Summer On The Island: Episodic Volunteering
Summer On The Island: Episodic Volunteering
Summer On The Island: Episodic Volunteering
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Editorial 5
Abstracts 7
Abstracts
Supported Temporary
accommodation accomodation
4% (inc B&B)
Street homeless
11%
6%
Hostels
Squat
33%
2%
Someone's sofa
6%
Recently LA/Housing
resettled association
Nightshelter 17%
15% Not answered 4%
2%
Homeless people and volunteering 15
Percentage of people who thought that volunteering could help people a great
amount to:
100
90
80 100
92
70 92 91 91
87 87 85 85 85
60
50
This reinforces the findings of our but you are also getting something in
own research – that the development return.
of ‘soft’ skills is the most important
benefit of volunteering. Future With volunteering I can contribute
research carried out by OSW will, one something to society whilst developing
hopes, be able to track the progress my skills and experience.
of individuals over several years and
draw a more informed conclusion on The fact that volunteering is a
whether volunteering is a significant way of helping other people was
factor in helping people to find paid an extremely important motivator.
employment. Among respondents with experience
of volunteering, 11 per cent said it
Focusing solely on employability was the single most important benefit
denies us the full picture of the to be derived from volunteering, and
benefits of volunteering. As a many people mentioned it alongside
high proportion of funding for other benefits. This sense of reciprocal
move-on services in homelessness benefit gives volunteering a unique
agencies is dependent on ‘hard’ advantage. It is more than just a
outcomes (e.g. jobs, qualifications), meaningful activity: the experience
there is a tendency to emphasise of actively choosing to help someone
employability over other personal increases self-worth and helps people
outcomes. It seems clear from this to recover their self-esteem – benefits
survey that many homeless people that this survey’s respondents
see volunteering as a way of helping attached more importance to than
them achieve ‘soft’ outcomes, such gaining references or improving their
as improved confidence and self- CV.
esteem. Because soft outcomes are
hard to measure, and are rarely Homeless people should not be given
linked to funding, they can be seen the stigma of being useless. The
as less desirable. But it’s interesting most important thing I get out of
to note that the people we surveyed volunteering is a sense of pride.
generally ranked soft outcomes as
being more important to them than Another finding of the DfES survey
hard outcomes. Many respondents (Hirst, 2001) was that people who
mentioned the reciprocity of volunteered were fussier about what
volunteering: jobs they would take. This raising
of expectations and aspirations
You feel that you are giving is another important benefit that
something back to the community, volunteering can bring.
Voluntary Action Volume 7 Number 3 Winter/Spring 2006 20
can offer and the support they can It would be good to try things out
provide. and see what they’re like.
... in many cases the message was assume that volunteering is not
not getting through to potential worth expending limited resources
volunteers, so they were too fearful on. Work needs to be done to educate
to volunteer. In other cases the staff about the potential benefits
message was not getting through to of volunteering; 83 per cent of
benefits staff, resulting in people people surveyed thought that more
being threatened with the withdrawal training about volunteering for
of their benefits (Institute for workers in homelessness agencies
Volunteering Research, 2004:32). would be useful. Since most barriers
to volunteering seem to be to do
What is the best way to with perceptions – more often based
support homeless people to on assumptions than reality – it is
volunteer? important that people should have
Of the volunteers surveyed, everyone access to accurate information about
who had started volunteering since all aspects of volunteering; 83 per
becoming homeless had been given cent of respondents thought that
some kind of support by the staff written information on benefits,
of homelessness agencies. These police checks etc. would be really
members of staff were the most useful.
popular first port of call for finding
out about volunteering. Therefore The focus group of workers felt that,
it seems likely that the best way whilst it would be useful to be able to
of supporting homeless people to give people better advice and to know
volunteer is to build the capacity in which direction to signpost them,
of staff to advise people about they lacked the time to give people
volunteering. This fits in with the the intensive support they needed
findings of Volunteering England’s to start and sustain a volunteer
survey of people with mental health role. This was also the case with the
issues, which found: volunteer centres, which found that,
without dedicated staff, it was hard
Sixty-six per cent of respondents to stay in touch with people and keep
indicated that the most effective them motivated. Eighty-nine per cent
means of informing potential of homeless people surveyed felt that
volunteers was via key workers special mentors to support people to
or support staff (Institute for find and keep opportunities would be
Volunteering Research, 2004:29). very useful. It would seem that this
level of intensive support is needed if
However, as previously stated, many multiply disadvantaged people are to
staff in the homelessness sector be helped to volunteer. There need to
Voluntary Action Volume 7 Number 3 Winter/Spring 2006 26
what we were researching and were too busy during the festival;
requested them to fill out the survey and others just refused to fill in the
– but asked them not to do so if they survey. As such, our sample may be
had already completed the survey at biased towards those who take the
another festival. As we were using the assignment more seriously and attend
respondents as the unit of analysis, orientations, and towards newer
and some individuals volunteered volunteers, who are more likely to
at more than one event, we did not attend the orientations.
want to duplicate their responses. It
took five to ten minutes to complete The 716 respondents ranged in age
the survey. For events or festivals from 16 to 82 years, with a mean
that lasted more than two days, we of 36 (s.d. = 17.2). Only a small
administered the survey on-site at percentage of the respondents (11.2
the festivals and at the volunteer per cent) were born in Victoria,
headquarters, so as to include those while the rest had immigrated to the
who did not attend orientation island. About a third (30.9 per cent)
sessions. were born outside Canada and had
immigrated there. On average, the
Respondents respondents had lived in Victoria for
We received 716 volunteer responses 14 years.
at the eight events or festivals. It
is estimated that there were nearly About two-thirds (66.5 per cent)
2000 volunteers in the summer declared themselves White, while
of 2005. Thus, although we were the rest consisted of diverse small
granted access to all these events, ethnic groups, the largest of which
we managed to sample a little over are Chinese-Canadians (5.9 per cent).
a third of the volunteers. However, A quarter (25.9 per cent) had up to
around 500 of the total were not high-school education (including
eligible as they were under age (16 some who are under 18) and 17.4 per
years or younger), or their command cent reported postgraduate education.
of English was insufficient to self- The majority reported a household
administer the questionnaire (mostly income of below 40,000 Canadian
ESL students). In the event, therefore, Dollars (CND) (46.8 per cent), whereas
we surveyed about half the eligible only a tenth (11.6 per cent) reported
episodic volunteers. Some elderly being in the highest annual category
people were suspicious about filling of above 80,000 CND (see Note
in the survey; others didn’t go to One). The majority of respondents
orientation sessions (where we had a were single (63.8 per cent) and
better chance of meeting them); some consequently most of them did not
Summer on the island: episodic volunteering 37
have children (77.5 per cent). These p < .01). In contrast, there were more
findings may be unique to Victoria, students among the GEVs and fewer
to summer volunteering or to episodic among the LTVs and HEVs (X2 = 7.41,
volunteering; only a national survey d.f. = 2, p < .05). Not surprisingly,
may be able to suggest how far our the LTVs and HEVs were, on average,
findings can be generalised. older by six years than the GEVs (F
= 5.3, p < .01). Finally, compared
As noted above, our focus in with immigrants, there were more
this article is on comparing and Canadian-born people among the
contrasting three types of episodic LTVs and HEVs than the GEVs (X2 =
volunteers. Of the respondents, a 12.77, d.f. = 2, p < .01).
third (32.5 per cent) are Long-Term
Committed Volunteers (LTVs), a sixth Findings
(14.9 per cent) are Habitual Episodic To test the first hypothesis – that
Volunteers (HEVs) and about half LTVs donate more hours and have
(52.5 per cent) are Genuine Episodic volunteered for more years than
Volunteers (GEVs). Given that our HEVs, who in turn donate more
focus was on finding episodic hours and have volunteered for
volunteers in events that recruit such more years than GEVs – we used
volunteers, this distribution is helpful ANOVA (see Note Two). Regarding
and could serve as a benchmark years of volunteering, we found that
for future research on episodic our hypothesis was only partially
volunteering. supported. The F-test was significant
(F = 7.84, p < .001). Using post-hoc
We analysed the data to assess if Scheffe test at the .05 level reveals
these three groups are significantly that Habitual Episodic Volunteers
different in terms of their key (HEVs) indeed volunteer for longer
demographic characteristics. We (2.70 years) than Genuine Episodic
found that where marital status, Volunteers (GEVs) (1.74 years), but
employment status and income were also for significantly longer than
concerned, there was no significant Long-term Committed Volunteers
association with volunteering type. (LTVs) (1.98 years). The low number
However, more males than females of years of volunteering among
were found among the GEVs and LTVs is most likely an artefact of
more females among the LTVs (X2 our survey. We asked for years of
= 9.12, d.f. = 2, p < .01). Similarly, volunteering with regard to the eight
more retired people reported being festivals or events only, and not to
among the LTVs and fewer retirees any other volunteering. We have
among the GEVs (X2 = 12.54, d.f. = 2, no data on years of volunteering
Voluntary Action Volume 7 Number 3 Winter/Spring 2006 38
for the LTVs (those individuals who dependent variable, we found that, in
reported on-going volunteering in addition to group differences (LTVs
other contexts) and this may have led volunteering more than the other
to the low number obtained for this two groups), people who were born
group. in Canada and who had spent more
years in Victoria tended to volunteer
We ran a multiple regression (see for more hours. This finding may
Note Three) with the dependent suggest that newcomers to Victoria,
variable ‘years of volunteering’. We and by extension everywhere else,
found that the impact of the three start volunteering at episodic events
groups disappeared. Instead, two such as these festivals and when more
variables emerged as significantly settled become LTVs. This suggestion,
explaining years of volunteering in however, requires further research.
these summer events or festivals:
being retired and living longer in The second hypothesis focused on
Victoria. the motivation to volunteer. We
divided the motives into two groups:
The second part of the first those geared towards the utilitarian
hypothesis considers the number and self-serving (e.g. ‘It feels good
of hours of volunteering in 2005. to volunteer’ or ‘I get free passes to
This measure was also recorded for some of the events’) and those that
the LTVs in their other activities. are more to do with serving others
As expected, we found significant (e.g. ‘To contribute to the cause of
differences (F = 140.81, p < .001): the event or the organization’ or ‘To
LTVs volunteered for many more answer to my sense of civic duty’).
hours (356.10) than HEVs (89.88) and For each motive, the respondents
GEVs (29.05). Using post-hoc Scheffe were asked to rate its relevance to
test at the .05 level reveals that LTVs themselves on a Likert-type scale of
are indeed significantly different from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly
the two other groups, but that HEVs agree). Regarding self-serving
are not significantly different from motives, there were no significant
GEVs. However, this difference was differences between the three groups
noticeable and significant at the .064 (means of 3.11, 3.20 and 3.11
level, i.e. almost significant. As such, respectively; F = .89, p = .43).This
the second part of the first hypothesis means that each group was as likely
was supported almost in full. as the other groups to report self-
serving behaviours in comparison
When running a multiple regression with the other groups. Furthermore,
with hours of volunteering as the using a regression model did not
Summer on the island: episodic volunteering 39
reveal any variable that could explain type scale ranging from 1 to 5)
variation in self-serving motivation. about the importance of this reward.
We further analysed the association
As regards altruistic motives, between the three groups and the
however, a significant difference nine reward items (e.g. ‘thank you
was found (F = 14.40, p < .001). note’ or ‘free T-shirt’). In each of the
Using post-hoc Scheffe test at the nine separate analyses, the Chi-square
.05 level reveals that LTVs and HEVs tests of association resulted in an
were significantly more likely to be insignificant association. Hence, our
motivated to volunteer for altruistic third hypothesis was rejected. Using
motives than GEVs, with means a regression model did not reveal any
and standard deviations of 3.61 variable that could explain variation
(s.d. = .60) and 3.67 (s.d. = .70) 3.36 in the interest shown by volunteers in
(s.d. = .72) respectively. As such, tangible rewards.
the second hypothesis was only
partially supported, in that GEVs are The fourth hypothesis suggested
less concerned with the welfare of that LTVs are more likely to donate
others than the other two groups. money to charitable causes than
However, when running a multiple HEVs, who in turn are more likely to
regression using altruistic motives do so than GEVs. We asked whether
as the dependent variable, we found the person had donated money in the
that the impact of the three groups past 24 months to the organisation
disappeared. Instead, two variables in which they volunteer, to the
emerged as significantly explaining tsunami relief (see Note Four) and to
‘serving others’ motives: being a any other charitable causes. Only 48
student (negatively) and years in (6.7 per cent) reported donating to
Canada (positively). the organisation for which they had
volunteered. A larger number – 313
The third hypothesis focused on (43.7 per cent) – donated money
rewards from the volunteer work. to the tsunami relief and 458 (64
Contrary to our expectation, the per cent) donated to other causes.
three groups did not differ in their Using Chi-square test of association,
expectations of rewards (F = .73, we compared those who do not
p = .48). When we averaged the donate at all, those who donate to
responses for the nine reward options, one charitable cause and those who
the mean of the three groups ranged donate to two or three of the listed
from 3.17 to 3.22, with standard options. We found a significant
deviations ranging from .89 to .94, association between the three groups
where 3 is neutral (on the Likert- and three responses of donating
Voluntary Action Volume 7 Number 3 Winter/Spring 2006 40
behaviour (donating to none, to one and one was rejected outright, the
cause and to two or more causes) overall picture is that there are
(X2 = 9.92, d.f. = 3, p < .05). Among volunteers who are more involved in
LTVs, 45.5 per cent reported donating caring for others and the community.
to two or three causes, as compared Among those engaged solely in
with 42.1 per cent of HEVs and 34.4 episodic volunteering, the HEVs were
per cent of GEVs. Similarly, 33 per the more committed. They may face
cent of GEVs reported not donating constraints to becoming LTVs, but
at all, as compared with 28.0 per cent when they can find the time – in this
of HEVs and only 23.2 per cent of case during the summer – they give
LTVs. We tested the impact of income many hours and assume leadership
on the relationships between groups roles. This finding is relevant to
and donation; the association is not volunteer management, as some
due to level of income (see Note episodic volunteers can easily be
Five). As such, the fourth hypothesis retained and are willing to assume
was supported by the data. When we leadership roles (in our case as crew
studied the impact of other variables, leaders) on an episodic basis (in our
only years of residence in Victoria case the summer).
significantly explained donating
money to charity. With regard to years of volunteering
experience, LTVs and GEVs are
One of the authors, through similar. As we did not measure
experience as a volunteer co- years of volunteering outside the
ordinator with FolkFest and the eight episodic festival or events, the
Victoria Dragon Boat Festival and more relevant difference is between
through observing the volunteers HEVs and GEVs. It makes sense that
during data collection, observed the entry point into an episodic
strong ties among the HEVs. Among volunteering experience should vary,
these volunteers, the sense of although one of the reasons why
camaraderie led to mutual recruitment the number of hours volunteered
for future events in which they could by HEVs might be significantly
participate together. more than those donated by GEVs
may be because, for HEVs, episodic
Conclusions volunteer opportunities are reinforced
LTVs, as expected, provided more by the sense of community that we
hours of service and are also more found among such volunteers. It is
engaged in donating money to reasonable to assume that such a
charitable causes. While a few of our community may not develop among
hypotheses were not fully supported LTVs and GEVs. For LTVs, their long-
Summer on the island: episodic volunteering 41
McCurley and Ellis (2003) argued ways to reach out to GEVs and to
that, given the rising trend of understand the possible life-cycle
episodic volunteering, the field of effects on all three groups and their
volunteer management is in danger choices to engage in volunteering.
of ‘using the wrong model’ to design This will enhance efforts at
volunteer jobs, to manage and recruitment, management and
supervise volunteer labour and to retention.
integrate these vital human resources
into organisations. Our findings Notes
suggest that, without a rigorous study 1. We asked a question about income
of the types and nature of episodic based on literature that suggests that
volunteering in various organisations people with higher income are more
and sectors, any generalisations may likely to donate money rather than
be premature. volunteer time. The household income
groups used were $19,999 and below;
As for recruiting episodic volunteers, $20,000 – $39,999; $40,000–$59,999;
our findings suggest that they are $60,000–$79,999; and $80,000 and
not a homogenous body of people. above.
Attention needs to be paid to each
specific group so that its members 2. A Statistical Analysis Of
can be recruited and retained Variance (ANOVA) that analyses the
for future events. LTVs can be significance between categorical
further engaged by offering them data.
opportunities to carry out ongoing
tasks even after the end of the 3. In all cases of multiple regressions
events. To ensure that volunteers in this study, we included age,
return year after year, giving special years of education, whether born in
attention to building community Canada, years in Canada, gender and
among HEVs and GEVs volunteers disability. We only report variables
would do much to help. As we have that were found significant.
seen, HEVs do return, and support
recruitment efforts by recruiting 4. We asked about the tsunami relief
among themselves. The categorisation as, at the time of data collection,
of volunteers as HEVs or GEVs may it was the latest natural disaster to
be fluid, in that GEVs may over encourage people to donate money,
time become HEVs, given positive and in North America was the single
reinforcement and as their time cause to which many people donated
constraints relax. This suggests that money.
volunteer administrators should find
Voluntary Action Volume 7 Number 3 Winter/Spring 2006 44
Cnaan, R., and Handy, F. (2005), Hager, M., and Brudney, J. (2004),
‘Towards understanding episodic Volunteer management practices and
volunteering’, Vrijwillige Inzet retention of volunteers, Washington:
Onderzocht, 2 (1), pages 29–35. Urban Institute. Accessed 22
December 2005 at
Culp, K., and Nolan, M. (2000), http://www.artsandbusinessphila.
‘Trends impacting volunteer org/documents/411005_
administrators in the next ten years’, VolunteerManagement.pdf
Journal of Volunteer Administration,
19 (1), pages 10–19. Hustinx, L., and Lammertyn, F.
(2003), ‘Collective and reflexive
Summer on the island: episodic volunteering 45
Volunteer’s
Volunteer’s
commitment
commitmentto to
the
theorganisation
organisation
.59 .23
(10.12) (4.99)
.09 Beneficiary’s
Beneficiary’s
Volunteer’s (2.75) .22 (5.27) satisfaction
Volunteer’s satisfaction
job
jobsatisfaction
satisfaction with
withthe
thecharity’s
charity’s
service
serviceprovision
provision
.11 .07 .10
(6.54) (4.43) (8.33)
Intensity
Intensityofofthe
the Frequency
Frequency
Volunteer’s
Volunteer’s client’s
client’sneed
need of
ofvolunteer
volunteer --
level
levelof
ofcause
cause for
forthe
thecharity’s
charity’s client
client
involvement
involvement services
services interactions
interactions
interest’; ‘of great personal relevance’; upon my needs’. The fifth item was
‘something that involves me deeply’; worded ‘Throughout my experience
‘of great importance to me’; and with this charity it has always been
‘something I feel deeply that it is extremely able and competent’.
necessary for me to contribute to’. Overall satisfaction measures of
this nature offer, according to
Frequency of volunteer-client Roberts and Surprenant (1998),
interaction was measured by the a ‘summary of past interactions
single item employed by Murray et al with the organisation’ (page 190).
(1995) in analogous circumstances. Another justification for using overall
This requested the beneficiary to measures of client satisfaction is that
specify a category following the most beneficiaries lack the technical
question ‘On average how often have expertise in charity service delivery
you interacted with the charity?’ to be able to evaluate accurately each
(weekly, monthly, several times a individual aspect of their care (Tucker
year, once or twice a year). It is and Adams, 2001).
relevant to note that volunteer-client
interactions within the charity in Research method
question occurred face to face or by The study was completed over a
telephone rather than through written two-year period as part of a major
correspondence. A beneficiary’s need investigation into the impacts of
intensity was assessed by a single various volunteer management
item worded ‘When I approached this practices on the quality of the
organisation I needed its assistance’, beneficiary experience in the
followed by five options ranging South East of England division
from ‘desperately’ through to ‘only of a large international charity
marginally’. This was taken from that offers face-to-face assistance
Bennett and Barkensjo (2005b). to (adult) people experiencing a
Five items assessed a beneficiary’s variety of social problems, often
satisfaction with the charity’s connected with substance abuse
services, based on Rosen and and homelessness (see Bennett and
Surprenant (2003). The first two were Barkensjo, 2005a, for details of this
worded ‘It has been a pleasure to wider investigation). As is the case
use this charity’s services’ and ‘The with many large helping and caring
services this charity provides really charities, the organisation in question
do deserve to be recognised’. Items relies heavily on the services of the
three and four read ‘This charity several thousand volunteers. These
has always (i) put my best interests volunteers carry out a wide range
first and (ii) understood and acted of duties, from fundraising to the
The effects of volunteer job satisfaction on client perceptions of service quality 55
· The link between job satisfaction A limitation of the study was its use
and client satisfaction was stronger of just two clients per volunteer. The
(a) the deeper a volunteer’s feelings employment of a greater number
of involvement with the good would have captured a wider
cause covered by the organisation, range of interaction experiences.
(b) the more the client needed the Unfortunately, it was not feasible to
charity and (c) the more often the question more than two beneficiaries
volunteer and the client interacted. per volunteer in the present study
owing to budgetary constraints
Overall, the proposition that and the need to avoid excessive
‘emotional contagion’ has a interference in the charity’s day-
substantial impact on the degree of to-day operations. It was often
client satisfaction is supported by the necessary to contact all ten of a
outcomes to the investigation. volunteer’s named clients (sometimes
more than ten) to obtain two
It follows from the above that responses, and the administrative
beneficiary satisfaction can be work (and financial cost) involved
increased through human resource was considerable. Further research
management practices that create might attempt to replicate the study
high levels of volunteer job employing more beneficiaries per
satisfaction. Hence, investments volunteer. It would also be useful
in measures to improve volunteer to repeat the study incorporating
job satisfaction may be expected organisational behaviour constructs
to be worthwhile. Moreover, if jobs additional to those shown in Figure
are impoverished, organisational One, and perhaps to apply alternative
commitment will not be forthcoming, job satisfaction, organisational
with detrimental consequences commitment and beneficiary
for client satisfaction. Another satisfaction measures.
managerial implication arising from
the study is that client satisfaction Notes
is likely to increase if a beneficiary 1. The adaptation procedure applied
deals with the same volunteer on a followed the recommendations
regular basis (provided the volunteer of Engelland et al (2001). Thus,
is satisfied with his or her job) rather candidate items were examined to
than with different individuals. Also, ensure that they fell well within the
it might make sense for a charity to scope of the domain of the relevant
seek to recruit volunteers who possess construct, that they expressed
high levels of cause involvement. the theoretical construct in an
effective manner, were worded at an
The effects of volunteer job satisfaction on client perceptions of service quality 59
The field of adult literacy in England has a long history, but has
developed particularly during the last three decades. Throughout
this history, voluntary organisations and volunteers have played an
important role in the field. This article examines how volunteers have
been deployed and professionally developed during this period, and
identifies some of the tensions which exist between volunteers and
professionals in the field. It draws upon a research project funded
by the ESRC entitled Changing faces: a history of adult literacy,
numeracy and ESOL 1970–2000, conducted between 2001 and
2004. A total of 200 interviews were undertaken with practitioners and
adult learners, from four case-study regions in England. Documentary
evidence and an archive of materials were collated and from this, a
series of timelines were created which chart the development of Adult
Literacy, Numeracy and ESOL (ALNE), during the thirty-year period.
The interview responses were analysed using Atlas-Ti, a software
programme, and a number of themes have emerged from the data.
The article discusses how these continue to be challenges for the field
in the current Skills for Life strategy.
In the early 1970s few people spelling. People who were ‘illiterate’
expected that adults who had enjoyed were thought to have low intelligence
a school education would have or to have led dissolute lives that
difficulty with reading, writing or kept them from learning properly.
Voluntary Action Volume 7 Number 3 Winter/Spring 2006 64
lived within the four case-study areas Education Services and voluntary
were asked about the learning they organisations, with leadership,
had undertaken as adults as well as training and development funding
about their familiarity with any of from a national agency (ALBSU,
the literacy campaigns that had taken later the BSA).
place. These interviews provided 3. 1989–98: Depletion of LEA funding
insights into the impact of provision and control, statutory status of
both for those who had self-identified ALNE through a more formalised
a difficulty with basic skills and further education (FE) system,
for those who had not. In addition dependent on funding through a
to the interviews, documentary national funding body.
evidence was gathered from agencies 4. 1998–present: Development
– including the Adult Literacy and of Skills for Life policy – new
Basic Skills Agency (ALBSU), the government strategy unit created,
Basic Skills Agency (BSA) and £1.5 billion of government money
organisations representing the field, committed.
such as the National Association
for Teachers of English Languages The story of how volunteers have
(Natecla) – and through donations been recruited and deployed flows
of archive material from interview through all these key phases.
respondents and members of
networks associated with basic skills. The early years
Key dates in the history of the field Imagine the scenario: the BBC tells a
were specified from the interview and local authority that it is broadcasting
documentary sources, and these were a series of programmes likely to
linked to a timeline of events from result in numbers of people within
across education and more general the authority’s area coming forward
public policy in England, Europe and for tuition. There is no one in the
world-wide where appropriate. The local authority with any knowledge
emerging history can be divided into of how to teach this group of people,
four key phases: there is no accommodation where
that teaching could take place and no
1. Mid 1970s: Literacy campaign one has any idea of the numbers of
led by a coalition of voluntary adults who are likely to be requesting
agencies with a powerful media help. The officer responsible for adult
partner, the BBC. education contacts the principal
2. 1980s: Provision developed of the adult education institution,
substantially, supported by who is asked to create provision.
Local Education Authority Adult They find out that in London there
Voluntary Action Volume 7 Number 3 Winter/Spring 2006 66
have been programmes run by the The way forward was to bring groups
settlements at Cambridge House of volunteers together to learn very
and Blackfriars, where volunteers basic ways to teach literacy. The
do the teaching. Could an organiser training – six sessions lasting two
be appointed to do the same thing hours – would give people a start.
in their own locality? Where does From then on, they were literally on
the organiser begin? How does one their own, making it up as best they
recruit volunteers and what kind of could, though supported by their
training do they need to do the job? organiser. Up and down the country
These questions received different volunteers met with their learner in
answers up and down the country, the person’s home, in community
but essentially all were agreed on centres, in pubs, anywhere that
one point: it was important to attract would enable them to meet and
volunteers. work together. Their resources were
handwritten, and in many cases
Recruiting volunteers needed a children’s reading material was
publicity campaign, a training appropriated for the task.
programme and an infrastructure
that could provide ongoing support Nationally an agency – known
once the volunteer started work initially as the Adult Literacy Resource
with an individual adult learner. The Agency (ALRA) – was created to
BBC’s On the Move series provided a help with the task of providing
major publicity campaign. In its first resources for those working with the
month over 8,000 volunteers had adults who had come forward. In
been recruited from the telephone those days, it was assumed that the
referral service (Hargreaves, 1980). literacy campaign would be a one-off
However, to continue to reach people initiative, and that once everyone had
in the long term, more down-to-earth acquired the necessary basic skills,
approaches were needed. The use of the agency, the organisers and the
printed material was extensive. As volunteers would be thanked and the
this was in the 1970s, publicity was government could move on to dealing
printed on duplicating machines or with other pressing issues of the day.
even handwritten. The only means It was estimated that around two
of contact was in person or by million people needed help with their
telephone. reading and writing, but no one knew
for sure.
Having recruited volunteers, the next
challenge was to ensure that they Volunteers came forward in
knew how to teach their students. droves from fashionable middle-
Professionalising the ‘do-gooders’: the deployment of volunteers in adult basic skills from 1970 67
class areas, but the learners were By the 1980s most volunteering
mainly (although not exclusively) within adult basic education schemes
to be found elsewhere. Matching had changed. People now came to
learner with volunteer took time, adult institutions, community centres
and organisers had to consider the or schools to be taught in small
needs of both parties as well as the groups, with a paid tutor. The number
logistics of ensuring that volunteers of volunteers went down, from about
could travel to the homes of the 45,000 at the peak in the mid-1970s
learner or the community centre, to about 20,000 by the mid-1980s
as there was usually no funding (Hall, 1983; ALBSU, 1987). Volunteers
to cover travel time and expenses. were still active in the field, but now
This was particularly acute in rural they worked with a tutor, continuing
areas, where vast distances had to be their one-to-one work, but usually
covered. with all members of the group.
This change in the deployment of
Volunteering, by its very nature, volunteers was seen by some of our
involves people offering to undertake interviewees as a retrograde step.
an activity for no remuneration or Their argument was that people
direct benefit to themselves. People who had already failed in groups
who had just come forward in the (for example, at school) craved the
hope of improving their literacy individual attention that working
found themselves under a curious with a volunteer afforded them. On
obligation. They might find their the other hand, some practitioners
volunteer helpful and the relationship were convinced that volunteering on
might work very well. However, if an individual basis was detrimental
they did not want to continue with to the needs of students, who were
their learning, how could they tell better off sharing their problems with
someone who bothers to visit their fellow students, and working together
house that they no longer wanted on activities, albeit at different levels
their help? In other cases, volunteer within the same class. This debate
and learner became very attached about the pedagogical implications of
to each other, and if the volunteer the use of volunteers continues today.
could no longer continue the learner
dropped out. From the very beginning The middle years
of the adult literacy movement, Adult basic education practice
volunteering became an area that continued to develop during the
needed to be managed, with all the 1980s. Basic numeracy became
benefits and problems this brought. more available in adult basic
education schemes, and in the
Voluntary Action Volume 7 Number 3 Winter/Spring 2006 68
I suppose because this was the big overwhelming demand from adult
council estate and they were the learners, organisers were relieved that
nice middle-class ladies from Hale anyone was offering to help out. But
or North Cheshire who would swoop even during this early period some
down and have sort of dinner-party organisers were already concerned
fodder (SJ, Manchester). about taking on volunteers.
I would rather have somebody who is field, and thus adds to the available
less brilliant but has really committed range of activities, practices and
themselves and will do the training. understandings. The current regime,
It doesn’t mean we didn’t take any of which insists that everyone who
the others, but I felt that we should teaches or trains adult basic skills
be loyal to the people who were loyal learners should have qualifications
to us, I suppose (JN, Norfolk). that are set against a series of national
standards, runs the risk of imposing a
In organisational terms, ALNE requires strait-jacket on the potential repertoire
funding and structural support to of practices in the field.
enable it to help adults improve their
basic skills and function effectively Because so many of the volunteers
as members of society, including have been lost, now I don’t doubt that
participating in the workplace where some of the volunteers were not all
appropriate. The danger in using that hot but it seems to me maybe
volunteers is that responsibility can it’s got itself a bit out of balance,
shift from public services, with the and that the notion of engaging with
associated demands for accountability, ordinary people to help other people
to the voluntary sector, sending the learn has been in danger of being lost
message that it is less imperative to (BP, Leics).
help adults using professional – and
more importantly, fully paid – staff. A wider context
We can locate the tensions we have
We need a professional workforce uncovered within the wider context
who has the skills and at a high of adult education generally. ALNE
level to be able to cope with what was practised primarily within adult
I think is a very complex job. And education, and this in turn has a
the services across the country are variety of purposes, as evidenced
their own worst enemy, having by its relationship to the agenda for
marginalised it by giving people the social change. As long ago as 1983,
illusion that anybody can do the job ACACE undertook research into
because they can read and write, and volunteers in adult education and
‘I can come along and help teach and noted that there are three forms of
then because I’m good, I’m quite nice adult education: formal, non-formal
and I’m helpful to the tutor, I can get and informal (Hall, 1983). Volunteers
a teaching job’ (MH, Leics). could be found in all these settings,
including working in settlements
Yet working with volunteers widens (now known as the Educational
the spectrum of people involved in the Centres Association), in the Workers’
Professionalising the ‘do-gooders’: the deployment of volunteers in adult basic skills from 1970 75