. Hence, bridge rectifiers are the
No py
most popular AC to DC rectifiers for most applications.

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A comparison of half-wave, fullwave and bridge rectifier is given below in a tabular form;
Half wave Full wave Bridge
• Number of diodes required 1 2 4
• Transformers Peak output voltage
• DC output voltage in terms of VS(peak) 0.318 VS(Peak) 0.636 VS(Peak) 0.636 VS(Peak)
• DC output voltage in terms of VS(rms) 0.45 VS(rms) 0.9 VS (rms) 0.9 VS(rms)
ed
• Diode current rating
bl I
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IL (max) 0.5 IL (max) 0.5 IL (max)
ish
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• Peak inverse voltage VS(peak) 2VS(peak) VS(peak)

be @
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• Ripple frequency f input 2finput 2finput

t t rig
No py
Efficiency of the Rectifier Pulsating DC voltages cannot be used in most of the

electronic circuits like radios, tape recorders etc. These
Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of DC power
Co
circuits require pure DC voltage similar to that of the output

to the applied input AC power.
of a battery as shown in Fig 23b. Hence, it is required to
Rectifier efficiency, η = DC output power/input AC power remove or at least reduce the pulsation in the output of the
rectifier circuits. The circuits used to filter off or reduce the
Idc=Im/π
pulsation in the DC output of rectifiers are known as
The DC output is given by : Pdc= I2dc x RL = (Im/π)2 x RL smoothing circuits or more popularly as ripple filters as
The AC input power is given by: Pac = I2rms x (rf + RL), where shown in Fig 24.
rf is diode resistance.
Ripple filters
The output of rectifiers is a pulsating DC voltage as in Fig
23 a and not a pure DC voltage like the output of cells or a
battery as shown in Fig 23b.
Capacitor input filters

The most important component used in any ripple filter
circuit is the capacitor. Recall capacitors store electrical
energy and release it when required. This property of a
capacitor is made use of in smoothing the pulsating output
of rectifiers.
Filtering output of Half-wave rectifiers from the pure DC voltage is the small ripple caused by
charging and discharging of the capacitor.
Fig 25a shows a capacitor input filter connected at the
output of a half-wave rectifier. As the capacitor charges to the peak value of the input
VS(peak)and discharges only a small portion of it, the DC
output of the half-wave rectifier, instead of 0.45 VS(rms) is
only slightly less than VS(peak) as shown in Fig 26.
From Fig 26, the exact value of DC voltage and ripple

voltage can be calculated as given below;
Vrip (p− p )
Vdc(HW)= VS(peak)– .....[1]
2
Example 1: If VS(peak) = 34 V and Vrip(p–p) = 3.4 V,

3.4
then, Vdc = 34V – = 32.3 Volts
2
ed
Refer example given in half wave rectifier
lesson. Without the capacitor the same halfwave
bl I
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rectifier gave only 10.8V DC. Adding just one
ish capacitor the output has increased 3 fold for the

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same halfwave rectifier.
While designing a filter circuit, the following methods can

be @
be used to calculate theoretically the ripple voltage in the

During the first quarter cycle of source voltage VS, the diode output of the filter circuit;
o ht
is forward-biased and ideally behaves like a closed switch.

Method 1
Since the output of diode is connected directly across the
t t rig
capacitor, the capacitor charges to the peak voltage VS(peak) Knowing the required load current IL, for a given value of
as shown in Fig 25b. frequency f and capacitance C, the peak-to-peak ripple
No py
voltage can be found using the formula,

As shown in Fig 25b, when the input VS just passes the
positive peak, the diode stops conducting. This is be- I
Vrip(p - p) = L
Co
.....[2]
cause, the capacitor has VS(peak) volts across it with the frC
polarity shown in Fig 25c. When VS passes its +ve peak, where,
the voltage at the anode of diode is slightly less than VS(peak).
Hence, the diode is reverse biased and behaves like a open Vr(p-p) = peak-to-peak ripple voltage, in volts
switch. IL = required DC load current, in Amps
With the diode open, the capacitor discharges through fr = ripple frequency, in HZ
the load resistance RL. By deliberate design, the dis-
charging time constant (product of RL and C) is made C = capacitance in Farads.
much greater than the period T of the input signal. Fixing the permissible Vr(p-p)and knowing f and IL the
Because of this, the capacitor will discharge only a required value of C can also be found using this formula.
small portion of its stored charge during the OFF time of
the diode, as shown in Fig 25b. Method 2
By the time the capacitor loses a small portion of its Another method of expressing the ripple in the output DC
charge, the source voltage again reaches its peak, the is by ripple factor r, defined as,
diode again conducts and recharges the capacitor to the V
peak voltage VS(peak). This process of charging during a brief r(rms)
Ripple factor,r =
period of positive peak and discharging during the falling V
dc
period of the positive peak continues as shown in Fig 25b.
From Fig 25b, it can be seen that the voltage across the where,
load resistor is almost a pure DC voltage. The only variation r = ripple factor(dimensionless)
Vr(rms) = rms value of ripple voltage
V
rip(p -p)
=
2 3
Vdc = DC output voltage.
If the RLC time constant is large enough such that the

capacitor is recharged in a short time compared with half
the period T of input AC, the theoretical value of the ripple
factor can be calculated using the formula,
1
r = (for halfwave) .....[3]
2 3 f RL C
where,
r = the theoretical ripple factor for a half-wave
C = capacitance in μF
RL = load resistor in ohms
f = mains supply frequency in hertz.
From equation 3 above, it is clear that one way to reduce
the ripple is by increasing the discharging time constant,
ed
RLC. In other words, increasing the value of C or RL the time
constant becomes larger, and, larger the time constant,
bl I Example: In a bridge rectifier with a capacitance input
pu M
purer is the DC output of the filter.
ish
filter, suppose the DC load current drawn is approximately
10 mA and the filter capacitor is 470 μF, for a line frequency
Re NI
These formulae are used many times while
of 50 Hz, the peak-to-peak ripple in the output will be,
troubleshooting, analyzing, or designing a
capacitor-input filter. Hence, it is worthwhile I
be @
from equation (2), Vrip(p - p) = L

memorizing these key formulae. fr C
Therefore,
o ht
Filtering output of Full wave and Bridge rectifiers 10mA

Vrip(p−p) =
From equation 2, it is clear that another way to reduce the 100Hz × 470 μF
t t rig
ripple is to increase the ripple frequency fr. In a fullwave

rectifier or bridge rectifier, the ripple frequency is double the = 0.213 V
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supply frequency as shown in Fig 27. As a result of higher For the same conditions in a half-wave rectifier, the ripple
ripple frequency, when compared with halfwave rectifier will be 0.426 V, which is twice as much because the ripple
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(Fig 26), the capacitor gets charged twice as often and has frequency is only 50 Hz (same as AC input frequency).
only half the discharge time as shown in Fig 27. Therefore,
the ripple in the filtered output is smaller and the DC output Examples If the peak voltage VS(peak) is 34 V, then, select
voltage approaches more closely the peak voltage VS(peak). a capacitor that makes the peak-to-peak ripple 10% of
The formulae used for calculating the ripple in the output or VS(peak). This means Vr(p–p) should be around 3.4V. (Refer
the ripple factor is the same as discussed for half-wave Example 1).
rectifiers. For a bridge rectifier, for a DC load current of 10mA, the
value of C using 10% rule should be,
IL
Vr(p-p) =
fr C
I 10mA
L
or C = =
fr V 100(3.4)
r(p-p)
= 29.4 μF minimum.
As a standard value, use 100 μF. Recalculating Vr(p-p),
IL 10mA
Vr(p-p)= = = 1 Volt.
frC 100 x 100 μ F
With the 10 percent design rule, the DC voltage is more In the case of a fullwave rectifier with filter shown in Fig 28b,
than 95 percent of the peak voltage which is reasonably summing voltages around the left loop gives,
a good design.
PIV – 2 VS(peak)+ 0 = 0
Assignment: Calculate value of C if the required load or,
current is 1 Amps. PIV = 2 VS(peak)
PIV rating of diodes with capacitance-input filters This means that the PIV rating of the diodes must be
greater than the peak total secondary voltage(VS(peak) +
Recall that the PIV across the diode in a half-wave rectifier VS(peak)). Note that this is same as in the fullwave rectifier
without a filter capacitor is equal to VS(peak). This PIV rating without a filter capacitor.
changes when a filter capacitor is connected across the
output of the half-wave rectifier. In the case of a bridge rectifier circuit shown in Fig 28c,
summing voltages of the outside loop gives,
Fig 28a shows a half-wave rectifier driving a capacitor-input
filter. At the negative peak of the secondary voltage, the PIV + 0 – VS(peak)= 0
diode is reverse-biased and a peak inverse voltage appears or,
across it. Summing up the voltages around the loop gives, PIV = VS(peak)
PIV across diode – VS(peak– VS(peak) across C = 0 So the PIV rating of each diode in the bridge must be
or, greater than the peak secondary voltage VS(peak). This is
PIV across diode = 2VS(peak) same as in a bridge rectifier without a filter capacitor.
From this it can be seen that, with capacitance-input filter Surge current in rectifiers with filter capacitors
across the diode, the PIV rating of the diode in a half-wave
rectifier must be two times the peak secondary voltage In rectifiers with filter capacitors, before the input power is
ed
VS(peak) or higher. switched ON, the filter capacitor is uncharged. The instant
bl I the circuit is switched ON, the capacitor behaves as a short

pu M
ish circuit. This results in a large initial charging current
through the diode. This initial, sudden rush of current is
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called the surge current.

The worst case of a surge current flowing is when, the
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circuit is switched ON, at the very instant the secondary

voltage is VS(peak), as shown in Fig 29. The only resistance
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to this rushing surge current are,

t t rig
1 The transformer secondary winding resistance,rs

2 The bulk resistance rb of the diode(s).
No py
Co
Generally, the secondary winding resistance will be less Note that the surge current has reduced from 28.3 amps to
than 1 W. The bulk resistances of diodes are given in data 6.5 amps by the use of a surge resistor.
sheets. In general purpose diodes, rb will be of the order of
0.2 W.
When a surge resistor is used for calculating IS,
For example, if V S(peak) is 34 V AC and the sum of the you may neglect the winding and bulk
secondary winding resistance and the diode bulk re- resistances, as their values are comparatively
sistance is 1W + 0.2 W, then the surge current I S would smaller.
be,
One disadvantage in using a surge resistor is that, since it
VS(peak) 34 comes in series with the output, the DC voltage across the
IS = = = 28.3 amps. load decreases by an amount equal to the IR drop across
1 Ω + 0.2 Ω 1.2 Ω
the surge resistor. Hence, surge resistors should not be
It is important to note that this large current is not a used indiscriminately.
continuous current. This current decreases exponentially
as the capacitor gets charged. However, if the capacitor is Filter capacitors of values less than 1000 μF usually do not
of an extremely large value, the surge current will remain at produce a surge current for a long period to damage the
a high level for quite some time, and, hence, may damage diodes. Hence, for values of C less than 1000 μF use of
the diode. surge resistors are not essential.
From the above, two important points are to be noted, Table No.25 of the pocket table books summarizes the key
information discussed so far. This table is useful for
- The diode used must have the capability to withstand a designing and troubleshooting power supplies.
large surge current of a short duration, generally one
time period(T) of input cycle. This data is given in the RC filters
diode data books.
ed
Recall that with the 10 % ripple rule we get a peak-to-peak
- The value of the filter capacitor should not be exces-
bl I ripple of around 10 percent of the DC load voltage. To further
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sively large as this will increase the value and duration
ish
reduce the ripple at the output, filters as shown in Fig 31
of surge current. may be connected between the filter capacitor and the
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load. These are known as RC filters. These filters reduce

Use of surge limiting resistor the ripple in the output to less than 1 percent making the
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In case the diode selected for a rectifier has a surge current output a pure DC similar to the output of a battery.
rating less than the estimated surge current, a small In Fig 31, the two RC filter sections are connected between
resistor is included in the surge current path as shown in
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the input capacitor C and the load resistor RL. While

Fig 30. This resistor is known as surge limiting resistor or designing these filter sections, the value of R is made much
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simply surge resistor. greater than XC at the ripple frequency. Therefore, a major
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This surge resistor limits the surge current because, this

resistance gets added to the winding and diode bulk
resistances. Using a surge resistor of a suitable value, the
surge current can be restricted to any desired value. portion of the ripple voltage gets dropped across R instead
of across the load resistor RL. Typically, the value of R must
As an example, in Fig 30, if VS(peak)is 34V and if a surge be at least 10 times greater than XC at the ripple frequency.
resistor of 4W is selected, then the surge current will be, This results in each RC section attenuating (reducing) the
ripple by a factor of 10. Thus more the number of sections
VS(peak)
of RC, less is the ripple across RL and purer is the DC output
winding + diode bulk + surge voltage across RL.
resistance + resistance + resistor The main disadvantage of the RC filter sections is the loss
34 of DC voltage across each R. Hence, RC filter circuits are
= = 6.5 Amps suitable only for small load currents or for large load
1Ω + 0.2 Ω + 4Ω
resistance.
Inductor input filters The ripple factor, r is given by,
An alternative to using a capacitor in parallel with the load 0.7
resistor, is to use an inductor in series with the load as r= ...........[5]
LC
shown in Fig 32a. Since an inductor opposes any change
in current through it, the inductor coil will cause a smooth- From the above equation for r, unlike in case of capacitor
ing effect in the output as shown in Fig 32b. Here the input filter, it can be seen that in a LC filter circuit the ripple
inductors are called Chokes as they choke the ripple. factor is not determined by the value of the load resistor.
Hence, with a capacitor and inductor in the filter circuit, the
ripple is independent of the load current.
ed
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ish
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If the coil resistance of the inductor is neglected (being very

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small), inductor is neglected (being very small), the DC

output will be, These days, LC filters are becoming obsolete because of
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the size and cost of the inductors. LC filters are being

Vdc= 0.636 VS(peak) as in the case of capacitance filter.
replaced by integrated circuit(IC) voltage regulators, active
If the resistance of the coil is considered, the DC output will
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filter circuits which reduce the ripple and keep the DC

be slightly less due to the IR drop across the coil. voltage constant. IC regulators and active filters are dis-
cussed in detail in further lessons.
Co
The ripple factor r in a full wave rectifier with inductor filter

is given by,
RL
r= . .....[4]
1618L
LC filters
For large load current requirements, instead of RC filters,
LC filters as shown in Fig 33 are preferred. The reason is,
a large portion of the ripple voltage is dropped across the
inductor with minimum DC voltage drop because inductors
have only a small winding resistance.
In Fig 33, XLis made much greater than XC at the ripple
frequency. Hence, the ripple across the load is reduced to
extremely low levels.
Neglecting the choke’s resistance, the DC output voltage
is given by,
Vdc= 0.636 VS(peak) as in the case of a capacitor input filter.
Electronic Mechanic - Rectifier
Regulated power supply

• explain the difference between regulated power supply and unregulated power supply
• state what is meant by voltage regulation
• state what is meant by current regulation
• explain the terms used in specifying regulated power supply.
DC regulated power supply : The main purpose of a DC By suitably designing the current regulator circuit it is
regulated power supply is to get a constant DC supply for possible to get current regulation for a single range or a
electrical and electronic circuits for conducting experi- multi-range of currents.
ments in laboratories and also to provide testing voltage for
equipments like radio, TV, tape recorders, computers etc.
DC unregulated power supply : The most common

method of obtaining DC from AC supply is to use a
transformer for stepping down/up of the AC voltage and to
use a rectifier circuit for converting AC supply into DC.
Often capacitors/inductors are used to filter the DC output.
In this type of circuits the DC output voltage changes with Voltage and current regulation combined : Commer-
ed
a change in load and is generally used in a circuit where cially available DC regulated power suppliers provide both
voltage and current regulation combined in the supply unit.
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load current is constant eg. battery charging, electroplat-
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ing, communication system etc. (Figs 3 and Fig 4)
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Types of regulated power supply : There are two basic

ways of deriving a stable DC supply from an AC supply.
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They are the conventional way and a system using switch

mode technique.
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Most of the electronic equipment uses the conventional

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type of power supply. In this type, voltage and current

regulation are used combinely.
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Voltage regulated power supply:

supply: The voltage regulated
power supply consists of a step down transformer, rectifier
Co
and a storage capacitor to generate an unregulated DC

supply that is electrically isolated from the AC mains
supply. Then this DC output voltage which is not regulated
is passed through voltage regulator circuitory to get the
regulated DC voltage. (Fig 1).
Circuit description : Fig 4 shows a circuit diagram of a

simple voltage and current regulated power supply. The
functions of circuit elements are as follows. Transformer ‘T’
is used for stepping down AC voltage to the required AC
The regulator circuit parameter may consist of zener voltage. Full wave bridge rectifier ‘D1 to D4’ is used to rectify
diodes, transistors or integrated circuits as discussed in AC to DC voltage. A capacitor ‘C’ is used for filtering. The
Ex. 812 of 2nd year. A transistor version of a fixed voltage voltage across zener diode ‘Dz’ is used as a reference
regulator is shown in Fig 1 of Ex.812 and a transistor voltage source which is constant. The potentiometer ‘P1’ is
version of a variable voltage regulator is shown in Fig 2 of used for controlling the DC output voltage. Transistor Q2
Ex.812 of 2nd year. Please refer to them. works as a voltage regulator. For a set voltage by
potentiometer ‘P1’ that is when there is no load, transistor
Current-regulated power supply : A current regulated Q2 conducts less and voltage drop across collector and
power supply consist of an unregulated power supply emitter is maximum. When the load current increases
simillar to voltage-regulated power supply and a current transistor ‘Q2’ conducts more and the voltage drop across
limiting circuit. (Fig 2)
239
collector and the emitter decreases almost compensating Load regulation = No load voltage ENL– Full load voltage EFL
the drop in unregulated DC output, thereby keeping the Load regulation = ENL– EFL
regulated output voltage constant. Transistor ‘Q2’ also Load regulation is often expressed as a percentage by
works as a current regulator. The conduction of transistor dividing the change in the load voltage by the no load
‘Q1’ depends upon the voltage drop across resistor ‘R2’. In voltage.
turn the voltage drop across ‘R2’ depends upon the resist-
ENL - EFL
ance value of R2 and load current (IL x R2). When the load % Load regulation = x 100
current increases the voltage drop across ‘R2’ also in- ENL
creases and for a set current transistor ‘Q1’ conducts
Ripple : The term ripple implies that the residue of AC
resulting the base of transistor ‘Q2’ to almost at negative
delivered to the load as a result of imperfect rectification
potential reducing the output voltage. The ultimate result is
and filtering.
the current will not increase above the set value of current
but the voltage goes on decreasing for any reduction of load The ripple may be mentioned as AC voltage available for a
resistance “RL”. given or nominal DC output voltage. In general the ‘Ripple
factor’ is defined as the percentage ratio of the AC voltage
TERMS USED IN SPECIFYING REGULATED POWER
available in the DC output.
SUPPLIES
% Ripple factor
The regulation requirement of a regulated power supply is
AC voltage available in DC output
often associated with its application. Hence the following = x 100
terms are considered while selecting a regulated power Normal DC voltage at the output
supply.
The size of the power supply unit depends upon the
Line regulation (Source regulation) : The line regulation maximum DC output power required ie. DC voltage and DC
amperes. The circuit of the regulated power supply be-
ed
is also called a source regulation specifying the change in
comes more and more sophisticated depending upon the
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DC output voltage due to the variation in the line voltage.
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high precision in regulation and a number of protection
ish circuits incorporated in the equipment. The circuit may use

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% Source regulation = a number of ICs transistors, controls and other compo-

% of variation of DC output nents depending on the accuracy required.
voltage for a given constant load
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x 100
% of variation of ACinput
line voltage
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Load regulation : The load regulation is also called load

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effect which is defined as the change in the regulated

output voltage when the load current changes from mini-
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mum to maximum.
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Electronic Mechanic - Basic Computer
Introduction to computer devices, parts and their working

• explain the basics of computer
• identify computer hardware
• identify various peripheral devices.
• identify and explain computer connection and ports
• explain the main components on the mother board
• name different types of cables used in computer
• explain the CPU and memory.
What is a computer? computer itself cannot perform any task and is referred to
The term computer is used to describe a device made up as hardware.
of electronic and electro mechanical components. The A computer system consists of three elements.
Fig 1
ed
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ish
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1 Hardware single silicon chip. Personal computers come in three

different physical sizes, pocket pc’s, lap pc’s and desktop
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2 Software
pc’s. Pocket pc’s and lap pc’s belong to portable category.
3 People Microcomputer is used in small businesses.
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Hardware : The physical components which you can see, Ex : IBM compatible or IBM clone and Apple Macintosh
touch and feel in the computer system are called hardware systems.
Eg monitor, keyboard, mouse etc.
Multiuser microcomputers. Until recently
Software : Software is used to describe the instructions microcomputers were personal
that tells the computer how to perform a task. Software is
computers for individual use only. But now days several
categorized as
microcomputers can be networked together for simultaneous
1 System softwares ( eg . operating systems, compilers, use by several people.
editors, etc)
Mini computers: Mini computer is simply a small mainframe
2 Application softwares ( MS-word, excel, accounting computer. It is a reduced version of mainframe. Attached
packages, etc) printers are not so fast. So it has less storage capacity less
processing speed of that of mainframe computers. They
People : People who operate the computer and also
are usually used by small businesses. For example
create computer software instructions.
research groups, engineering firms, colleges etc. use mini
Computer hardware computers.
Basic components in a computer system are central Mainframe computers: A mainframe computer is a large
processing unit (CPU), memory, the input device and expensive machine whose processing speed is very high
output device. and has large amount of secondary storage and fast
Computer systems – Micros, Minis and Mainframes. printers. A large mainframe computer may be used to meet
the data processing requirements of the entire organization.
Micro computer : Micro computer is also called as
personal computer or PC. It has a processor based on a Examples: airline booking systems, Railway booking
241
systems , weather forecast etc. 16 bit ISA bus
System types 16/32 bit Extended ISA(EISA) bus
We can classify systems into the following categories : 32/64 - bit card Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)
bus.
8-bit, example : 8085 microprocessor
The easiest way to identify a PC/XT system is by the 8-bit
16-bit, example : 8086, 286, 386 processor
ISA expansion slots regardless of the processor present in
32-bit , example : 486 the system. AT systems can be similarly identified by
64-bit, example : Pentium - II having 16-bit of greater slots of any type (ISA, EISA, PCI)
slots.
This gives us two basic system types or classes of
hardware. System components
8-bit ( PC/XT) class systems Component needed to assemble a basic modern PC

system.
16/32/64 (AT) class systems
• Motherboard
PC stands for personal computers, XT stands for eXTended
PC, and AT stands for an advance technology PC. • Processor
The XT basically was a PC system that included a hard disk • Memory (Primary)
for storage in addition to the floppy drive found in the basic • Hard disk
PC system. These systems has an 8-bit processor and an
• CD-ROM
8-bit INDUSTRY STANDARD ARCHITECTURE
• Floppy Drive
(ISA) bus for system expansion. Bus is the name given to
• Keyboard
ed
expansion slots in which additional plug in circuit board can
be installed.
bl I • Mouse
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ish
16-bit and greater systems are said to be AT class. 16-bit
(and latter 32 and 64 bit) processors and expansion slots
• Monitor
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are included. The first AT class systems had a 16-bit • Power Supply
version of the ISA bus which is an extension of the original
• Cabinet
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8-bit ISA bus found in the PC/XT class systems. Afterwards

several expansion slots were developed for AT class Motherboard : Motherboard is the important component
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systems. of the computer as everything else is connected to it. And

it controls everything in the system. Motherboard are
Example
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available in several different shapes. Motherboard usually

16/32 bit PS/2 microchannel architecture (MCA) bus. contain the following individual components shown in Fig
2.
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16-bit PC card (PCMCIA) bus

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Fig 2
1 Processor slot Hard disk drive (Fig 5)
2 Processor voltage regulators A hard drive consists of spinning platters made up of
aluminum or ceramic that is coated with magnetic media
3 Motherboard chipset
shown in Fig 5. The platters come in various sizes. The hard
4 Level 2 cache drive with many different storage capacities can be created
depending upon the density, size and number of platters.
5 Memory SIMM or DIMM sockets
This is also called as Secondary memory. There can be
6 Bus slots several programs in the system, which cannot be stored in
7 ROM BIOS RAM, so we need a very huge non-volatile memory, which
can be used for storing all the programs, and data when the
8 Clock / CMOS battery system is not in use are called as Hard disks.
9 Super I/O chips
Fig 5
Processor (Fig 3)
Fig 3
ed
EMN177414
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ish
EMN177412
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CD-ROM drive (Fig 6)
CD-ROM stands for compact disk read only memory. It
The processor is often thought as the engine of the
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consists of small disks similar to the gramophone records

computer shown in Fig 3. Then the processor reads the
to hold digital information shown in Fig 6. As the name
commands from the memory and then executes them. The
applies they are read only medium. With the advancement
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processor is one of the most expensive parts of the

in technology writable CD’s are also available.
computers and is also one of the smallest parts.
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Primary Memory (Fig 4) Fig 6

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Memory: Is used to hold programs and data during

execution.
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Primary memory is often called as RAM(Random Access

Memory) shown in Fig 4. It holds all the programs and data
the processor is using at a given time. RAM is volatile
because its contents are erased when power is switched
off. The other type of system memory is ROM(Read only EMN177415
Memory)which is permanent because it contents are not

erased even when power is switched off. It is usually used
to load an operating system. Floppy Disk Drive (Fig 7)
Floppy disks are the slowest and the smallest form of
Fig 4 secondary storage shown in Fig 7. They provide a simple
way to carry information from one place to another, and
backup small amount of files. In modern days floppy drive
component is not as important as it was years ago. All
PC’s made in the last 10 years use a standard 3 ½ inch,
1.44 MB capacity floppy drive.
Keyboard (Fig 8)
The keyboard is the main input device for most computers
shown in Fig 8. It is used to input text or enter commands
into the PC. Nowadays keyboards with additional features
EMN177413
are available like multimedia keyboard, wireless keyboard.
Fig 7 60 or more time per second. The actual display screen is
made up of red, green and blue dots that are illuminated by
electron beam from behind. The video card DAC chip
controls the movement of the electron beam, which then
controls what dots are turned on and how bright they are.
Which then determines the picture you see on the screen.
Power supply (Fig 11)
Fig 11
EMN177416
Fig 8
EMN17741A
EMN177417
SMPS(Switch Mode Power Supply): The power supply

Mouse (Fig 9) supplies power to every single part in the PC shown in Fig
With the invention of graphical user interface mouse is 10. The main function of the power supply is to convert the
ed
used to input information into the computer shown in Fig 9. 230 V AC into 3.3 V, 5 V and 12 V DC power that the system
bl I requires for the operations. In addition to supplying power

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Users simply point and click to enter information. The main
ish
advantage of mouse over keyboard is simplicity. And there to run the system, the power supply also ensures that the
system does not run unless the power supplied is sufficient
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are many operations that are much easier to perform with
a mouse than a keyboard. to operate the system properly. The power supply completes
internal checks and tests before allowing the system to
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Fig 9 start. If the tests are successful, the power supply sends
a special signal to the motherboard called Power Good.
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If this signal is not present continuously, the computer

does not run. Therefore, when the AC voltage dips and the
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power supply becomes stressed or overheated, the Power

Good signal goes down and forces a system reset or
complete shutdown.
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EMN177418
Cabinet (Fig 12)

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The box or outer shell that houses most of the computers

Monitor (Fig 10) shown in Fig 12. The cabinet actually performs several
The monitor is the specialized high-resolution screen important functions for your PC including protection to the
similar to a television shown in Fig 10. The video card sends system components, directing cooling airflow, and allowing
the contents of its video memory to the monitor at a rate of installation access to the system components. The cabinet
Fig 10 Fig 11
EMN17741B
EMN177419
often includes a matching power supply and must also be

designed with shape of the motherboard and other system
components in mind.
Peripheral Devices Printers
Any external device, which is not necessary to perform the The capability to produce a printed version often called a
basic operation of computer, is called as peripherals. They hard copy of a document is the primary function of a printer.
provide additional computing capabilities. For ex : Printers, Different types of printers are 1) Laser 2) Inkjet 3)
Modems, Speakers etc. Dot-Matrix.
Modem (Fig 13) A = Network Connector (Fig 15)
Fig 13
The Network Connector, also referred to as a NIC card, is
how your CPU talks to the network. A network cable is
plugged into the back of the computer in this location
shown in Fig 15. The other end of the network cable is
plugged into a network jack in the wall. If the wall jack is
“live”, meaning it has been wired to talk to the network, then
your computer will connect to the network
USB Ports (Fig 16)
B = USB Ports 1 & 2
The USB ports are present on newer machines and most
often require Windows 98 or higher. If you have Windows95,
the USB ports may not work. USB ports allow you to
connect an external device, such as a printer, camera,
scanner, or other device to your computer shown in Fig 16.
EMN17741C
Fig 15
ed
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Modem (Modulator and Demodulator) is typically used to
ish
send digital data over a phone line shown in Fig 13. The
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sending modem converts digital data into analog data,

which can be transmitted over telephone lines, and the
receiving modem converts the analog data back into digital
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form. This is used to connect to Internet.

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A typical arrangement is shown below in Fig 14

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Fig 14
EMN17741E
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EMN17741D
Fig 16
Modems are available in different capacities.

• 300 bps - 1960s through 1983 or so
• 1200 bps - Gained popularity in 1984 and 1985
• 2400 bps
• 9600 bps - First appeared in late 1990 and early
1991
• 19.2 kilobits per second (Kbps)
EMN17741F
• 28.8 Kbps
• 33.6 Kbps USB ports transfer information from the connected device
to your computer.
• 56 Kbps - Became the standard in 1998
Monitor Connector (Fig 17)
• ADSL, with theoretical maximum of up to 8 megabits
per second (Mbps) C = Monitor Connector
Gained popularity in 1999 The monitor connector is a 15 pin female connector shown
in Fig 17. This is how the monitor is connected to the
computer. On the back of the monitor, there is a 15 pin male
connector. The monitor cable gets plugged into the back of Com Port 1 & 2 (Fig 20)
the computer in this location.
F = Com Port 1
Fig 16
H = Com Port 2
Com Ports are usually have 9 pins and are male connectors
shown in Fig 20. Com Port stands for communication port
and is how your computer talks to external devices such as
modems, scanners or digital cameras.
Fig 20
EMN17741G
Keyboard Connector (Fig 17)
EMN17741J
D = PS/2 Keyboard Connector
The PS/2 Keyboard connector is where the keyboard gets
connected to the computer shown in Fig 18. The keyboard Parallel Port (Fig 21)
cable, has a round connection with one flat side. G = 25 Pin Parallel Port
Fig 18
The parallel port is sometimes referred to as a printer port
(or LPT1) because that is the typical device that is
attached to this port. The parallel port is a 25 pin female
ed
connector shown in Fig 21. If you have a direct connect
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printer, the male end of the printer cable (pictured later in
ish this manual) is connected here.

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Fig 21
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EMN17741K
Mouse Connector (Fig 19)
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E = PS/2 Mouse Connector

Game Stick Port (Fig 22)
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The PS/2 Mouse connector is where the mouse gets

connected to the computer shown in Fig 19. Although the I = Game Stick Port
keyboard connector and the mouse connector look the
same, they are not interchangeable. In newer PC’s, the The game stick port is where you would connect an
components are color coded and it is clear where the external device like a game stick or joystick. It is a 15 pin
mouse and keyboard go. In older models, the keyboard female connector shown in Fig 22.
connector comes first. Fig 22
Fig 19
EMN17741L
Sound Card (Fig 22)

J = Sound Card – Speaker Connector
EMN17741I
K = Sound Card – Audio Out Connector
L = Sound Card – Microphone Connector Mouse (Fig 26)
A sound card allows you to hear sounds from a CDROM or The illustrations above (Fig 26) show two examples of
audio file. The connectors allow you to attach speakers, mouse connectors. The left is a PS/2 mouse connector
microphones or headphones shown in Fig 23. If your (circle) and the right is a serial connector that would plug
computer does not have these connectors, you will not be into one of your com ports
able to hear sound.
Fig 26
Fig 23
EMN17741P
Speakers (Fig 27)
EMN17741M
The following cords are connected to a set of speakers
CPU Power Cord (Fig 24)
Fig 27
The CPU power cord connects the CPU to the electrical
supply shown in Fig 24
Fig 24
ed
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ish
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EMN17741Q
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The following cords are connected to a set of speakers

shown in Fig 27
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• Power cord – connecting one speaker to the power

EMN17741N
source
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• Left to Right speaker connector – connecting one

Keyboard (Fig 25)
speaker to the other
The illustration above( Fig 25) shows two examples of • Speaker to CPU connector – connecting speakers to
keyboard connectors – the left is the larger connector and the CPU
the right is the smaller. On the larger connector, there is an
arrow that should face up when you are connecting it to the
CPU. On the smaller connector, there is a flat side that Monitor (Fig 28)
should face up when connecting it to the CPU. There are two cords attached to the back of the monitor.
Fig 25
The first is a power cord that connects the monitor to the
power source. The second is a monitor cable as shown in
(Fig 28)
The monitor cable is a 9 pin male connector that gets
connected to the monitor connector on the back of the CPU
ES169111EMN17741O
Fig 28 USB Printer Cable (Fig 31)
Fig 31
ES169117
ES169114
Newer computers and printers will support the use of a USB
Network Cable and Network Jack (Fig 29)
printer cable. A USB cable will transfer information more
The network cable can be blue, purple or off-white. One end quickly than a parallel cable shown in Fig 31. The flat end
is connected to the back of the computer (in location A) and of the USB cable gets connected to the back of the CPU
the other end is plugged into the network jack on the wall in location B. The square end is connected to the local
shown in Fig 29 printer.
Fig 29
The following should help you put the pieces together.
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1 Position the CPU in the desired location
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the CPU (location A) A) and the other to the wall jack.
3 Connect the keyboard to the back of the CPU (location
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D)
4 Connect the mouse to the back of the CPU (location E)
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5 Connect the monitor cable to the back of the CPU

(location C)
6 Connect the monitor power cable to the power source
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7 If you have speakers, connect the speaker power cord

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to the power source, connect the left and right speaker

and connect the speaker to the sound card on the back
of the CPU (location J) – note, some speakers are color
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coded to assist in the set-up, if yours are, follow the

color codes.
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8 If you have a local printer, connect one end of the parallel

printer cable or USB Printer Cable to the back of the
EMN17741R
CPU (location G or location B) and the other end to the

printer
Parallel Printer Cable (Fig 30) 9 Connect one end of the power cord to the back of the
The parallel printer cable has one connector on each end. CPU and the other end to the power source.
The 25 pin male connector gets connected to the back of
the CPU in location G and the other end is connected to the SATA AND DATA CABLE
local printer shown in Fig 30.
SATA (pronounced say-da), short for serial ATA (which is
Fig 30 an abbreviation for Serial Advanced Technology
Attachment), is an IDE standard first released in 2001 for
connecting devices like optical drives and hard drives to the
motherboard.
The term SATA generally refers to the types of cables and
connections that follow this standard.
EMN17741S
Serial ATA replaces Parallel ATA as the IDE standard of

choice for connecting storage devices inside of a computer.
SATA storage devices can transmit data to and from the
rest of the computer much, much faster than an otherwise
similar PATA device.
can buy the bracket yourself pretty cheaply. Monoprice's
Note: PATA is sometimes just called IDE. If you
2 port internal SATA to eSATA bracket, for example, is less
see SATA being used sort of as an opposite
than $10.
term with IDE, it just means that serial and
parallel ATA cables or connections are being However, one caveat with external hard drives is that the
discussed. cable doesn't transfer power, only data. This means that
unlike some external USB drives, eSATA drives require a
SATA vs PATA power adapter, like one that plugs into the wall.
Compared to Parallel ATA, Serial ATA also has the benefit SATA Converter cables
of cheaper cable costs and the ability to hot swap devices. There are various adapters you can purchase if you need
To hot swap means that the devices can be replaced to convert an older cable type to SATA or convert SATA to
without turning off the entire system. With PATA devices, some other connection type.
you'd need to shut off the computer before replacing the
hard drive. For example, if you want to use your SATA hard drive
through a USB connection, like to wipe the drive, browse
Note : While SATA drives support hot swapping, through the data, or back up the files, you can buy a SATA
the device using it must as well, like the to USB adapter. Through Amazon, you can get something
operating system. like this SATA/PATA/IDE drive to USB Adapter converter
cable for just that purpose.
SATA cables themselves are much smaller than the fat
Molex converter
PATA ribbon cables. This means that they're easier to
manage because they don't take up as much space and There are also molex convertors which can use if power
can be tied up more easily, if need be. Also, the thinner supply does not provide the 15 pin cable connection that
design results in better airflow inside the computer case. you need to tower the internal SATA hard drive.
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Like you read above, SATA transfer speeds are much Those cable adapters are pretty in expensive, like this one
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higher than PATA. 133 MB/s is the fastest transfer speed from micro SATA cables.
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possible with PATA devices, whereas SATA supports System unit: The system unit consists of the following (Fig
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speeds from 187.5 MB/s to 1,969 MB/s (as of revision 3.2) 32 and 33)
The maximum cable length of a PATA cable is just 18 1 Memory:
Memory: This is the area used by the processor to
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inches (1.5 feet). SATA cable can be as long as 1 meter store raw data and instructions
(3.3 feet). However, while a PATA data cable can have two
device attached to it an once, a SATA drive only allows Microprocessor: This is the CPU, which is the main
2 Microprocessor
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one.some Windows operating system don't support SATA component in a computer that does all the processing
work of the data fed into the computer.
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device, like windows 95 and 98. However, since those

versions of windows are so outdated, it shouldn't be a It contains three units viz.,
concern these days.
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1 Memory units (internal , called as registers)

Another disadvantage of SATA hard drives is that they
2 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
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sometimes require a special device drive before the

computer can begin reading and writing data to it. 3 Control Unit
About SATA cables and connectors
32
SATA cables are long, 7-pin cables. Both ends are flat and
thin. One end plugs into a port on the motherboard, usually
lablled SATA, and the other into the back of a storage
device like a SATA hard drive.
External hard drives can also be used with SATA
connections, given, of course, that the hard drive itself has
a SATA connection, too. This is called eSATA. The way it
works is that the external drive attaches to the eSATA
connection at the back of the computer next to the other
openings for things like the monitor, network cable, and
USB ports. Inside the computer, the same internal SATA
connection is made with the motherboard just like if the
hard drive were fixed inside the case.
eSATA drives are hot-swappable in the same way as
internal SATA derives.
Note: Most computers don't come pre-installed with an Memory Unit: It is the nervous system of the computer. It
eSATA connection on the back of the case. However, you controls arithmetic operations to be performed. These unit
co-ordinates the activities of all other units in the system.
It has two main functions. They are: 3 Bus: These are the pathways through which data and
1 To control the transfer of data and information between instructions pass from one area to another within the
various units computer. The bus carries the signals to various de-
vices that are attached to the computer. There are three
2 To indicate appropriate functions by the arithmetic unit buses: Address bus, Control Bus and Data bus.
Chart 1
Description Application Cable/connector
40 pin FRC male connector To connect MB with HDD

located on M/B
34 pin FRC male connector To connect MB with FDD

located on M/B
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25 pin FRC male connector To connect MB with Parallel port

located on M/B provided on the rear side of the
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PC
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10 pin FRC male connector To connect MB with serial port

located on M/B “D” connector provided on the
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rear side of the PC
FDD cable (data) To connect MB with FDD

located inside the PC
HDD cable (data) To connect MB with HDD

located inside the PC
4 pin Molex connector SMPS to HDD,FDD,CDD

from SMPS unit
4 pin Berg connector SMPS to FDD (3 1/2’’)

from SMPS unit
20 pin Berg connector SMPS (ATX) to MB

from SMPS unit
12 pin Berg connector SMPS (AT) to MB
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5 pin DIN plug on key Key board to MB
board cable
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5 pin DIN socket MB to key board

provided on the rear side
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of the PC
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5 pin Miniature DIN plug Key board to MB

on keyboard cable
5 pin Miniature DIN socket MB to key board

of the PC
PS/2 Key board connectors MB to Mouse, Mouse to MB
15 pin High density VGA MB to Monitor

connector on the rear side
of PC
15 pin D type connector To connect Joy stick
D-25 pin male connector Serial port (Comport)

on the rear side of the PC
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D-9 pin male connector Serial port (Comport)

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D-25 pin female connector Parallel port (Printer port)

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Mini Jack socket Audio IN /MIC

Mini Jack from external External Audio Devices to

audio device Sound card
USB female connector MB to USB peripherals

of the PC
USB male connector from USB peripherals to MB

the USB device
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): This unit does arithmetic The CPU uses the address bus to select the memory
calculations and logical operations involved in the program, address of the device in order to read and write data. The
such as addition, multiplication, comparison etc., actual data is sent using the data bus. Control bus carries
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the control information like instructing the ALU which 4 Storage Devices: These are the floppy drives and hard
operation to perform. Out of these buses the address and disk drives, both of which we would discuss in detail in
control buses are unidirectional whereas the data bus is the lesson on secondary memory devices.
bidirectional.
5 Motherboard: The motherboard is the primary compo- 4 Hold the board along it’s edges as shown in Fig 34 and
nent of the entire system. Without the support circuitry rock it up gently using equal force at both holding ends
and functions that this device provides, even the CPU is and remove the card.
unable to function. The detailed diagram of a mother –
board is given below. Fig 34
The various slots are provided to mount add- on cards like
display cards, sound card, internal modem, hard disk
controller cards etc. However, now- a –days most of these
cards come in built within the motherboard itself.
Tips for removing add- on cards from the mother board
1 Put on anti- static wrist strap.
2 Ensure that all the cables from the add- on card
connected on to the mother board is removed. Label the
removed cable with suitable information. Before remov-
ing, record to which slot on the motherboard it was
plugged.
3 Remove the boards mounting screw which fixes the
metal mounting bracket of the add- on card.
Fig 35
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After removing the card, avoid touching the edge connector 2 Ensure that all the add-on cards connected on to the
of the card. mother board is removed.
5 Place the card preferably in an antistatic mat such that 3 Plan/determine your most likely exit route for the
the components on the card are visible to you. mother board.
6 Identify and record the jumper settings on the card. 4 Remove the two screws holding motherboard on the
7 Identify and record the switch setting if any on the chassis of the cabinet.
mother board. 5 Locate the plastic pinch spacers holding the motherboard
8 Place the add-on card safely in anti-static pouch and on to the chassis of the cabinet.
keep it safely in the drawer of your working table or in 6 slide the motherboard until the plastic pinch spacers
a shelf. feel free of the motherboard using nose pliers
Tips for removing the Mother board from the cabinet
Make sure that you don’t accidentally remove
When all the cables and add- on board are taken out from any jumper switches with rough handling.
the processor unit of PC, than it looks quite easy to work Correct jumper settings are crucial for proper
further 1 operation of the motherboard.
Ensure that all the cables from, the mother board is
removed Most CPU’s of both types will generate have micro fan
mounted right on the chip.
RAM Modules: These memory modules can be seen as manent code that the PC uses when the PC is first
small PCB strips(much smaller than add –on cards) turned-On.
plugged into lengthy slots(DIMM-168-pin) (SIMM-72 pin)
This chip looks similar to the one as shown in Fig 38. Most
(SIMM-30 pin) perpendicularly on the motherboard as
ROM Bios Chips will have a glass window at its center as
shown in Fig 35.You may see only one RAM module strip
shown in figure. Some times this window is closed using
or more than one. Each RAM module strip may have
a adhesive glossy paper slip on which it would be marked
capacity ranging from 4 MB to more than 128 MB .Some
the marker of this Bios such as AWARD or AMI or
types of memory module cards are shown in Fig 36.
PHOENIX and like. On this glossy paper slip ,a few other
details including the year will be printed. This is an
Fig 36
important data to be recorded.
Fig 38
You will generally see two small plastic card extractors on

the edges of the connector as shown in Fig 36.
Fig 37
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plastic enclosure with a ‘+’ mark can be seen on the
mother board. This is technically called as a button cell.
This is actually a Lithium ion battery. This provides
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power supply to the CMOSRAM for maintenance of

Real Time Clock(RTC) and BIOS settings. This small
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but most important component on the mother board is

shown in Fig 39
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Fig 39
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7 Store the PC cabinet in a safe place.

8 Keep the working table clean and place the mother
board for studying.
9 Record the jumper and switch setting on the
motherboard.
Fig 39 also shows a connector with lot of pins, generally
Tips for identifying the major components an the in pairs . These provide necessary signal for the LED’s and
mother board switches mounted on the front panel of the PC. Right by the
CPU: The Central Processing Unit or CPU ,is an integrated sides of this connectors, markings can be seen as to which
Circuit(IC).This will be biggest IC which you can easily it should be connected, such as, LED,SPK, RST, etc.
identify. This IC can be of two basic types: 5 ADD-ON Cards/Expansion Card SLOTS: There will
1 A super socket-7 or socket 370 types as shown in Fig generally be three different types of slot female edge
35. connectors as shown in Fig 40
2 A socket -1 type as shown in Fig 35.

3 ROM BIOS Chip: This means Read Only Memory
Basic input-output System. These Chips contain per-
Fig 40 Fig 41
Fig 42
ISA slots: ISA means Industry Standard Architecture. This

type of connector will be Black in color and is the longest
of the three types. This slot is called as the ISA slots.
These are the old versions and hence your PC mother
board may have just one slot of this type or more. Note that
your mother board may not have this type of slot also. If so,
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don’t be worried as ISA is an old type and not very
essential.
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PCI slots: PCI means Peripheral Component Interconnect.
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These are more recent type compared to ISA and are very
popular. These slots are generally white in color and
smaller in size compared to ISA slots. A PC Motherboard
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will definitely have one PCI slot but generally more than
one.
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AGP slots: AGP means Accelerated Graphics Port. This

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slot is much more recent than the PCI slot and this slot
holds the add-on graphic card to enhance the graphic
capabilities of your PC. This slot is generally brown in color
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Power supply connector on the Motherboards: This

and there will be only one such slot on the mother board. will generally be a plastic male Molex connector will be one
If the AGP control circuit is integrated on the mother board
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connector strip of 12 pins in single line .In case of ATX

itself, then you may not find an AGP on the mother board. models, there will two rows of 10 pin connectors. Fig 43
L2 Cache Slot: Some mother board will have small slots shows the power supply connector on the mother board.
for placing cache memory chip modules. These slots are
generally white in color . Not all mother boards will have this Fig 43
slot.
IDE/EIDE Connectors: These are 40 pin male black
colored connectors as shown in Fig 41. Most motherboards
will have two such connectors, one slot marked as IDE1 or
Primary and other as IDE2 or Secondary. Through these
connectors IDE/EIDE devices such as HDD’s and CD
ROM drives are connected to the motherboard.
Floppy Diskette Drive Connector: This is a 34 pin mate
black plastic connector as shown in Fig 42.On most
motherboards there will be only one such connector. The
cable used with connector will have facility to connect two
floppy diskette drivers.
Keyboard port, Mouse Port, On Board Serial and These motherboards having only the 5-pin DIN port can
Parallel Port: Keyboard Port is one which is always on the also use P/S 2-keyboards using a cross adapter cable.
Mother. The key board port can be of these types listed
Those motherboard not having USB(Universal Serial Bus)
below and shown in Fig 44.
circuitry on board can place a USB adapter card in one of
1 The olden type-5 pin –DIN connector the PCI slots. Then use the USB connector for connecting
a USB keyboard.
2 The more recent type -6 pin P/S -2 connector.
3 The most modern USB port
Fig 44
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CPU Architecture: The basic function performed by a

45
computer is execution of a program, which is a set of
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instructions stored in memory. The processor does the

actual work by executing instructions specified in the
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program. The instruction execution takes place in the CPU

registers, which are:
Serial ports are generally a 9 pin male mini D shell type(DB-
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9) connector. Generally any motherboard will have at least Memory Address Register (MAR): It specifies the address
two serial ports. All motherboard may not have the serial of memory location from which data or instruction is to be
port connectors mounted right on the motherboard at its accesses (for read operation) or to which the data is to be
edge as shown in figure above. But there will be a two 9 pin stored (for write operation).
connector on the motherboard some where, using which, Program Counter (PC): It keeps track of the instruction
you have to run 9 wire flat cables to the ports mounted on which is to be executed next, after the execution of an on-
a metal plate and fixed at one of the metal slots found at the going instruction.
rear of the cabinet.
Instruction Register(IR): Here the instructions are loaded
Some devices need a 25 pin serial port(DB-25). However before their execution.
there will be only 9 pin connections at it. These DB-25 serial
port can be easily identified because, this 25 pin slot is a Instruction Execution: The simplest model of instruction
male connector(Whereas a DB-25 pin female is a parallel processing can be a two step process. The CPU reads
port). (fetches) instructions (codes) from the memory one at a
time, and executes or performs the operation specified by
Mouse is connected to any one of the DB-9 serial port or the instruction. Instruction fetches involves reading of an
a P/S-2.6 pin mini DIN connector or a USB port. Where is instruction from a memory location to the CPU register.
the mouse to be connected depends upon the type of The execution of this instruction may involve several
connector your mouse has. However, you can use cross operations depending on the nature of the instruction.
adapter cable to connect a mouse to a P/S-2 port or vice
versa. The processing needed for a single instruction (fetch and
execution) is referred to as instruction cycle. The instruction
cycle consist of the fetch cycle and the execute
cycle.Program execution terminates if the electric power Fig 46
supply is discontinued or some sort of unrecoverable error
occurs, or by a program itself. (Fig 45)
Fetch Cycle: For fetch cycle, typically the program
counter is used. Program counter keeps track of the
instructions which is to be fetched next. The fetched
instructions is in the form of binary code and is loaded into
an instruction register in the CPU.
Execute Cycle: The CPU interprets the instructions in the
instruction register and does the required action. In general,
these action can be divided into the following categories.
1 Data may be transferred from processor to memory or
from memory to processor.
2 Data may be transferred to or from a peripheral device
and an I/O module. RAM is volatile i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch
Following are few of the important output devices, which are off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence, a
used in Computer Systems backup uninterruptible power system (UPS) is often used
with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical
Computer - Memory size and in the amount of data it can hold.
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data
RAM is of two types
and instruction. Computer memory is the storage space
in computer where data to be processed and instructions 1 Static RAM (SRAM)
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required for processing are stored. 2 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
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The memory is divided into large number of small parts. Computer - ROM (Fig 47)
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Each part is called cell. Each location or cell has a unique
address, which varies from zero to memory size minus ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from
one. which we can only read but cannot write on it. This type of
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memory is not-volatile. The information is stored perma-

For example, if computer has 64k words, then this memory nently in such memories during manufacture.
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unit has 64* 1024 = 65536 memory locations.

Fig 47
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Memory is primarily of three types:

1 Cache Memory
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2 Primary Memory/Main Memory

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3 Secondary Memory
Computer - RAM (Fig 46)

A RAM consitutes the internal memory of the CPU for
storing data, program result. It is read/write memory. It is
called random access memory (RAM).
Since access time in RAM is independent of the address

to the world that is, each storage location inside the
A ROM stores such instructions as are required to start
memory is as easy to reach as other location & takes the
computer when electricity is first turned on, this operation
same amount of time. We can reach into the memory at
is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chip are not only used in
random & extremely fast but can also be quite expensive.
the computer but also in other electronic items like
washing machine and microwave oven.
Computer - Motherboard (Fig 48)

The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all
of the parts of a computer together. A mother board
connects CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video
card, sound card and other ports and expansion cards
directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone
of a computer
Fig 48 Characteristics
1 External devices are connected to a computer using
cables and ports
2 Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable
of external device is plugged in. Examples of external
devices attached via pots are mouse, keyboard, moni-
tor, microphone, speakers etc. (Fig 49).
Fig 49
Features
1 Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types
of components
2 Normally, a motherboard supports a single type of CPU
and few types of memories
3 Video Cards, Hard disks, Sound Cards have to compat-
ible with motherboard to function properly
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4 Mother boards, cases and power supplies must be
compatible to work properly together
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Computer - Memory Units
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1 It is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage

unit.
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2 The storage capacity are expressed in terms of Bytes

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Computer - Ports
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1 A computer port is a physical docking point using which

an external device can be connected to the computer
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2 A computer port can also be programmatic docking

point through which information flows from a program to
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computer or over the internet.
Electronic Mechanic - Basic computer
CMOS setup and BIOS installation

• name the CMOS
• state the purpose of CMOS
• state the CMOS battery's life
• describe the functions of BIOS and CMOS.
CMOS may refer to any of the following: The fundamental purpose of the BIOS is to initialize and
test the system hardware components and load an
Fig 1 operating system from a mass memory device. The BIOS
is special software that interfaces the major hardware
components of the computer with the operating system. It
is usually stored on a Flash memory chip on the
motherboard, but sometimes the chip is another type of
ROM. The BIOS is a firmware (software instructions
permanently recorded on a chip located on your
motherboard). (Refer Fig.2).
Fig 2
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Alternatively referred to a real-time clock (RTC), Non-

Volatile RAM (NVRAM) or CMOS RAM, CMOS is short for
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complementary metal-oxide semiconductor. CMOS is an

on-board, battery powered semiconductor chip inside
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computers that stores information. This information ranges

from the system time and date to system hardware
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settings for your computer. The fig shows an example of the

most common CMOS coin cell battery (Panasonic CR
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2032 3V) used to power the CMOS memory.

Functions of BIOS
The Motorola 146818 chip was the first RTC and CMOS
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RAM chip to be used in early IBM computers; capable of The BIOS software has a number of different roles, but its
storing a total of 64 bytes of data.Since the system clock most important role is to load the operating system. The
used 14 bytes of RAM, this left an additional 50 bytes for BIOS checks and initializes the PC hardware each time
storing system settings. Today, most computers have the system powers up or restarts before handing over
moved the settings from CMOS and integrated them into control to the operating system. Some of the other
the southbridge or super I/O chips. common tasks that the BIOS performs include:
LIfe of battery • A power-on self-test (POST) for all of the different
The standard lifetime of a CMOS battery is around 10 hardware components in the system to make sure
years. However, this can vary depending on the use and everything is working properly
environment in which the computer resides. • Activating other BIOS chips on different cards installed
CMOS are used in the following in the computer - For example the graphics cards often
have their own BIOS chips.
• Digital logic circuits
• Static RAM (SRAM) • Providing a set of low-level routines that the operating
system uses to interface to different hardware devices.
• Micro processors They manage things like the keyboard, the screen,
• Micro controllers and the ports, especially when the computer is booting.
The Basic Input/Output System (BIOS), also known as • Managing a collection of settings for the hard disks,
System BIOS, ROM BIOS or PC BIOS is a generally clock, etc.
accepted standard defining a firmware interface.
260
CMOS Setup Fig 3
The first thing the BIOS will do is check the information
stored in a tiny (64 bytes) amount of RAM located on a
complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) chip.
The CMOS Setup provides detailed information particular
to your system and can be altered as your system
changes. The BIOS uses this information to modify or
supplement its default programming as needed.
Configuring BIOS
The BIOS checks the CMOS Setup for custom settings.
To change the CMOS settings we need to enter the CMOS
setup. To enter the CMOS Setup, a certain key or
combination of keys must be pressed during the initial
startup sequence. Most systems use "Esc," "Del," "F1,"
"F2," "Ctrl-Esc" or "Ctrl-Alt-Esc" to enter setup. There is Installing the Windows operating System
usually a line of text at the bottom of the display that tells
A hard disk needs to be partitioned (though not
"Press ___ to Enter Setup."
mandatory) and formatted before you can store data on
The BIOS setup shows a set of text screens with a number it.
of options. Some of these are standard, while others vary
Partitioning
according to the BIOS manufacturer. Common options
include: A partition, sometimes also called a volume, is an area on
a hard disk that can be formatted with a file system and
• System Time/Date - Set the system time and date identified with a letter of the alphabet. For example, drive
• Boot Sequence - The order that BIOS will try to load C on most Windows computers is a partition. the first
the operating system three partitions you create are primary partitions. These
can be used to start an operating system. If you want to
• Plug and Play - A standard for auto-detecting connected create more than three partitions, the fourth partition is
devices; should be set to "Yes" if your computer and created as an extended partition.
operating system both support it
An extended partition is a container that can hold one or
• Mouse/Keyboard - "Enable Num Lock," "Enable the more logical drives. Logical drives function like primary
Keyboard," "Auto-Detect Mouse"... partitions except that they cannot be used to start an
operating system.
• Drive Configuration - Configure hard drives, CD-ROM
and floppy drives Many computers are partitioned as a single partition that
equals the size of the hard disk. Partitioning a hard disk
• Memory - Direct the BIOS to shadow to a specific into several smaller partitions is not required, but it can be
memory address useful for organizing data on your hard disk.
• Security - Set a password for accessing the computer Creating more than one partition has the following
advantages:
• Power Management - Select whether to use power
management, as well as set the amount of time for • Separation of the operating system (OS) and program
"standby" and "suspend" files from user files.
• Exit - Save your changes, discard your changes or • Having a separate area for operating system virtual
restore default settings memory swapping/paging.
The BIOS uses CMOS technology to save any changes • Keeping frequently used programs and data near each
made to the computer's settings. With this technology, a other.
small lithium or Ni-Cad battery can supply enough power
to keep the data for years. Major BIOS manufacturers
• Use of multi-boot setups, which allow users to have
include American Megatrends Inc. (AMI), Phoenix more than one operating system on a single computer.
Technologies, Winbond etc. A typical BIOS screenshot is For example, one could install Linux and Microsoft
shown in fig. given below.(Refer Fig.3) Windows or other operating systems on different
partitions of the same HDD and have a choice of booting
into any operating system at power-up.
• Protecting or isolating files, to make it easier to recover
a corrupted file system or operating system installation.
If one partition is corrupted, other file systems may not
be affected.
• Raising overall computer performance on systems 2 High-level formatting creates the file system format
where smaller file systems are more efficient. within a disk partition or a logical volume. This formatting
includes the data structures used by the OS to identify
• Partitioning for significantly less than the full size the logical drive or partition's contents. This may occur
available can reduce the time for diagnostic tools such during operating system installation, or when adding a
as checkdisk to run. new disk.
Formatting Installing the Windows operating System
Disk formatting is the process of preparing a data storage The three basic types of windows installation procedures
device such as a hard disk drive, solid-state drive or USB are as follows:
flash drive for initial use. It is the act of creating a file
system on a volume, so that the operating system can • Install on a brand new diskorcomputesystem
store and retrieve data on that volume. • Erase the disk, format it, and install.
Formatting a disk is of two categories:
• Install into a new directory for dual-booting
1 Low-level formatting (i.e., closest to the hardware)
marks the surfaces of the disks with markers indicating For the first two methods, it must be ensured that the
the start of a recording block. It also provides information computer can boot from a DVD or any other removable
about block checks done for future use by the disk drive. To do this the drive boot order needs to be changed
controller to read or write data. This is intended to be in the BIOS. The latest Windows DVDs are bootable and
the permanent foundation of the disk, and is often run the Setup program automatically. Then the installation
completed at the factory. A hard disk needs to be can be done by following the procedure step by step as
partitioned and formatted before you can store data on indicated on the subsequent screens
it
Switch Mode Power Supply for PC

• list the parts of SMPS
• explain with block diagram and working principle of an SMPS
• explain the working of TL494 PWM IC
• list the precautions to be taken while testing and troubleshooting of different SMPS.
Switch Mode Power Supply of a PC is housed in a metal The SMPS comes in various capacities for PCs. The
box. SMPS consists of an electronic circuit board, a fan, capacities are 80W, 150W, 200W, 230W, 250W and
AC power sockets, power supply interface connectors for 280W. For PC nodes/ unix terminals 80W supply is used.
motherboard, hard disk drive and floppy disk drive. AC The connector details are printed on the cover of the SMPS
power switch connected to the power cable from the as shown in Fig 2. Table 1 gives the colour of wire for
SMPS. The connectors are polarised and standards are different voltages and the current ratings.
followed so that any PC SMPS can be interchanged. A
typical SMPS is shown in Fig 1.
263
Table 1 AC input is converted to DC voltage by a bridge rectifier and
filter capacitors. Around 300 volt DC is developed across
DC outputs the capacitors. The power section consists of high
Red +5V 20A max Total power 200W frequency ferrite core transformer and switching power
transistors to switch DC voltage across the transformer
Yellow +12V 8A max AC Input 220-240V
winding. A current sense circuit is provided to sense
White -5V 0.5A max overload current and to protect the SMPS from over
Orange PG loading.
The output section consists of output rectifiers and filter

circuits. A voltage sense circuit is used for feedback to the
control section. The 5 volt is sensed for regulating the pulse
width of the controller. The diodes used for rectification are
schottkey diodes. Since the AC outputs of the transformer
are at 20KHz, normal silicon diodes cannot be used.
Special fast recovery schott key diodes are used. Exam-
ple of schott key diode are BA157. The filter circuit
consists of an inductor and capacitor.
Power good signal section checks for the correct level of

DC voltages and gives a power good signal to the
motherboard. Power good signal is connected to the reset
pin of the processor. Power good signal is given to reset
pin after a delay when the voltage levels are correct and
satisfactory.
A 12V DC fan is used for removing the heat generated
inside the power supply. The fan blows out air from the The controller section consists of a pulsewidth modulator
SMPS. The fan also helps in air circulation inside the circuit. The output voltage of 5V is sensed and compared
cabinet. Proper working of fan is ensured by periodic with a reference voltage. Any change in 5V with respect to
cleaning. Whenever the fan is working intermittently the load creates an error voltage. This error voltage modifies
fan should be cleaned for dust near the motor. A failed fan the pulse width of output pulses. The output pulses in turn
can result in the failure of the SMPS because of excess drives the power switching transistor. The output pulses
heat. are not directly connected to the power switching transis-
tors. Isolation is provided by a driver transformer. Over
Block diagram of SMPS current is sensed through a current transformer. The
output of current transformer is rectified and used to
The block diagram in Fig 3 shows the various functional shutdown the power controller when an excess current is
sections in SMPS. drawn.
Working principle of SMPS
AC line input is rectified and converted to DC voltage. The

DC voltage is switched at high frequency nearly 20 KHz.
The switched voltage is fed to the high frequency step down
transformer. The output of the transformer is rectified and
energy is stored in an inductor and smoothened by a
capacitor. The switching period (pulse width) is controlled
by the feed back given to the controller section. Power
switching transistors ON time is varied according to the
load. When the load increases the output voltage tends to
drop. This drop in voltage is fed as the error signal to power
controller which increases the ON period of switching
pulses. When the load decreases the output goes high.
The error voltage is fed to the controller which reduces the
The AC input section consists of a line filter and current ON period of switching pulses. Since there are many
limiting resistors/thermistors. Line filter is a protective outputs in a PC SMPS i.e. 12V, -12V, -5 only the main 5
circuit. Any variations in main supply is suppressed by the volts which supplies maximum current is sensed and
filter area. Line filter circuit consists of inductor and high regulated. The transformer winding is designed taking care
voltage capacitors. A MOV (Metal Oxide Varistors) is of this aspect. A simplified diagram of a switching power
connected across the AC supply to prevent any over supply is shown in Fig 4.
voltages.
264 E&H: Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) - Related Theory For Exercise 1.79
Most widely used configuration in PC SMPS is half bridge
converter circuit as shown in Fig 5. Power transistors Q1
and Q2 switch the DC voltage through the windings in a
push pull manner.
Good power
In addition to providing converted power to the motherboard

In most of PC SMPS there is no separate step down and the other parts of the PC, the power supply also sends
transformer used for the power supply of the PWM IC. It is a very important signal to the motherboard called - the
derived from the main ferrite core transformer output. Power-Good signal.
Primary winding of the transformer with a capacitor and
resistor along with part of driver transformer form a self When the PC is powered on, the power supply performs a
oscillating circuit. This oscillation produces secondary self test and checks to see if the required voltages (in and
output. The 12V winding output is used to power the PWM out) are correct. If so , the Power-Good signal line is set
IC. Once powered the PWM IC takes over the switching high (on) to indicate that the motherboard can rely on the
operation. Thus the need for separate power supply for the power being supplied. If the signal is not set, the proces-
IC is eliminated. sor’s timing chip (to which this signal line is attached) will
send the processor a Reset command that starts the basic
Pulse width modulation control IC 494 input/output (BIOS) initialization code. The effect of the
Power-good signal not being set is that the PC is trapped
Most widely used PWM IC in a PC SMPS is TL 494. Fig in a loop continuously calling the BIOS. In this situation,
6 show the pin details and functional details of IC 494. The the power supply appears to be working and some power
IC contains an oscillator circuit with external resistor and is being supplied to the PC and its peripherals. The front
capacitor. A 5 volt reference is available for feedback panel lights may be on, the disk drives spinning, and the
control. Two error amplifiers are used to control pulse width power supply fan running, but the BIOS will never reach the
and current limit. power-on self-test (POST) process and will appear to be
hung up on something.
The dead time control input is useful in starting the
switching operation gradually so that the switching tran- Power On and Off
sistors are not loaded suddenly. There are two driver
transistors. They are used to drive the power switching On ATX and most of the other later from factors, the
transistors. motherboard can turn the power supply on or off. This is
done through the PS-ON (power supply on) signal that
passes between the motherboard and the power supply. If
your PC powers off when windows is finished shutting
down, you have this feature.
E&H: Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5)- Related Theory For Exercise 1.79 265
Another indicator that your power supply supports PS-ON Difference between AT and ATX power supply
is the use of Momentary On or Always On power switches
that are connected to the motherboard in place of an AT powersupply does not have soft start option.
exterior switch connected to the power supply. When this
signal line is pulled to a low voltage signal, the +12V DC, AT powersupply does not generate 3.3V DC.
+5V DC, +3.3V DC, -5V DC and -12V DC power lines are
turned on. When it is pulled to a high-voltage signal, or AT motherboard supply connectors come with 2x6 pin
open-circuited, the DC output lines should no longer have connection.
current. The +5V DC output is always on as long as the
power supply is receiving AC power. Because the ATL, ATX power supply has a soft start.
NLX, LTX and other form factor motherboards have some
power running to them at all times, you will always want to ATX power supply does not shut down completely. Always
unplug the PC before working on it. the ATX power supply gives 5 volt to the mother board.
Advantages and disadvantages of SMPS ATX power supply generates a 3.3V DC for the processor
core voltage.
SMPS for the power rating is smaller in size. A conven-
tional power supply for similar power rating will be heavy Precaution to be taken while testing and servicing an
and big in size. SMPS
SMPS efficiency is very high so heat dissipation is low. A Since the SMPS is operating directly from rectified 220V
conventional power supply efficiency is less and heat AC, potentially hazardous DC voltage exist inside. So care
generated is more. should be taken while opening and testing.
SMPS output has high frequency noise. So cannot be High voltage capacitors must be discharged safely using a
used for critical applications. In conventional power supply resistor.
the noise is very minimal
When using any AC powered instrument to test an SMPS
Servicing of SMPS is difficult because of interdependance the instrument must be isolated. To isolate use isolation
of circuits and components. transformer.
Servicing of linear power supply is relatively straight for- Some SMPS start with sufficient load only.
ward.
266 E&H: Electronic Mechanic - Related Theory For Exercise 1.79

Hard disk
• explain the basic components of a hard disk
• explain boot process
• explain Windows OS desk top shortcuts and various options.
INTRODUCTION
sealed chamber. Drive electronics (PCB) is located out-
side the chamber.
Magnetic disks are the most common form of permanent
data storage. Their capacities may range from a few
Hard Disk has one or more platters. Platter is made of
kilobytes to several Gigabytes. An aspect common to all
aluminium or glass, coated with magnetic media to store
magnetic drives is the scheme that determines how the
information. A read/write head is placed on a spring loaded
data on the disk is organised. The operating system
arm. The arm is moved along the radius by actuator
determines this scheme before any information can be
mechanism. Motor that spins the platter is called spindle
stored on a magnetic disk, provided the disk is formatted.
motor. It rotates at 3600 to 7200 rpm. Logic board controls
Formatting allows the drive to store and retrieve data in an
the drive motor and head actuator mechanism. Data is
orderly manner.
transferred to and from the platter in a standard format.
Hard disk has a FRC connector for data cable and molex
The basic parts of Hard disk
connector for power. Power supply requirements are +12V
1 amp, +5V, 500 mA
The basic hard disk drive components are as shown in the
Fig 1.
Hard disk platter is divided into tracks of a particular width
as shown in Fig 2. Each track is dived into sectors.
Outermost track is numbered ‘0 ‘. Similar numbered track
on each platter is combined to form a cylinder. Capacity of
the hard disk is determined by number of cylinders, number
of heads, sectors and data storage mode.
Boot process
Computer initialisation is a process from the time a PC is
switched on until the PC displays A>:\C:> or windows
Desk top, is called boot process. Number of steps are
involved in this process.
When power is applied, the power good signal (PG) resets

the CPU into its process. Program starts by fetching an
instruction from ROM BIOS. The BIOS programme as
explained earlier does the POST and looks for the operat-
ing system from drive A. If booting programme is not found
in drive A, automatically it looks for a boot program in C:.
In BIOS setup one can alter the sequence C to A or A to
Disk platters, Logic board, Read/write head, Head - C.
actuate mechanism, connectors, Spindle motor, spindle,
platter motor, heads and Actuator are assembled inside a
267
Once operating system is found, the boots trap loader handled with bare hands as it is more sensitive to static
programme loads the operating system components into charges. Hard disk interface cable and power supply
the memory and hands over the control to the operating should be connected/removed only after switching off
system. When the process is complete, the monitor mains power. No magnetic material should be placed near
displays A>:/,C:> or windows desktop. HDD.
Handling hard disk Control Panel: It is presented as a folder full of icons. To

view Control panel, click the Start button, point the settings
Hard disk should not be dropped. It will permanently and then click Control panel (Fig 3) shows the contents of
damage the platter. Hard disk electronics should not be Control panel.
Fig 3
Accessibility options: Change your computer screen, Fonts: Add or remove screen, vector, True type, and Type1
mouse, keyboard, features, and sound to make windows fonts, some printer fonts are installed automatically when
more accessible for people with disablities. you install a printer. Other printer fonts must be installed
using a font installation program provided by the font
Add / Remove programs: Install and remove software
manufacturer.
automatically, and add or remove installed components in
windows NT.
Keyboard: Adjust the keyboard delay and repeat rate, and
Console: Change the appearance of your MS-DOS screen add keyboard symbols that are exclusive to other lan-
by changing screen colors, screen size and position, fonts, guages.
cursor size and more.
Modems: Add modems using the Add modem wizard, a
Date / Time: Change the system date, time, and time step-by-step modem set up program.
zone.
Multimedia: Adjust audio, video, CD (music), and MIDI,
Devices: Start, stop and configure the start up type for and add or remove multimedia devices.
device drivers.
Network: Configure network adapter cards, network serv-
Display: Change the appearance of your screen by chang-
ices and protocols, and join a workgroup or a domain.
ing screen, colors, fonts, the appearance and size of
windows, background design, icons and other visuals.
PC Card (PCMCIA): Display resources used by any PC
268 E&H: Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5)- Related Theory For Exercise 1.7.80 - 1.7.83
cards, if you have these devices. Fig 4
Ports: Set parameters for, and add and remove serial

communications ports.
Printers: Add and remove printers and remove, control and Month
create share access to printers using the Add printer
wizard, a step-by-step printer set up program. Year
Regional Settings: Change sort dates, time currency and Day

numbers to reflect regional standards.
Hour
SCSI Adapters: Display adapters and devices connected
Minute
to your computer.
Server: Display user and share information.

The spinner button is used to change the meridians , i.e.
Services: Start, Stop, Pause, or continue the services
available on the computer, and configure start up options. AM. and PM.
Sounds: Assign sounds to system and application events, There is one more tab in the Date & Time properties i.e.
and turn on or off the warning beep and system sounds. Time Zone that is used to set the local time in tune with the
Greenwich Meridian Time (GMT) as shown in Fig 5.
System: Specify the default operating system for startup,
change user environment variables and define paging file Fig 5
size.
Tape Devices: Display, add and remove tape devices.

Local Time
Telephony: Display, add, and remove telephony drivers

change telephony properties. Adjust telephony conditions
depending on whether your computer is docked or
undocked.
UPS: Create settings for uninterrupted power supply.
The control panel is thus the place where most of the

system working can be controlled. The following are the
various settings that can be done:
Date and Time properties: The date and time properties
dialog is used to change the systems date and time which
is shown in the system tray at the right end corner of the
task bar.
Click on the down arrows button in the box indicated in
Changing the following (As shown in the above figure) above figure and change it to Colombo GMT+6:00. Watch
Changes the date as shown in Fig 4. how the World map shifts itself towards left.
– Day Also observe time now in the system tray. It will be changed
– Month now.
– Year Changing the Wall Paper and screen savers: Wallpa-

Changing can change the time pers are the screen patterns that can be set as the
background of the desktop. There are built in wallpapers
– Hour available that can be selected in the Background tab of the
– Time Display property dialog as shown in the Fig 5.
– Seconds A HTML document (called the Hyper Text Markup Lan-

guage used as Web pages) or a picture (called Windows
Bitmap pictures i.e. BMP created using Paint Brush
application) are the two types of images that can be set as
background image.
1 To set the Windows picture created by the user himself

using Paintbrush click on the Browse button.
E&H: Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5)- Related Theory For Exercise 1.7.80 - 1.7.83 269
2 Select the file created in the open dialog.
Fig 6
3 Observe the preview in the screen within the dialog (as
shown)
4 Then click on the apply button and observe the desktop

background now.
Preview
There is one more display option called the Display type as
shown in Fig 4
Fig 5
Program
Preview
screen
Browse to
The Wait minute box represents how much of time the

system can wait until the screen saver can be invoked.
Type The screen program that is used to display any message

in the form of text is the 3D text. In this the message can
be typed in the given text box as shown in Fig 7.
It is used to display the wallpapers in 2 different styles
1 Centered in which the picture is centered in the desktop
2 Tile in which the same copy of the picture is shown as

a number of tiles scattered on the desktop.
Screen Saver Settings : Screen saver is a program that

gets invoked when your system is idle .i.e. when you are
not pressing any key and moving the mouse as shown in
Fig 6.
There are a lot of programs that can be selected for the

display during the system’s idle state. Each program is
having its own type of settings by which its behavior can be
controlled. This is invoked by clicking on the Settings
buttons as shown in Fig 6.
Fig 7
– Click on Ok button to effect the settings. This will return Click in the Scheme list box and select the Windows
to the previous tab. standard as the type of the appearance for the windows.
– Clicks on Preview button to see the screen saver
running (do not move the mouse or press any key). – Watch how immediately the window in the top box
Once you move the mouse or hit any key the screen appears (as shown in Fig 8).
saver automatically stops. – Clicking on the respective items individually can change
Appearance of Window : The look and feel of windows the appearance of each individual item. For instance
can be changed using the Appearance Tab of the Display clicking on the active window in the box can change the
property dialog. This tab can be used to change the whole appearance of the active.
appearance of windows like the color, size of icons, fonts The Save as button is used to save your own scheme of
that are used in the menus and title bars etc. each type of colors, fonts, size etc under a different name. Delete button
these appearance is presented as a set of schemes as is used to remove the schemes.
shown in Fig 8
Fig 8
Click anywhere
Here to select
Individual
items
Different
apperarnces
Regional Settings: The Regional settings properties sheet Fig 9
controls a variety of features that can be used by your
programs to adjust the way they behave. Double clicking
on the Regional Settings icon allows you to examine these
regional settings.
The Regional Settings properties dialog box has five

different pages. The first of these is as shown in Fig 9 lets
you set the general region, which then influences the
settings used in the other four pages. If you are going to
change this setting, we suggest changing the region first.
The map changes to highlight the region of the world that
you have selected, and the choices available on the other
four pages are changed to ones appropriate to that region.
The Number card includes settings for what should be used

for the Decimal Symbol, the No. of digits after decimal, the
symbol that should be used to group digits (in the U.S. this
is referred to as the “thousands separator”), and the
Number of digits in group.
The Currency pages allows you to set some characteris-

tics specific to currency such as the Currency symbol, the
Position of currency symbol, the Negative number format,
as well as the features just mentioned for use in the Number
pages.
The formats for time and date information allow you to

select from a drop-down list of features. The choices for
time include the Time style; the Time separator between
hours, minutes, and seconds; and the choice for AM
symbols and for PM symbols.
272 E&H: Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) - Related Theory For Exercise 1.7.80 - 1.7.83
Different types of printers, HDD

• different types of print technologies and printers
• impact printers/dot matrix printers
• non-impact printers, inkjet printers & laserjet printers.
Printers are electro-mechanical devices that enable a user These printers use different technology to print an image.
to print whatever is displayed by the monitor - letters, For Example, a laser printer uses heat to attach micro-
contracts, business documents, images. scopic particles of dry toner to specific parts of the page.
An Inkjet printer has tiny nozzles through which it sprays
Print Technologies droplets of ink on to the page.
A printer outputs data that is seen on the computer screen Impact Printers: In this hammers or pins strike against a
on to a paper. Most printers are used through a parallel ribbon and paper to print the text. This mechanism is
port, but some newer ones use USB connections. The known as electro-mechanical mechanism. They are of two
most crucial printer measurement is dots per inch rating. types.
Printers are best chosen by actually seeing the quality of
the printer output. There are many types of print technologies 1 Character Printer
like Daisy wheel, Laser, Inkjet etc. Printers are normally
categorized into impact and non-impact types. 2 Line Printer
Printers can be divided into two categories (Fig 1) Character Printer: It prints only one character at a time.
• Impact It has relatively slower speed. Eg. Dot Matrix Printers
• Non-Impact Dot Matrix Printer: It prints characters as combination of

dots. Dot matrix printers are the most popular among serial
Impact: The impact printers incorporate a built-in mecha- printers. These have a matrix of pins on the print head of the
nism to print images on paper using a series of pins or printer which form the character. The computer memory
hammers which strike on an inked ribbon to create the sends one character at a time to be printed by the printer.
image. For Example: Dot matrix, Daisy Wheel, etc. There is a carbon between the pins & the paper. The words
get printed on the paper when the pin strikes the carbon.
Non-Impact: The non-impact printers include those print- There are generally 24 pins.
ers that do not have any kind of contact with the paper while
printing either text or image. For Example: Inkjet, Laser,
Bubble Jet, etc.
Fig.1
Printer
È È
Impact Printer Lines Printer
È
È È È
È È Character Printer Page Printer
Character Printer Lines Printer
È È
È Ink-Jet Printer Laser Printer
Dot Matrix Printer
273
Non-Impact Printers: These printers use non-Impact There are two other types of page printers that fall under the
technology such as ink-jet or laser technology. These category of laser printers even though they do not use
printers provide better quality of O/P at higher speed. These lasers at all. One uses an array of LEDs to expose the drum
printers are of two types : and the other uses LCDs. Once the drum is charged,
however, they both operate like a real laser printer. One of
Ink-Jet Printer: It prints characters by spraying patterns the chief characteristics of laser printers is their resolution
of ink on the paper from a nozzle or jet. It prints from nozzles - how many dots per inch (dpi) they lay down.
having very fine holes, from which a specially made ink is
pumped out to create various letters and shapes. The ink The available resolutions range from 300 dpi at the low end
comes out of the nozzle in a form of vapors. After passing to 1,200 dpi at the high end. In addition to text, laser printers
through a reflecting plate, it forms the desired letter/shape are very adopt at printing graphics, so you need significant
at the desired place. amounts of memory in the printer to print high-resolution
graphics. To print a full-page graphic at 300 dpi, for
Laser Printer is a type of printer that utilizes a laser beam example, you need at least 1 MB (megabyte) of printer
to produce an image on a drum. The light of the laser alters RAM. For a 600 dpi graphic, you need at least 4 MB RAM.
the electrical charge on the drum wherever it hits. The drum
is then rolled through a reservoir of toner, which is picked Because laser printers are non-impact printers, they are
up by the charged portions of the drum. Finally, the toner much quieter than dot-matrix or daisy-wheel printers. They
is transferred to the paper through a combination of heat are also relatively fast, although not as fast as some dot-
and pressure. matrix or daisy-wheel printers. The speed of laser printers
ranges from about 4 to 20 pages of text per minute (ppm).
This is also the way copy machines work. Because an A typical rate of 6ppm is equivalent to about 40 characters
entire page is transmitted to a drum before the toner is per second (cps).
applied, laser printers are sometimes called page printers.
Hard drives
Introduction specified by the time required to move the heads to a
track or cylinder (average access time) plus the time it
A Hard drive is a data storage device used for storing and takes for the desired sector to move under the head
retrieving digital information using one or more rigid "hard" (average latency, which is a function of the physical
rapidly rotating disks (platters) coated with magnetic rotational speed in revolutions per minute), and finally the
material. The platters are paired with magnetic heads speed at which the data is transmitted (data rate).
arranged on a moving actuator arm, which read and write
data to the platter surfaces. Data is accessed in a random- A HDD records data by magnetizing a thin film of
access manner, meaning that individual blocks of data ferromagnetic material on a disk. Sequential changes in
can be stored or retrieved in any order rather than the direction of magnetization represent binary data bits.
sequentially.A typical hard disk drive consists of a motor, The data is read from the disk by detecting the transitions
spindle, platters, read/write heads, actuator and in magnetization. User data is encoded using an encoding
electronics as shown in Fig 1. scheme, such as run-length limited encoding, which
determines how the data is represented by the magnetic
Fig 1 transitions.
Illustration of Read/Write Heads:
The data is of course written and read by the heads as

shown in Fig 2.
Fig 2
The primary characteristics of an HDD are its capacity

and performance. Capacity is specified in powers of 1000:
a 1-terabyte (TB) drive has a capacity of 1,000 gigabytes
(GB; where 1 gigabyte = 1 billion bytes). Performance is
274 E&H: Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5)- Related Theory For Exercise 1.7.84
1 Arm Assembly. hard drive is the C: drive and a CD-ROM or other disc
drive is the D: drive. Every hard drive in use has at least
2 Read /Write element or "head" (Fig 3)
one partition.
Fig 3 The hard disk drive is the most important part of a computer
system. A hard disk drive is a sealed unit that a PC uses
for non-volatile data storage.
Fig 5
Fig 4 Shows the different connections in a typical Hard

drive PCB
Non-volatile, or semi permanent, storage means that the
storage device retains the data even when no power is
1 Electrical connections to platter motor.
supplied to the computer. Because the hard disk drive is
2 Microprocessor chip. expected to retain data until deliberately erased or
3 Programmable flash memory chip (stores the PCB overwritten, the hard drive is used to store crucial
portion of the drive's firmware-see below). programming and data. As a result, when the hard disk
fails, the consequences are usually very serious.
Fig 4
A hard disk drive contains rigid, disk-shaped platters,
unlike floppy disks, the platters can't bend or flex hence
the term hard disk. In most hard disk drives, you can't
remove the platters, which is why they are sometimes
called fixed disk drives. Removable hard disk drives are
also available. Usually, this term refers to a device in which
the entire drive unit is removable.
Hard Disk Drive Operation
The basic physical construction of a hard disk drive

consists of spinning disks with heads that move over the
disks and store data in tracks and sectors. The heads
read and write data in concentric rings called tracks, which
are divided into segments called sectors, which typically
store 512 bytes each. (Fig 6)
4 Platter motor controller chip.
Fig 6
5 S-ATA data connector (the connection between the
hard drive and the motherboard).
6 S-ATA power connector (provides the drive with DC
power).
Drives
A drive is a medium that is capable of storing and reading

information that is not easily removed like a disk. Fig 5.is
an example of different drives listed in Microsoft Windows
My Computer.
In Fig 5. C: is the hard disk drive, D: and E: partitions of

the hard drive, and F: is the CD-ROM drive. Typically the Hard disk drives usually have multiple disks, called
CD-ROM drive is the last drive. In most situations the platters, that are stacked on top of each other and spin in
E&H: Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5)- Related Theory For Exercise 1.7.84 275
unison, each with two sides on which the drive stores Throughout this book, ATA refers to either just the parallel
data. Most drives have two or three platters, resulting in or both the parallel and serial versions, whereas Parallel
four or six sides, but some PC hard disks have up to 12 ATA (PATA) refers specifically to the parallel version and
platters and 24 sides with 24 heads to read them (Seagate Serial ATA (SATA) refers specifically to the serial version.
Barracuda 180). The identically aligned tracks on each
side of every platter together make up a cylinder. A hard Parallel ATA (IDE)
disk drive usually has one head per platter side, with all
the heads mounted on a common carrier device or rack. Parallel ATA has unique specifications and requirements
The heads move radially across the disk in unison, they regarding the physical interface, cabling, and connectors
can't move independently because they are mounted on as compared to Serial ATA. The following sections detail
the same carrier or rack, called an actuator. the unique features of parallel ATA.
Originally, most hard disks spin at 3,600rpm Parallel ATA I/O Connector
approximately, now; however, most drives spin even faster.
Although speeds can vary, modern drives typically spin The parallel ATA(IDE) interface connector is normally a
the platters at either 4,200rpm; 5,400rpm; 7,200rpm; 40-pin header-type connector with pins spaced 0.1"
10,000rpm; or 15,000rpm. (Fig 7) (2.54mm) apart, and generally it is keyed to prevent the
possibility of installing it upside down. To create a keyed
IDE Interface connector, the manufacturer usually removes pin 20 from
the male connector and blocks pin 20 on the female cable
The interface used to connect hard disk and optical drives connector, which prevents the user from installing the cable
to a PC is typically called IDE (Integrated Drive backward. Some cables also incorporate a protrusion on
Electronics). Although ATA (Advance Technology the top of the female cable connector that fits into a notch
Attachment) is the official name of the interface, IDE is a in the shroud surrounding the mating male connector on
marketing term originated by some of the drive the device. The use of keyed connectors and cables is
manufacturers to describe the drive/controller combination highly recommended. Plugging an ATA cable in backward
used in drives with the ATA interface. normally doesn't cause any permanent damage; however,
it can lock up the system and prevent it from running.
Fig 7 (Fig 8)
Fig 8
Parallel ATA PIO Transfer Modes
ATA was originally a 16-bit parallel interface, meaning that ATA-2 and ATA-3 defined the first of several higher-
16 bits are transmitted simultaneously down the interface performance modes for transferring data over the parallel
cable. A newer interface, called Serial ATA, was officially ATA interface, to and from the drive. These faster modes
introduced in late 2000 and was adopted in desktop were the main part of the newer specifications and were
systems starting in 2003 and in laptops starting in late the main reason they were initially developed. The following
2005. Serial ATA (SATA) sends 1 bit down the cable at a section discusses these modes.
time, enabling thinner and smaller cables to be used, as
well as providing higher performance due to the higher The PIO (programmed I/O) mode determines how fast
cycling speeds it enables. SATA is a completely new and data is transferred to and from the drive using PIO
updated physical interface design, while remaining transfers. In the slowest possible mode PIO Mode 0the
compatible on the software level with Parallel ATA. data cycle time can't exceed 600 nanoseconds (ns). In a
single cycle, 16 bits are transferred into or out of the software will run on the new architecture without any
drive, making the theoretical transfer rate of PIO Mode 0 changes. In other words, the existing BIOSs, operating
(600ns cycle time) 3.3MBps, whereas PIO Mode 4 (120ns systems, and utilities that work on parallel ATA also work
cycle time) achieves a 16.6MBps transfer rate. on Serial ATA.
Parallel ATA DMA Transfer Modes Of course, they do differ physically that is, it can't plug
parallel ATA drives into Serial ATA host adapters and vice
ATA drives also support direct memory access (DMA) versa, although signal converters make that possible. The
transfers. DMA means that the data is transferred directly physical changes are all for the better because Serial
between drive and memory without using the CPU as an ATA uses much smaller and thinner cables with only seven
intermediary, as opposed to PIO. This has the effect of conductors that are easier to route inside the PC and
offloading much of the work of transferring data from the easier to plug in with smaller, redesigned cable
processor, in effect allowing the processor to do other connectors. The interface chip designs also are improved
things while the transfer is taking place. with far fewer pins and lower voltages. These improvements
are all designed to eliminate the design problems inherent
There are two distinct types of direct memory access: in parallel ATA.
singleword (8-bit) and multiword (16-bit) DMA. Singleword
DMA modes were removed from the ATA-3 and later Serial ATA Transfer Modes
specifications and are obsolete. DMA modes are also
sometimes called bus master ATA modes because they Serial ATA transfers data in a completely different manner
use a host adapter that supports bus-mastering. Ordinary from parallel ATA. As indicated previously, the transfer
DMA relies on the legacy DMA controller on the rates are 1.5Gbps (150MBps), 3.0GBps (300MBps), and
motherboard to perform the complex task of arbitration, 6.0GBps (600MBps), with most drives today supporting
grabbing the system bus and transferring the data. In the either the 1.5GBps or 3.0GBps rate. Note that speeds
case of bus mastering DMA, all this is done by a higher- are backward-compatible for example, all drives supporting
speed logic chip in the host adapter interface (which is the 3.0GBps rate also work at 1.5GBps. Note that because
also on the motherboard). SATA is designed to be backward-compatible with parallel
ATA, some confusion can result because SATA drives
PATA is a common interface used in many personal can report speeds and modes that emulate parallel ATA
computers before the emergence of SATA. It is the least settings for backward compatibility. This means the drive
expensive of the interfaces. is merely lying for backward compatibility with existing
software.
Advantages
Parallel and Serial ATA are completely different electrical
• Low costs and physical specifications, but Serial ATA does emulate
• Large capacity parallel ATA in a way that makes it completely software
transparent.
Disadvantages
Advantages
• Older ATA adapters will limit transfer rates according
to the slower attached device (debatable) • Low costs.
• Only ONE device on the ATA cable is able to read/ • Large capacity.
write at one time
• Faster transfer rates compared to ATA (difference is
• Limited standard for cable length (up to 18inches/ marginal at times though).
46cm)
• Smaller cables for better heat dissipation.
Serial ATA (SATA)
Disadvantages
SATA is basically an advancement of PATA.With the
• Slower transfer rates compared to SCSI.
development of ATA-8, it seems that the parallel ATA
standard that has been in use for more than 10 years has • Not supported in older systems without the use of
finally reached the end of the line. Sending data at rates additional components.
faster than 133MBps down a parallel ribbon cable is fraught
SCSI Disk Drives
with all kinds of problems because of signal timing,
electromagnetic interference (EMI), and other integrity
Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) disk drives used
problems. The solution is called Serial ATA, which is an
to be among the fastest drives available, although newer
evolutionary replacement for the venerable parallel ATA
computers may no longer provide SCSI ports. Although
(PATA) physical storage interface. Serial ATA is software-
no longer highly popular, SCSI technology has been
compatible with parallel ATA, which means it fully emulates
implemented in various ways over the years, with each
all the commands, registers, and controls so existing
successive generation achieving better performance. SCSI
is commonly used in servers, and more in industrial and from computer storage devices such as hard drives
applications than home uses. and tape drives.
Advantages SAS replaces the older Parallel SCSI (Small Computer
• Faster System Interface, pronounced "scuzzy") bus technology
that first appeared in the mid-1980s. SAS, like its
• Wide range of applications predecessor, uses the standard SCSI command set. SAS
• Better scalability and flexibility in Arrays (RAID) offers backward compatibility with SATA, versions 2 and
later. This allows for SATA drives to be connected to SAS
• Backward compatible with older SCSI devices backplanes. The reverse, connecting SAS drives to SATA
• Better for storing and moving large amounts of data backplanes, is not possible.
• Tailor made for 24/7 operations SAS Drives generally offers 805 MB/sec transfer rate.
SAS Cables are used to connect SAS Drives. Maximum
• Reliability of 128 drives can be connected in a single SAS cable.
Disadvantages Solid State Drives (SSD)
• Costs These hard disksdoes not consist of moving components.
• Not widely supported SSDs use semiconductors for data storage. Since there
are no moving components, these hard disks are much
• Many, many different kinds of SCSI interfaces faster and less likely to break down than other drives.
• SCSI drives have a higher RPM, creating more noise However, their price is a bit more than other hard disks.
and heat These type of hard drive are generally incorporated in
desktop computers and laptops
SAS(Serial Attached SCSI Drive)
SAS is a point-to-point serial protocol that moves data to
Past and present HDD form factors
Form factor Status Length Width Height Largest Platters Capacity

[mm] [mm] [mm] capacity (max) Per platter [GB]
3.5" Current 146 101.6 19 or 25.4 8 TB(2014) 5 or 7 1149
2.5" Current 100 69.85 5,7, 9.5, 3 TB(2015) 4 750

12.5, 15,
or 19
1.8" Current 71 54 5 or 8 320 GB(2009) 2 220
8" Obsolete 362 241.3 117.5
5.25" Obsolete 203 146 82.6 47 GB(1998) 14 3.36
5.25" Obsolete 203 146 41.4 19.3 GB(1998) 4 4.83
1.3" Obsolete 43 40 GB(2007) 1 40
1" (CFII/ZIF Obsolete 42 20 GB (2006) 1 20

/IDE-Flex)
0.85" Obsolete 32 24 5 8 GB(2004) 1 8
The Hard Drive Buying Guide - Hard Drive Types • Will it serve as a second drive just for media storage?
Before buying a new hard drive consider the following • Will it need to be easily unplugged so you can take it
questions. with you between work and home?
• Will you install it in your existing computer to replace

an outdated hard drive?
Internal - Replacing the hard drive is one of the easiest The biggest advantage that hard disk drives offer over solid
upgrades inside the computer. state drives is more storage space for less cost. A HDD
can hold upwards of twice the capacity of a SSD
An internal hard drive is your cheapest and most popular
option, when replacing the existing harddrive in the Get Enough Storage Capacity
computer
When it comes to storage space, always get the biggest
External - With an external hard drive, you can leave size that is affodable. For example, buying an 8TB
your computer's case intact and just plug your new drive (terabyte) network drive might not be worth the extra money
into an available USB, Fire wire, or Thunderbolt port on if the 6TB drive is half the price.
the front or back of the computer.
Storing full-length movies or home videos on your
Portable - A portable drive gives you the advantages of computer, will require as large a drive as possible. New
an external drive with added shock protection for constant games can take upwards of 20GB or more each. Pictures
handling and transportation. and music can also take up a lot of space.
Network - External or internal, network drives save data Check whether the HDD that is being replaced is
through multiple computers on the same network. These compatible with the motherboard ports and connectors.
drives should be large and as fast as possible, since they Some motherboards does not have IDE connectors where
may be accessed by multiple users simultaneously. as older MB does not have SAT connectors.
Solid State vs. Hard Disk Drives Check whether the SMPS power supply connector
supports your HDD power supply connector type.
The hard disk drive (HDD) has been the standard
technology for storage drives since the 1950s, but solid Form Factor: Check for the size or form factor of the
state drives (SSD) are rising in popularity. The main reason HDD. Some cases are designed to accomodate small
for this is the lack of mechanical moving parts in a solid form factor HDD.
state drive. This drastically lowers the chances of drive
failure and ultimately, the loss of your data. Solid state
drives are also faster at accessing data and faster at
starting up, and they're not affected by magnetic fields or
drastic temperature changes like a HDD.
Computer Viruses
• describe about Virus
• explain how do viruses spread
• protect your computer from viruses
• explain about Anti-Virus software.
What is a Virus? which you may have contracted. The software can also be
A computer virus is one of thousands of programs that can set to automatically scan diskettes when inserted into the
invade computer systems (both IBM PC and Macintosh) disk drive, scan files when downloaded from the Internet, or
and perform a variety of functions ranging from annoying scan e-mail when received.
(e.g., popping up messages as a joke) to dangerous (e.g.,
deleting files or destroying your hard disk). Trojan horses Be sure to have only one anti-virus program
or worms are specific types of clandestine programs running on your system. Multiple programs
(loosely categorized as viruses) and can be just as may cause conflicts and system instability.
dangerous. For simplicity’s sake, future mention of viruses Keeping it Current
in this document will refer to viruses, Trojan horses, and
Even with active monitoring of computer systems, anti-
worms taken as a whole.
virus software can only protect against viruses that it knows
How Do Viruses Spread? about. For this reason, update files (generally called
Computer viruses are programs that must be triggered or Definition Files) for anti-virus software are needed every
somehow executed before they can infect your computer time there is a new virus release. On the Windows platform,
system and spread to others. Examples include opening this means an update roughly every week; the Macintosh
a document infected with a “macro virus,” booting with a has fewer new viruses to worry about so updates are
diskette infected with a “boot sector” virus, or double- usually done monthly. The software that ITS distributes
clicking on an infected program file. Viruses can then be has an “Auto Update” feature to automatically connect to
spread by sharing infected files on a diskette, network a Web site and download the latest Definition Files. Refer
drive, or other media, by exchanging infected files over the to the documentation to turn this feature on and receive the
Internet via e-mail attachments, or by downloading maximum protection against viruses on your computer. Be
questionable files from the Internet. sure to keep your Definition Files current!
How Can You Protect Yourself? I May Have a Virus. Now What?
With dangerous viruses on the network, what can computer If your computer becomes infected with a virus, don’t panic!
users do to protect their systems? Here are just a few hints: For most viruses, you can simply use your anti-virus
program to scan and remove the virus. If your Definition
• Be sure to install an anti-virus software program (see Files are up-to-date, the program should be able to clean
the next section) to guard against virus attacks. Also, off all but the most recent viruses. In the case of rather
be sure you turn on the scanning features. It can’t nasty viruses, you may have some damaged files that
protect you if it’s not enabled. cannot be fixed. Restore these from your backups.
• Practice caution when working with files from un-
known or questionable sources.
• Do not open e-mail attachments if you do not
recognize the sender (though you may also receive
viruses from people you know). Scan the attachments
with anti-virus software before opening them.
• Download files only from reputable Internet sites,
and be wary when exchanging diskettes or other media
with friends.
• Scan your hard drive for viruses monthly. Even with
these precautions, new viruses may find ways to enter
your computer system.
Getting Anti-virus Software

Anti-virus software are programs that are installed onto
your computer and can scan and remove known viruses
280
MS office and its installation, creating a basic document in MS Word

• define Micro Soft word
• describe document, formating, spacing and headers.
Introduction: Opening a Document:

Microsoft Word is an essential tool for the creation of To open to view, edit, or print a document, you must first
documents. Its ease of use has made Word one of the most open up that file in Word.
widely used word processing applications currently on the
market. Therefore, it’s important to become familiar with You can open a file by clicking on the “Open” folder icon
the various facets of this software, since it allows for (with a picture of a folder)
compatibility across multiple computers as well as located in the standard toolbar. Or, you can use the menu
collaborative features. Word is a fairly simple program to bar and navigate to File >> Open… (shortcut: Ctrl+O).
use for completing simple tasks. However, it may be more
Saving a Document:
difficult to learn how to explore the more advanced
possibilities of Word. When you are working with any sort of media in any
software, you should be sure to save your work often. In
Opening Microsoft Word:
Word, there are numerous options for saving documents in
To run Word on your computer: “Start” >> “Programs” >> a variety of file types. To save a new, unsaved document,
“Microsoft Office” >> “Microsoft Office Word 2003.” If there you can click on the Save icon, shaped like a disk located
is an icon of Microsoft Word available on your desktop on the standard toolbar shown in Fig 2. Or, you can go to
(shaped like a square with a “W” in the middle), you can the menu bar and select File >> Save… (shortcut: Ctrl+S).
open up the program by double-clicking it, as well.
Fig 2
Making a New Blank Document:
When Word is opened, a new blank document should
automatically open. If not, then you can begin a new blank
document in a variety of ways. First, find the “New Blank
Document” icon, which looks like a blank sheet of paper,
located underneath the menu bar in Word in what is called
the “standard toolbar.” shown in Fig 1 Click on the icon to
bring up a new blank document.
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Fig 1
A dialogue box should appear, offering you a number of

options. To save the document in the desired location on
your computer, locate and select the folder on your
computer. Give your document a name in the file name text
box. While you can give your document long names, make
sure you save it with a name you can remember. Please
note that it’s good practice not to use spaces or special
characters in file names. For example, long file name may
look like this: expos_sample_paper1.doc To save a
completely new document using previously existing (and
opened) text, you use the Save As option. Open the
document that you wish to save as an entirely new file, go
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to the menu bar, and click on File >> Save as. In the file
name text box, give your document a new name. Using
Also, you can go to the menu bar and select File >> New… this option allows you to save multiple versions (with
(shortcut: Ctrl+N). different file names) of a document based on one original
To begin typing, just click the cursor anywhere within the file.
new blank document.
Formatting Text/Paragraphs Using Toolbars:
In a word processing program such as Word, there are
numerous options available for presenting your text. This
281
part of the tutorial will guide you through several of the 10.Undo Typing:
important features in Word that will allow you to edit,
The Undo Typing button goes back and removes the last
modify, and display text (and non-text) components.
addition or change made to your document.
The Standard Toolbar: 11.Insert Hyperlink:
Word allows all toolbars to be customized, so you may not
You may find that you want to make links to a particular
find all options listed here. There are several buttons that
web site, web page, or some other kind of online file in your
may or may not appear immediately in your version of
Word document. Using the Insert Hyperlink button, you
Word. Use the following graphic as a guide to the Standard
can turn selected text into hyperlinks. When the icon is
Toolbar.
clicked, a window will appear that will allow you to insert the
1.New Blank Document: URL (web address) of the web page you want to link to. You
To begin a new document, click on the New Blank can type in the URL yourself or insert a preexisting
Document icon, shaped like a blank sheet of paper. bookmark. Once the link is inserted, the link in your Word
document can be clicked and the web page will open up in
2.Open: a web browser.
Clicking on this icon opens up a previously saved document 12.Insert Table:
on your computer.
When this icon is clicked, a small window will appear in the
3.Save: form of a grid of squares. Use this window as a guide to
Clicking on the Save icon saves the document you are indicate how many rows and columns you would like your
currently working on. Ifyou are saving a document for the table to contain. Once selected, a table will automatically
first time, you can click on this button. However, if you want appear in Word. Clicking the Tables and Borders button will
to save a new file from a preexisting document, then you allow you to modify the table. To modify an aspect of the
must go to the menu bar and select “File” >> “Save As” and table, select, or place the cursor in, the area and apply
give the file a new name. When working on any document, changes such as borders and colors.
you should be sure to save frequently, so that you don’t The Formatting Toolbar:
lose any work.
4.Permission: find all options listed here. There are several buttons that
Microsoft has enabled Information Rights Management may or may not appear immediately in your version of
(IRM) within the new version of Word, which can help Word. Use the following graphic as a guide to the Formatting
protect sensitive documents from being copied or forwarded. Toolbar.
Click this for more information and options.
1 Style: Styles in Word are used to quickly format
5.Print: portions of text. For example, you could use the
Clicking on the Print icon automatically prints the document “Normal” or “Default Paragraph Font” for the body text
currently active in Word. If you wish to explore more print in a document. There are also three preset styles made
options, then go to the menu bar and select “File” >> for headings.
“Print.” 2 Font: Font is a simple but important factor in Word
6.Print Preview: documents. The choice of font (the style of the text
itself) can influence the way others view documents,
To get an idea of the appearance of your document in print either on the screen or in print. For example, Arial font
before you actually print it out, you can click on this icon looks better on screen, while Times New Roman is
to view your document from a zoom-out distance. clearer in print. To apply a font to text, select desired
7.Spelling and Grammar: text with your cursor, and choose a font from the font
drop down menu.
Clicking begins a review of your document in search of
spelling and grammatical errors that may need to be 3 Font Size: You may encounter times in which you
corrected. need to display some text larger or smaller than other
text. Selecting desired text with the cursor and choosing
8.Copy: a font size from the drop down menu changes the size
Copy the current selection to the clipboard, which can then of text.
be pasted elsewhere in the document, or into a completely 4 Bold: Places the text in bold.
separate program/document.
5 Italic: Places the text in italics.
9.Paste:
6 Underline: Underlines the text.
Clicking on the Paste button inserts the text that has been
most recently added to the Clipboard (the text would have 7 Align Left: Aligns the selection to the left of the screen/
been added there by Cutting or Copying). With Paste, you paper.
can either insert the copied text into a document or replace
selected text.
282 E&H: Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) - Related Theory For Exercise 1.7.86
8 Center: Aligns the selection to the center of the screen/ color is black.
paper.
More Formatting: Besides the toolbars, Word provides a
9 Align Right: Aligns the selection to the right of the great deal of ways to customize and format your text and
screen/paper. documents.
10 Justify: Aligns the selection to both the left and right of Paragraph Spacing: To access the Paragraph formatting
the screen/paper. options, navigate to the menu bar, and select “Format” >>
“Paragraph,” or right-click within a paragraph shown in
11 Line Spacing: Adjust the line spacing (single-spaced,
Fig3.
double-spaced, etc.)
A window will appear with options for modifying spacing
12 Numbering: Create a numbered list.
and indenting. Here, you can choose to make the text in
13 Bullets: Create an unordered, bulleted list. your document single or double spaced, as well as edit the
14 Decrease Indent: Decreases the indentation of the Fig 3
current selection (to the left).
15 Increase Indent: Increases the indentation of the
current selection (to the right).
16 Outside Border: Places a border around the current
selection; click the drop-down for a wide selection of
bordering options.
17 Highlight: Highlight the current selection; default color
is yellow.
18 Font Color: Change the font color; the default/automatic
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Fig 4
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margins for the document shown in Fig4. properties shown in Fig 6. The cursor will already be placed
in the Header box. If you scroll down on your current page
Headers/Footers:
opened in Word, you will see a dotted-line box called
Headers and footers are important aspects of a Word “Footer.” To add text in the Header or the Footer, simply
document if you wish to include information such as page click the cursor inside either one of the boxes, and type the
numbers and headings on every page. To access the text you want.
header and footer options, go to the menu bar and select
To add page numbers to your document, click your cursor
“View” >> “Header and Footer.” shown in Fig 5.
inside of the footer box. Then, click on the icon shaped like
A dotted-line box called “Header” will automatically appear, a sheet of paper with a “#” inside. The page number will then
as well as a sub-menu for formatting header and footer be inserted and applied to all of the pages in your document.
Fig 5 Inserting an Image:
Fig 7
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In Word, it’s possible to add clipart or other images to a

document. Click the cursor in your document where you
wish to place an image. Then go to the menu bar and select
“Insert” >> “Picture.” shown in Fig 7.
From there, you will find a number of options to choose
from. “Clipart” searches through your computer’s Clipart
library. “From File” will allow you to insert an image saved
elsewhere on your computer. Other options include
“AutoShapes” and “WordArt.”
Fig 6
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Paint in Windows
• explain about Microsoft Paint
• handle different tools used for Microsoft paint.
What is Paint? only visible when the eraser is selected shown in Fig 3,
Microsoft Paint is a graphics development tool that comes & Fig 4
packaged with Microsoft’s Windows operating system. As Fig 3
such, it is free and is functional on all Windows machines.
The Toolbar (Fig 1)
Tools (Fig 1) can be chosen by clicking on them one at a
time. Choosing a tool deselects the previous tool selected.
A more detailed explanation of each of the tools follows:
Fig 1
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Fig 4
Selection Tools (Fig 2)
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The selection tools are used to highlight objects on the
canvas to be moved, deleted, or changed. The “Star- Fill Tool (Fig 5)
shaped” tool shown in Fig 2 allows the user to create a
“freehand” selection area while the “Square-shaped” tool Fig 5
mandates that the user drag a rectangle shaped selection
area.
Fig 2
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The Eraser (Fig 3) Choose this tool shown in Fig 5 to fill any completely
While left-clicking and dragging the eraser over any object enclosed object or area on the canvas. The color can be
on the canvas, that portion of the object is erased. The size chosen via the Color Box located at the bottom/left of the
of the eraser can be adjusted by using the size selector at Paint screen shown in Fig 6.
the bottom of the toolbar shown in Fig 4. This selector is
285
Color Box (Fig 6) By choosing the Define Custom Colors button, additional
shades can be chosen shown in Fig 8 and 9. Here, the user
Colors can be chosen from this color box in conjunction
can choose a basic color and its pallet will appear to the
with the fill tool as well as other object tools in the toolbar
right. Clicking in the pallet will choose a color, the shade
Fig 6 of which can be adjusted via the color slide all the way to
the right. In addition, the RGB color code is available .
Pick Color Tool (Fig 10)
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This tool shown in Fig 10 allows the user to click on any
color in any object on the canvas and it will be chosen as
Additional Colors (Fig 7) the current color for filling or drawing additional objects.
Additional colors (over and above those in the color box) Fig 10
shown in Fig 7 can be accessed by using the Colors – Edit
Colors menu options. Then, the Edit Colors Pane will
open allowing the user to choose different shades.
Fig 7
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Magnifier Tool (Fig 11 Fig 12)
Choosing this tool shown in Fig 11 and 12 enables the
Magnification Option Pane to open, allowing the user to
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choose the amount of magnification he/she desires in order

to accomplish a task. Many times, intricate shading and
Edit Colors Pane (Fig 8 Fig 9) finishing work needs to be done in a magnified mode.
Fig 11
Fig 8
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Fig 12
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Fig 9
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Pencil Tool (Fig 13) Text Tool (Fig 16)
This tool shown in Fig 13, in conjunction with the color The text tool shown in Fig 16 allows the user to add text to
pallet allows the user to create free-hand lines. the canvas. The text color is chosen as per the description
in the Fill Tool section above. Text attributes are chosen via
Fig 13 the Fonts toolbar which appears after the user
1. Chooses the text tool and
2. Drags a text box onto the canvas
Fig 16
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Brush Tool (Fig 14)
The brush tool shown in Fig 14 allows the user to draw
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freehand “brush-stroke-like” lines where, depending upon
the brush chosen, the effect of a true brush stroke with
differing widths can be achieved. The brush stroke choices
Line Tool (Fig 17)
appear at the bottom of the toolbar when the brush is
chosen. The brush stroke selections consist of 2- The user chooses this tool shown in Fig 17, chooses the
dimensional strokes (constant width) and true brush strokes color and then, chooses the width from the width pane. The
(diagonal lines). Magnification Option Pane line width chosen will carry over to all subsequent
objects created. Therefore, the line tool must be chosen
Fig 14 to set the default line width for all objects. This is the
line width pane. It will set the default line width for all
subsequent lines, rectangles, circles, etc.
Fig 17
ES1614114
Air Brush Tool (Fig 15)
ES1614117
Fig 15
Curve Tool (Fig 18)

Using this tool shown in Fig 18, the user can drag a line in
the same manner as with the line tool of a width and color
as described above. Then, the user can left-click and drag
on a point in the line to curve it in that direction.
Rectangle Tool (Fig 19)
Using this tool shown in Fig 19, the user can drag a
rectangle of the designated line-width and color. All two-
ES1614115
dimensional objects (those objects capable of being filled)

can be drawn with no border (filling it with a different color
will not show a border), a border (filling with a different color
This tool shown in Fig 15 allows the user to “spray” color
will show the border), or automatically filled (upon double-
onto the canvas in concentrations designated by the air
clicking to finish the object, it is filled).
brush selector pane, which appears at the bottom of the
toolbar when the air brush is chosen. By choosing wider
spray patterns, the user can diffuse the color chosen a bit
more when applying it to the canvas.
Fig 18 Fig 20
ES1614118
ES1614120
Fig 19 Ellipse and Rounded Rectangle Tools (Fig 21)
These tools shown in Fig 21 react exactly as the other two-
dimensional objects except for, obviously, their shapes.
Fig 21
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ES1614121
Polygon Tool (Fig 20)
The user can use this tool shown in Fig 20 to create a many-
sided shape by continually left-clicking and dragging as
many consecutive lines as desired. The polygon is
finished by double clicking, creating a line from the end of
the last line drawn to the beginning point. Widths, colors,
and fills are chosen as before.
MS word file, folder, editting, formatting text & labels

• introduce and open microsoft word
• make a new blank document
• format text/paragraphs using toolbars.
Introduction:
Microsoft Word is an essential tool for the creation of Opening Microsoft Word:
documents. Its ease of use has made Word one of the most
To run Word on your computer: “Start” >> “Programs” >>
widely used word processing applications currently on the
“Microsoft Office” >> “Microsoft Office Word 2003.” If there
market. Therefore, it’s important to become familiar with
is an icon of Microsoft Word available on your desktop
the various facets of this software, since it allows for
shown in Fig 1 (shaped like a square with a “W” in the
compatibility across multiple computers as well as
middle), you can open up the program by double-clicking
collaborative features. Word is a fairly simple program to
it, as well.
use for completing simple tasks. However, it may be more
difficult to learn how to explore the more advanced
possibilities of Word.
Fig 1
ES162211
Making a New Blank Document: Fig 2
When Word is opened, a new blank document should

automatically open. If not, then
you can begin a new blank document in a variety of ways.
First, find the “New Blank Document” icon, which looks like
a blank sheet of paper, located underneath the menu bar
in Word in what is called the “standard toolbar.” shown in
Fig 2 Click on the icon to bring up a new blank document.
Also, you can go to the menu bar and select File >> New…
(shortcut: Ctrl+N).
To begin typing, just click the cursor anywhere within the
new blank document.
289
Opening a Document: Fig 4
To open to view, edit, or print a document, you must first

open up that file in Word shown in Fig 3.
Fig 3
A dialogue box should appear, offering you a number of

options. To save the document in the desired location on
your computer, locate and select the folder on your
computer shown in Fig 5. Give your document a name in
the file name text box. While you can give your document
long names, make sure you save it with a name you can
remember. Please note that it’s good practice not to use
spaces or special characters in file names. For example,
You can open a file by clicking on the “Open” folder icon long file name may look like this: expos_sample_paper1.doc
(with a picture of a folder) To save a completely new document using previously
existing (and opened) text, you use the Save As option.
located in the standard toolbar. Or, you can use the menu
Open the document that you wish to save as an entirely
bar and navigate to File >> Open… (shortcut: Ctrl+O).
new file, go to the menu bar, and click on File >> Save as.
Saving a Document: In the file name text box, give your document a new name.
Using this option allows you to save multiple versions (with
When you are working with any sort of media in any
different file names) of a document based on one original
software, you should be sure to save your work often. In
file.
Word, there are numerous options for saving documents in
a variety of file types. To save a new, unsaved document,
you can click on the Save icon, shaped like a disk located
on the standard toolbar shown in Fig 4. Or, you can go to
the menu bar and select File >> Save… (shortcut: Ctrl+S).
Fig 5
Formatting Text/Paragraphs Using Toolbars: 10 Undo Typing: The Undo Typing button goes back and
In a word processing program such as Word, there are removes the last addition or change made to your
numerous options available for presenting your text. This document.
part of the tutorial will guide you through several of the
11 Insert Hyperlink: You may find that you want to make
important features in Word that will allow you to edit,
links to a particular web site, web page, or some other
modify, and display text (and non-text) components.
kind of online file in your Word document. Using the
The Standard Toolbar: Insert Hyperlink button, you can turn selected text into
hyperlinks. When the icon is clicked, a window will
appear that will allow you to insert the URL (web
find all options listed here. There are several buttons that
address) of the web page you want to link to. You can
may or may not appear immediately in your version of
type in the URL yourself or insert a preexisting bookmark.
Word shown in Fig 6. Use the following graphic as a guide
Once the link is inserted, the link in your Word document
to the Standard Toolbar.
can be clicked and the web page will open up in a web
Fig 6 browser.
12 Insert Table: When this icon is clicked, a small
window will appear in the form of a grid of squares. Use
this window as a guide to indicate how many rows and
1 New Blank Document: To begin a new document, columns you would like your table to contain. Once
click on the New Blank Document icon, shaped like a selected, a table will automatically appear in Word.
blank sheet of paper. Clicking the Tables and Borders button will allow you to
modify the table. To modify an aspect of the table,
2 Open: Clicking on this icon opens up a previously select, or place the cursor in, the area and apply
saved document on your computer. changes such as borders and colors.
3 Save: Clicking on the Save icon saves the document The Formatting Toolbar:
you are currently working on. Ifyou are saving a document
for the first time, you can click on this button. However, Word allows all toolbars to be customized, so you may not
if you want to save a new file from a preexisting find all options listed here. There are several buttons that
document, then you must go to the menu bar and select may or may not appear immediately in your version of Word
“File” >> “Save As” and give the file a new name. When shown in Fig 7. Use the following graphic as a guide to the
working on any document, you should be sure to save Formatting Toolbar.
frequently, so that you don’t lose any work. Fig 7
4 Permission: Microsoft has enabled Information Rights
Management (IRM) within the new version of Word,
which can help protect sensitive documents from being 1 Style: Styles in Word are used to quickly format
copied or forwarded. Click this for more information and portions of text. For example, you could use the
options. “Normal” or “Default Paragraph Font” for the body text
5.Print: Clicking on the Print icon automatically prints the in a document. There are also three preset styles made
document currently active in Word. If you wish to for headings.
explore more print options, then go to the menu bar and 2 Font: Font is a simple but important factor in Word
select “File” >> “Print.” documents. The choice of font (the style of the text
6 Print Preview: To get an idea of the appearance of your itself) can influence the way others view documents,
document in print before you actually print it out, you either on the screen or in print. For example, Arial font
can click on this icon to view your document from a looks better on screen, while Times New Roman is
zoom-out distance. clearer in print. To apply a font to text, select desired
text with your cursor, and choose a font from the font
7 Spelling and Grammar: Clicking begins a review of drop down menu.
your document in search of spelling and grammatical
errors that may need to be corrected. 3 Font Size: You may encounter times in which you
need to display some text larger or smaller than other
8 Copy: Copy the current selection to the clipboard, text. Selecting desired text with the cursor and choosing
which can then be pasted elsewhere in the document, a font size from the drop down menu changes the size
or into a completely separate program/document. of text.
9 Paste: Clicking on the Paste button inserts the text that 4 Bold: Places the text in bold.
has been most recently added to the Clipboard (the text
would have been added there by Cutting or Copying). 5 Italic: Places the text in italics.
With Paste, you can either insert the copied text into a 6 Underline: Underlines the text.
document or replace selected text.
7 Align Left: Aligns the selection to the left of the screen/
paper.
8 Center: Aligns the selection to the center of the screen/ More Formatting: Besides the toolbars, Word provides a
paper. great deal of ways to customize and format your text and
9 Align Right: Aligns the selection to the right of the documents.
screen/paper. Paragraph Spacing:
10 Justify: Aligns the selection to both the left and right of To access the Paragraph formatting options, navigate to
the screen/paper. the menu bar, and select “Format” >> “Paragraph,” or right-
11 Line Spacing: Adjust the line spacing (single-spaced, click within a paragraph shown in Fig 8.
double-spaced, etc.) A window will appear with options for modifying spacing
12 Numbering: Create a numbered list. and indenting. Here, you can choose to make the text in
your document single or double spaced, as well as edit the
13 Bullets: Create an unordered, bulleted list. margins for the document shown in Fig 9.
14 Decrease Indent: Decreases the indentation of the Fig 8
current selection (to the left).
15 Increase Indent: Increases the indentation of the
current selection (to the right).
16 Outside Border: Places a border around the current
selection; click the drop-down for a wide selection of
bordering options.
17 Highlight: Highlight the current selection; default color
is yellow.
18 Font Color: Change the font color; the default/automatic
color is black.
Fig 9
MS Word
Creating a basic document 3 Choose a template. Doing so will open the template in
Word with whatever pre-determined formatting applies
1 Open the microsoft word application. Do this by double-
to it. Now that your document is open, you're ready to
clicking the microsoft word icon shown in Fig 1.
review your Toolbar options shown in Fig.3
• When in doubt, open a blank document.
Fig 1
Fig 3
2 Review the available templates. On the right side of the

screen, you'll see several templates of interest shown
in Fig.2
• Blank document - A blank document with default
formatting. 4 Click the File tab. It's in the top left side of the screen
(or in the menu bar for Mac users). From here, you have
• Creative Resume/Cover Letter - A clean, pre-formatted several useful options on the far left side of your screen
resume (and accompanying cover letter) document. shown in Fig.4
• Student Report with Cover Photo - A document format
geared toward an academic demographic. Fig 4
• Fax Cover Sheet - A document to preface fax reports.
• You can also search for specific templates online from
within Word by using the search bar at the top of this
screen.
Fig 2
• Info (PC only) - Click this to review the documents

statistics, such as when it was last modified, as well
as any potential issues with the document.
• New - Click this to bring up the "New Document" page
that lists all of the pre-formatted templates. Opening a
new document will prompt you to save your old one.
• Open - Click this to review a list of recently-opened • Editing - A couple of commonly-used tools--such as
documents. You can also select a directory (e.g., "Find and Replace", which allows you to quickly replace
"This PC") in which to search. all appearances of one word with another--live here.
• Save - Click this to save your document. If this is your

first time saving this particular document, you'll be Fig 6
prompted to enter a name, save location, and preferred
file format as well.
• Save As - Click this to save your document "as"
something (e.g., a different name or file format).
• Print - Click this to bring up your printer settings.
• Share - Click this to view sharing options for this
document, including email and cloud options.
• Export - Click this to quickly create a PDF or change
the file type.
5 Click ? in the top left corner of your screen. If you're
using a Mac, you won't have this option--simply click
your document to exit the "File" menu shown in Fig.5
7 Click the Insert tab to review the types of media you can
Fig 5 place in your document. Insert is to the right of the
Home tab. The Insert tab allows you to add things like
graphics and page numbers to your document. From
left to right, a couple of notable options include the
following shown in Fig.7
• Table - Clicking this option will allow you to create an
Excel-style table right in your document.
• Pictures - Use this feature to insert a picture into your
document.
• Header, Footer, and Page Number - These options are
all essential for writing in MLA- or APA-style formatting.
The Header places a space at the top of the document
for comment, while the Footer goes at the bottom--page
numbers are customizable.
• Equation/Symbol - These options use special formatting
to accurately display simple equations. You can select
6 Review the Home tab to see your formatting options. At
these equations or symbols from the pertinent drop-
the top of your screen--from left to right--are five
down menu.
subsections of this tab shown in Fig.6
• Clipboard - Whenever you copy text, it is saved on your Fig 9
clipboard. You can view copied text by clicking the
Clipboard option here.
• Font - From this section, you can change your font
style, size, color, formatting (e.g., bold or italic), and
highlighting.
• Paragraph - You can change aspects of your paragraph
formatting--such as line spacing, indentation, and bullet
formatting--from this section.
• Styles - This section covers different types of text for
various situations (e.g., headings, titles, and subtitles).
You'll also see the popular "No Spacing" option here,
which removes excess spaces between lines of text.
8 Click the Design tab to create your own template. It's to MLA (or other citation styles).
the right of the Insert tab shown in Fig.8
• The "Captions" group has an option to insert a table of
figures. This is useful for scientific review papers or
Fig 8 similar documents in which statistical data is prioritized
over quotations
Fig 10
• The Design tab contains pre-designed themes and

formats listed across the top of the page.
9 Click the Layout tab to customize your page's formatting.
This tab contains options for changing the following 11 Click the Mailings tab to review your document sharing
aspects of your document shown in Fig.9 options. You can review your email settings and share
• Margins your documents from within this sections shown in
Fig.11
• Page orientation (vertical or horizontal)
• Page size Fig 11
• Number of columns (defaults to one)

• Location of page breaks
• Indentation
Fig 9
• You can also print an envelope or label template by

clicking the pertinent option in the top left corner of your
screen.
• The Select Recipients drop-down menu allows you to
choose Outlook contacts as well as an existing contact
list within Word.
10 Click the References to manage your citations. If you 12 Click the Review tab. The Review section is geared
have a bibliography page, you can also manage it from towards editing, so it includes options for marking up
here shown in Fig.10 documents and proofreading. A couple of important
options include shown in Fig.12
• For quick bibliography formatting, click the Bibliography
drop-down menu and select a template. • Spelling & Grammar - Click this option (far left corner)
to underline any spelling or grammatical errors.
• In the "Citations & Bibliography" group of options, you
can change your bibliography formatting from APA to
• The "Changes" section - This is to the far right of the Fig 14
toolbar. From here, you can enable the "Track Changes"
feature which automatically formats any additions or
deletions you make in a document to appear in red pri
Fig 12
15 Enter text. Do this by clicking on the blank section of

the document and typing away shown in Fig.15
Fig 15
13 Decide on the set of options that best apply to your

work. If you're a student, for example, you'll likely use
the Insert and References tab often. Now that you're
familiar with the toolbar options, you can format your
first Word document shown in Fig.13
Fig 13
• If you opened an existing document, be sure to save

your work before re-formatting.
16 Highlight a section of text. To do this, click and drag
your cursor across your writing, then let go when you've
highlighted the section you wish to edit shown in Fig .16
Fig 16
14 Open a new Blank Document in Word. If you have an
existing document, you can open that instead shown in
Fig.14
17 Consider what you want to do to the writing. Some • Change your document's spacing. This is easiest to
potential options include shown in Fig.17 accomplish by right-clicking your selected text, clicking
Paragraph, and modifying the "Line Spacing" value in
Fig 17 the bottom right corner of this window.
18 Continue working with Word. Your preferred options for
your documents will differ based on the intention behind
creating them, so the more you work within your own
particular format, the more proficient you'll become
shown in Fig.18
Fig 18
• Quickly format your writing. Do this by right-clicking (or

two-finger clicking) your highlighted text and then
selecting an option from the right-click menu.
• Change the font of your selection. You can do this by
clicking the drop-down bar at the top of the "Font"
section (Home tab) and then selecting a new font.
• Bold, italicize, or underline your highlighted section. To
do this, click the B, I, or U in the "Font" section of the
Home tab.
MS Excel
• explain spread sheet
• open and move around worksheet
• explain cell and its contents, naming the cell
• move copy paste content of worksheet
• setup page and print worksheet
• select data types
• align cells contents and text
• apply borders
• create and print charts
• insert rows and columns.
Spread sheet : A Spread sheet is simply a paper with rows 3 Accounting - This is the area where the spread sheet is
and columns in which one can enter data which may be text widely used. The companies ledger, trial balances,
or numbers. For instance, Balance sheet of company is a balance sheet for determining the profit and loss of the
spread sheet. An Electronic spread sheet Excel is like a company.
paper spread sheet spread on the screen of a computer
monitor. Electronic spread sheet has the following advan- Some of other areas where the spread sheets are widely
tages; used are
– Making modification to the content of the sheet is a Tax assessment

much faster and easier. b Stores Maintenance (Ordering / Invoicing)
– Taking copies of the sheet is easier c Quality control, etc.
– Has the facility to view only a part of the whole sheet The Microsoft Excel provides three basic component that
which gives better clarity and is like seeing the spread perform different tasks.
sheet through a window.
– Allows formulae to be entered into the work sheet 1 Spread Sheet component is used to display and ana-
resulting in rapid calculation. lyse text and numbers in grids i.e. rows and columns.
2 Database component is used to manipulate lists of
The popular Electronic spread sheet programs are; information of particular company.
LOTUS 123 - this has become relatively old. 3 Chart component is used to produce the charts to
present data graphically.
Microsoft EXCEL - most popular as on day.
The Application package Excel has a capability of transfer-
The rows and columns are numbered as 1,2,3, ... and ring and manipulate data easily with all the three above
A,B,C,.... The electronic spread sheet is also called as components.
worksheet.
Opening of Excel Worksheet : A Microsoft Excel is
A few popular applications of Spread sheet are listed invoked using the sequence.
below;
Start Programs Microsoft Excel, two windows
1 Pay roll - where pay details of employee in a big appears as shown in the Fig 1. One is Application window
organisation can be stored in a single spread sheet. The which is an interface between the Excel and the outer world
details could be Employee Name, Employee Identity and the other one is Document window which is used as
No., Basic Salary, HRA, DA, etc. which will be helpful Excel worksheet and charts.
to the employee as well as employer to keep a track of
the record. The basic component of Excel Window are explained
2 Human Resource Development of a company where below:
the Personal details of individual Employee like Name,
Address, Date of Birth, Date of Joining the Present Title bar : Appears on the top of Excel Window. This
Company, Personnel Details. This data will be useful to consists of Application control menu at the left and
get the details of an employee. minimize and restore button at right.
298
Fig 1
TITLE BAR
STANDARD
TOOL BAR
MENU BAR
FORMATTING
TOOL BAR
NAME BOX REFERENCE

AREA
SELECT ALL
ACTIVE CELL
DOCUMENT
WINDOW
CELL
STATUS BAR
WORKSHEET TABS
Menu Bar : Below the title bar is the menu bar which is of each work sheet 1,2,3,.... denotes the row heading.
similar to any other Microsoft Window for example Microsoft
Word, lists the menus like File, Edit, View... etc. which Excel stores the data in a worksheet by location. The
contains commands to Excel. worksheet is a grid of 65,536 rows and 256 columns. The
columns are numbered A to Z, AA to AZ, BA & BZ... etc.,
Standard Tool Bar : Contains tool buttons which are used the rows are numbered 1 to 256. The worksheets are
to carry out standard operations like Autosum, Spell numbered automatically as sheet 1, sheet 2, sheet 3, etc.
Check, etc. Worksheets are organised in workbook. Each new work-
book opened contains three worksheets by default. User
Formatting Toolbar : Contains tools to choose frequently can add worksheets upto a maximum of 255 worksheets.
used formatting commands; example Bold, Italics, Left,
Centre, Right, Alignment, etc... Cell : The intersection of row and column is called a cell.
Formula Bar : Contains the Name box at the left end which Each cell is surrounded by a grey lines called gridlines.
will display the active cell address. The right area is called
reference area/formula bar and is used to display data Each Cell is addressed by a cell address. With row and
present in the cells. column element. For example the cell address of 3rd row
and 3rd column is C3. Similarly cell address of 7th row and
Status Bar : Contains the messages and prompts. The 2nd column is B7. The first cell address is A1.
message Ready in Status bar indicates Excel is ready to
accept data. The Edit indicates that Excel is in Edit mode. To Enter the text / number into cell, first it should be made
The status bar appears at the bottom of the window. active i.e. selected. Any cell can be selected / made active
Excel document window displays the present active by clicking on the cell. Selected cell is indicated by a dark
worksheet. Similar to application window the document border as shown in the Fig 2.
window consists of the following.
Fig 2
Title bar : displays the name of the work book.
Control menu : contains the maximise / restore button.
Sheet tabs : Contains the different worksheets within the
current work book.
Scroll bars : Used to scroll through the worksheet.
Column / Row : The letter at the top of the column A,B,
C,D... denotes the column heading. The number at the left
The selected cell address will be displayed on the name Fig 6
box as shown in the Fig 3.
Fig 3.
Entering data : To Enter Data in the active cell user can

type the text directly. You can also use Cut, Copy command
to Paste the data from another file in the active cell. As
the text is typed, the typed text will appear in both the cell
and the reference area as shown in the Fig 4. The entered information will be displayed in the active cell
as well as in the reference area / formula bar. User can
Fig 4 Enter / Edit the information in the reference area also.
If the text entered is too long for the cell, the text entered
will be displayed in the cells to the right if they are empty;
other wise only the part that fits will be displayed.
Printing the Worksheet : The information entered in the

Worksheet need to be Printed in order to allow user to
share the information with others. Excel provides number
of options to print the way user wants. The options for both
setting parameters and printing the worksheet are con-
tained in several dialog boxes.
As the first character is entered the cancel button, Enter By default Excel select every thing for printing that is
button and the Edit formula button appear in the reference entered on the present worksheet in case where only a
area as shown in the Fig 5. portion of the worksheet is to be printed, the user has to
highlight the required range. User have an option of Print
Fig 5 Preview where preview of the selected worksheet will
appear in a print preview window.
Details of print dialog box will be discussed in future

sections as and when applicable.
Saving Work Book : After entering required data in the

worksheet, the worksheet need to be saved so that it can
be used after a period of time.
Worksheet can be saved by choosing File Save from
Once the data is entered user can either press Enter key
or press one of the arrow keys to move to the next cell.
Excel will move the active cell to the cell in the direction of
the arrow key. Alternatively user can just click the desired
cell to select and type the data.
User can select the cell by Entering the cell address inside
the name box. For example user wants to Enter the data
in A6 Cell. By typing the address A6 in Name box, Excel
will display the A6 cell as active cell as shown in the Fig 6.
the selected template first. User can choose the appropri-
the main menu or save file tool bar button . On invoking ate template and click on OK button to open the same.
Excel opens up a Save as dialog box as shown in the
Fig 7. Page Setup : The Screen gives the required information
which user needs, for example, mark sheet, budget, sales
Fig 7 details are to be distributed among people as well as to
have a hard copy to the institution, company, etc. To have
a hard copy some Parameters should be set before the
actual printing is done.
By default Microsoft Excel selects every thing entered on

the current worksheet. Where only a portion of the worksheet
is required to be printed, the user need to highlight the Print
range.
To setup the required parameters user should choose File

Page Setup. On choosing Page Setup dialog box
appears as shown in the Fig 9.
Fig 9
User can Choose the folder of their choice and the file
name. Once the file name and the folder is specified Excel
gives the extension .xls automatically and the file is saved.
Creating Work Sheet / Work Book : On invoking the

Microsoft Excel Application package a Workbook with a
label “Book1” is displayed on title bar of the Excel window
as shown in the Fig 8.
Fig 8
The Page Setup dialog box provides option for setting up

Page Margins, Header / Footer and Sheet width.
Page tab provides the option to setup the
Page Orientation : User can choose Portrait or

Landscape orientation.
By default the Excel opens a new unsaved workbook. A
workbook is an Excel file where the user data is stored. The
Scaling : This option provides to adjust the size
default work book ‘Book1’ consists of three blank
of printing. By selecting the Adjust to
worksheets with label Sheet1, Sheet2, Sheet3. Each work
radio button user can enter the
book consists of several worksheet. The workbook can be
percentage of normal size. By default
thought of as a folder, each worksheet as a page in the
100% is selected.
folder.
By selecting the Fit to radio button
To create a workbook user can click on the New button user can specify the number of pages
on the standard tool bar. On clicking ,the new dialog box wide by the number of Pages tall.
appears on the screen with options. User can choose one
Paper Size : The paper size drop down list provides
of the options available on the dialog box. To open a
the different paper size.
workbook based on a spread sheet template user need to
choose File New to display the New dialog box. On Print Quality : User can select the resolution of
clicking on the spread sheet solution tab the Excel Printer from the drop-down list.
template will be displayed. The previous Window displays
The Margins tab provides the option to Setup the distances Use of ranges helps in performing a single operation on
in inches from the edge of the page to the printed data on selected data at once. Ranges are defined by the cell
four sides. The four margin top, bottom, left and right address of two opposite corner. For example A4 : B6 or B10
preview can be viewed in the center of the dialog box as : H12. The pairs of cells are separated by [:] or [..] to denote
shown in the Fig 10. it is a range.
Fig 10 To select a range of cells with the mouse move the mouse
pointer to one corner of the range eg. A4 and drag the
mouse to opposite corner of the range say H10. The cells
covering the A4 to H10 get highlighted as shown in the Fig
12.
Fig 12
Microsoft Excel can automatically Center the contents

using the center on Page check box available in the dialog
box.
Header / Footer tab provides the user to add a text at the
top of the worksheet as Header and at the bottom of page
called Footer. The header normally contains the descrip-
tion of company, filename, etc. The footer contains the
Selecting the range of cells with the Key board select the
Page number.
cell in A4 cell and hold shift key pressed. Use Arrow keys
to move the cursor and bring it to H10. The selected range
The default header is the sheet name and the default footer
gets highlighted.
is the “Page” and the Page Number. Header / Footer tab is
explained in detail in future exercises.
By selecting the range, the cells can be merged by a single
click of mouse. Excel provides a merge and center button
The sheet tab provides the option to printing of grid between
each cell, printing of cell notes, row and column heading on in the formatting tool bar which merges the cells and
and off. centers the text to the selected range of cells as shown in
the Fig 13.
User can select the draft quality print and take only black
and white printout. Fig 13
Most useful option in the sheet tab is that the user can
determine how a multipage workbook is to be printed.
Across then down or down then across as shown in the Fig
11. This is very useful in printing reports, budgets, etc.
Fig 11
User can select the whole worksheet with a single click

on the select all button available on the intersection point
Range : Range is a group of rectangular cells. The
of row and column as shown in the Fig 14.
smallest range is a single cell. Range can contain cells
from single sheet or cells from adjacent sheets. Excel
allows only rectangular ranges .Angular ranges are not
allowed.
302 E&H: Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) - Related Theory For Exercise 1.7.89
Fig 14
After entering the text, some text may not appear properly,
since the column width of cell may not be enough to contain
the text.To view the text in a cell fully, increase the width
of the cell.
Moving around worksheet : Microsoft Excel organizes

worksheets by work book.
As discussed earlier each worksheet contains 65, 536

rows and 256 columns. The worksheets are numbered
automatically as Sheet 1, Sheet 2, ..... Sheet 256. The
name of the worksheet can be changed by user to suit the
information entered in the worksheet, for example Income
Tax, Budget, etc. Work sheet name can be upto 31
characters. It is advisable to have a label with short name
Increasing / Decreasing the cell width : Excel provides so that number of sheet label can be viewed on the monitor.
two methods to increase or decrease the cell width and The sheet tabs are available at the bottom of the Excel
height. User can increase the width of the cell by placing windows as shown in the Fig 16.
the cursor on the intersection cell column label, the cursor
Fig 16
changes to . This denotes that the width can be
increased dragging the mouse right and decreased dragging
the mouse left. While dragging a rectangle yellow box
prompts the cell width value.
Another method is to enter the value of the width directly in

the column width dialog box. Column width dialog box can
be invoked by choosing Format Column Width.
The dialog box appears as shown in the Fig 15. Data Types : Excel handles data in five different types.
Fig 15 1 Numbers are values that are numerals 0 through 9, with

a decimal point (.) as a separator for decimal and
comma (,) as a separator for thousands.
Numbers can start from the currency symbol $ ,Rs, or
with a + ( Positive )or - ( Negative )sign. They can end
with a % sign.
2 Dates are handled as serial numbers in Excel which
represent the number of days elapsed since 1-1-1900.
Excel will recognise the dates in the following format.
User can select the entire worksheet and change the
column width at once or select the columns to which the 1. DD - MMM - yy - 04-Dec - 99
width to be changed choose the above sequence to invoke 2. MM/DD./YY - 10/4/00
the column width dialog box.
Where 00 -> 2000
3. DD-MMM - 04 - Jan
Auto sum : The Autosum tool available on the main
4. MMM - YY - Feb -99.
menu automatically builds a sum formula. For example by
selecting the range B6 to G6 and clicking on Autosum tool
3 Time is also represented as serial numbers. Excel
button the formula = Sum (B6:G6) is formed automatically.
represents 24 hours of the day as values between 0 and
The sum will be placed on the H6. The formula can be
24. Time can be entered in the following format
viewed on the reference area / Edit area by selecting the H6
in this case or any where, where the value of sum is placed. HH : MM : SS 12:12:15
HH : MM AM/PM 12:30 PM
Entering Text : On Excel Work Sheet the text / Numerals
can be entered by selecting the desired cell. User can type HH : MM : SS AM/PM 12:12:15 PM
the text directly. The text is terminated by entering Enter
HH : MM - 12 :15
key or choosing the check button on the formula bar.
4 Formulas are Mathematical formulas which perform
calculation on data should be entered into cell. For
example to sum the values in cell B2, B3 and B4 user
E&H: Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) - Related Theory For Exercise 1.7.89 303
would enter the formula = B2 + B3 + B4 in cell B5.
Fig 19
5 Text
Excel recognises data as text which is not number,

time, date or formula. Excel will treat the numeric value
that are outside of its accepted number, date and time
formats as text. For example 10:52AM will be treated
as text because it does not fit in the time format.
User have an option to select to entered data as Number
or Text by choosing Format Cells. Select the
Number tab from the Format Cells dialog box. Text or
The text can be aligned Horizontal, Vertical and Orientation
Number can be selected from the category box as shown
to the text can be given with the help of format cells dialog
in the Fig 17.
box. The format cell dialog box can be invoked by choosing
Fig 17 Format Cell. Selecting Alignment tab in the format
cell dialog box the option of alignment of text, text orienta-
tion appears as shown in the Fig 20. User will also have the
option of wrapping the text, shrink the text to fit in the cell.
Fig 20
Adding Worksheet : As discussed earlier the new work

book opens with three worksheet by default. User can
insert worksheet as many as 255 worksheets.
To add a new worksheet choose Insert Worksheet

from the main menu. Excel will add new worksheet to the
left of the worksheet selected.
To change the orientation of the text user can either enter
Alignment : Excel aligns the text and numbers entered in
the value directly in the Degree box or use the Up/Down
the cell automatically. By default numbers are right aligned
arrow to increase or decreases the value. Another way is
and Text are left aligned. User can overwrite this by
to use the protractor shown in the orientation box.
selecting the cell and selecting the one of the button on the
formatting tool bar as shown in the Fig 18. Applying Border : User can apply the border to the active
cell or range of cells by clicking the border button
RightAlign on the formatting tool bar. On clicking the preset border
Center & Merge drop down list appears as shown in the Fig 21.
Left Align
Cells Fig 21
Center Align
Fig 18
Merge and Center button allows user to center the
contents of cell across a number of columns as shown
in the Fig 19.
By selecting the choice color from the palette, the selected
User can apply the border to the active cell by Choosing color is applied to the border.
Format Cell to display the format cells dialog box. Excel provides graphical component which allows to rep-
resent data in the worksheet graphically. Graphically
Border tab gives more option of border and style as
represented data helps in understanding, analysing easier.
shown in the Fig 22.
Chart:- A chart is graphical representation of entered data
Fig 22 in the worksheet. Graphical representation of data makes
the data more clearer and easier to read. Chart can be
viewed, edited and can be embedded in the worksheet.
Chart can be either two dimensional (2D) or three dimen-

sional (3D). The basic elements of the charts are
AXIS Charts have X-axis (horizontal) and Y- axis

(Vertical). The 3-D charts will have Z axis
(depth).
Title Each axis will have chart titles.
Legend This identifies each data series (Color,

Pattern, etc.)
Data Series This is set of data from which the chart is

drawn. Most of charts can have two or more
data series. Except Pie chart has only one
data series.
Applying Colors to borders : The Border Tab in Format
dialog box provides an option to user to apply a color to the Categories Is the data by which the data series is
border. This will help in highlighting the contents of the cell. separated. If data series in years 1900 to
2000, each year is a category.
The Color window under the style opens up a color palette
as shown in the Fig 23. Gridlines These are the lines drawn across the chart
from the axis for visual reference.
Fig 23
The Fig 24 shows the basic elements of chart.
Fig 24
Chart title Gridlines Legend
Y-axis
X-axis
Types of Charts: Excel offers different types of charts. An example of bar chart is shown in Fig 26.
Some of them discussed below are very often used to
represent the data. Fig 26
1 Area Charts : Shows the magnitude of change over

time. It is used where several components are changing
and the user needs sum of the components. It is a stacked
line chart with the area between the lines filled with color or
shading.
An example of area chart is shown in Fig 25.
Fig 25
Bar chart are of three types.

a Stacked bar chart
b 3D bar chart
c 100% stacked bar chart
3 Column Charts : Consists of a series of Vertical

columns that allow comparison of the relative size of two or
more data items. Here also each column represent single
data point.
2 Bar Charts : Are very frequently used charts which

consists of a series of horizontal bars that allow compari-
son of the relative size of two or more item at single point
of time.
An example of column chart is shown in Fig 27. Chart Wizard : Excel allows user to create chart either on
a separate sheet as a chart sheet or it can be embedded
Fig 27
on the current worksheet. The easiest way and the best
way to create a chart is using the chart wizard.
The chart wizard button is available on the standard

tool bar.
The chart wizard guides the user step by step in creating

the chart.
In the Step 1 of 4 user will select the chart type, after

selecting the data which user wants to chart. The choice
of selecting the chart type is given in the Step 1 of 4 wizard
dialog box as shown in the Fig 30.
4 Line chart : Is used to show the trends over time. Each
data series is used to produce a line on the chart. On clicking the next button on the first dialog box user
enters to Step 2 of 4 which is the chart source dialog box
An example of Line chart is shown in Fig 28. as shown in the Fig 31.
Fig 28 Fig 30
5 Pie Chart : Is very widely used to compare the

percentage of sum that several numbers represent. Fig 31
An example of Pie chart is shown in Fig 29.
Fig 29
User will select the data range and the data series in Row
or Column.
In the Step 3 of 4 user will enter the chart title, details of

Each number can be represented by a slice. One of the x and y co-ordinates as shown in Fig 32.
slices can be separated from the other slices.
The major difference between all other charts and pie chart
is that it has only one data series.
Fig 32 Format element displays the format dialog box for the
element chosen as shown in the Fig 35.
Fig 35
It also gives the option to user to

1 Suppress the axis.
2 Choosing the gridlines to display Chart type button applies the indicated chart type to the
chart .On clicking the drop down list displays as shown in
3 To display legend and placing the legend the Fig 36 from which user can change the chart type.
4 To display data labels or not. Fig 36
5 To display the data table which is very useful in chart
sheet.
In the step 4 of 4 user will be given an option to place the
chart in a new sheet or embedded in the existing worksheet.
Excel allows user to move, resize, delete and edit the
chart.On clicking the chart size handles appears around
the chart.Using the handles user can resize the charts.
Changing chart types : User is also allowed to change the
chart from one type to another. The chart tool bar provides
the quick access to important parts of a chart as shown in
the Fig 33.
Legend button toggles the display of the legend.
Fig 33 Angle Text
Chart type Legend Row Upward
Data table button toggles the display of the data table.
Angle text downward and Angle text upward tilts the
selected text at a 45 degree angle. By clicking the
respective buttons that are present in the chart tool bar we
Format
can add legend, title and gridlines for a chart. Alternatively,
Chart Object Data Angle Text
Element
Table
Column these can also be added using the Insert menu.
Downward
Printing of Charts : Since charts are stored with worksheet
Chart objects is used to pick the object user wants from the pages, the tasks of saving and printing charts are so
drop down list. The drop down list displays the item different from saving and printing worksheets. If it is an
currently selected as shown in the Fig 34. embedded chart, you can size and place it on the worksheet
and view it in print preview. If it is a chart sheet, you can size
Fig 34 and scale it in your required manner (Refer Fig 37).
Fig 37
Inserting Rows & Columns : It is easy to insert rows or rows are pushed down and re-numbered as shown in the
columns in Excel Work Sheet. One method is to select the Fig 39.
entire row below the place where you want to insert new
Fig 39
blank row. Choose Insert Rows from the main menu.
For example, click on the row number 5 in your worksheet

to select the full row as shown in the Fig 38.
The new blank row 5 gets inserted. The contents of the
previous row 5 will be now content of row 6. All other
rows are pushed down and re-numbered as shown in the
Fig 38.
Fig 38
User can insert multiple rows by selecting multiple rows

before issuing the insert rows command.
Another method to insert rows is to select the row below the
place where you want to insert new blank row. Click on the
right mouse button. The context menu appears as shown
in the Fig 40. Choose Insert from the context menu, the row
gets inserted.
To Delete the unwanted rows click on the row number label
The new blank row 5 gets inserted. The contents of the which is to be deleted. Click on the right mouse button.
previous row 5 will be now content of row 6. All other From the context menu choose Delete. The selected row
gets deleted.
Fig 40 Fig 42
The dialog box gives an option to shift cells right or down.

You also have an option to insert an entire row or entire
Similarly to insert a column select the label of the column column. If you select the Shift cells down radio button a cell
where you want the new column to appear. gets inserted and the contents of the earlier cell get pushed
down as shown in the Fig 43.
For example if you want a blank column at column C.
Select Column C and use any one method used to insert Fig 43
the rows and select column instead of rows. The column
gets inserted with label C. The contents of C becomes the
contents of D. The columns that follow will also be pushed
right and renamed as shown in Fig 41.
Fig 41
A range of cells can be deleted or inserted. The insert and

Delete commands in case of a range of cells work only
with rectangular selections. Non contiguous range of cells
cannot be inserted or deleted with a single command.
When the selected cell or cells are deleted, they are re-
moved from the worksheet and the adjacent cells shift to
To delete the column follow the same method as deleting
fill in the space.
rows.
Hiding Rows and Columns : Some times you may wish
to hide some information which is already entered in the
Inserting Cells : You can insert empty cell into an existing
worksheet.Excel provides an option to hide the rows or
worksheet, by pushing existing cell either to the right of the
column without displaying their contents. It can be
insertion point or down from the insertion point.
revealed later when it is required.
For example to insert a cell at C6, Activate cell C6 and
choose Insert Cells... from the main menu. The insert To hide rows, select the row by clicking on the row label
dialog box appears as shown in the Fig 42. choose Format Row Hide from the main menu.
Fig 44
The Fig 44 shows a hiding of row 4. Observe that you will Similarly if you want to hide column C. Select the column
not see the continuous row numbers, when hide is performed. label C and repeat the procedure you have done to hide
You can also hide numbers of rows. To do this select the the rows. Choose column instead of rows. The hidden
rows to be hidden and choose hide command. column worksheet will appear similar to Fig 47.
To unhide the rows at the later stage select the rows where Fig 47
the row is hidden. For example the fig shows the row 4 is
hidden. Select row 3 and 5 as shown in the Fig 45.
Fig 45
Choose Format Row Unhide from the main

menu. The hidden row will appears as shown in Fig 46.
Fig 46
Microsoft power point

• state about the office ribbon in microsoft office 2010
• start a new presentation in microsoft powerpoint, save it, and be able to find it later
• insert text in microsoft power point
• add transitions and animations to the slides
• start, navigate, and exit the slide show
• explain the printing.
Microsoft powerpoint 2010 Viewing pane
Microsoft powerpoint is part of the microsoft office suite of Also notice the four icons to the left of the slider. These
programs. It can be one of the most powerful tools for are shortcuts to the normal, sorter, slideshow, or reading
communicating ideas and information during presentations. pane view of the presentation.
In powerpoint, able to place the content into a series of
“slides” which can be projected for audiences, printed and Inserting animated images (Fig-3)
distributedas handouts, or published online using different In powerpoint 2010 can add images that move. These are
file formats. called animated images. You can insert an animated Clip
Art image on any slide and move and size the image as
Microsoft office file tab, quick Access Tool bar title bar desire. To do this need to click - on insert in the ribbon,
and then click- on Clip Art. A new task pane will open up
Ribbon on the right of the screen.
Fig 1 Fig 3
In powerpoint 2010, the ribbon to issue commands. The

ribbon is located near the top of the powerpoint window,
below the quick access toolbar fig 1. At the top of the
ribbon are several tabs; clicking a tab displays several
related command groups. Within each group are related
command buttons. Click the buttons to issue commands
or to access menus and dialog boxes. And may also find
a dialog box launcher in the bottom-right corner of a group. Transitions (Fig-4)
When click the dialog box launcher, a dialog box makes
additional commands available. Now we’ll add some effects to our presentation. Click on
the transitions tab at the top of the page.
Zoom sider (Fig 2)
On the bottom right of the window you will find the zoom Fig 4
slider. Clicking or dragging the slider arrow or + /- icons
with the mouse will enlarge or shrink the size of the slide
in the window.
Fig 2
This slide transition tab will allow us to choose the type of

transitions from one slide to the next. Transitions can be
neat, visual movements from slide-to-slide as on fig-5.
312
Fig 5 Fig 7
Notice that can see more transition choices by clicking

on the dropdown arrow next to the row of slide images. Go
ahead and click-on one of the choices. Each time you
make another selection, see that transition effect on the
selected slide.
Build
Building is a team indicating how content on a slide will
enter the screen. The lines, words, letters, pictures and
charts can move in or appear from almost any direction.
To build the content on each slide, follow these directions.
Go back to slide 1 and click on the first line of text. The Normal View or Slide View
box shows first typed text in this box will appear.
View the large version of the slide shown in Fig.8
Slide sorter view (Fig 6)
When reviewing presentation, the slide sorter view is a Fig 8
great place to arrange, hide, or delete the slides. Click on
the icon. After selecting a slide, drag, copy or delete it.
Fig 6
You can also hide or unhide the slides if want to use them
at another time. Right click on the mouse to see the menu
of options.
Printing (Fig-7) Normal View or Slide View, as it is often called, is the view
you see when you start the program. It is the view that
You can also print the slideshow, which is often helpful for
most people use most of the time in PowerPoint. Working
the notes when presenting. From the file tab, choose print.
on a large version of a slide is helpful when you are
You have many options to choose from. From the drop
designing your presentation.
down under slides you can see the various types of prints
you can make from the presentation. Most often to choose Normal View displays thumbnails on the left, a large screen
the slide handout. where you enter your text and images, and an area at the
bottom where you can type presenter notes.
To return to Normal view at any time, click the View menu
and select Normal.
Outline View
Outline view shows only the text on the PowerPoint slides
shown in Fig.9
In the Outline view, your presentation is displayed in outline
form. The outline is made up of the titles and main text
from each slide. The graphics are not shown, although
there may be a small notation that they exist.
You can work and print in either formatted text or plain You can use this view to delete or rearrange your slides
text. by clicking and dragging them to new positions. Effects
such as transitions and sounds can be added to several
Outline view makes it easy to rearrange your points and
slides at the same time in Slide Sorter view. You can also
move slides to different positions
add sections to organize your slides. If you are
Outline view is useful for editing purposes, and it can be collaborating with colleagues on a presentation, you can
exported as a Word document to use as a summary assign each collaborator a section.
handout.
Locate the Slide Sorter View using the View menu in either
In PowerPoint 2003, click View and select Toolbars > version of PowerPoint.
Outlining to open the Outlining toolbar. In PowerPoint 2007,
click the View tab. The four slide views are represented by Notes View
side-by-side icons. You can easily toggle between them
Add speaker notes to printouts of slides in PowerPoint
to compare views.
shown in Fig.11
PowerPoint 2007 has a fifth view-the Reading view. It is
When you create a presentation, you can add speaker
used by people who are reviewing a PowerPoint
notes that you refer to later while delivering the slideshow
presentation without a presenter. It displays the
to your audience. Those notes are visible to you on your
presentation in full-screen mode.
monitor, but they aren't visible to the audience.
Fig 9 Notes View shows a small version of a slide with an area

below for speaker notes. Each slide is displayed on its
own notes page. The speaker can print these pages out
to use as a reference while making a presentation or to
hand out to audience members. The notes do not show
on the screen during the presentation.
Locate the Notes View using the View menu PowerPoint.
Fig 10
Slide Sorter View

Miniature versions or Thumbnails of slides show in Slide
Sorter View shown in Fig.10
Fig 10
Slide Sorter View shows a miniature version of all the slides

in the presentation in horizontal rows. These miniature
versions of the slides are called thumbnails.
Convert the given PDF file into word file using suitable
At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• convert PDF file into word file
Task-1 Converting PDF file into Word file 4. Click file menu and click open menu item in the window
as on Fig-3.
1 Click start button in desktop window
2 Select Easy PDF to Word Converter in the program Fig 3
list
3 Click Easy PDF to Word Converter as on Fig-1.
Fig 1
The open dialog window will display as on Fig-

4, in the dialog box select any low size PDF
file and press open button, suddenly the save
dialog box also will appear.
Fig 4
5. Type the file name and click save any drive as shown
in Fig-5
Fig 5
The PDF to Word converter window appear as
shown in Fig-2.
Fig 2
After convert the PDF file the warning message

will display as shown in Fig-6
315
Fig 6
Browsing & searching websites text/images & use of E- mails

• explain the term internet
• list the services of internet
• explain the terms world wide web and website
• explain the Domain Name system used in internet
• explain the purpose of a browser
• explain the use of Search Engines
• explain the basics of down loading content from the internet
• name various protocols used on the internet
• describe E-mail and its feature
• list the email server.
Internet hardware companies are finding new ways to promote and

sell their products on the internet. Lot of business applica-
The internet is a world wide collection of network, servers,
tions like stock market trading, shopping on line, ordering
gateways and computers using a common set of telecom-
of parts, booking of tickets, train accommodation and
munication protocol to link and inter operate them together.
reservations etc. have been developed and already in use.
An engineer can use the internet as a resource for current
The internet provides world wide access to information and
topic relating to products, technologies, tools and trouble-
resources. It is possible to find information about almost
shooting. One can also find latest news update, weather,
any subject imaginable from universities, government or-
sports and other information like travel advice, listen to
ganisations, the military or libraries which may be in any
music etc. Even internet telephony has come into place
part of the world.
and at the expense of local call charges long distance and
The internet evolved from a US department of defence international calls can be established through the internet.
project. The advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)
Some of the best known services available on the internet
of the department funded a project to connect university
are
computer scientists and engineers together via their com-
puters and telephone lines. This project called ARPANET,
– WWW or World Wide Web
allowed researchers to share each others computer facili-
ties over long distances. It was also used to exchange – FTP or File Transfer Protocol
electronic mail (e-mail) with other users. The network
– E-mail or Electronic mail
protocol used by the project was TCP/IP which continues
to be used on the Internet today. With the combination of – Mailing lists
electronic mail, file transfers and mailing lists this network – Newsgroups
of networks called internet began to take shape.
– Search engines
The simplest definition of internet is that its the longest – Telnet
computer network in the world. A study in 1997 estimated
that the internet has 16.1 million hosts or computers – Telephony
connected to it. – VPN
Technically, the internet is actually a network which is World Wide Web
made up of many smaller networks that exist all over the
world, but this is as invisible to the user as the telephone It is the internets multimedia service. It is also the widely
network which provides national to international calls (STD/ used part of internet. It is a vast storehouse of documents
ISD). There is no particular person or company who known as hyper text documents. These documents are
controls the internet. It can be considered as a vast and written using the hypertext markup language (HTML).
growing online library in which anyone can publish anything Hypertext is a method for presenting text, images, sound
they want. and videos that are linked together in a document. It allows
a user to browse through topics in any order. It also
Services of the internet includes dynamic links or connections which will take you
to access those pages. Using WWW, you have access to
Over the last few years the primary users of the internet millions of pages of information.
have shifted from research based activity and business use
of the internet is increasing. All types of software and
317
The sum of all the hyper text and connecting links connected com - Domain name
via the internet form is known as the world web wide or home.htm - Location of the document
WWW or the web. The web allows you to move among
linked documents stored on host computers that may be 2. ftp://ftp.microsoft.com
physically very distant from one another.
3. gopher://gopher.microsoft.com
You can read a hyper text file, look at its illustrations and
even listen any audio in it and also follow its links. Certain Domain name system
words or phrases appear in text of a different colour than the
text and is also underlined. When you move the cursor and In addition to URLs every computer on the internet has a
point it on these words a small hand appears which unique IP address. The IP address is four sets of digits
indicates that it is a link. You click this word and a new separated by dots. (198.64.3.20)
hypertext document gets opened.
Because these numbers are hard to remember and difficult
Website to type, the domain name system was created. Domain
names enable short, alphabetical names to be assigned to
A website is a collection of hypertext documents. A IP addresses to describe where a computer is located. In
document on the site is called a web page. The first page the e.g. http://www.microsoft.com, www.microsoft.com is
in a series of related documents or a site is called a home the domain name.
page. The first document you access at any site is called
the home page. Many individuals on the internet have their The last three characters of DNS or URL address indicate
own home page - a document about them and their the type of domain. Some common domain names used
interests - that anyone on the internet can access. This is in US are
a very useful way to represent a company or individual.
com - commercial organisations
The web combines TCP/IP, the protocol for sending docu- edu - educational institutions
ments across network, with an entirely new method of gov - government organisations
locating and accessing documents on different networks. mil - military
It involves a simple coding mechanism around a string of net - network, companies and groups who ad
characters called a URL or a Universal Resource Locator. minister the internet
The URL identifies the name and address of each docu- org - organisation
ment available to the web.
Countries outside the US use a two letter country code as
The URLs specify the server to access as well as the their domain name.
access method and the location. Each website on the
internet has its own URL. au - australia
in - india
An URL consists of fr - france
1 The server protocol to be used where the document is uk - united kingdom
located. A server setup specifically for web documents
uses hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP). Browser
2 A colon To view the web sites/pages you need a graphical user
3 The type of site generally world wide web (WWW), file interface, called a web browser. It is a piece of software,
transfer protocol (FTP), a protocol used specifically to that lets you visit different web sites on the internet and
transfer files from one computer to another or Gopher, display their pages on your own computer. You can visit
a client server application that organizes the files on a the site by supplying the browser with an address or URL.
server, so users need not know or enter the exact file
name. A browser displays a document from the internet on the
4 The address of the host computer. Also known as computer screen. Like any windows based program, a
domain address. The address begins with two forward browser has a number of features - buttons, menus, scroll
slashes. It consists of the name of server or site, the bars, toolbars etc, that let you control its operation. The
network, university or computer name and the domain latest version of the browser is recommended, since the
(two or three letter designation of the type of institution). technologies involved in publishing information on the
The specific location of the document on that comput- internet are constantly changing.
ers network
Once you have your browser and a internet connection,
Example: accessing the internet is fairly straight forward. Commonly
used browsers are Netscape Navigator and Microsoft
1. http://www.microsoft.com/home.htm Internet Explorer.
http - Server protocol
www - Type of site
microsoft - Company name
Page 1 gives the home page of Microsoft internet explorer. Title bar: Shows the name of the page you are currently
viewing on the documents file name if it is not a web page.
Page 1
Title bar Location bar
Menu bar
Navigation
bar
Menu bar: Provides with drop down menus contains Chat: When you send email or post news, you have to wait
almost all the commands you will need in the browser. till the mail is sent, read by the recipient and he has to reply
the mail and receive the answer. Instead chat allows
Navigation toolbar: Provides command action buttons. people to converse more in the way, as it happens in person
Click the icon for the specified action to occur. If you point or on the phone. You talk something, people hear it and
at a button for a few seconds, without clicking, a tool tip will respond on the spot. In case of chat, this exchange
appear describing the action of the button. happens on your computer screen. The communication
happens in real time without delay.
Location tool bar: Type the URL you want to connect in
the “document URL” area of the location toolbar. On the E mail: Electronic mail, the sending and receiving of
right side of the window a small arrow appears. Click the electronic messages, is currently one of the most popular
arrow and the URLs you have most recently visited will pop activities on the internet. E-mail is used on most commer-
up as a list. cial online services, and for many people, is the primary
reason for getting onto the internet or an online service.
Internet options: Select view on the menu bar and select
internet options to edit internet explorers default settings. To send e-mail, you must know the recipients e-mail
address. These addresses are composed of the user’s
Search Engines identification, followed by the @ sign, followed by the
A search engine is an application on the web that allows location of the receipients computer. For example, the
you to search for particular web pages on sites based on email address of an individual will be name @hotmail.com
key words or concepts. There are growing number of
search engines found on the world wide web and each one When you access the internet through a local service
produces different results. provider or one of the large commercial online services, you
can exchange email without incurring the long distance
Some of the popular search engines are www.msn.com, charges of a telephone call. Email has the added advan-
www.rediff.com, www.google.com etc. tage of allowing you to access messages at your conven-
ience. You can also send an identical message to any
In the window provided, type the text to be searched for and number of people at one time.
click ‘submit’. You will be returned with the matching
documents and related websites. Point the mouse cursor
over the URL and a hand appears and click to open the
document.
News Making an internet connection
Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP) is an Internet In order to access servers on the internet, your computer
standard protocol defined for distribution, inquiry, retrieval needs to be connected to the internet service provider.
and posting of news articles. Network news (USENET) is
a popular use of NNTP. It offers bulletin boards, chat rooms, It can be achieved through
and Network News. Network News is a massive system
with over 5000 ongoing conferences, called newsgroups, a PSTN dial up lines
conducted 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. To access b ISDN dial up
these newsgroups, download a special program from the c Dedicated leased line
internet that allows you to participate in any newsgroup you
want. Most commercial browsers, including the Microsoft Dial up link: Requires a telephone line, a dial up modem
Internet Explorer, have this capability built in. You then and dial up account with the ISP. Whenever IE needs
“subscribe” to the newsgroups that interests you and access to internet, it has to establish the dial up connec-
communicate through a message system similar to email. tion first. Use dial up networking which makes the call and
The difference between Network News and email is that the gets connected. But only 33kbps speed is achieved
Network News conversations take place in a public forum typically, can be used to connected only one computer to
called a news group. the ISP.
You can simply view an ongoing dialog without participat- ISDN: This service connects networks through digital
ing; this is called lurking and is encouraged for newcomers. lines. It provides a faster connection and can be more
To enter the conversation, you post an article in the economical than dial up service. A special ISDN modem
newsgroup and you become part of the forum. As with can be used to access the ISP. An ISDN dial up account
email, Network News is usually informal communication should also be taken from the ISP.
with little distillation of content. However, some newsgroups
are managed by a monitor who may elect not to post ISDN can be used from a LAN, which connects multiple
responses that are deemed inappropriate for that forum. users at a specific location to the internet. To enable this,
Network News operated at a very high speed, with posting a special type of computer called proxy server is required
appearing quickly and constantly. Group administrators to act as a gateway between their local network and the
set the length of time that messages remain posted before internet. The proxy server filters the requests from internet
being deleted from the system. Most do not keep postings and makes it more difficult for unauthorised requests to
longer than a week. reach local network.
FTP: File transfer protocol is the internet’s standard Leased line connection: For users demanding more
method for moving/downloading text files, data files and bandwidth and internet availability for 24 hrs all days,
binary program files from one computer to another. A leased lines are recommended. The typical speeds which
browser can be used for some FTP transfers. Its often can be used are 64 kbps, 128 kbps and 2.048 Mbps. It
faster and easier to use a dedicated FTP client software to requires a router attached with a leased line modem to be
download. interfaced with the leased line. A leased line account is
also required from the ISP.
The procedure is essentially the same for all.
Web server
1 Connect your client program/browser to an FTP server A Web server is a program that, using the client/server
2 Log on as ‘anonymous’ and give your email address as model and the World Wide Web’s HyperText Transfer
the password Protocol (HTTP), serves the files that form Web pages to
3 Move to the directory on the server that contains the file Web users.
you want
4 Specify the directory on your computer where you want Every computer on the Internet that contains a Web site must
to store downloaded files have a Web server program. The most popular Web servers
5 Transfer the file from the FTP server to your computer are; The Microsoft’s Internet Information Server which comes
6 Disconnect the server. with the Windows NT server; Netscape FastTrack and
Enterprise servers; and Apache, a Web server for UNIX-
Telnet: Telnet makes your computer as a remote terminal based operating systems. Other Web servers include Novell’s
that sends commands and receives data from the remote Web Server for users of its NetWare operating system and
server through internet. When you type on your own IBM’s family of Lotus Domino servers, primarily for IBM’s OS/
keyboard, the data goes directly to the remote computer, 390 and AS/400 customers.
as if you are directly connected to it. You should have an
account and connection to the remote computer. Web servers often come as part of a larger package of
Internet related programs for serving e-mail, downloading
To make a telnet connection, one has to use the terminal requests for File Transfer Protocol(FTP) files and building
emulation program such as hyper terminal in windows. and publishing Web pages. Considerations in choosing a
Web server include how well it works with the operating
system and other servers, its ability to handle server-side The minimum basic services that an ISP must provide can
programming, and publishing, search engine, and site be summarized as follows:
building tools that may come with it.
– Dial-up access for either analogue (public telephone) or
Internet Service Provider (ISP) digital (ISDN) telecom links.
– Support for handling IP packets
An ISP (Internet service provider) is a company that
– Support for the PPP protocol
provides individuals and other companies access to the
– Access to a Domain Name Server
Internet and other related services such as Web site
building and virtual hosting.
As these are the basic minimum, most ISPs will provide
these as a matter of course and will not necessarily
An Internet service provider (ISP) has the equipment and
advertise these capabilities.
the telecommunication line access required to have POP
on the Internet for the geographic area served. Larger ISPs
Cc: stands for “carbon copy”. Anyone listed in the Cc: field
have their own high-speed leased lines so that they are less
of a message receives a copy of that message when you
dependent on the telecommunication providers and can
send it. All other recipients of that message can see that
provide better service to their customers. Among the
the person you designated as a Cc: recipient has received
largest ISPs are AT&T WorldNet, IBM Global Network,
a copy of the message.
MCI, Netcom, UUNet, PSINet, etc.
Bcc: stands for “blind carbon copy”. This is similar to the
ISPs also include regional providers such as VSNL,
Cc: feature, except that Bcc: recipients are invisible to all
NEARNet, BARNet etc. They also include thousands of
the other recipients of the message (including other Bcc:
local providers. In addition, Internet users can also get
recipients). For example, if you send a mesagge To:
access through online service providers (online service
[email protected] and Bcc:
provider) such as America Online and Compuserve.
[email protected], then suryaamehta sees him-
self as the message’s only recipient. Jayashrimehta, on
An ISP is also sometimes referred to as an IAP (Internet
the other hand, is “in the know” - she can see that you sent
Access Provider). ISP is sometimes used as an abbrevia-
the message To: suryaamehta, and that you blind-copied
tion for independent service provider to distinguish a service
her. To add an entry in the Bcc: field, click the “Show BCC”
provider that is an independent, separate company from a
link to the right of the “To:” field.
telephone company.
Note: To send a message, you must always specify
Internet Access Provider
atleast one recipient in the “To:” field. If you don’t an error
The basic service that any Internet Service Provider (ISP) message appears when you attempt to send the message.
offers is the means to provide a dial-up link via a public
telecommunication service such as telephone or ISDN, The maximum attachment size using Yahoo! Mail account
which supports an IP(Internet Protocol) packets coming for sending and receiving messages upto 10MB.
from and going to that link.
Search Engine
In order to support the IP link across the telephone system,
an additional protocol is required, which an ISP must also According to another survey done by Netcraft in August
be able to support. This will either be the Point-to-Point 2006, there are 92,615,362 sites
Protocol (PPP) or Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP).
(92 million) and this is an increase of 4.4 million sites
PPP has largely replaced SLIP access now a days, hence
(4.8%) from the July, 2006 survey.
in the following discussions will assume PPP.
The end user uses the Internet heavily in accessing
The ISP must also provide a means of resolving what are information in their day to day needs
known as ‘Domain Name’ address queries. This process
since the Internet is the biggest repository of knowledge in
will be supplied by the ISP’s Domain Name Server. The IP
the history of mankind. Thus
protocol provides a means of converting Domain Names
which people can understand, into IP addresses (e.g., the Internet has become the world’s widely accessed
012.345.678.9) which computers can understand. Thus information source and Websites are added, updated, and
when you type a URL into your web browser, the Domain obsolete daily. Therefore, “Finding the right information at
Name part of the URL must first be converted into its IP the right time” is the challenge in the Internet age. Hence
address before the web page can be located and delivered there is a need for a more effective way of retrieving
to the browser. Each Domain Name is assigned its specific information on the Internet.
IP address when it is created, and so the process of There are three ways of finding information on the Internet.
converting one to the other is simply a matter of looking up
its entry in a database. Finding where that particular 1. Guessing the URL (Uniform Resource Locater)
Domain Name/IP address relationship is recorded and 2. Using a Search engine
then using this information to make the correct conversion 3. Using a Subject Directory or a Subject Gateways
is the job of the ‘Domain Name Server’ (DNS).
If the URL (Uniform Resource Locater) is known, it can be Example: metacrawler, Ixquick, mamma
typed in the Internet browsers’ (Example: Internet Explorer,
Netscape Navigator, etc.) address bar and can be accessed Advantages of using search engines
the Website soon. Otherwise use directories (Yahoo!, Search engines are best at finding unique keywords,
dmoz, LookSmart) for broad, general topics. Subject phrases, quotes, and information buried in the full-text of
directories select and classify resources into subject web pages since they normally index WWW documents
categories and subcategories. Some include reviews and/ word by word. Search engines allow the user to enter
or ratings which can be accessed by keyword search or by keywords, and then they are searched against its database.
browsing the classifications. Users can use advanced search techniques such as
phrase searching, truncation/wildcard searching, as well
A subject gateway can be defined as a facility that allows as for Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT combinations).
easier access to network-based resources in a defined With comparison to web directories, search engines are
subject area. The simplest types of subject gateways are huge databases and contain a large amount of materials.
sets of Web pages containing lists of links to resources. Also, the database is updated at a variable rate.
The resources accessible through these gateways are
reviewed, selected, evaluated and catalogued by information Download content
professionals or subject experts. Downloading content from internet has become a
commonplace activity for all internet users – in the home,
What is a search engine?
in business and in schools. All internet users download
A search engine is a searchable database which collects
content from time to time – typically programs, games,
information on web pages from the Internet, and indexes
pictures, music, video and documents. Downloading
the information and then stores the result in a huge
content can be troublesome. Downloads can fail.
database where it can be quickly searched. The search
Downloads can take excessive time. Downloads can be
engine then provides an interface to search the database.
password-protected. Some content cannot be downloaded
Examples : Google, Alta Vista, Exite using your web browser. A download manager is a utility
designed to fix all the problems you may be having
A Search engine has three parts.
downloading content from the internet. They have quickly
• Spider: Deploys a robot program called a spider or become a must-have utility for all internet users. Download
robot designed to track down web pages. It follows the managers can accelerate your downloads, allow you to
links these pages contain, and add information to resume broken downloads and contain numerous features
search engines’ database. Example: Googlebot that allow to you get hard-to-get files from the internet.
(Google’s robot program)
Key terms
• Index: Database containing a copy of each Web
URL
page gathered by the spider.
A URL (or Uniform Resource Locator) is the location of a
• Search engine software : Technology that ena-
resource on the internet. The format of a URL includes the
bles users to query the index and that returns results in
protocol (e.g. http://, https://, ftp://, mms://, etc.), the
a schematic order.
domain name (or IP address), and additional path information
How does a search engine work? (or folder & file name). A URL may address a web page file,
a program file, an image file, a CGI file, or any other type
Types of search engines of file, folder or program. Download managers use URLs to
In broad sense, search engines can be divided into two find the location of files, web sites and FTP sites that you
categories. want to download. You input URLs when download content
1. Individual search engines from the internet.
An individual search engine uses a spider to collect its Examples of URLs are:
information regarding websites for own searchable index. • http://www.conceiva.com/downloads/
There are two types of individual search engines. downloadstudio2200.exe
i . General search engines • ftp://ftp.microsoft.com/pub/msoffice.zip
Examples: Google, AltaVista, HotBot, Lycos • http://www.google.com
ii. Subject specific search engines • http://www.itunes.com/hiphop/newtrack.mp3
Examples: MetaPhys, Chritech, ReligionExplorer, Chordie, Servers, Domains and Groups
ChemFinder A server name represents a single web server. For example,
2. Meta search engines “www.conceiva.com” and “www.google.com” are examples
A Meta search engine searches multiple individual engines of server names. Even “google.com” counts as a different
simultaneously. It does not have its own index, but uses server name since it is not the same as “www.google.com”
the indexes collected by the spiders of other search – even though if you visit “http://www.google.com” and
engines. “http://google.com” in your web browser you may see the
same content. A domain name is the most general part of
a server name. For example, “conceiva.com”, “google.com” packets of data to your media player on your computer.
and “zdnet.co.uk” are examples of domain names. When Once played, the packets of data are discarded – so there
downloading files, if you set the download job to span is no way for you to save the file using your web browser or
across Domains, it will download files from any servers that media player.
share the same domain name. For example,
“www.conceiva.com”, “images.conceiva.com” and Important: Notice about copyright ownership
“downloads.conceiva.com” all belong to the same domain Download managers, including Download Studio, are
“conceiva.com”. designed to assist you to download files from the internet.
If you do not own the copyright to these files or do not have
A group name refers to any number of servers that share the permission to copy these files from the copyright owner,
same name regardless of the country-specific part of the you may be violating copyright law and be subject to
name. For example, “www.conceiva.net”, payment of damages and other remedies. If you are
“ftp.conceiva.org.au” and “images.conceiva.co.jp” would uncertain of your rights, contact your legal advisor. All
all be part of the same group, because they all contain the examples of downloading that are contained in this White
word “conceiva” directly before the country specific part of Paper are for illustration purposes only. These URLs (or
the name. web site addresses) may or may not exist. The use of the
Using the URL “http://www.conceiva.com/images/logo.gif” example URLs does not imply that you have consent to
as an example: download content from them.
• “www.conceiva.com/images” is the folder name Various types of content to download
• “www.conceiva.com” is the server name The internet has many different types of files and content
• “conceiva.com” is the domain name that you may be interested in downloading. Some popular
• “conceiva” is the group name examples of content are:
MIME Type Programs.

MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) types are a Programs are executable files that usually are downloaded
standard for defining the types of files attached to standard and installed onto your computer. Programs can be large
internet mail messages and on web servers. The MIME files that take significant bandwidth and time to download.
standard is used by software applications such as download
managers to communicate with web servers to determine Images & pictures.
what type of file is being transferred. The MIME type of a file Images are located all over the internet on web sites and ftp
can be a more accurate method of determining the type of sites. They are probably the most popular content
a file rather than using the file extension of a file to guess downloaded by internet users. The popular image file
the type of file on a web site. formats are JPEG, GIF and PNG. Images are typically
small files (< 100 kilobytes) so that they can be displayed
Examples: quickly in web browsers. Images can be small thumbnails
• HTML files have a MIME type of “text/html” or larger-sized images. Typically, internet users want to
download the larger-sized images.
• JPEG files have a MIME type of “image/jpeg”
RSS feed Movies & video.
RSS feeds have become a popular way for web sites to Video content has become very popular for internet users
inform you about its latest news or its latest content. RSS who have broadband connections. Video content is either
stands for Really Simple Syndication and is an XML based streamed onto your computer from a streaming media
file that contains information and links about content from server into your media player, or it is a file that can be
a web site. Popular RSS feeds are latest headlines from downloaded and then played in your media player. Video
news web sites, latest music titles from music sites, latest content is typically very large in size and can take
company news from business web sites, latest topics from significant bandwidth and time to download. Video content
blogs, and more. that is streamed into your media player cannot be
downloaded in the traditional file based manner using your
Podcast web browser or media player.
Pod casts are RSS feeds that contain information and links
to audio and video files. They have become very a popular Music, audio & pod casts.
way to get your favorite music, due mainly to the popularity With the popularity of portable media players, audio has
of portable media players such as Apple’s iPod. become a very popular download for internet users. Audio
is either streamed onto your computer from a streaming
Streaming media media server into your media player, or it is a file that can
Streaming audio and video is used to view movies and listen be downloaded and then played in your media player. Pod
to music from the internet. Media players such as Windows casts have become a very popular way to subscribe to
Media Player and Real One Player can connect to streaming music and video you are interested in. Pod casts are
media servers and play streaming audio and video. specialized RSS feed (XML-based) files on the internet that
Streaming media servers send audio and video as small describe and link to a collection of audio or video files.
Audio content is typically medium-to-large in size. Audio Data files.
that is streamed directly into your media player cannot be An increasing number of businesses download data files
downloaded in the traditional file-based manner using your from the internet on a daily basis – often as a regular
web browser or media player. scheduled backup of their online data or to simply get the
latest up-to-date data for their business. Data files can be
Web sites. any type of file and can be large in size, requiring significant
Some internet users often wish to download a complete bandwidth and time to download.
web site (or certain pages of a web site) so that they can
view it later at their convenience. This is called offline Various protocols used on the internet
browsing. All files for a web site are downloaded and saved Along with different types of content on the internet, there
onto your computer so that you can view the web site are several standard protocols that are used to access files
locally on your computer in your web browser. Web site and content. The popular internet protocols are:
content typically contains many small files. • http://. The hypertext transfer protocol is used to
access and view web sites and is the most widely-
Flash.
used protocol by internet users. Any type of file may
Macromedia Flash (.SWF) content is used widely on web
be accessed using this protocol. Example: http://
sites to enhance sites with a more dynamic presentation.
www.example.com/folder/file.zip.
Flash content can be diverse in nature – ads, games,
movies, complete web sites and more. Flash content is • https://. The secure hypertext transfer protocol is
displayed in your web browser using an additional used to access and view web sites. Any type of file
component (e.g. ActiveX control). The use of these additional may be accessed using this protocol. Example:
components can make downloading flash content onto https://www.example.com/folder/file.zip.
your computer difficult. Typically, flash content is small-to-
• ftp://. The file transfer protocol is one of the oldest
medium in size.
protocols still in use today and is used to upload and
download to servers. Example:
RSS feeds.
Really Simple Syndication (RSS) feeds are now being ftp://ftp.example.com/folder/file.zip.
used widely on web sites to provide up-to-the-minute news
• mms://. The multi-media server protocol is used to
and information about topics of interest on a web site. RSS
connect to Windows media streaming servers so
feeds are XML based files that describe topics of interest
that Windows media streaming audio and video can
and contain links for internet users to gain more information.
be played. Valid file types are .WMA, .WMV, .WAX,
Typically, RSS feeds are viewed in RSS readers that are
.WVX, .ASF and .ASX. Example:
capable of presenting the RSS feed in a well formatted
manner. RSS feeds are typically small files that are mms://www.example.com/folder/file.wmv.
updated regularly.
• rtsp://. The real-time streaming protocol is used to
connect to streaming servers so that streaming
Games and game files.
audio and video can be played. Valid file types
Games are executable files that are usually downloaded
include Real Audio/Video (.RA, .RM), Windows
and installed onto your computer. Games files are typically
Media (.WMA, .WMV, .WAX, .WVX, .ASF, .ASX)
extensions or additions to existing games that you have
and QuickTime (.QT, .MOV). Example: rtsp://
already installed onto your computer. Games are typically
www.example.com/folder/file.rm.
large files that take significant bandwidth and time to
download. Email
Compressed files. Most people will be familiar with the term email (electronic
Compressed files are collections of files that have been mail) in this day and age. It basically covers all messages
compressed to make them smaller to download. Internet sent over the Internet, normally between computer users,
users require a program installed on their computer to de- but also is now used with other internet-connected devices
compress the files once downloaded. Popular formats for such as mobile phones. Email messages can be just text
compressing files are ZIP, TAR and RAR. Typically, based or can also contain graphical or other multimedia
compressed files are very large in size and can take information. One common misconception with email is that
significant bandwidth and time to download. messages will always arrive immediately or at least very
quickly (within minutes). Whilst this is often the case, any
Documents. email relies on many computers and networks to be
Document files are often available for download on the working, therefore emails are at risk of delays at any stage.
internet. Popular document formats are Acrobat PDF files, However, sending messages within one system (such as
Word DOC files, EXCEL XLS files and PowerPoint PPT the SHU First Class email service) should be immediate.
files. Document files can be large in size, requiring significant To send email messages all you need to know is a valid
bandwidth and time to download. address of the recipient - see addressing below. Messages
can either be like formal letters or increasingly they are
much more “conversational” where the emotions of the
writer are expressed as emoticons (also called “smilies”).
Internal and External Email Addresses Bcc: Like c:, but the mailbox address entered in this field
To send an email to someone else, you need to know their is not visible to the main recipient of the mail.
email address. Users can have internal and external email Attachment: Any file being sent along with the main
addresses. message; eg a Word file, a picture etc.
Internal Email Addresses SPAM: Any unwanted and often malicious unsolicited
Internal email addresses are listed in the directory of the emails. At SHU we try and detect these and mark them
email system you are using. At Sheffield Hallam University appropriately so that they can be deleted by the user
this is on First Class which is the email system used by all without needing to open them.
students. Staff use another system, Exchange, but are
How E-mail Works
also listed in the First Class directory. All you need to know
when you are searching for someone in the internal A Simple E-mail Server
directory is usually their real name and the faculty they Given that you have an e-mail client on your machine, you
belong to. Using the directory to find the internal address are ready to send and receive e-mail. All that you need is
of users depends a little on whether you are using the First an e-mail server for the client to connect to. Let’s imagine
Class client or the web interface. You can normally find the what the simplest possible e-mail server would look like in
name you want by just typing part of the first and last order to get a basic understanding of the process shown in
names of a particular user. Fig 12. Then we will look at the real thing.
Example: Open a New Message in First Class. Fig 12
Typing in: Vir Woo into the To: field will match to a fictitious
student user called “Virginia Woolf”. If you are using First-
Class client software you will need to press Enter to
complete the name; if you are logging into your mailbox
using the web interface via the Portal you will need to click
on the Add button.
External Email Addresses
ES163011
External email addresses are required for sending or
receiving email outside the university. An external email
address is also often known as an Internet email address. If you’ve read How Web Servers Work, then you know that
External email addresses have a very specific format - machines on the Internet can run software applications that
please see the example below. When using them you must act as servers. There are Web servers, FTP servers, telnet
type them exactly as specified. And if you quote your servers and e-mail servers running on millions of machines
address for others to use it must be exactly right. External on the Internet right now. These applications run all the time
email addresses are made up of two parts separated by an on the server machine and they listen to specific ports,
@ (pronounced “at”) sign: - the first part is the email name waiting for people or programs to attach to the port. The
- the second part is the Internet address of an Internet “post simplest possible e-mail server would work something like
box”. The post box address is the address of a central this:
server within the organisation in which the mailbox is
located which handles all email before relaying on to 1. It would have a list of e-mail accounts, with one account
personal mailboxes. for each person who can receive e-mail on the server.
My account name might be mbrain, John Smith’s
Example: Below is the external email address of our might be jsmith, and so on.
example student Virginia Woolf at Sheffield Hallam
University. 2. It would have a text file for each account in the list. So,
the server would have a text file in its directory named
[email protected] is Internet email name MBRAIN.TXT, another named JSMITH.TXT, and so on.
and student postbox address. This address would be
pronounced as: 3. If someone wanted to send me a message, the person
would compose a text message (“Marshall, Can we
“ virginia dot woolf at student dot S H U dot A C dot U have lunch Monday? John”) in an e-mail client, and
K ”. indicate that the message should go to mbrain. When
You can try sending test messages to Virginia Woolf to try the person presses the Send button, the e-mail client
out the different address formats. would connect to the e-mail server and pass to the
server the name of the recipient (mbrain), the name of
Other Email Features the sender (jsmith) and the body of the message.
Other features you will commonly find when using email: 4. The server would format those pieces of information and
Cc: This stands for “carbon copy” or “courtesy copy” and append them to the bottom of the MBRAIN.TXT file. The
is the field where you can put extra addresses in to send entry in the file might look like this:
to other mailboxes if not the main recipient.
From: jsmith the SMTP server(s) that Mindspring operates.
To: mbrain 5. The SMTP server at howstuffworks.com connects with
the SMTP server at Mindspring using port 25. It has the
Marshall,
same simple text conversation that my e-mail client
Can we have lunch Monday? had with the SMTP server for HowStuffWorks, and gives
John the message to the Mindspring server. The Mindspring
server recognizes that the domain name for jsmith is at
There are several other pieces of information that the server Mindspring, so it hands the message to Mindspring’s
might save into the file, like the time and date of receipt and POP3 server, which puts the message in jsmith’s
a subject line; but overall, you can see that this is an mailbox.
extremely simple process.
If, for some reason, the SMTP server at HowStuffWorks
The SMTP Server cannot connect with the SMTP server at Mindspring, then
the message goes into a queue. The SMTP server on most
Whenever you send a piece of e-mail, your e-mail client machines uses a program called sendmail to do the
interacts with the SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) actual sending, so this queue is called the sendmail
server to handle the sending. The SMTP server on your host queue. Sendmail will periodically try to resend the
may have conversations with other SMTP servers to deliver messages in its queue. For example, it might retry every
the e-mail shown in Fig 13. 15 minutes. After four hours, it will usually send you a piece
of mail that tells you there is some sort of problem. After five
Fig 13
days, most sendmail configurations give up and return the
mail to you undelivered.
The SMTP server understands very simple text commands
like HELO, MAIL, RCPT and DATA. The most common
commands are:
• HELO - introduce yourself
ES163012
• EHLO - introduce yourself and request extended

mode
Let’s assume that you want to send a piece of e-mail. your • MAIL FROM: - specify the sender
e-mail ID is brain, and you have account on • RCPT TO: - specify the recipient
howstuffworks.com. You want to send e-mail to
• DATA - specify the body of the message (To, From
[email protected]. You are using a stand-alone e-
and Subject should be the first three lines.)
mail client like Outlook Express.
• RSET - reset
When you set up account at howstuffworks, Outlook
• QUIT - quit the session
Express the name of the mail server —
mail.howstuffworks.com. When you compose a message • HELP - get help on commands
and press the Send button, here’s what happens: • VRFY - verify an address
1. Outlook Express connects to the SMTP server at • EXPN - expand an address
mail.howstuffworks.com using port 25. • VERB - verbose
2. Outlook Express has a conversation with the SMTP More Complex Servers
server, telling the SMTP server the address of the
sender and the address of the recipient, as well as the As other people sent mail to mbrain, the server would
body of the message. simply append those messages to the bottom of the file in
the order that they arrived. The text file would accumulate
3. The SMTP server takes the “to” address a series of five or 10 messages, When I wanted to look at
([email protected]) and breaks it into two parts: my e-mail, my e-mail client would connect to the server
the recipient name (jsmith) and the domain name machine. In the simplest possible system, it would:
(mindspring.com). If the “to” address had been another 1. Ask the server to send a copy of the MBRAIN.TXT file
user at howstuffworks.com, the SMTP server would
simply hand the message to the POP3 server for 2. Ask the server to erase and reset the MBRAIN.TXT file
howstuffworks.com (using a little program called the 3. Save the MBRAIN.TXT file on my local machine
delivery agent). Since the recipient is at another 4. Parse the file into the separate messages (using the
domain, SMTP needs to communicate with that do- word “From:” as the separator)
main. 5. Show me all of the message headers in a list
4. The SMTP server has a conversation with a Domain When you double-clicked on a message header, it would
Name Server, or DNS ,It says, “Can you give me the find that message in the text file and show me its body.
IP address of the SMTP server for mindspring.com?”
The DNS replies with the one or more IP addresses for As you can see, this is a very simple system. Surprisingly,
the real e-mail system that you use every day isn’t much Protocol. The SMTP server handles outgoing mail. The
more complicated than this. other is either a POP3 server or an IMAP server, both of
which handle incoming mail. POP stands for Post Office
The Real E-mail System For the vast majority of people
Protocol, and IMAP stands for Internet Mail Access
right now, the real e-mail system consists of two different
Protocol. A typical e-mail server looks like Fig 14
servers running on a server machine. One is called the
SMTP server, where SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer
Fig 14
ES163013
Computer networking, Cables Components, Connectors and Servers

• explain what is a network
• list the components of a network
• explain network topology
• list the types of cables and connectors used in LAN
• explain P.C. server and webserver.
Introduction
If there is one concept that facilitates a global community,

it is networking. A network by definition is a collection of
two or more computers connected together. Through
these networked computers, people can share almost
anything that include:
– Data files: Word processing, electronic spread sheet

or presentation documents.
– Peripheral devices: Printers, monitors, scanners
etc.
– Software applications: Bundled PC software such as Clients: Computers that access or use shared resources
MS-Office or Lotus Smart suite, Financial accounting from server
software, database software etc.
Media: The physical cable that connects the computers in
– An internet connection: Going On line to connect to
a network.
another network or to send e-mail to another person.
A simple network is shown in Fig 1. Network interface card: To convert a standalone com-
puter to be connected to a network, first a network interface
card has to be plugged into the PCs expansion slot and
configured.
Network topology
The term network topology refers to the arrangement or

physical layout of computers, cables and other compo-
nents on the network. The term Topology is also com-
monly used to refer to the network’s basic design. Topol-
ogy is an important issue when you plan for a network. It
depends on the type of cable and protocol to be used in the
network.
In essence a network is a group of computers, printers and
other devices that are connected together with cables. The most common topologies are:
Information travels over the cables, allowing network users
to share any hardware or software that is connected to the 1 Bus
network. 2 Star
Components of a network: All networks have certain 3 Ring

components in common. They are:
Servers - computers that provides shared resources.

Fig 2
Shared resources: Files, directories, applications, print-

ers, CD rom drives, and other peripherals which are
accessed by the users on the network.
328
Bus Topology: If the signal were allowed to continue uninterrupted, it would
keep bouncing back and forth along the cable and prevent
other computers from sending signals. Therefore, the
signal must be stopped after it has reached the proper
computer. To stop the signal from bouncing, a component
called Terminator is placed at each end of the cable to
absorb free signals. Absorbing the signal clears the cable
so that other computers can send data. The protocol that
is used in bus topology is Ethernet.
If the cable is physically cut or if any one end of the cable

gets disconnected from the terminator (Fig 6) or T-
connector, the entire network is down. Then the computers
will not be able to communicate with each other.
In this type of arrangement as shown in Fig 3, computers

are connected in a row. This is the simplest and most
common method of networking computers. The cable that
is used to connect all the computers is also called as
backbone. Bus topology networks use coaxial cable. They
use BNC connectors to connect all the individual cables.
Each computer is connected to the network through the
use of a BNC T-connector as shown in Fig 4. This
connection allows the backbone cable to be continued to
the next computer. To make a longer piece of cable, a
component called a barrel connector (Fig 5) is used.
In this topology, the network data is sent in the form of an Ring Topology: The ring topology connects computers
electronic signal along with the MAC (Manufacturer ad- on a single circle of cable. There are no terminators at the
dress code) address of the machine to which data has to end of cable like in bus topology. Refer to the Fig 7 shown
be sent. All the computers on the network receive this below.
data. But only the computer whose address matches the
address in the data sent over the network will accept the
information. Only one computer at a time can send
messages over the network.
Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire

network, it will travel from one end of the cable to the other.
he signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass Star topology is easy to install. You must install a separate
through each computer. Each computer boosts the signal cable from the Hub to the computer. So it may require more
and sends it to next computer. Because the signal passes cabling than other topologies. Shifting, adding and removal
through each computer in the ring, the failure on one of nodes are very simple. Even if one cable breaks down,
computer effect the entire network. only that computer gets affected on the network and the
rest is operational. UTP or FTP cables Cat5 or Ecat5 may
Though the computers are logically connected in a ring be used for achieving speeds upto 100/1000 Mbps. They
fashion, the actual cables from the NIC of the computer are limited to a length of 100 meters (328 feet) for each node
gets connected to the MAU or Multistation Access Unit connection.
centrally. The function of the MAU is to accept signals
transmitted from one computer and direct the signals to the There is no limitation in the number of nodes in a segment.
computer to which it is addressed. Uses RJ-45 connectors for all connections.
One method of transmitting data around a ring is called Network Architecture

token passing. A token is passed from one computer to the
next and so on. When a station wants to transmit on the Network architecture combines standards, topologies and
ring, it waits for a free token to pass by. The sending protocols to produce a working network. Ethernet is
computer takes the token. It modifies by putting an currently the most popular network architecture. It uses a
electronic address of the computer to which it has to bus topology, it follows the IEEE’s 802.3 specification.
transmit. Then it sends the token out on the rings. As the
busy token passes by, each computer on the ring checks The Ethernet media draws power from the computer and
the token’s address. If the address does not match with its this will not fail unless the media is physically cut or
own address, it sends the token to the next computer. If improperly terminated. The transfer speed is 10/100 Mbps.
the address matches, the computer copies the data from It supports Thin, Thick coaxial cables and UTP.
the token. It also returns a message on the token to the
sending computer indicating that the data has been re- 10 Base-What?
ceived. After verification, the sending computer creates a
new token and releases it on the network. The various Ethernet standards referred to as, for instance,
10Base-2, 10Base-T, 100Base-T and so on contain in their
Token ring topology uses category 3/4/5 UTP or fibre optic name all you need to know about what they do. The first
cable. Though originally 4 Mbps speed was used, the portion-the number-can be 10, 100 or 1000 and this number
typical speed used now is 16Mbps. A newer version of fast indicates the data rate (in Mbps) that the standard carries.
token ring standard also exists that enhances the speed to The word Base means the network is baseband connection
100 Mbps. only carries one signal at a time, while broadband connec-
tion carries multiple signals at a time. The terminating
Star Topology: In this type, computers are connected by letter or number indicates what sort of cable is used, with
cables to a centralised component, called a hub. Signals T denoting twisted-pair, 2 denoting thin coaxial, and 5
are transmitted from the sending computer through the Hub denoting thick coaxial. Here is a quick reference guide to
to all the computers on the network as shown in Fig the different standards commonly seen.
8.
0Base-2 10 Mbps, coaxial (RG-58) cable.
10Base-5 10 Mbps, coaxial (RG-8) cable.
10Base-T 10Mbps, twisted-pair (two pairs, Cat-3 mor higher cable).
100Base-T 100 Mbps, twisted-pair (four pairs, Cat-5) cable; also called 100 Base-T4 to designate four pairs.
100Base-TX 100 Mbps, twisted-pair (two pairs, Cat-5 cable)
100Base-FX 100 Mbps, fiber-optic cable
1000Base-T 1Gbps, twisted-pair (four pairs, Cat-5) cable
Cables or Transmission media The two types of cables are:
Network computers must have a pathway to contact other – Unshielded twisted pair cable.(UTP)
computers. The physical path through which the electrical – Shielded twisted pair cable. (STP)
signals travel is called transmission media or cables.
Unshielded twisted pair cable (UTP)
Cable media are wires or fibres that conduct electricity or
light. The following types of cables are used in LAN. Unshielded twisted pair cable is composed of a set of
twisted pairs with a simple plastic encasement as in Fig
1 Twisted pair cable 10.
2 Co-axial cable
3 Fiber optical cable
1 Twisted pair cable
Twisted pair is a common scheme for using copper wire as

telecommunication cable because copper is a good con-
ductor of electrons. Twisted copper wires reduces cross
talk and signal emissions.
Twisted pairs are formed by two insulated 22 to 26 gauge

copper wires that are twisted about each other as in Fig 9.
These twisted cables are available in two types.
It is commonly used in telephone systems and has been
largely standardized.
Twisted pair network cables are rated in terms of their

capability to carry network traffic. They are referred as
category 3, 4 and 5.
Category 3/Cat 3 - 10 Mbps - used for voice grade telephone or 10 mbps ethernet
Category 4/Cat 4 - 16 Mbps - Token ring network
Category 5/Cat 5 - 100 Mbps - For 100 Mbps Ethernet
/ECat 5 - 100/1000 Mbps
ECategory 5 and category 5 UTP are commonly used in magnetic interference caused by electric motors, power
computer networking. lines and other sources.
UTP cables are limited to a length of 100 meters (328 feet)

for each node to Hub connection.
Shielded twisted pair cable
Today, the mostly used cable is UTP. But some forms of

shielded twisted pair (STP) still exist. The below Fig 11
shows the STP cable. It is used in places where electro-
The STP is insulated cable which includes bundled pair
wrapped in a foil shielding.
UTP
UTP is a popular choice for structured cabling systems

used widely in office network environments. Structured
cabling system is a network cabling pattern which follows
strict engineering design rules. It allows voice, data and
video to be transmitted/received on the same cabling
system. It allows shifting, adding and replacing the nodes
easily. The arrangement is as shown in Fig 12. Several co-axial cable standards are in comon use for
computer networking. The most common types meet one
of the following ohm and size stanards.
– 50 ohm RG-8 and RG-11 (used in thick Ethernet

specifications.)
– 50 ohm RG-58 (used in thin Ethernet specifications).
– 75 ohm RG-62 (used for ARC net specifications)
The co-axial cable can handle a speed of only 10 Mbps

maximum and the distance it can drive is only 185 m
maximum.
Types of Co-axial cable

There are two types of co-axial cable
– Thin (Thinnet)
– Thick (Thicknet)
The cabling starts from the Hub or switch which is placed
in a Rack centrally. A patch cable (usually 6-10 feet long) Thinnet: Thinnet is a flexible coaxial cable about 0 .25 inch
connects a port on the hub to a patch panel which is also thickness. Because this type of coaxial is flexible and
in the Rack using RJ-45 connectors on each end. On the easy to work with, it can be used in almost any type of
back side of the patch panel, the UTP cable is hard-wired network installation. Networks that use a thinnet have the
or crimped to the panel connector. From the patch panel, cable connected directly to a computer’s network interface
theUTP cable runs continuously to a wall jack or informa- card as in Fig 14.
tion outlet (I/O). The information outlet contains a RJ-45
jack called I/O jack in it. Thinnet is included in a group referred to as the RG-58
family and has a 50-ohm impedance. The main difference
The UTP cable is crimped to the information outlet. in the RG-58 family is the center core of copper. It can be
Another patch cable connects to the RJ-45 jack in the a either stranded wire or solid copper core as in Fig 15.
information outlet and the other end gets connected to the
NIC of the computer. Note that the distance from the
connector on the hub to the connector on the computer’s
NIC cannot exceed 100 metres of cable length.
2 Co-axial cable
Co-axial cable commonly called (“Coax”) is made of two

conductors that share a common axis, hence the name
(“co”, “axis”). typically, the centre of the cable is relatively
stiff solid copper wire or stranded wire surrounded by an
insulating plastic foam. The foam is surrounded by the
second conductor, a wire mesh tube as in Fig 13.
one light path while multimode fiber allows various paths.
The following figure explains the single mode and multimode
fibers. Fig 17
Thicknet: Thicknet is relatively rigid co-axial cable about Single mode fiber cable can be used for distances upto 10
0.405 inches in diameter. The copper core is thicker than kms. and multimode cable for upto 2.5 km. The typical
a thinnet core as shown in Fig 15. This cable is typically speeds are 100/1000 Mbps. The types of optic cable are
installed along the floor of the site. They are usually yellow differentiated by mode, composition (glass or plastic) and
in colour and is marked every 2.5 metres for the taps to core/cladding size.
which the computers connect. To connect a computer to
the cable, you apply a vampire tap. A vampire tap is a Common types of fiber optical cables:
clamp that you connect to the cable after drilling a hole in – 8.3 micron core/125 micron cladding single mode
the sheath. The Vampire tap includes a component called
transceiver which connects to the NIC with an AVI cable – 62.5 mciron core/125 micron cladding multimode
that has 15 pin shell connectors at both ends. The thick – 50 micron core/125 micron cladding multimode
Ethernet segment can have max. cable distance upto 500
metres and a speed of 10 Mbps. – 100 micron core/140 micron cladding multimode
The common fiber optic cables installation is given in the
3 Fiber Optic Cable following Fig 18.
Fiber optic cable is made of light-conducting glass or The signal carried by a single mode cable is generated by
plastic core surrounded by more glass and a tough outer a laser source and that of a multimode by light emitting
sheath as in Fig 16.The center core provide the light path diode (LED). Together, these qualities allow single mode
or wave guide while the glass or cladding is composed of cable to operate at higher bandwidths than multimode and
varying layers of reflective glass. The glass cladding is traverse distances upto 50 times longer. Single mode
designed to refract light back into the core. Each core and cable is cheaper than multimode and has a relatively high
cladding strand is surrounded by a tight or loose sheath in bend radius, which makes it more difficult to work with.
tight configurations, the strand is completely surrounded MMF is most commonly used.
by the outer plastic sheath. Loose configuration use a
liquid gel or other material between the strand and the
protective sheath.
The optical fibers may be multimode or single mode in

nature. Single mode fiber has been optimized to allow only
Fiber optic connectors
The connector used on fiber optic cables is called an ST

(straight tip) connection shown in Fig 19.
One more connector type is SC (subscriber connector) is
coming up popularly. It has a square body and locks by Different types of network connectivity hardware
simply pushing it into the socket. In a network number of hardware devices are used to
The MTRJ is a new fiber optic connector being used widely. connect each computer to a media segment. These
It can operate at Gigabit ethernet speeds (1000 Mbps) devices are:
easily. The MT-RJ has a latching mechanism similar to the 1 Transmission media connectors
RJ-45 UTP connector. A standard MT-RJ connection
2 Network interface boards
consists of 3 components: a male connector (with pins), a
female MT-RJ (with guide holes) and as MTRJ adapter. It 3 Modems
is easy to install and maintain and should be considered for We can also connect multiple separate segments of
any new installation. The figures 20 and 21 show the MTRJ transmission media to form one large network. For this
connectors and connections in use. purpose we use the following networking devices.
Fiber-optic connectors can attach to the cable in several 1 Repeaters
ways, using either a crimped compresion fitting or an 2 Hubs
epoxy glue. 3 Bridges
Fiber cables are mainly used for backbone connectivity 4 Multiplexers
across the floors or when the distance cannot be covered 5 Transceiver
by UTP cable limitation or when the network path to be
6 Routers
connected is exposed to sky.
Fiber cables come in three varieties depending on the place 1 Transmission media connectors:
of usage.
Every medium has one or more physical connectors to
1 Indoor cable - for in-house usage within buildings. which you can attach various devices (Fig 22).
2 Outdoor cable/Armoured cable - to be used in areas
which are exposed to sky. Has an additional hard shield
to prevent any occassional damage.
3 Indoor/outdoor cable can be used inside and outside
buildings. Does not carry heavy shield as in outdoor
cable, but better than indoor cable.
BNC (Bayonet nut connector)
It is a connector for co-axial cable that locks when one

connector is inserted into another and is rotated 90
degrees as in Fig 23.
T-connector: A T-shaped co-axial connector that con- RS 232: (Reference Standard 232) An industry standard
nects two thinnet co-axial cables while supplying an for serial communication connections. Adopted by the
additional connector for a network interface card as in Fig Electrical Industries Association (EIA). This recommended
24. standard (RS) defines the specific lines and signal charac-
teristics used by serial communications controllers to
standardise the transmission of serial data between de-
vices. RS 232 pin assignments details are given in the
following Fig 28 and 29.
Terminators: A resistor used at each end of a co-axial

cable to ensure that signals do not reflect back and cause
errors. The terminators should be of 50 ohm resistance Fig
25.
Barrel connector: Barrel connector is used to connect

two pieces of cable together to make a longer piece of cable
as in Fig 26.
RJ-45: An eight wire modular connector used to join a

network cable to a wall plate or some other device. It is
similar to an RJ-11 telephone conenctor but has twice the
number of conductors. The number of pins are explained in
below table. Fig 27.
Transceiver: A device that connects a computer to the

network. The term transceiver is derived from transmitter/
receiver, so a transceiver is a device that receives and
transmitts the signals. It switches the parallel data stream
used in the cables connecting the computers. Fig 30.
use with telephone lines or microwave transceivers. The
Fig 31 shows modem.
Suppose that one of your computers was located across

the city. You can use a modem to connect to that
computer using telephone line or microwave transceivers.
Repeaters: Electro magnetic waves become weaker as
they pass through transmission medium. Each transmis-
sion medium can only be used for a certain distance. One
can exceed the physical mediums maximum effective
Network interface cards distance by using an amplification device called repeater.
Repeater is shown in the following Figs 32 and 33.
Network interface cards act as the physical interface or
connection between the computer and the network 32
cable.The cards are installed in an expansion slot in each
computer and server on the network.
After the card has been installed, the network cable is
attached to the card’s port to make the actual physical
connection between the computer and the rest of the
network.
Modems (Modulator/Demodulators) converts your com-
puters digital signals to an analog transmission signal to
Hubs: Some networks require a central point of connection Bridges: A bridge extends the maximum distance of your
between media segments. These central points are re- network by connecting separate network segments. Bridges
ferred to as hubs.The Fig 34 shows hub. selectively pass signals from one medium segment to
another as in below Fig 35 and 36.
The above figure explains that
– Receive all signals sent on segment A.
– Discard signals addressed to other nodes on segment
A.
– Retransmit all other signals out of the appropriate ports ments i.e. to efficiently use the entire transmission media
band width, we can use multiplexers.
– Perform the same functions for data on other connected
segments. Multiplexers shown in below Fig 37.
Multi plexers: A multiplexer combines two or more
separate signals on a single transmission media seg-
Routers: Routers connect two or more logically separate different protocols and architectures) is called router. The
networks (consisting of several network segments with following figure explains the operation of Routers Fig 38.
PC-Server: The term client-server can describe hardware, Client computing with Central file storage : At the
in which case it is referring to network servers and client opposite end of the spectrum from centralized computing
computers, or it can refer to a way of organising software is client computing with central file storage (see Fig 40). In
applications and services on a network. Client server this way of organizing an application, the client computer
computing is a powerful way of constructing programs on does all the work. A central file server stores, but that is all.
a network. In order to describe its advantage and how it
works, we will first describe two alternatives to client-server
computing:
– Centralised computing
– Client computing with central file storage
Centralized computing : Centralized computing origi-

nated with mainframe computers and time-sharing. The
principle behind centralized computing is that a central
computer executes a program, such as a database or a
transaction-processing program (for instance, an airline
reservations system or a bank records program) and
remote terminals merely display data on a screen and
convey keyboard data back to the central computer. Client computers cooperate to ensure that central files are
not corrupted by attempts by several computers to access
In modern networks, personal computers can perform the them at the same time. When a client computer needs to
role of dumb terminals. With Windows software, the PC perform an operation, the file is transferred to the client
can appear to the central computer as many terminals, computer to perform the operation. Two examples of this
each virtual terminal accessing different data or performing type of application are networked database programs that
a separate transaction on the mainframe. do not use a SQL. (Structured Query Language) server and
any network-aware application that does not communicate
In centralized computing it is the central computer that with a special program executing on the server, such as
does all the work. The data resides on the central computer network scheduling programs and groupware.
and the program executes on the central computer. The
personal computer or dumb terminal only display screen While it is fully exploits the capabilities of client computers
data and accepts keystrokes for the central computer to and provides a richer and more customizable environment
process. Centralized computing does not fully use the for the user, this type of program can place heavy demands
capabilities of today’s powerful network clients. Fig 39 on the network if the data files in which program works with
illustrates centralized computing. are large. It also takes time to transmit data from the server
to the client, process the data, and transfer it back to the
server so other network programs can access the data.
The Client-Server Model : The Client-server model

combines the advantages of both the centralized comput-
ing model and the client model of computing. It does this
by performing the operations that are best executed by a
central computer on the file server and performing those
operations that are best done close to the user on the client
computer (see Fig 41). The client-server model works best
when many people need access to large amounts of data.
Simply stated, a client-server system is any system in
which the client computer makes a request over a network Web server : A web server is a program using the client/
to a server computer that then satisfies the request. server model and the World Wide Web’s Hyper Text
Transfer Protocol (HTTP) serves the files that form web
The Client : When you use a client-server system, what pages to web users.
you see is the client, or front end. It presents the interface
to manipulate or search for data. The request you make by Every computer on the internet that contains a web site
manipulating windows, menu, check boxes and so on, is must have a web server program. The most popular web
translated into a compact form that the client transmits servers are: The Microsoft’s Internet Information Server
over the network for the server to perform. (IIS) which comes with the Microsoft’s Windows NT Server;
Netscape Fast Track and Enterprises Servers and Apache,
One example of a front end is Microsoft Access when it is a web server for Unix-based operating systems. Other web
used with a SQL back end. (You can also use Access servers include Novell’s Web Server for users of its Netware
without a SQL back end.) Access displays tables in Operating System and IBM’s family of Lotus Domino
windows or in forms you can browse. It allows you to modify Servers. Primarily for IBM’s OS/390 and AS/400 custom-
and search the tables in an easy-to-use graphical environ- ers.
ment. All the actual data manipulation, however, occurs on
the SQL server. Access translates all the data-base Web servers often come as a part of a larger package of
operations into SQL for the server to perform. The results Internet related programs for serving e-mail, downloading
of the operations are transmitted back to Access to display requests for File Transfer Protocol (FTP) files and building
in an intuitive, graphical form. and publishing web pages. Consideration in choosing a
web server include how well it works with the operating
SQL is not limited to database programs such as Microsoft system and other servers, its ability to handle server side
Access. User programs such as Microsoft Excel can use programming and publishing, search engine and site
SQL to query the back-end data-base server for values to building tools that may come with it.
use in spreadsheet calculations. Program tools allow
custom programs to store and retrieve data in server-based
databases. Query tools provide direct access to the SQL
data.
The Server : The server is where data operations in a

client-server system occur. The central computer can
service many client requests quickly and efficiently, which
is the traditional advantage of centralized computing. The
central computer can also provide enhanced security by
performing only authorized operations on the data.
Back-end database software is optimized to perform

searches and sorts and the back-end computer is often
more powerful than the front-end computer.
WIFI Network
Objective
At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain bluetooth device
• explain wifi.
Wireless network Fig 1
Connecting to a network using wires has become

nowadays outdated as most times availability of wireless
networks is there in public places.
Wireless network uses the connections through wifi de-
vices and bluetooth devices.
Bluetooth device
Depiction of a device sending information wirelessly to
Bluetooth device are installed inside devices like mobile
another device, both connected to the local network, in
phones laptops and on a seperate adapters in desktops.
order to print a document Fig 1.
It connects devices by identification using machine id and
one-to-one basic paired connections. The date shared Wi-Fi most commonly uses the 2.4 gigahertz (12 cm)
between paired devices are about Mbps in normal USB UHF and 5.8 gigahertz (5cm) SHF ISM radio bands, these
mode. Sharing internet is also availabe in bluetooth bands are subdivied into multiple channels. Each channel
networks. The only restriction is its connecting area and can be time-shared by multiple networks. These
speed of transmission. wavelengths work best for line-of sight. Many common
materials absorb or reflect them, which further restricts
WIFI device
range, but can tend to help minimise interference between
Compared to bluetooth the wifi devices are very fast in different networks in crowded environments. At close range,
transmitting data and area of coverage and connecting some versions of Wi-Fi, running on suitable hardware can
devices are also more. Wifi also used to connect a LAN achieve speeds of over 1 Gbps. The block diagram is
using TCP/IP settings. Unlike bluetooth, wifi is secured shown in Fig 2.
with connection. Key as passwords, which restricts
Anyone within range with a wireless network interface
unauthorised accessing of network and sharing internet
controller can attempt to access a network; because of
connections. Configuring wifi network using a mobile phone
this, Wi-Fi is more vulnerable to attack (called
is very easy as just select ‘”wifi hotspot” to share its
eavesdropping) than wired networks. Wi-Fi protected
internet connectivity and access from other devices by
access is a family of technologies created to protect
providing pass key. Also when dhcp mode is enabled in a
information moving across Wi-Fi networks and includes
wifi modem, systems can easily be connected to the
solutions for personal and enterprise networks. Security
network as configured.
features of Wi-Fi protected Access have included stronger
Wi-Fi protections and new security practices as the security
Wi-Fi or WiFi (/’waifai/’) is technology for radio wireless landscape has changed over time.
local area networking of devices based on th IEEE 802.11
Fig 2
standards. Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance,
which complete interoperability certification testing.
Devices that can be Wi-Fi technology include personal
computers, video-game consoles, smartphones and
tablets, digital cameras, smart TVs, digital audio players
and modern printers. Wi-Fi compatible devicescan connect
to the internet via a WLAN and a wireless access
point.Such an acceass point (or hotspot) has a range of
about 20 meters (66 feet) indoors and a greater range
outdoors. Hotspot coverage can be as small as a single
room with walls that block radio waves, or as large as
many square kilometers achieved by using multiple
overlapping access points.
341
Network Protocol Fast Ethernet
Rules of Network Protocol include guidelines that regulate To allow for an increased speed of transmission, the
the following characteristics of a network: access method, Ethernet protocol has developed a new standard that
allowed physical topologies, types of cabling, and speed supports 100 Mbps. This is commonly called Fast
of data transfer. Ethernet. Fast Ethernet requires the application of different,
more expensive network concentrators/hubs and network
Types of Network Protocols interface cards. In addition, category 5 twisted pair or
fiber optic cable is necessary. Fast Ethernet is becoming
The most common network protocols are:
common in schools that have been recently wired.
• Ethernet
Local Talk
• Local Talk
Local Talk is a network protocol that was developed by
• Token Ring Apple Computer, Inc. for Macintosh computers. The
method used by Local Talk is called CSMA/CA (Carrier
• FDDI Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance). It is
similar to CSMA/CD except that a computer signals its
ATM intent to transmit before it actually does so. Local Talk
adapters and special twisted pair cable can be used to
The followings are some commonly used network symbols
connect a series of computers through the serial port.
to draw different kinds of network protocols.
The Macintosh operating system allows the establishment
of a peer-to-peer network without the need for additional
Fig 3 software. With the addition of the server version of
AppleShare software, a client/server network can be
established.
The Local Talk protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree
topologies using twisted pair cable. A primary disadvantage
of Local Talk is low speed. Its speed of transmission is
only 230 Kbps.
Token Ring
The Token Ring protocol was developed by IBM in the
mid-1980s. The access method used involves token-
passing. In Token Ring, the computers are connected so
that the signal travels around the network from one
computer to another in a logical ring. A single electronic
token moves around the ring from one computer to the
Ethernet next. If a computer does not have information to transmit,
The Ethernet protocol is by far the most widely used one. it simply passes the token on to the next workstation. If a
Ethernet uses an access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier computer wishes to transmit and receives an empty token,
Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection). This is a it attaches data to the token. The token then proceeds
system where each computer listens to the cable before around the ring until it comes to the computer for which
sending anything through the network. If the network is the data is meant. At this point, the data is captured by
clear, the computer will transmit. If some other nodes the receiving computer. The Token Ring protocol requires
have already transmitted on the cable, the computer will a star-wired ring using twisted pair or fiber optic cable. It
wait and try again when the line is clear. Sometimes, two can operate at transmission speeds of 4 Mbps or 16
computers attempt to transmit at the same instant. A Mbps. Due to the increasing popularity of Ethernet, the
collision occurs when this happens. Each computer then use of Token Ring in school environments has decreased.
backs off and waits a random amount of time before
attempting to retransmit. With this access method, it is FDDI
normal to have collisions. However, the delay caused by Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a network
collisions and retransmitting is very small and does not protocol that is used primarily to interconnect two or more
normally effect the speed of transmission on the network. local area networks, often over large distances. The
The Ethernet protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree access method used by FDDI involves token-passing.
topologies. Data can be transmitted over wireless access FDDI uses a dual ring physical topology. Transmission
points, twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optic cable at a speed normally occurs on one of the rings; however, if a break
of 10 Mbps up to 1000 Mbps. occurs, the system keeps information moving by
automatically using portions of the second ring to create
a new complete ring. A major advantage of FDDI is high
speed. It operates over fiber optic cable at 100 Mbps.
ATM File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a network protocol
that transmits data at a speed of 155 Mbps and higher. Fig 3
ATM works by transmitting all data in small packets of a
fixed size; whereas, other protocols transfer variable length
packets. ATM supports a variety of media such as video,
CD-quality audio, and imaging. ATM employs a star
topology, which can work with fiber optic as well as twisted
pair cable.
ATM is most often used to interconnect two or more local
area networks. It is also frequently used by Internet Service
Providers to utilize high-speed access to the Internet for
their clients. As ATM technology becomes more cost-
effective, it will provide another solution for constructing
faster local area networks. File Transfer Protocol(FTP) is an application layer protocol
which moves files between local and remote file systems.
Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) It runs on the top of TCP, like HTTP. To transfer a file, 2
TCP connections are used by FTP in parallel: control
Definition connection and data connection
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) Control connection
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) For sending control information like user identification,
is the language a computer uses to access the internet. password, commands to change the remote directory,
It consists of a suite of protocols designed to establish a commands to retrieve and store files etc., FTP makes
network of networks to provide a host with access to the use of control connection. Control connection is initiated
internet. on port number 21.
TCP/IP is responsible for full-fledged data connectivity Data connection

and transmitting the data end to end by providing other
For sending the actual file, FTP makes use of data
functions, including addressing, mapping and
connection. Data connection is initiated on port number
acknowledgment. TCP/IP contains four layers, which differ
20.
slightly from the OSI model.
FTP sends the control information out-of-band as it uses
The technology is so common that one would rarely use
a separate control connection. Some protocols send their
the full name. In other words, in common usage the
request and response header lines and the data in the
acronym is now the term itself.
same TCP connection. For this reason, they are said to
Techopedia explains Transmission Control Protocol/ send their control information in-band. HTTP and SMTP
Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) are such examples.
Nearly all computers today support TCP/IP. TCP/IP is
FTP Session
not a single networking protocol - it is a suite of protocols
named after the two most important protocols or layers When a FTP session is started between a client and a
within it - TCP and IP. server, the client initiates a control TCP connection with
the server side. The client sends the control information
As with any form of communication, two things are
over this. When the server receives this, it initiates a data
needed: a message to transmit and the means to reliably
connection to the client side. Only one file can be sent
transmit the message. The TCP layer handles the
over one data connection. But the control connection
message part. The message is broken down into smaller
remains active throughout the user session. As we know
units, called packets, which are then transmitted over
HTTP is stateless i.e. it does not have to keep track of
the network. The packets are received by the
any user state. But FTP needs to maintain a state about
corresponding TCP layer in the receiver and reassembled
its user throughout the session.
into the original message.
The IP layer is primarily concerned with the transmission Data Structures
portion. This is done by means of a unique IP address
FTP allows three types of data structures
assigned to each and every active recipient on the network.
1 File Structure - In file-structure there is no internal
TCP/IP is considered a stateless protocol suite because
structure and the file is considered to be a continuous
each client connection is newly made without regard to
whether a previous connection had been established.
Electronic Mechanic - IC Regulators
Integrated circuit voltage regulators

• state the meaning of integrated circuits
• state the specification of I.C
• state the types of IC voltage regulators with examples
• design voltage regulators for the required output
• modify a fixed voltage regulator to a variable output regulator.
Introduction (c) Complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)

Electronic circuits invariably consist of a number of - electron or hole current.
discrete components connected to each other in a specific
way. For instance, the series regulator circuit discussed Integrated circuit (IC) voltage regulators
in earlier lessons, consisted of transistors, zener diodes, The series voltage regulators discussed in earlier lessons
resistors and so on, connected in a defined way for it to are available in the form of integrated circuits (ICs). They
function as a regulator. If all these components instead of are known as voltage regulator ICs.
building on a board, if they are built on a single wafer of a
semiconductor crystal, then, the physical size of the There are two types of voltage regulator ICs. They are,
circuit becomes very very small. Although small, this will 1 Fixed output voltage regulator ICs
do the same job as that of the circuit wired using discrete
components. Such miniaturised electronic circuits pro- 2 Adjustable output voltage regulator ICs.
duced within and upon a single crystal, usually silicon, are
known as integrated circuits or ICs. Integrated circuits Fixed output voltage regulator ICs
(ICs) can consist of thousands of active components like
The latest generation of fixed output voltage regulator ICs
transistor, diodes and passive components like resistors
have only three pins as shown in Fig 1. They are designed
and capacitors in some specific order such that they
to provide either positive or negative regulated DC output
function in a defined way, say as voltage regulators or
voltage.
amplifiers or oscillators and so on.
These ICs consists of all those components and even
Classification of integrated circuits
more in the small packages shown in Fig 1. These ICs,
Integrated circuits may be classified in several ways. when used as voltage regulators, do not need extra
However the most popular classifications is as follows: components other than two small value capacitors as
shown in Fig 2.
1 Based on its type of circuitry
(a) Analog ICs - Example: amplifier ICs, voltage regula-
tor ICs etc.
(b) Digital ICs - Example: Digital gates, flip-flops, adders
etc.
2 Based on the number of transistors built into IC
(a) Small scale integration (SSI) - consists of 1 to 10
transistors.
(b) Medium scale integration (MSI) - consists of 10 to
100 transistors.
(c) Large scale integration (LSI) - 100 to 1000 transis- The reason behind using capacitor C1 is, when the voltage
tors. regulator IC is more than a few inches from the filter
capacitors of the unregulated power supply, the lead
(d) Very large scale integration (VLSI) - 1000 and inductance may produce oscillations within the IC. Capaci-
above. tor C1 prevents setting up of such oscillations. Typical
3 Based on the type of transistors used value of bypass capacitor C1 range from 0.220μF to 1μF.
It is important to note that C1 should be connected as close
(a) Bipolar - carries both electron and hole current. to the IC as possible.
(b) Metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) - electron or hole
current.
344
mum output voltages. While using this IC take the
typical value as this value corresponds to the output
voltage at IC under normal input and load conditions.
– Output regulation
This indicates the amount by which the output voltage
may vary at rated maximum load condition. For exam-
ple, in μA7812 IC, the output voltage may vary by 4 mV
from its rated 12 V DC when the rated typical load
current is 2.2A.
– Short circuit output current
This indicates the shorted current ISC if the output gets
shorted. In μA 7812 the output current is limited to
350mA when the output terminals are shorted.
The capacitor C2 is used to improve the transient response – Drop out voltage
of the regulated output voltage. C2 bypasses these tran- For instance, in μA7812 in which the output voltage is
sients produced during the ON/OFF time. Typical values +12 V, the input unregulated DC voltage to the regulator
of C2 range from 0.1μF to 10 μF. must be higher than the output voltage. The specifica-
tion drop out voltage indicates, the minimum positive
Fixed voltage three terminal regulators are available from difference between the input and output voltages for the
different IC manufacturers for different output voltages IC to operate as a regulator. For example, in, μA7812
(such as 5V, 9V, 12V, 24V) with maximum load current the unregulated input voltage should be atleast 2 volts
rating ranging from 100mA to more than three amps. more than the regulated DC output of 12V. This means
for μA7812 the input must be atleast 14V.
The most popular three terminal IC regulators are,
The difference between the voltage across the input and
1 LMXXX-X series output of the IC should also not to be very high as this
Example: LM320-5, LM320-24 etc. causes unwanted dissipation. As a thumb rule, the input
voltage to the regulator shall be restricted to a maximum
of twice the output voltage of the regulator. For example,
2 78XX and 79XX series for μA7812, the unregulated input voltage should be more
Example: 7805, 7812, 7912 etc. than 14V, but less than 24V.
A list of popular three terminal regulators is given in Pocket – Ripple rejection

Table Book, Table No.30. This indicates the ratio of ripple rejection between the
output to input, expressed in decibels.
Specifications of three terminal IC regulators
For simplicity in understanding, let us consider the specifica- – Peak output current
tion of a three terminal IC μA7812. The table given below This indicates the highest output or load current that
lists the specifications of μA7812. can be drawn. Above this rated maximum current the
safety of the IC is not guaranteed.
Parameter Min. Typ. Max. Units
Output voltage 11.5 12 12.5 V Identification of output voltage and rated maximum
load current from IC type number
Output regulation 4 120 mV
Short-circuit output – 78XX and 79XX series are 3 Terminal voltage regu-
current 350 mA lators.
Drop out voltage 2.0 V – All 78XX series are positive output voltage regula-
tors.
Ripple rejection 55 71 dB
– All 79XX series are negative output voltage regula-
Peak output current 2.2 A tors.
– Output voltage: The term XX indicates the rated output regulated voltage.
This specification indicates the regulated DC output
voltage that can be obtained from the IC. As can be seen
from the sample specification table given above, the
manufacturer specifies minimum, typical and maxi-
E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.8.97- 1.8.88 345
Example: Examples:
7805
LM 320 – 5
Indicates Indicates
Positive output Output voltage
regulator is +5 V
RCA Output voltage -5 V
(Manufacturer)
79 12
Fixed negative
voltage regulator
Indicates Indicates
Negative output Output voltage
LM 340-15
regulator is -12 V
It is important to note that, different manufacturers of

RCA Output voltage +15V
78XX/79XX series such as Fair Child (μA/μpc), Motorola,
Signetics (SS) adopt slightly different coding schemes to
indicate the rated maximum current of the three pin Fixed positive
regulated ICs. One such scheme is given below. voltage regulator
78LXX - L indicates rated maximum load current as Practical 78XX and 79XX voltage regulator circuits
100mA. Fig 3 shows the circuit connections of a 12 V, 1 A regulated
78MXX - M indicates rated maximum load current as power supply using 7812.
500mA
78XX - Absence of an alphabet between 78 and XX
indicates that the rated maximum load current
is 1A.
78SXX - S indicates rated maximum load current is 2
amps.
Example:
μPC 78 M 15H
Fair Child Regulated output The output voltage of a 3-terminal regulator IC is with
(Manufacturer’s voltage is 15 V. reference to the IC’s common terminal (COM). When the
code) COM terminal is grounded, the output voltage of the
Positive Rated maximum load regulator will be the specified output voltage of the IC as
regulator current is 500mA. shown in Fig 3. But the output voltage of the IC can be
increased above the specified value by raising the voltage
LM 3XX series of 3 terminal voltage regulators at the COM terminal as shown in Fig 4. Because of 6.1V
zener, the output voltage will be 6.1V + 12V = 18.1V or
In LM series of three terminal regulators, to find the approximately 18V as shown in Fig 4.
specifications, it is suggested to refer to its data manual.
However, the following tips will help in identifying whether
the IC is a fixed positive or fixed negative regulator.
LM320-X and LM320-XX Fixed -ve voltage

regulators.
LM340-X or LM340-XX Fixed +ve voltage
regulators.
When the COM terminal of the IC is grounded as shown in

Fig 3, the quiescent current flowing from the COM terminal
to ground in 78 series is around 8 μA. This current
decreases as the load current increases. When a zener is
connected at COM terminal as shown in Fig 4, to ensure
346 E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.8.97- 1.8.88
that the zener is always in the reverse ON condition,
resistor R1 is used. If R1 = 1.8K, IZ will be 7mA which is
sufficient to keep the zener ON always.
Fig 5 shows a variable output voltage regulator using a

fixed voltage regulator. The variable reference voltage at
COM terminal is obtained using a POT.
Since the quiescent current through the pot is very low

(around 8μA) and it decreases with load resistor R1 is used
to compensate the changes in the quiescent current due
to loading. Therefore, the bias voltage is determined by the
sum of the quiescent current IQ and the bias current set by
R1. In Fig 5, when the resistance of the POT is set to 0,
COM is grounded and hence output will be 12V. As the set
value of pot increases the output voltage also increases.
Fig 6 shows a negative voltage regulator using 7912. The

working of this circuit is similar to that of Fig 7 except that
it is a negative voltage regulator and hence the voltage at
pin no.3 of the IC will be -12volts.
Fig 7 shows a +15 volts regulator using LM340. This circuit

connection is very much similar to that of the 78XX series
regulator.
Recall, than the value input unregulated DC to a regulator
Multiple voltage using three-terminal fixed voltage should always be less than twice the output of the
regulator regulator. As shown in the third regulator (7805) of Fig 8,
Fig 8 shows how a three-terminal IC can be used to obtain when it is necessary to operate with a large input voltage,
multiple voltages. Such economical and elegant circuits a series resistance RS can be added in series to drop
are very useful for electronic circuits and for service required voltage.
technicians.
The scheme shown in Fig 8 is one of the several schemes
that can be adopted to get multiple voltage output.
E&H Electronic Mechanic (NSQF - 5) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.8.97- 1.8.88 347
Heat Sinks for I.C. based Regulators

• explain the IC 79XX voltage regulator
• explain heat sink
• draw circuit diagram using IC 79xx.
IC 79XX voltage regulator

79XX voltage regulators are very commonly used in elec-
tronic circuits. The main purpose of this IC is to supply
required regulated negative voltage to the circuits. IC 79XX
can supply a constant negative voltage output. In spite of
any voltage fluctuations in its input voltage. It can be mainly
found in the circuits in which integrated circuits that
require +Vcc and -Vcc are used.
IC79xx is a three pin negative voltage controller IC as

shown in Fig 1. It is a small integrated ciruit used in a
circuit to supply a constant negative input voltage. The
number 79 indicates that it is a negative voltage regulator
and xx indicates the output voltage of the IC. ‘xx’ can be
replaced by the controlled output voltage provided by the
regulator, for example, if it is 7905, then the output voltage
of the IC is -5 V. Similarly if it is 7912, then output voltage
of the IC is -12 volts and so on. The name of the IC may
vary based on the manufacturer as LM79xx, L79xx,
MC79xx etc.
Heat sink
IC 79xx requires heat sink for its safe operation. Heat
sink boosts heat dissipation therefore the life of the de-
vice can be extended
79xx ICs and output voltages
IC Number Output Voltage
7905 -05 Volts
7912 -12 Volts
7915 -15 Volts
7918 - 18 Volts
The pin 1 acts as the ground terminal (0V). The pin 2 acts
as the input terminal (5V to 24 V). The pin 3 acts as the
output terminal (constant regulated 5V). Pin out configuration of IC 79xx.
The pin out configuration of IC 79xx is shown in the
diagram below
• The pin 1 acts as the ground terminal (0V).
• The pin 2 acts as the input terminal (5V to 24V)
• The pin 3 acts as the output terminal (constant
regulated 5V)
348
Connection diagram IC 78xx
IC 78xx is used in circuit as shown in the (Fig 2). In order Similar to IC 79xx, IC 78xx is a three pin IC that gives a
to improve stability two capacitors C1 and C2 are used. constant output voltage of +5V irrespective of the varying
The capacitor C1 is used only if the regulator is seperated input voltages. The maximum value of input voltage that
from filter capacitor by more than 3". It must be a 2.2μF the IC can withstand is 24 volts.
solid tantalum capacitor or 25μF aluminium electrolytic
capacitor. The capacitor C2 is required for stability. Usu-
ally 1μF solid tantalum capacitor is used. One can also
use 25μF aluminium electrolytic capacitor. Values given
may be increased without limit.
Electronic Mechanic - IC Regulator
OP-amp and Voltage regulator

• explain concept of using an operational amplifier
• draw circuit diagram of a IC723 voltage regulator
• draw circuit diagram of a positive voltage regulator
Concept of Op-amp voltage regulator V- = VL . R1/(R1+R2) (2)
Here, we explain the general concept of using an operational However, V+ is also equal to the zener breakdown voltage
amplifier for voltage regulation. By utilizing an op-amp and (Vz), because the non-inverting input of the op-amp is
few other external components, we can easily build a linear directly connected to the cathode of the zener diode
voltage regulator. Apart for being a regulator, the same
circuit is also a voltage stabilizer, able to stabilize voltage V+ = VZ (3)
at a grade better than 0.01%. The circuit as shown in Fig After solving (1),(2) and (3), we get: VL = VZ . (1+R2/R1) (4)
1 from a non-stabilized DC-power source, and uses a
From equation (4), we conclude that VL voltage (which is
transistor (T1) inside a feedback loop. The transistor is
the voltage applied to the load) is directly proportional to the
used to supply the load with much more current than the
Zener voltage. As far as the Zener voltage remains stable,
op-amp itself could possibly supply. The D1 diode is a
VL also remains stable. Additionally, the voltage applied to
Zener-type diode and it is used for voltage reference.
the load, can be easily adjusted by adjusting R1, R2 or both
of them. For continues voltage adjustment, R1 and R2
should be replaced by a potentiometer, having its wiper at
the non-inverting input of the op-amp, and its other leads at
the ground and the VL line, respectively. VLZ is not possible
to exceed VDC. It can be almost as much high as VDC when
T1 saturates, but no more than this. VL (the voltage at the
load) could not also be lower than VZ. That's why VZ<VL<VDC.
As in any linear regulator, heat losses on T1 increase when
the output voltage decreases. In fact, the power loss due
to heating is the current times the voltage dropped across
T1. Besides heating losses, a linear regulator is often
preferred over a switching one because it does not require
any inductors which can be relatively expensive or bulky.
D1 is biased through Rz. When correctly reverse biased,

the zener diode keeps the voltage across its leads close to
the zener breakdown voltage. The op-amp is used as a
linear voltage amplifier. Due to the high open loop voltage
gain of the op-amp, and as far as the op-amp remains in its
linear region, the voltage difference between its inverting
(V-) and non-inverting input (V+) is almost equal to zero. In
other words, the voltage at its non-inverting input, in respect
to the ground, equals the voltage at its inverting input:
V- = V+ (1)
Equation (1) holds true for any op-amp working at its linear
region (as an amplifier).
R1 and R2 form a voltage divider, and the voltage (V-) at their
connection point is also given by the well known voltage-
divider formula:
350
We have already explained in detail about the basics of positive and negative voltage regulations with an output
voltage regulators and IC voltage regulators. Let us take a voltage ranging from 2V to 37V, and output current levels
look at one of the most popular IC voltage regulators, the upto 150m A. The maximum supply voltage is 40V, and the
723 voltage regulator IC. The functional diagram of the line and load regulations are each specified as 0.01%.
voltage regulator is shown in fig 2. It consists of a voltage
The figure shown in Fig 3 is a positive voltage regulator with
reference source (pin 6), an error amplifier with its inverting
an IC 723. The output voltage can be set to any desired
input on pin 4 and non-inverting input on pin 5, a series pass
transistor (pin 10 and 11) and a current limiting transistor
on as pins 2 and 3. The device can be set to work as both
positive voltage between (7-37) volts. 7 volts is the reference Another important point to note about this IC is that the
starting voltage. All these variations are brought with the supply voltage at the lowest point on the ripple waveform,
change of values in resistors R1 and R2 with the help of a should be at least 3 V greater than the output of the
potentiometer. A darlington connection is made by the regulator and greater than Vref. If it is not so a
transistor to Q1 to handle large load current. The broken high-amplitude output ripple is possible to occur.
lines in the image indicate the internal connections for
current limiting. Even foldback current limiting is possible
in this IC. A regulator output voltage less than the 7V
reference level can be obtained by using a voltage divider
across the reference source. The potentially divided
reference voltage is then connected to terminal 5.
IC voltage regulators - variable output

• draw the circuit diagram of a dual power supply
• list a few variable regulator 3-pin ICs
• draw the circuit diagram of a variable output regulator using a 3-pin IC
• explain feedback and error amplification.
Dual power supply
IC can be attached, to obtain a ± regulated DC supply. One
Most electronic circuits generally need either a +ve DC such ± regulated DC supply using 7812 (+ve regulator) and
supply or a -ve DC supply for its working. However, there 7912 (-ve regulator) is shown in Fig 3.
are circuits which are designed to work using both +ve and
-Ve supplies. An example of circuits which require both +ve
and -ve supply are the OP-AMPs. OP-AMPs are inte-
grated circuit amplifiers which need, +ve supply, -ve
supply and ground. A typical OP-AMP circuit is shown in
Fig 1.
Therefore, for circuits which require both +ve and -ve DC
supplies, a single power supply which can deliver both ±
DC is required to be designed. Power supplies which can
The +ve and -ve regulator circuits shown in Fig 3. The

function of diodes is very important. If these diodes D1 and
D2 are not used, the regulator ICs may get damaged due
to common load problems. The term common load means,
a load connected across the +ve and -ve outputs of the
regulator as shown in Fig 4. Because of the fact that these
common leads does not make use of the ground (GND)
several problems occur when the supply is switch ON, in
deliver both ± DC are generally referred to as Dual Power case of over loads and so on. Hence to avoid the common
Supply. load problem in dual power supplies diodes D1 and D2 are
To design a ± or dual regulated power supply, as a first step very essential.
it is required to design a ± unregulated DC supply. Fig 2
shows a simple method of obtaining ± unregulated DC
supply.
Once, a ± unregulated DC supply is available, one each of
+ve regulator 3-terminal IC and a -ve regulator 3-terminal
352
Variable/adjustable output voltage regulators In Fig 6, capacitor C1 is used to prevent setting up of the
oscillations and should be connected as close to IC as
A number of IC voltage regulators are available using
possible. Capacitor C2 is used to improve the ripple in the
which an adjustable output voltage of 1.2V to 32 volts can
output voltage. Note that the value of C3 should not be very
be obtained. Amongst these adjustable output voltage
high (recall, surge current). Capacitor C2 is used to avoid
regulators, there are two types:
excess ringing.
3-Terminal variable output voltage regulators ICs
When external capacitors are used with any IC regulator,
Multi-terminal variable output voltage regulator ICs
it is necessary to add protection diodes to prevent the
capacitors from discharging through low current points into
3-Terminal variable output regulators ICs the regulator. Hence, diodes D1 and D2 are used. D1
These ICs look like 3-terminal fixed output voltage regula- protects the IC against shorts due to C3 and D2 protects
tors as shown in Fig 3. A few examples of 3-terminal against shorts due to C2.
adjusted output voltage regulator ICs are,
The ICs LM317 and 338 have built in fold back current
• LM117 Output adjustable from 1.2 V to 37 V limiting and thermal protection. These ICs are available in
• LM317 Output adjustable from 1.2 V to 32 V both plastic and metal packages with current ratings from
• LM338 Output adjustable from 1.2 V to 32 V 0.1A (LM317L) to 5A(LM338K).
• LM350 Output adjustable from 1.2 V to 33 V
LM117, LM317 and LM338 are of the same family
These variable output voltage regulator ICs are designed ICs, and hence, are interchangeable.
for adjustable output voltage, unlike the fixed output 3-pin
regulators such as 7812, LM 340-5 etc which can be Multiple-pin-Variable voltage regulator ICs
modified to get variable output voltage.
Unlike 3-pin fixed output voltage regulators and 3-pin
Fig 5 shows a basic variable output voltage regulator. variable output voltage regulators, voltage regulator ICs
having multiple pins are designed for versatility. These
multiple pin IC regulators can be used as a linear regulator
(all the regulators discussed so far), or as a switching
regulator (to be discussed), or as a shunt regulator (to be
discussed) or as a current regulator (to be discussed).
Generally in multiple pin types of regulators, dissipation

limitation of the IC packages restrict the output current to
a few tens of milliamps. However, external transistors can
be added to obtain currents in excess of 5A.
In the circuit at Fig 3, if the adjustment terminal (ADJ) is Some of the multiple pin, versatile IC regulators are,
grounded, the output of the regulator will be 1.2 volts. To LM100, LM105, LM205, LM305, μA723, CA3085 and
obtain a higher output voltage a small reference voltage is so on.
given at ADJ using a voltage divider circuit consisting of
R1 and R2 as shown in Fig 5. With this the regulated output Feedback and Error Amplification
voltage is approximately given by
To improve on the simple series regulator a feedback circuit
Vout = 1.2 V x (1 + (R2 /R1)) .......{1} and error amplifier can be added to the basic series circuit.
A practical version of the circuit at Fig 3 is shown in Fig 6.
This circuit uses a few bypass capacitors and protection Fig 7 shows a block diagram of a series regulator circuit
diodes. with error amplification. In this system the reference
voltage Vz is compared with a feedback voltage VF, which
is a portion of the actual output voltage. The difference
between the two inputs produces an error voltage that is
used to vary the conduction of the control element,
correcting any error in the output voltage.
Error-correction power amp
Error correction looks at the difference between the amp

output and the amp input (taking into account of course the
amp gain). Any difference is returned to the input and added
to that input, in precisely the right amount to make the
output identical to the input. Because the output is now
identical to the input, distortion becomes ideally not just
smaller, but zero. In practice, this will not happen, as the
precision with which you can return the error and add it at
the input is always less than perfect. Also, whatever the
load, the output stays correct, so it looks as if the output
impedence is really zero (or close to it ) This technique
does not require that the amp (open loop) gain is very, very
high. It is enough if the amp has a gain close to the final
required gain, and then the ec fills in the missing fraction
in the signal.
NSQF
LEVEL-5
ELECTRONIC MECHANIC
Sector: Electronics & Hardware
TRADE THEORY 1ST SEMESTER
ELECTRONIC MECHANIC TRADE THEORY − 1ST SEMESTER (NSQF LEVEL- 5)

(a) (b)
C1 C2 Cn CT
V
ET180612
C T = C 1+ C 2 + +Cn
IN COM OUT
IN OUT
UNREGULATED
REGULATED
DC OUTPUT
COMMON
DC INPUT
C1 C2
ET1B0512
AS PER NCVT REVISED SYLLABUS FOR ITI

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NSQF

TRADE THEORY 1ST SEMESTER

ELECTRONIC MECHANIC TRADE THEORY − 1ST SEMESTER (NSQF LEVEL- 5)

AS PER NCVT REVISED SYLLABUS FOR ITI

DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

Copyright © 2018 National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai

All rights reserved.

long way in improving the quality of Vocational training in the country.

New Delhi - 110 001

MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Shri. G. Ethirajulu _ Principal (Retd),

Shri. D.S. Varadarajulu _ DD/Principal (Retd),

MDC Member, NIMI,

Smt. S. Sanjikadevi _ Assistant Professor (Retd)

MDC Member NIMI, Chennai - 32

Shri. P. Jayavel _ Training officer (Retd)

MDC Member, NIMI

Shri. Deenadayalan _ Project Manager

Shri. V. Gopalakrishnan _ Assistant Manager,

Module 1 Basic Workshop Practice 13 Exercises 75 Hrs

Module 3 Measuring Technique 05 Exercises 50 Hrs

Module 4 Soldering and De-Soldering 06 Exercises 25 Hrs

Module 6 Rectifiers 10 Exercises 50 Hrs

Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Page No.

Module 1 : Basic Workshop Practice

1.1.01 Familiarization of the industrial training institute 1

1.1.02 Importance of safety and Precautions to be taken in the industry/shop floor 2

1.1.03 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 5

1.1.04 &1.1.05 First Aid 9

1.1.06 Safety Practice - Fire extinguishers 18

1.1.07 - 1.1.09 Basic hand tools 23

1.1.10 - 1.1.13 Fitting and Sheet metal 35

Module 2 : Basic Electricity

1.2.14 - 1.2.16 Electrical Terms 39

1.2.29 - 1.2.31 Cells and Batteries 50

1.2.32 - 1.2.35 Secondary batteries-types,charge,discharge and maintenance 54

Module 3 : Measuring Technique

1.3.36 Introdcution to measuring instruments 64

1.3.37 Classification of electrical meters and essential forces required in an 72

1.3.38 & 1.3.39 Controls and functions in Oscilloscopes 83

1.3.40 Signal generators 89

Module 4 : Soldering and De-Soldering

1.4.41 - 1.4.44 Soldering of wires 92

1.4.45 & 1.4.46 Switches 103

Module 5 : Active and Passive component

1.5.47 Active electronic components 111

1.5.48 - 1.5.50 Resistors 113

1.5.51 Ohm’s Law 124

1.5.52 - 1.5.54 Krichhoff’s Laws 130

1.5.55 Inductors and Inductance 134

1.5.56 Capacitors & Capacitance 146

1.5.57 Circuit breakers 161

1.5.58 - 1.5.60 Relays 165

1.5.61 Time constant for RC circuit 175

1.5.62 R.C Differentiator 178

1.5.63 R.L.C. Series and Parallel circuit 181

1.6.64 - 1.6.66 Semiconductor diodes 199

Module 7 : Basic Computer

1.7.78 CMOS setup and BIOS installation 260

1.7.79 Switch Mode Power Supply for PC 263