11 Physics Ncert Chapter
11 Physics Ncert Chapter
11 Physics Ncert Chapter
UNIT 3
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CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES 75
two members. Since Dobereiner’s relationship, proposed that on arranging elements in the
referred to as the Law of Triads, seemed to increasing order of their atomic weights,
work only for a few elements, it was dismissed similarities appear in physical and chemical
as coincidence. The next reported attempt to properties at regular intervals. Lothar Meyer
classify elements was made by a French plotted the physical properties such as atomic
geologist, A.E.B. de Chancourtois in 1862. He volume, melting point and boiling point
arranged the then known elements in order of against atomic weight and obtained a
increasing atomic weights and made a periodically repeated pattern. Unlike
cylindrical table of elements to display the Newlands, Lothar Meyer observed a change in
periodic recurrence of properties. This also did length of that repeating pattern. By 1868,
not attract much attention. The English Lothar Meyer had developed a table of the
Table 3.2 Newlands’ Octaves
Element Li Be B C N O F
At. wt. 7 9 11 12 14 16 19
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
At. wt. 23 24 27 29 31 32 35.5
Element K Ca
At. wt. 39 40
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elements that closely resembles the Modern weights, thinking that the atomic
Periodic Table. However, his work was not measurements might be incorrect, and placed
published until after the work of Dmitri the elements with similar properties together.
Mendeleev, the scientist who is generally For example, iodine with lower atomic weight
credited with the development of the Modern than that of tellurium (Group VI) was placed
Periodic Table. in Group VII along with fluorine, chlorine,
bromine because of similarities in properties
While Dobereiner initiated the study of
periodic relationship, it was Mendeleev who (Fig. 3.1). At the same time, keeping his
was responsible for publishing the Periodic primary aim of arranging the elements of
Law for the first time. It states as follows : similar properties in the same group, he
proposed that some of the elements were still
The properties of the elements are a undiscovered and, therefore, left several gaps
periodic function of their atomic in the table. For example, both gallium and
weights. germanium were unknown at the time
Mendeleev published his Periodic Table. He left
Mendeleev arranged elements in horizontal
the gap under aluminium and a gap under
rows and vertical columns of a table in order
silicon, and called these elements Eka-
of their increasing atomic weights in such a
Aluminium and Eka-Silicon. Mendeleev
way that the elements with similar properties
occupied the same vertical column or group. predicted not only the existence of gallium and
Mendeleev’s system of classifying elements was germanium, but also described some of their
more elaborate than that of Lothar Meyer’s. general physical properties. These elements
He fully recognized the significance of were discovered later. Some of the properties
periodicity and used broader range of physical predicted by Mendeleev for these elements and
and chemical properties to classify the those found experimentally are listed in
elements. In particular, Mendeleev relied on Table 3.3.
the similarities in the empirical formulas and
properties of the compounds formed by the The boldness of Mendeleev’s quantitative
elements. He realized that some of the elements predictions and their eventual success made
did not fit in with his scheme of classification him and his Periodic Table famous.
if the order of atomic weight was strictly Mendeleev’s Periodic Table published in 1905
followed. He ignored the order of atomic is shown in Fig. 3.1.
Table 3.3 Mendeleev’s Predictions for the Elements Eka-aluminium (Gallium) and
Eka-silicon (Germanium)
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3.3 MODERN PERIODIC LAW AND THE Numerous forms of Periodic Table have
PRESENT FORM OF THE PERIODIC been devised from time to time. Some forms
TABLE emphasise chemical reactions and valence,
We must bear in mind that when Mendeleev whereas others stress the electronic
developed his Periodic Table, chemists knew configuration of elements. A modern version,
nothing about the internal structure of atom. the so-called “long form” of the Periodic Table
However, the beginning of the 20th century of the elements (Fig. 3.2), is the most convenient
witnessed profound developments in theories and widely used. The horizontal rows (which
about sub-atomic particles. In 1913, the Mendeleev called series) are called periods and
English physicist, Henry Moseley observed the vertical columns, groups. Elements having
regularities in the characteristic X-ray spectra similar outer electronic configurations in their
of the elements. A plot of ν (where ν is atoms are arranged in vertical columns,
frequency of X-rays emitted) against atomic referred to as groups or families. According
number (Z ) gave a straight line and not the to the recommendation of International Union
of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), the
plot of ν vs atomic mass. He thereby showed groups are numbered from 1 to 18 replacing
that the atomic number is a more fundamental the older notation of groups IA … VIIA, VIII, IB
property of an element than its atomic mass. … VIIB and 0.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Law was, therefore, There are altogether seven periods. The
accordingly modified. This is known as the period number corresponds to the highest
Modern Periodic Law and can be stated as : principal quantum number (n) of the elements
The physical and chemical properties in the period. The first period contains 2
of the elements are periodic functions elements. The subsequent periods consists of
of their atomic numbers. 8, 8, 18, 18 and 32 elements, respectively. The
seventh period is incomplete and like the sixth
The Periodic Law revealed important
analogies among the 94 naturally occurring period would have a theoretical maximum (on
elements (neptunium and plutonium like the basis of quantum numbers) of 32 elements.
actinium and protoactinium are also found in In this form of the Periodic Table, 14 elements
pitch blende – an ore of uranium). It stimulated of both sixth and seventh periods (lanthanoids
renewed interest in Inorganic Chemistry and and actinoids, respectively) are placed in
has carried into the present with the creation separate panels at the bottom*.
of artificially produced short-lived elements. 3.4 NOMENCLATURE OF ELEMENTS WITH
You may recall that the atomic number is ATOMIC NUMBERS > 100
equal to the nuclear charge (i.e., number of
protons) or the number of electrons in a neutral The naming of the new elements had been
atom. It is then easy to visualize the significance traditionally the privilege of the discoverer (or
of quantum numbers and electronic discoverers) and the suggested name was
configurations in periodicity of elements. In ratified by the IUPAC. In recent years this has
fact, it is now recognized that the Periodic Law led to some controversy. The new elements with
is essentially the consequence of the periodic very high atomic numbers are so unstable that
variation in electronic configurations, which only minute quantities, sometimes only a few
indeed determine the physical and chemical atoms of them are obtained. Their synthesis
properties of elements and their compounds. and characterisation, therefore, require highly
* Glenn T. Seaborg’s work in the middle of the 20th century starting with the discovery of plutonium in 1940, followed by
those of all the transuranium elements from 94 to 102 led to reconfiguration of the periodic table placing the actinoids
below the lanthanoids. In 1951, Seaborg was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry for his work. Element 106 has been
named Seaborgium (Sg) in his honour.
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Fig. 3.2 Long form of the Periodic Table of the Elements with their atomic numbers and ground state outer
electronic configurations. The groups are numbered 1-18 in accordance with the 1984 IUPAC
recommendations. This notation replaces the old numbering scheme of IA–VIIA, VIII, IB–VIIB and 0 for
the elements.
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CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES 81
sophisticated costly equipment and laboratory. which make up the atomic number and “ium”
Such work is carried out with competitive spirit is added at the end. The IUPAC names for
only in some laboratories in the world. elements with Z above 100 are shown in
Scientists, before collecting the reliable data on Table 3.5.
the new element, at times get tempted to claim
Table 3.4 Notation for IUPAC Nomenclature
for its discovery. For example, both American of Elements
and Soviet scientists claimed credit for
discovering element 104. The Americans Digit Name Abbreviation
named it Rutherfordium whereas Soviets 0 nil n
named it Kurchatovium. To avoid such 1 un u
problems, the IUPAC has made 2 bi b
recommendation that until a new element’s 3 tri t
discovery is proved, and its name is officially 4 quad q
recognised, a systematic nomenclature be 5 pent p
derived directly from the atomic number of the 6 hex h
element using the numerical roots for 0 and 7 sept s
numbers 1-9. These are shown in Table 3.4. 8 oct o
The roots are put together in order of digits 9 enn e
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Thus, the new element first gets a be readily seen that the number of elements in
temporary name, with symbol consisting of each period is twice the number of atomic
three letters. Later permanent name and orbitals available in the energy level that is
symbol are given by a vote of IUPAC being filled. The first period (n = 1) starts with
representatives from each country. The the filling of the lowest level (1s) and therefore
permanent name might reflect the country (or has two elements — hydrogen (ls1) and helium
state of the country) in which the element was (ls2) when the first shell (K) is completed. The
discovered, or pay tribute to a notable second period (n = 2) starts with lithium and
scientist. As of now, elements with atomic the third electron enters the 2s orbital. The next
numbers up to 118 have been discovered. element, beryllium has four electrons and has
2 2
Official names of all elements have been the electronic configuration 1s 2s . Starting
announced by IUPAC. from the next element boron, the 2p orbitals
are filled with electrons when the L shell is
2 6
Problem 3.1 completed at neon (2s 2p ). Thus there are
What would be the IUPAC name and 8 elements in the second period. The third
symbol for the element with atomic period (n = 3) begins at sodium, and the added
number 120? electron enters a 3s orbital. Successive filling
of 3s and 3p orbitals gives rise to the third
Solution period of 8 elements from sodium to argon. The
From Table 3.4, the roots for 1, 2 and 0 fourth period (n = 4) starts at potassium, and
are un, bi and nil, respectively. Hence, the the added electrons fill up the 4s orbital. Now
symbol and the name respectively are Ubn you may note that before the 4p orbital is filled,
and unbinilium. filling up of 3d orbitals becomes energetically
favourable and we come across the so called
3d transition series of elements. This starts
3.5 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF
from scandium (Z = 21) which has the electronic
ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC 1 2
configuration 3d 4s . The 3d orbitals are filled
TABLE
at zinc (Z=30) with electronic configuration
In the preceding unit we have learnt that an 10 2
3d 4s . The fourth period ends at krypton
electron in an atom is characterised by a set of with the filling up of the 4p orbitals. Altogether
four quantum numbers, and the principal we have 18 elements in this fourth period. The
quantum number (n ) defines the main energy fifth period (n = 5) beginning with rubidium is
level known as shell. We have also studied similar to the fourth period and contains the
about the filling of electrons into different 4d transition series starting at yttrium
subshells, also referred to as orbitals (s, p, d, (Z = 39). This period ends at xenon with the
f ) in an atom. The distribution of electrons into filling up of the 5p orbitals. The sixth period
orbitals of an atom is called its electronic (n = 6) contains 32 elements and successive
configuration. An element’s location in the electrons enter 6s, 4f, 5d and 6p orbitals, in
Periodic Table reflects the quantum numbers the order — filling up of the 4f orbitals begins
of the last orbital filled. In this section we will with cerium (Z = 58) and ends at lutetium
observe a direct connection between the (Z = 71) to give the 4f-inner transition series
electronic configurations of the elements and which is called the lanthanoid series. The
the long form of the Periodic Table. seventh period (n = 7) is similar to the sixth
(a) Electronic Configurations in Periods period with the successive filling up of the 7s,
5f, 6d and 7p orbitals and includes most of
The period indicates the value of n for the the man-made radioactive elements. This
outermost or valence shell. In other words, period will end at the element with atomic
successive period in the Periodic Table is number 118 which would belong to the noble
associated with the filling of the next higher gas family. Filling up of the 5f orbitals after
principal energy level (n = 1, n = 2, etc.). It can actinium (Z = 89) gives the 5f-inner transition
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CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES 83
series known as the actinoid series. The 4f- theoretical foundation for the periodic
and 5f-inner transition series of elements are classification. The elements in a vertical column
placed separately in the Periodic Table to of the Periodic Table constitute a group or
maintain its structure and to preserve the family and exhibit similar chemical behaviour.
principle of classification by keeping elements This similarity arises because these elements
with similar properties in a single column. have the same number and same distribution
of electrons in their outermost orbitals. We can
Problem 3.2 classify the elements into four blocks viz.,
How would you justify the presence of 18 s-block, p-block, d-block and f-block
elements in the 5th period of the Periodic depending on the type of atomic orbitals that
Table? are being filled with electrons. This is illustrated
Solution in Fig. 3.3. We notice two exceptions to this
When n = 5, l = 0, 1, 2, 3. The order in categorisation. Strictly, helium belongs to the
which the energy of the available orbitals s-block but its positioning in the p-block along
4d, 5s and 5p increases is 5s < 4d < 5p. with other group 18 elements is justified
The total number of orbitals available are because it has a completely filled valence shell
9. The maximum number of electrons that (1s 2) and as a result, exhibits properties
can be accommodated is 18; and therefore characteristic of other noble gases. The other
18 elements are there in the 5th period. exception is hydrogen. It has only one
s-electron and hence can be placed in group 1
(b) Groupwise Electronic Configurations (alkali metals). It can also gain an electron to
Elements in the same vertical column or group achieve a noble gas arrangement and hence it
have similar valence shell electronic can behave similar to a group 17 (halogen
configurations, the same number of electrons family) elements. Because it is a special case,
in the outer orbitals, and similar properties. we shall place hydrogen separately at the top
For example, the Group 1 elements (alkali of the Periodic Table as shown in Fig. 3.2 and
1
metals) all have ns valence shell electronic Fig. 3.3. We will briefly discuss the salient
configuration as shown below. features of the four types of elements marked in
Thus it can be seen that the properties of the Periodic Table. More about these elements
an element have periodic dependence upon its will be discussed later. During the description
atomic number and not on relative atomic
of their features certain terminology has been
mass.
used which has been classified in section 3.7.
3.6 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS
AND TYPES OF ELEMENTS: 3.6.1 The s-Block Elements
s-, p-, d-, f- BLOCKS
The aufbau (build up) principle and the The elements of Group 1 (alkali metals) and
electronic configuration of atoms provide a Group 2 (alkaline earth metals) which have ns1
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Fig. 3.3 The types of elements in the Periodic Table based on the orbitals that
are being filled. Also shown is the broad division of elements into METALS
( ) , NON-METALS ( ) and METALLOIDS ( ).
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CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES 85
and ns2 outermost electronic configuration used as catalysts. However, Zn, Cd and Hg
belong to the s-Block Elements. They are all which have the electronic configuration,
reactive metals with low ionization enthalpies. (n-1) d10ns2 do not show most of the properties
They lose the outermost electron(s) readily to of transition elements. In a way, transition
form 1+ ion (in the case of alkali metals) or 2+ metals form a bridge between the chemically
ion (in the case of alkaline earth metals). The active metals of s-block elements and the less
metallic character and the reactivity increase active elements of Groups 13 and 14 and thus
as we go down the group. Because of high take their familiar name “Transition
reactivity they are never found pure in nature. Elements”.
The compounds of the s-block elements, with 3.6.4 The f-Block Elements
the exception of those of lithium and beryllium (Inner-Transition Elements)
are predominantly ionic.
The two rows of elements at the bottom of the
3.6.2 The p-Block Elements Periodic Table, called the Lanthanoids,
Ce(Z = 58) – Lu(Z = 71) and Actinoids,
The p-Block Elements comprise those
Th(Z = 90) – Lr (Z = 103) are characterised by
belonging to Group 13 to 18 and these
the outer electronic configuration (n-2)f1-14
together with the s-Block Elements are called
(n-1)d0–1ns2. The last electron added to each
the Representative Elements or Main Group
element is filled in f- orbital. These two series
Elements. The outermost electronic
of elements are hence called the Inner-
configuration varies from ns2np1 to ns2np6 in
Transition Elements (f-Block Elements).
each period. At the end of each period is a noble They are all metals. Within each series, the
gas element with a closed valence shell ns2np6 properties of the elements are quite similar. The
configuration. All the orbitals in the valence chemistry of the early actinoids is more
shell of the noble gases are completely filled complicated than the corresponding
by electrons and it is very difficult to alter this lanthanoids, due to the large number of
stable arrangement by the addition or removal oxidation states possible for these actinoid
of electrons. The noble gases thus exhibit very elements. Actinoid elements are radioactive.
low chemical reactivity. Preceding the noble gas Many of the actinoid elements have been made
family are two chemically important groups of only in nanogram quantities or even less by
non-metals. They are the halogens (Group 17) nuclear reactions and their chemistry is not
and the chalcogens (Group 16). These two fully studied. The elements after uranium are
groups of elements have highly negative called Transuranium Elements.
electron gain enthalpies and readily add one
or two electrons respectively to attain the stable Problem 3.3
noble gas configuration. The non-metallic
The elements Z = 117 and 120 have not
character increases as we move from left to right
yet been discovered. In which family /
across a period and metallic character increases
group would you place these elements
as we go down the group.
and also give the electronic configuration
3.6.3 The d-Block Elements (Transition in each case.
Elements) Solution
These are the elements of Group 3 to 12 in the We see from Fig. 3.2, that element with Z
centre of the Periodic Table. These are = 117, would belong to the halogen family
characterised by the filling of inner d orbitals (Group 17) and the electronic
by electrons and are therefore referred to as configuration would be [Rn]
d-Block Elements. These elements have the 5f146d107s27p5. The element with Z = 120,
general outer electronic configuration will be placed in Group 2 (alkaline earth
(n-1)d1-10ns0-2 . They are all metals. They mostly metals), and will have the electronic
form coloured ions, exhibit variable valence configuration [Uuo]8s2.
(oxidation states), paramagnetism and oftenly
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3.6.5 Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids from left to right. Hence the order of
increasing metallic character is: P < Si <
In addition to displaying the classification of
Be < Mg < Na.
elements into s-, p-, d-, and f-blocks, Fig. 3.3
shows another broad classification of elements 3.7 PERIODIC TRENDS IN PROPERTIES
based on their properties. The elements can OF ELEMENTS
be divided into Metals and Non-Metals. Metals
comprise more than 78% of all known elements There are many observable patterns in the
and appear on the left side of the Periodic physical and chemical properties of elements
Table. Metals are usually solids at room as we descend in a group or move across a
temperature [mercury is an exception; gallium period in the Periodic Table. For example,
and caesium also have very low melting points within a period, chemical reactivity tends to be
(303K and 302K, respectively)]. Metals usually high in Group 1 metals, lower in elements
have high melting and boiling points. They are towards the middle of the table, and increases
good conductors of heat and electricity. They to a maximum in the Group 17 non-metals.
are malleable (can be flattened into thin sheets Likewise within a group of representative
by hammering) and ductile (can be drawn into metals (say alkali metals) reactivity increases
wires). In contrast, non-metals are located at on moving down the group, whereas within a
the top right hand side of the Periodic Table. group of non-metals (say halogens), reactivity
In fact, in a horizontal row, the property of decreases down the group. But why do the
elements change from metallic on the left to properties of elements follow these trends? And
non-metallic on the right. Non-metals are how can we explain periodicity? To answer
usually solids or gases at room temperature these questions, we must look into the theories
with low melting and boiling points (boron and of atomic structure and properties of the atom.
carbon are exceptions). They are poor In this section we shall discuss the periodic
conductors of heat and electricity. Most non- trends in certain physical and chemical
metallic solids are brittle and are neither properties and try to explain them in terms of
malleable nor ductile. The elements become number of electrons and energy levels.
more metallic as we go down a group; the non-
metallic character increases as one goes from 3.7.1 Trends in Physical Properties
left to right across the Periodic Table. The
There are numerous physical properties of
change from metallic to non-metallic character
elements such as melting and boiling points,
is not abrupt as shown by the thick zig-zag
heats of fusion and vaporization, energy of
line in Fig. 3.3. The elements (e.g., silicon,
atomization, etc. which show periodic
germanium, arsenic, antimony and tellurium)
variations. However, we shall discuss the
bordering this line and running diagonally
periodic trends with respect to atomic and ionic
across the Periodic Table show properties that
radii, ionization enthalpy, electron gain
are characteristic of both metals and non-
metals. These elements are called Semi-metals enthalpy and electronegativity.
or Metalloids. (a) Atomic Radius
Problem 3.4 You can very well imagine that finding the size
Considering the atomic number and of an atom is a lot more complicated than
position in the periodic table, arrange the measuring the radius of a ball. Do you know
following elements in the increasing order why? Firstly, because the size of an atom
of metallic character : Si, Be, Mg, Na, P. (~ 1.2 Å i.e., 1.2 × 10–10 m in radius) is very
small. Secondly, since the electron cloud
Solution surrounding the atom does not have a sharp
Metallic character increases down a group boundary, the determination of the atomic size
and decreases along a period as we move cannot be precise. In other words, there is no
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CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES 87
practical way by which the size of an individual explain these trends in terms of nuclear charge
atom can be measured. However, an estimate and energy level. The atomic size generally
of the atomic size can be made by knowing the decreases across a period as illustrated in
distance between the atoms in the combined Fig. 3.4(a) for the elements of the second period.
state. One practical approach to estimate the It is because within the period the outer
size of an atom of a non-metallic element is to electrons are in the same valence shell and the
measure the distance between two atoms when effective nuclear charge increases as the atomic
they are bound together by a single bond in a number increases resulting in the increased
covalent molecule and from this value, the attraction of electrons to the nucleus. Within a
“Covalent Radius” of the element can be family or vertical column of the periodic table,
calculated. For example, the bond distance in the atomic radius increases regularly with
the chlorine molecule (Cl2) is 198 pm and half atomic number as illustrated in Fig. 3.4(b). For
this distance (99 pm), is taken as the atomic alkali metals and halogens, as we descend the
radius of chlorine. For metals, we define the
groups, the principal quantum number (n)
term “Metallic Radius” which is taken as half
increases and the valence electrons are farther
the internuclear distance separating the metal
from the nucleus. This happens because the
cores in the metallic crystal. For example, the
inner energy levels are filled with electrons,
distance between two adjacent copper atoms
which serve to shield the outer electrons from
in solid copper is 256 pm; hence the metallic
the pull of the nucleus. Consequently the size
radius of copper is assigned a value of 128 pm.
For simplicity, in this book, we use the term of the atom increases as reflected in the atomic
Atomic Radius to refer to both covalent or radii.
metallic radius depending on whether the Note that the atomic radii of noble gases
element is a non-metal or a metal. Atomic radii are not considered here. Being monoatomic,
can be measured by X-ray or other their (non-bonded radii) values are very large.
spectroscopic methods. In fact radii of noble gases should be compared
The atomic radii of a few elements are listed not with the covalent radii but with the van der
in Table 3.6 . Two trends are obvious. We can Waals radii of other elements.
Table 3.6(a) Atomic Radii/pm Across the Periods
Cs 262 At 140
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Fig. 3.4 (a) Variation of atomic radius with Fig. 3.4 (b) Variation of atomic radius with
atomic number across the second atomic number for alkali metals
period and halogens
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the actual charge on the nucleus because of to remove the 2p-electron from boron compared
“shielding” or “screening” of the valence to the removal of a 2s- electron from beryllium.
electron from the nucleus by the intervening Thus, boron has a smaller first ionization
core electrons. For example, the 2s electron in enthalpy than beryllium. Another “anomaly”
lithium is shielded from the nucleus by the is the smaller first ionization enthalpy of oxygen
inner core of 1s electrons. As a result, the compared to nitrogen. This arises because in
valence electron experiences a net positive the nitrogen atom, three 2p-electrons reside in
charge which is less than the actual charge of different atomic orbitals (Hund’s rule) whereas
+3. In general, shielding is effective when the in the oxygen atom, two of the four 2p-electrons
orbitals in the inner shells are completely filled. must occupy the same 2p-orbital resulting in
This situation occurs in the case of alkali metals an increased electron-electron repulsion.
which have single outermost ns-electron Consequently, it is easier to remove the fourth
preceded by a noble gas electronic 2p-electron from oxygen than it is, to remove
configuration. one of the three 2p-electrons from nitrogen.
When we move from lithium to fluorine Problem 3.6
across the second period, successive electrons
The first ionization enthalpy (∆i H ) values
are added to orbitals in the same principal
of the third period elements, Na, Mg and
quantum level and the shielding of the nuclear
Si are respectively 496, 737 and 786 kJ
charge by the inner core of electrons does not
mol–1. Predict whether the first ∆i H value
increase very much to compensate for the
for Al will be more close to 575 or 760 kJ
increased attraction of the electron to the
mol–1 ? Justify your answer.
nucleus. Thus, across a period, increasing
nuclear charge outweighs the shielding. Solution
Consequently, the outermost electrons are held –1
It will be more close to 575 kJ mol . The
more and more tightly and the ionization
value for Al should be lower than that of
enthalpy increases across a period. As we go
Mg because of effective shielding of 3p
down a group, the outermost electron being
electrons from the nucleus by
increasingly farther from the nucleus, there is
3s-electrons.
an increased shielding of the nuclear charge
by the electrons in the inner levels. In this case, (d) Electron Gain Enthalpy
increase in shielding outweighs the increasing When an electron is added to a neutral gaseous
nuclear charge and the removal of the atom (X) to convert it into a negative ion, the
outermost electron requires less energy down enthalpy change accompanying the process is
a group. defined as the Electron Gain Enthalpy (∆egH).
From Fig. 3.6(a), you will also notice that Electron gain enthalpy provides a measure of
the first ionization enthalpy of boron (Z = 5) is the ease with which an atom adds an electron
slightly less than that of beryllium (Z = 4) even to form anion as represented by equation 3.3.
though the former has a greater nuclear charge. –
When we consider the same principal quantum X(g) + e – → X (g) (3.3)
level, an s-electron is attracted to the nucleus Depending on the element, the process of
more than a p-electron. In beryllium, the adding an electron to the atom can be either
electron removed during the ionization is an endothermic or exothermic. For many elements
s-electron whereas the electron removed during energy is released when an electron is added
ionization of boron is a p-electron. The to the atom and the electron gain enthalpy is
penetration of a 2s-electron to the nucleus is negative. For example, group 17 elements (the
more than that of a 2p-electron; hence the 2p halogens) have very high negative electron gain
electron of boron is more shielded from the enthalpies because they can attain stable noble
nucleus by the inner core of electrons than the gas electronic configurations by picking up an
2s electrons of beryllium. Therefore, it is easier electron. On the other hand, noble gases have
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CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES 91
Table 3.7 Electron Gain Enthalpies* / (kJ mol–1) of Some Main Group Elements
* In many books, the negative of the enthalpy change for the process depicted in equation 3.3 is defined as the
ELECTRON AFFINITY (Ae ) of the atom under consideration. If energy is released when an electron is added to an atom,
the electron affinity is taken as positive, contrary to thermodynamic convention. If energy has to be supplied to add an
electron to an atom, then the electron affinity of the atom is assigned a negative sign. However, electron affinity is
defined as absolute zero and, therefore at any other temperature (T) heat capacities of the reactants and the products
have to be taken into account in ∆egH = –Ae – 5/2 RT.
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widely used is the Pauling scale. Linus Pauling, electrons and the nucleus increases as the
an American scientist, in 1922 assigned atomic radius decreases in a period. The
arbitrarily a value of 4.0 to fluorine, the element electronegativity also increases. On the same
considered to have the greatest ability to attract account electronegativity values decrease with
electrons. Approximate values for the the increase in atomic radii down a group. The
electronegativity of a few elements are given in trend is similar to that of ionization enthalpy.
Table 3.8(a) Knowing the relationship between
The electronegativity of any given element electronegativity and atomic radius, can you
is not constant; it varies depending on the now visualise the relationship between
element to which it is bound. Though it is not electronegativity and non-metallic properties?
a measurable quantity, it does provide a means
of predicting the nature of force
that holds a pair of atoms together
– a relationship that you will
explore later.
Electronegativity generally
increases across a period from left
to right (say from lithium to
fluorine) and decrease down a group
(say from fluorine to astatine) in
the periodic table. How can these
trends be explained? Can the
electronegativity be related to
atomic radii, which tend to
decrease across each period from
left to right, but increase down
each group ? The attraction
between the outer (or valence) Fig. 3.7 The periodic trends of elements in the periodic table
Table 3.8(a) Electronegativity Values (on Pauling scale) Across the Periods
Li 1.0 F 4.0
Na 0.9 Cl 3.0
K 0.8 Br 2.8
Rb 0.8 I 2.5
Cs 0.7 At 2.2
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Non-metallic elements have strong tendency electronic configuration 2s22p5, shares one
to gain electrons. Therefore, electronegativity electron with oxygen in the OF2 molecule. Being
is directly related to that non-metallic highest electronegative element, fluorine is
properties of elements. It can be further given oxidation state –1. Since there are two
extended to say that the electronegativity is fluorine atoms in this molecule, oxygen with
2
inversely related to the metallic properties of outer electronic configuration 2s 2p4 shares
elements. Thus, the increase in two electrons with fluorine atoms and thereby
electronegativities across a period is exhibits oxidation state +2. In Na2O, oxygen
accompanied by an increase in non-metallic being more electronegative accepts two
properties (or decrease in metallic properties) electrons, one from each of the two sodium
of elements. Similarly, the decrease in atoms and, thus, shows oxidation state –2. On
electronegativity down a group is accompanied the other hand sodium with electronic
by a decrease in non-metallic properties (or configuration 3s1 loses one electron to oxygen
increase in metallic properties) of elements. and is given oxidation state +1. Thus, the
All these periodic trends are summarised oxidation state of an element in a particular
in figure 3.7. compound can be defined as the charge
acquired by its atom on the basis of
3.7.2 Periodic Trends in Chemical electronegative consideration from other atoms
Properties in the molecule.
Most of the trends in chemical properties of
elements, such as diagonal relationships, inert Problem 3.8
pair effect, effects of lanthanoid contraction etc. Using the Periodic Table, predict the
will be dealt with along the discussion of each formulas of compounds which might be
group in later units. In this section we shall formed by the following pairs of elements;
study the periodicity of the valence state shown (a) silicon and bromine (b) aluminium and
by elements and the anomalous properties of sulphur.
the second period elements (from lithium to
fluorine). Solution
(a) Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation (a) Silicon is group 14 element with a
States valence of 4; bromine belongs to the
halogen family with a valence of 1.
The valence is the most characteristic property
Hence the formula of the compound
of the elements and can be understood in terms
formed would be SiBr4.
of their electronic configurations. The valence
of representative elements is usually (though (b) Aluminium belongs to group 13 with
not necessarily) equal to the number of a valence of 3; sulphur belongs to
electrons in the outermost orbitals and / or group 16 elements with a valence of
equal to eight minus the number of outermost 2. Hence, the formula of the compound
electrons as shown below. formed would be Al2S3.
Nowadays the term oxidation state is
Some periodic trends observed in the
frequently used for valence. Consider the two
valence of elements (hydrides and oxides) are
oxygen containing compounds: OF2 and Na2O.
shown in Table 3.9. Other such periodic trends
The order of electronegativity of the three
which occur in the chemical behaviour of the
elements involved in these compounds is F >
elements are discussed elsewhere in this book.
O > Na. Each of the atoms of fluorine, with outer
Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
Number of valence 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
electron
Valence 1 2 3 4 3,5 2,6 1,7 0,8
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Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17
There are many elements which exhibit variable following group i.e., magnesium and
valence. This is particularly characteristic of aluminium, respectively. This sort of similarity
transition elements and actinoids, which we is commonly referred to as diagonal
shall study later. relationship in the periodic properties.
What are the reasons for the different
(b) Anomalous Properties of Second Period
chemical behaviour of the first member of a
Elements
group of elements in the s- and p-blocks
The first element of each of the groups 1 compared to that of the subsequent members
(lithium) and 2 (beryllium) and groups 13-17 in the same group? The anomalous behaviour
(boron to fluorine) differs in many respects from is attributed to their small size, large charge/
the other members of their respective group. radius ratio and high electronegativity of the
For example, lithium unlike other alkali metals, elements. In addition, the first member of group
and beryllium unlike other alkaline earth has only four valence orbitals (2s and 2p)
metals, form compounds with pronounced available for bonding, whereas the second
covalent character; the other members of these member of the groups have nine valence
groups predominantly form ionic compounds. orbitals (3s, 3p, 3d). As a consequence of this,
In fact the behaviour of lithium and beryllium the maximum covalency of the first member of
is more similar with the second element of the each group is 4 (e.g., boron can only form
−
Property Element [BF4 ] , whereas the other members
Metallic radius M/ pm Li Be B of the groups can expand their
valence shell to accommodate
152 111 88 more than four pairs of electrons
Na Mg Al 3−
e.g., aluminium [ AlF ]
6
forms).
186 160 143 Furthermore, the first member of
Li Be p-block elements displays greater
ability to form pπ – pπ multiple bonds
+
Ionic radius M / pm 76 31 to itself (e.g., C = C, C ≡ C, N = N,
Na Mg N ≡ Ν) and to other second period
elements (e.g., C = O, C = N, C ≡ N,
102 72
N = O) compared to subsequent
members of the same group.
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Thus, the metallic character increases down will learn later. In the case of transition
the group and non-metallic character elements, however, a reverse trend is observed.
decreases. This trend can be related with their This can be explained in terms of atomic size
reducing and oxidizing property which you and ionization enthalpy.
SUMMARY
In this Unit, you have studied the development of the Periodic Law and the Periodic
Table. Mendeleev’s Periodic Table was based on atomic masses. Modern Periodic Table
arranges the elements in the order of their atomic numbers in seven horizontal rows
(periods) and eighteen vertical columns (groups or families). Atomic numbers in a period
are consecutive, whereas in a group they increase in a pattern. Elements of the same
group have similar valence shell electronic configuration and, therefore, exhibit similar
chemical properties. However, the elements of the same period have incrementally
increasing number of electrons from left to right, and, therefore, have different valencies.
Four types of elements can be recognized in the periodic table on the basis of their
electronic configurations. These are s-block, p-block, d-block and f-block elements.
Hydrogen with one electron in the 1s orbital occupies a unique position in the periodic
table. Metals comprise more than seventy eight per cent of the known elements. Non-
metals, which are located at the top of the periodic table, are less than twenty in number.
Elements which lie at the border line between metals and non-metals (e.g., Si, Ge, As)
are called metalloids or semi-metals. Metallic character increases with increasing atomic
number in a group whereas decreases from left to right in a period. The physical and
chemical properties of elements vary periodically with their atomic numbers.
Periodic trends are observed in atomic sizes, ionization enthalpies, electron
gain enthalpies, electronegativity and valence. The atomic radii decrease while going
from left to right in a period and increase with atomic number in a group. Ionization
enthalpies generally increase across a period and decrease down a group. Electronegativity
also shows a similar trend. Electron gain enthalpies, in general, become more negative
across a period and less negative down a group. There is some periodicity in valence, for
example, among representative elements, the valence is either equal to the number of
electrons in the outermost orbitals or eight minus this number. Chemical reactivity is
highest at the two extremes of a period and is lowest in the centre. The reactivity on the
left extreme of a period is because of the ease of electron loss (or low ionization enthalpy).
Highly reactive elements do not occur in nature in free state; they usually occur in the
combined form. Oxides formed of the elements on the left are basic and of the elements
on the right are acidic in nature. Oxides of elements in the centre are amphoteric or
neutral.
EXERCISES
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3.5 In terms of period and group where would you locate the element with Z =114?
3.6 Write the atomic number of the element present in the third period and seventeenth
group of the periodic table.
3.7 Which element do you think would have been named by
(i) Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
(ii) Seaborg’s group?
3.8 Why do elements in the same group have similar physical and chemical properties?
3.9 What does atomic radius and ionic radius really mean to you?
3.10 How do atomic radius vary in a period and in a group? How do you explain the
variation?
3.11 What do you understand by isoelectronic species? Name a species that will be
isoelectronic with each of the following atoms or ions.
– 2+ +
(i) F (ii) Ar (iii) Mg (iv) Rb
3.12 Consider the following species :
3– 2– – + 2+ 3+
N , O , F , Na , Mg and Al
(a) What is common in them?
(b) Arrange them in the order of increasing ionic radii.
3.13 Explain why cation are smaller and anions larger in radii than their parent atoms?
3.14 What is the significance of the terms — ‘isolated gaseous atom’ and ‘ground state’
while defining the ionization enthalpy and electron gain enthalpy?
Hint : Requirements for comparison purposes.
3.15 Energy of an electron in the ground state of the hydrogen atom is
–2.18×10–18J. Calculate the ionization enthalpy of atomic hydrogen in terms of
J mol–1.
Hint: Apply the idea of mole concept to derive the answer.
3.16 Among the second period elements the actual ionization enthalpies are in the
order Li < B < Be < C < O < N < F < Ne.
Explain why
(i) Be has higher ∆i H than B
(ii) O has lower ∆i H than N and F?
3.17 How would you explain the fact that the first ionization enthalpy of sodium is
lower than that of magnesium but its second ionization enthalpy is higher than
that of magnesium?
3.18 What are the various factors due to which the ionization enthalpy of the main
group elements tends to decrease down a group?
3.19 The first ionization enthalpy values (in kJ mol–1) of group 13 elements are :
B Al Ga In Tl
801 577 579 558 589
How would you explain this deviation from the general trend ?
3.20 Which of the following pairs of elements would have a more negative electron gain
enthalpy?
(i) O or F (ii) F or Cl
3.21 Would you expect the second electron gain enthalpy of O as positive, more negative
or less negative than the first? Justify your answer.
3.22 What is the basic difference between the terms electron gain enthalpy and
electronegativity?
3.23 How would you react to the statement that the electronegativity of N on Pauling
scale is 3.0 in all the nitrogen compounds?
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