UNIT-V

Starting, Speed Control and Braking of DC Motors

Necessity of starter:
 At starting, when the motor is stationary(N = 0), there is no back e.m.f. in the armature.
Consequently, if the motor is directly switched on to the mains, the armature will draw a
heavy current (Ia = V/Ra) because of small armature resistance.

 As an example, 5 H.P, 220 V shunt motor has a full-load current of 20 A and an armature
resistance of about 0.5 W. If this motor is directly switched on to supply, it would take an
armature current of 220/0.5 = 440 A which is 22 times the full-load current.

This high starting current may result in:

(i) burning of armature due to excessive heating effect,
(ii) damaging the commutator and brushes due to heavy sparking,
(iii)Sudden development of large torque causes mechanical shock to the shaft,
reducing its life.
(iv) Excessive voltage drop in the line to which the motor is connected. The result is
that the operation of other appliances connected to the line may be impaired and
in particular cases, they may refuse to work.

 In order to avoid excessive current at starting, a variable resistance (known as starting

resistance) is inserted in series with the armature circuit. This resistance is gradually
reduced as the motor gains speed (and hence Eb increases) and eventually it is cut out
completely when the motor has attained full speed.

 The value of starting resistance is generally such that starting current is limited to 1.25 to
2 times the full-load current.

Armature resistance starting:

 To limit the starting current, a suitable external resistance Rext is connected in series with
V
the armature so that Ia = R .
a +Rext

 At the time of starting, to have sufficient starting torque, field current is maximized by
keeping the external field resistance Rf, to zero value.
 As the motor picks up speed, the value of Rext is gradually decreased to zero so that
during running no external resistance remains in the armature circuit. But each time one
has to restart the motor, the external armature resistance must be set to maximum value
by moving the jockey manually.

 Now as the motor continues to run and gather speed, the back emf successively develops
and increases, countering the supply voltage, resulting in the decrease of the net working
voltage. Thus now,
V−Eb
Therefore Ia = R
a +Rext
 At this moment to maintain the armature current to its rated value, Rext is progressively
decreased to zero.

 Imagine, the motor to be running with Rext = 0. Now if the supply goes off (due to some
problem in the supply side or due to load shedding), motor will come to a stop.

 All of a sudden, let us imagine, supply is restored. This is then nothing but full voltage
starting. In other words, one should be constantly alert to set the resistance to maximum
value whenever the motor comes to a stop.
  This is one major limitation of a simple rheostatic starter.This regulation of the external
electrical resistance in case of the starting of dc motor is facilitated by means of the
starter.
Types of D.C. Motor Starters
 The stalling operation of a d.c. motor consists in the insertion of external resistance into
the armature circuit to limit the starting current taken by the motor and the removal of
this resistance in steps as the motor accelerates.
 When the motor attains the normal speed, this resistance is totally cut out of the armature
circuit. It is very important and desirable to provide the starter with protective devices to
enable the starter arm to return to OFF position.
(i) when the supply fails, thus preventing the armature being directly acrossthe mains
when this voltage is restored. For this purpose, we use no-voltrelease coil.
(ii) when the motor becomes overloaded or develops a fault causing themotor to take an
excessive current. For this purpose, we use overloadrelease coil.
 There are two principal types of d.c. motor starters viz.,
(i) Three-point starter and
(ii) Four-point starter.
 The two types of starters differ only in the manner in which the no-volt release coil is
connected

Three Point Starter:

 This type of starter is widely used for starting shunt and compound motors

 A “3-point starter” is extensively used to start a D.C shunt motor. It not only overcomes
the difficulty of a plain resistance starter, but also provides additional protective features
such as over load protection and no volt protection.

 Fig. shows the schematic diagram of a three-point starter for a shunt motor with
protective devices. It is so called because it has three terminals L, Z and A. The starter
consists of starting resistance divided into several sections i.e. in steps, R1 to R5and
connected in series with the armature. The tapping points of the starting resistance are
brought out to a number of studs.

 The three terminals L, Z and A of the starter are connected respectively to the positive
line terminal, shunt field terminal and armature terminal. The other terminals of the
armature and shunt field windings are connected to the negative terminal of the supply.
 The no-volt release coil is connected in the shunt field circuit. One end of the handle is
connected to the terminal L through the over-load release coil. The other end of the
 handle moves against a spiral spring and makes contact with each stud during starting
operation, cutting out more and more starting resistance as it passes over each stud in
clockwise direction.

Fig.Three Point Starter

Operation:
 To start with, the D.C. supply is switched on with handle in the OFF position.

 The handle is now moved clockwise to the first stud. As soon as it comes in contact with
the first stud, the shunt field winding is directly connected across the supply, while the
whole starting resistance is inserted in series with the armature circuit.

 The high starting armature current thus gets limited as the current equation at this stage
becomes Ia = V/(Ra+Rst).

 As the handle is gradually moved over to the final stud, the starting resistance is cut out
of the armature circuit in steps. The handle is now heldmagnetically by the no-volt
release coil which is energized by shunt field current.Finally when the starter handle is in
'RUN' position, the entire starting resistance is eliminated and the motor runswith normal
speed.

 If the supply voltage is suddenly interrupted or if the field excitation is accidentally cut,
the no-volt release coil is demagnetized and the handlegoes back to the OFF position
 under the pull of the spring. If no-volt release coil were not used, then in case of failure of
supply, the handle would remain on the final stud. If then supply is restored, the motor
will be directly connected across the supply, resulting in an excessive armature current.

 If the motor is over-loaded (or a fault occurs), it will draw excessive current from the
supply. This current will increase the ampere-turns of the over-load release coil and pull
the armature, thus short-circuiting the no volt release coil. The no-volt coil is
demagnetized and the handle is pulled to the OFF position by the spring. Thus, the motor
is automatically disconnected from the supply.

 In this type of starter, the shunt field current has to flow back through the starter
resistance thus decreasing the shunt field current. This can be avoided by placing a brass
arc on which the handle moves as shown in Fig.

Working of No Voltage Coil of 3 Point Starter

 The supply to the field winding is derived through no voltage coil. So when field current
flows, the NVC is magnetized. Now when the handle is in the 'RUN' position, soft iron
piece connected to the handle and gets attracted by the magnetic force produced by NVC,
because of flow of current through it.

 The NVC is designed in such a way that it holds the handle in 'RUN' positionagainst the
force of the spring as long as supply is given to the motor. Thus NVC holds the handle in
the 'RUN' position and hence also called hold on coil.

 Now when there is any kind of supply failure, thecurrent flow through NVC is affected
and it immediately looses its magnetic property and is unable to keep the soft iron piece
on the handle, attracted. At this point under the action of the spring force, the handle
comes back to OFF position, opening the circuit and thus switching off the motor.

 So due to the combination of NVC and the spring, the starter handle always comes back
to OFFposition whenever there is any supply problems. Thus it also acts as a protective
device safeguarding the motor from any kind of abnormality.

Working of over load coil of 3 Point Starter

 If any fault occurs on motor or overload, it will draw extreme current from the source.
This current raise the ampere turns of OLR coil (over load relay) and pull the armature
Coil, in consequence short circuiting the NVR coil (No volt relay coil).
  The NVR coil gets demagnetized and handle comes to the rest position under the
influence of spring. Therefore the motor disconnected from the supply automatically.

Drawback of three point starter:

 In a three-point starter, the no-volt release coil is connected in series with the shunt field
circuit so that it carries the shunt field current. While exercising speed control through
field regulator, the field current may be weakened to such an extent that the no-volt
release coil may not be able to keep the starter arm in the ON position. This may
disconnect the motor from the supply when it is not desired. This drawback is overcome
in the four point starter.

FOUR POINT STARTER:

Fig. 11Four point starter

 In a four-point starter, the no-volt release coil is connected directly across the supply line
through a protective resistance R. Fig. shows the schematic diagram of a 4-point starter
for a shunt motor.

 Now the no-volt release coil circuit is independent of the shunt field circuit. Therefore,
proper speed control can be exercised without affecting the operation of no volt release
coil.
 With this arrangement, any change of current in shunt field circuit does not affect the
current passing though the NO-volt coil because, the two circuits are independent of each
other.
  Now to understand its way of operating let’s have a closer look at the diagram given
above. Considering that supply is given and the handle is taken stud No.1, then the circuit
is complete and line current that starts flowing through the starter. In this situation we can
see that the currentwill be divided into 3 parts, flowing through 3 different points.

(i) first part flows through the startingresistance (R1+ R2+ R3…..) and then to
the armature.
(ii) 2nd part flowing through the field winding F.
(iii)And a 3rd part flowing through the no voltage coil in series with the protective
resistanceR.
 As a direct consequence of that, any change in the field supply current does not bring
about any difference in the performance of the NVC. Thus it must be ensured that no
voltage coil always produce a force which is strong enough to hold the handle in its
'RUN' position, against force of the spring, under all the operational conditions. Such a
current is adjusted through No Voltage Coil with the help of fixed resistance R connected
in serieswith the NVC using fourth point 'N' as shown in the figure above.

 This marks the operational difference between a 4 point starter and a 3 point starter. As
otherwise both are almost similar and are used for limiting the starting current to a shunt
wound DC motor or compound wound DC motor, and thus act as a protective device.

Design of a Starter:

 For starting the motor satisfactorily, the starting resistance is divided into a number of
sections in such a way that current fluctuates between maximum (Im) and minimum (I)
values.

 The upper limit is that value established as the maximum permissible for the motor; it is
generally 1.5 times the full-load current of the motor.

 The lower limit is the value set as a minimum for starting operation; it may be equal to
full-load current of the motor or some predetermined value.

 Fig. shows shunt-wound motor with starting resistance divided into three sections
between four studs.The resistances of these sections should be so selected that current
during starting remains between Im and I as shown in Fig.
 Variation of speed versus time

 When arm A is moved from OFF position to stud 1, field and armature circuits are
energized and whole of the starting resistance is in series with the armature. The armature
current jumps to maximum value given by;

Where R1 = Resistance of starter and armature

 As the armature accelerates, the generated e.m.f. increases and the armature current
decreases as indicated by curve ab. When the current has fallen to I, arm A is moved over
to stud 2, cutting out sufficient resistance to allow the current to rise to Im again. This
operation is repeated until the arm A is on stud 4 and the whole of the starting resistance
is cut out of the armature circuit.
 Now the motor continues to accelerate and the current decreases until it settles down at
some value IL such that torque due to this current is just sufficient to meet the load
requirement.

Fig. shows a d.c. shunt motor starter with n resistance sections and (n + 1) studs.

Let R1 = Total resistance in the armature circuit when the starter arm is on stud no. 1
R2 = Total resistance in the armature circuit when the starter arm is on stud no. 2
and so on
Im = Upper current limit
I = Lower current limit
n = Number of sections in the starter resistance
V = Applied voltage
Ra = Armature resistance

On stud 1
 When the starter arm-moves to stud 1, the total resistance in the armature circuit is R1
and the circuit current jumps to maximum values Imgiven by;

 Since torque α ϕIa, it follows that the maximum torque acts on the armature to accelerate
it. As the armature accelerates, the induced e.m.f. (back e.m.f.) increases and the
armature current decreases When the current has fallen to the predetermined value I, the
starter arm is moved over to stud 2. Let the value of back e.m.f. be Eb1 at the instant the
starter arm leaves the stud 1. Then I is given by;
 On stud 2
 As the starter arm moves over to stud 2, sufficient resistance is cut out (now total circuit
resistance is R2) and current rises to maximum value Im once again given by;

 The acceleration continues and the back e.m.f. increases and the armature current
decreases. When the current has fallen to the predetermined value I, the starter arm is
moved over to stud 3. Let Eb2 be the value of back e.m.f. at the instant the starter arm
leaves the stud 2. Then,

On stud 3.

As the starter arm moves to stud 3,

As the starter arm leaves stud 3,

On nth stud.

As the starter arm leaves nth stud

On (n + 1) th stud.

When the starter arm moves over to (n + 1)th stud, all the external starting resistance is
cut out, leaving only the armature resistance Ra
Dividing Eq.(ii) by Eq.(iii), we get,

Dividing Eq.(iv) by Eq. (v), we get,

Continuing these divisions, we have finally,

Let

Then

If we multiply these n equal ratios together, then

Thus we can calculate the values of R2, R3, R4 etc. if the values of R1, Ra and n are
known. It is convenient to calculate the step resistance from the relationship derived
below
r1 = R1 – R2

r2 = R2 – R3
SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS:

DC motors are in general much more adaptable speed drives than AC motors. Speed of a DC
motor can be controlled in a wide range.

Since the armature drop is small, it can be neglected.

From the above equation, two methods of speed control are possible.

1. Variation of field current which varies the flux/pole (Ф) and is known as field control.
2. Variation of terminal voltage V known as armature voltage control.

Field Control:

For fixed terminal voltage,

for linear magnetization implies

Certain limitations of the field control method are:

 Speeds lower than the rated speed cannot be obtained because the field can not be made
any stronger; it can only be weakened.
 Since the speed is inversely proportional to the flux/pole while the torque is directly
proportional to it for a given armature current, it can cope with constant kW drives only
where the load torque falls with speed.
 For motors requiring a wide range of speed control, the field ampere-turns are much
smaller than the armature ampere-turns at high speeds causing extreme distortion of the
flux density in the air-gap. This leads to unstable operating conditions or poor
 commutation. Compensating winding can be used to increase the speed range which can
be 2 to 1 for large motors, 4 to 1 for medium sized ones and 8 to 1 for small motors. Even
then the field control is restricted to small motors.
 This control method is not suited to applications needing speed reversal; since the only
way to reverse speed is to disconnect the motor from the source and reverse the
field/armature polarity. The field circuit being highly inductive, it is normally the
armature which is reversed.

Armature Control:

The main requirement of this control scheme is a variable voltage supply to the armature whose
current rating must be somewhat larger than that of the motor.

It is superior to the field control scheme in three respects, outlined below:

 It provides a constant-torque drive. In the shunt motor case by keeping the field current at
maximum value full motor torque can be obtained at full-load armature current at all
speeds.

 Since the main field ampere-turns are maintained at a large value, flux density distortion
caused by armature reaction is limited.

 Unlike field control scheme, speed reversal can be easily implemented here.

Speed Control of D.C. Shunt Motors:

(i) Flux or field control method:

 In this method field circuit resistance is varied to control the speed of a d.c shunt motor.
Let us rewrite the basic equation to understand the method.
 If we vary If or Ish, flux φ will change, hence speed will vary. To change If an external
resistance is connected in series with the field windings. The field coil produces rated
flux when no external resistance is connected and rated voltage is applied across field
coil.
 It should be understood that we can only decrease flux from its rated value by adding
external resistance. Thus the speed of the motor will rise as we decrease the field current
and speed control above the base speed will be achieved.
 Speed versus armature current characteristic is shown in figure. for two flux values φ and
φ1. Since φ1<φ, the no load speed is n'o for flux value φ1 is more than the no load speed
no corresponding to φ. However, this method will not be suitable for constant load torque.

 To make this point clear, let us assume that the load torque is constant at rated value. So
from the initial steady condition, we have

 If load torque remains constant and flux is reduced to φ1, new armature current in the
steady state is obtained from

Therefore new armature current is

But the fraction,

  Hence new armature current will be greater than the rated armature current and the motor
will be overloaded. This method therefore, will be suitable for a load whose torque
demand decreases with the rise in speed keeping the output power constant. Obviously
this method is based on flux weakening of the main field.
 Therefore at higher speed main flux may become so weakened, that armature reaction
effect will be more pronounced causing problem in commutation.

Advantages
(i) This is an easy and convenient method.
(ii) It is an inexpensive method since very little power is wasted in the shunt field
rheostat due to relatively small value of Ish.
(iii)The speed control exercised by this method is independent of load on the
machine.
Disadvantages
(i) Only speeds higher than the normal speed can be obtained since the total field
circuit resistance cannot be reduced below Rsh the shunt field winding resistance.
(ii) There is a limit to the maximum speed obtainable by this method. It is because if
the flux is too much weakened, commutation becomes poorer.

Note. The field of a shunt motor in operation should never be opened because its speed
will increase to an extremely high value.

(ii) Armature control method :

(a) Rheostatic control:

 This method is based on the fact that by varying the voltage available across the
armature, the back e.m.f and hence the speed of the motor can be changed. This is done
by inserting a variable resistance RC (known as controller resistance) in series with the
armature as shown in Fig.
  For shunt motor voltage applied to the field and armature circuit are same and equal to
the supply voltage V. However, as the motor is loaded, 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 drop increases making speed
a little less than the no load speed 𝑁0 .

 For a well designed shunt motor this drop in speed is small and about 3 to 5% with
respect to no load speed. This drop in speed from no load to full load condition expressed
as a percentage of no load speed is called the inherent speed regulation of the motor.

Disadvantages:

(i) Speeds only below rated speed

(ii) A large amount of power is wasted in the controller resistance since it carries full
armature current Ia.
(iii)The speed varies widely with load since the speed depends upon the voltage drop in the
controller resistance and hence on the armature current demanded by the load.

(iv) Range of speeds is limited because efficiency reduces drastically for large speed reductions.

(v) The speed regulation of the method is poor as for a fixed value of series armature
resistance, the speed varies directly with load, being dependent upon the resistance
voltage drop.
 (b) Shunted armature control:
In the armature rheostatic control method, the change in armature current due to
change in load will affect the speed. Hence in this method the armature is shunted by
an adjustable resistance as shown in Figure

 The principle of voltage division is used to reduce the voltage across the armature as
shown for a shunt motor in Fig. The Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from the
armature terminals is drawn in Fig. The no-load armature speed is governed by VTH,
which can be independently adjusted by the ratio R2/R1.

 The series resistance (Thevenin resistance) is Re = R1|| R2 = βR1 is very small so the
control circuit gives better speed regulation compared to the circuit arrangement of Fig.
VTH = βVt

Advantages of this method are

(i) Speed regulation will be better.

(ii) The changes in the armature current due to load will not be as effective as the
armature is connected across a resistance.

(c) Series-parallel control

 Here two identical motors are coupled together mechanically to a common load. Two
speeds at constant torque are possible in this method—one by connecting the motors
armatures in series and the other by connecting them in parallel as shown in Fig.

 When connected in series, the terminal voltage across each motor is Vt / 2 whereas when
they are connected in parallel it is Vt. Thus armature control of speed is achieved; speed
(series): speed (parallel) :: 1:2.
 Fig. Series-parallel speed control (shunt-motors); case of constant load torque is illustrated; speed ratio 1:2

 This method is superior to rheostatic control so far as efficiency is concerned but the
speeds that can be obtained can only be two steps. This method is commonly employed
for speed control of series traction motors.

Speed Control of D.C. Series Motors:

(i) Flux or field control method:

Speed control is achieved here by adjusting the field ampere-turns. The variation of flux can
be achieved in the following ways.

(a) Diverter Field Control:

 In this method, a variable resistance (called field diverter) is connected in parallel with
series field winding as shown in Fig. Its effect is to shunt some portion of the line current
from the series field winding, thus weakening the field and increasing the speed (N α
1/ϕ).

 The lowest speed obtainable is that corresponding to zero current in the diverter (i.e.,
diverter is open). Obviously, the lowest speed obtainable is the normal speed of the
motor. Consequently, this method can only provide speeds above the normal speed. The
series field diverter method is often employed in traction work.

 Diverter resistance Rd is connected across the field winding as shown in Figure. By

varying Rd the field current and hence the field ampere turns can be reduced.
Therefore, the field current is given by

We know that, for series motor

And torque T
 If Rd is introduced then,

 From the above equation speed torque characteristics for decreasing values of Kd are
plotted which is shown in below Figure.
(b) Armature diverter control:

 In order to obtain speeds below the normal speed, a variable resistance (called armature
diverter) is connected in parallel with the armature as shown in Fig. The diverter shunts
some of the line current, thus reducing the armature current.

 Now for a given load, if Ia is decreased, the flux must increase (T Ia). Since N
1/, the motor speed is decreased. By adjusting the armature diverter, any speed lower
than the normal speed can be obtained.

(c) Tapped field control:

 In this method, the flux is reduced (and hence speed is increased) by decreasing the
number of turns of the series field winding as shown in Fig. The switch S can short
circuit any part of the field winding, thus decreasing the flux and raising the speed.

 With full turns of the field winding, the motor runs at normal speed and as the field turns
are cut out, speeds higher than normal speed are achieved.
 The field ampere turns are adjusted in steps by varying the number of turns included in
the circuit as shown in fig., the following relations are obtained from the circuit.

 The speed torque characteristics are shown in fig. and are of similar to those of diverter
field control.
(d) Series parallel control:
 Here the field windings are divided into two equal halves and then connected in series or
parallel to control the field ampere-turns. The circuits shown in Figs (a) and (b). For any
armature current, parallel connection of half windings gives

 Only two speeds are possible; parallel field connection gives the higher speed.

(ii) Armature-resistance control

 In this method, a variable resistance is directly connected in series with the supply to the
complete motor as shown in Fig. This reduces the voltage available across the armature
and hence the speed falls.

 By changing the value of variable resistance, any speed below the normal speed can be
obtained. This is the most common method employed to control the speed of d.c. series
motors.
  Although this method has poor speed regulation, this has no significance for series
motors because they are used in varying speed applications.

 The loss of power in the series resistance for many applications of series motors is not too
serious since in these applications, the control is utilized for a large portion of the time
for reducing the speed under light-load conditions and is only used intermittently when
the motor is carrying full-load.

Series-Parallel Control:

 Another method used for the speed control of d.c. series motors is the series parallel
method. In this system which is widely used in traction system, two (or more) similar d.c.
series motors are mechanically coupled to the same load.

Fig. Series-Parallel Speed control of DC Series Motor

 When the motors are connected in series [See Fig. (i)], each motor armature will receive
one-half the normal voltage. Therefore, the speed will be low. When the motors are
connected in parallel, each motor armature receives the normal voltage and the speed is
high [See Fig. 5.11 (ii)]. Thus we can obtain two speeds.

 Note that for the same load on the pair of motors, the system would run approximately
four times the speed when the machines are in parallel as when they are in series.

When in Parallel :

Now speed α 𝐸𝑏 /Ø α 𝐸𝑏 /current (series motor)

Since 𝐸𝑏 is approximately equal to applied voltage V

Speed α V/I/2 α 2V/I

 Torque α ØI α 𝐼 2

T α(𝐼/2)2 α 𝐼 2 /4

When in Series:

Speedα 𝐸𝑏 /Ø α V/2/I α V/2I

 Hence the speed in one fourth of the speed of the motor when in parallel.
 Similarly the torque is four times that produced by motor when in parallel.

Ward Leonard Speed Control:

 It is combined armature and field control and is therefore, operationally the most efficient
method of speed control with a wide range. The dc motor armature is fed from a variable
voltage and adjustable polarity supply whose current rating must be somewhat higher
than that of the motor. The field (shunt) of the motor is separately excited from an
independent dc source (low current rating).

 The variable voltage dc supply in older installations is obtained from a dc generator

driven by a 3-phase squirrel-cage motor. The field circuit of the generator is separately
excited from a small rectifier unit or by an excitor coupled to an extension of the motor
shaft.

 The complete arrangement is shown in the connection diagram of Fig. (a). The
connection of the potentiometer (Pot 1) makes it possible to easily reverse the generator
excitation thereby reversing the voltage polarity for reversal of the direction of rotation of
the motor. This type of speed control is known as Ward-Leonard speed control.

 Modem installations use SCR circuitry for variable-voltage dc supply drawing power
from ac mains through a transformer. Though expensive, this arrangement is neat and
relatively free from maintenance problems. It is also easily adopted to feedback schemes
for automatic control of speed.

 At the base speed nb the motor armature is fed at rated voltage and its field current is
adjusted to the maximum value, i.e. the field is excited at rated voltage. Reducing the
armature voltage provides a constant torque speed control where the speed can be
reduced below the base value, while the motor has full torquecapability (as 1f = max and
Ia can have rated value).

 For obtaining speeds above nb, the field is gradually weakned maintaining armature
voltage at rated value. The motor torque therefore reduces as its speed increases which
corresponds is to constant-kW (or hp) drive. The kind of control over torque-speed
characteristic achieved is illustrated in Fig.(b) where the nature of power-speed
characteristic is also revealed.
 Ward-Leonard speed control system

Torque-speed and power speed characteristic

Some of the attractive features of the Ward-Leonard system are listed below in addition to the
advantages mentioned for armature control in general:

(i) The absence of an external resistance considerably improves the efficiency at all speeds.
Another feature which enhances the efficiency is that when the generator emf becomes
less than the back emf of the motor, electrical power flows back from motor to generator,
is converted to mechanical form and is returned to the mains via the driving ac motor.
The latter aspect makes it an ideal choice if frequent starting, stopping and reversals are
required.

(ii) No special starting gear is required. As the generator induced voltage is gradually raised
from zero, the motor starts up smoothly.

(iii)Speed reversal is smoothly carried out.

From Fundamental Relationships:

Electromagnetic power
P = Ea Ia= Tω
Electromagnetic torque
T = Ka ϕ Ia

Back emf
Ea= Ka ϕ ω

Armature circuit equation

Ea = Vt– Ia Ra

Constant torque operation

ϕ= ϕ(max) ; If max, all regulating resistance cut out

T = constant (max)

Ia= Ia(rated) = constant

 As Vt is increased, Ea increases. It follows from Eq. (iii) ω increases, P increases almost

linearly (IaRa drop ignored). At Vt = Vt (rated), n = n base where maximum (rated)
power is reached.

Constant power operation

Vt = Vt (rated) held constant

Ia = Ia (rated)

 From Eq. (iv), Ea is constant and so P is constant. As If is reduced, ϕ reduces. So from

Eq. (iii) speed w increases and from Eq. (ii) T reduces but P remains constant.

BRAKING OF DC MOTORS:

 Sometimes it is desirable to stop a d.c. motor quickly. This may be necessary in case of
emergency or to save time if the motor is being used for frequently repeated operations.
The motor and its load may be brought to rest by using either (i) mechanical (friction)
braking or (ii) electric braking.

 In mechanical braking, the motor is stopped due to the friction between the moving parts
of the motor and the brake shoe i.e. kinetic energy of the motor is dissipated as
heat.Mechanical braking has several disadvantages including non-smooth stop and
greater stopping time.

 In electric braking, the kinetic energy of the moving parts (i.e., motor) is converted into
electrical energy which is dissipated in a resistance as heat or alternatively, it is returned
 to the supply source (Regenerative braking). For d.c. shunt as well as series motors, the
following three methods of electric braking are used:
(i) Plugging
(ii) Rheostatic or Dynamic braking
(iii) Regenerative braking
 It may be noted that electric braking cannot hold the motor stationary and mechanical
braking is necessary. However, the main advantage of using electric braking is that it
reduces the wear and tear of mechanical brakes and cuts down the stopping time
considerably due to high braking retardation.

 Controlled slowing or stopping of a motor and its driven load is as important as starting
in many applications (e.g. cranes, traction on a slope to avoid excessive speed, etc.).

 Braking methods based on friction, electromechanical action, eddy-currents, etc. are

independent of the motor but sometimes electric braking is better justified owing to its
greater economy and absence of brake wear.

 The dc motor is still being widely used for traction purposes. One of the main reasons for
this is its excellent braking characteristics and ability of smooth transition from the motor
to the generator mode and vice versa.

 During the braking period, the motor is operated as a generator and the kinetic or
gravitational potential energy (cranes or hoists) is dissipated in resistors (plugging) or
returned to the supply (regenerative braking).

(i) Plugging:

 In this method, connections to the armature are reversed so that motor tends to rotate in
the opposite direction, thus providing the necessary braking effect.

 When the motor comes to rest, the supply must be cut off otherwise the motor will start
rotating in the opposite direction.
 Plugging connections for a shunt motor

 Fig. (ii) shows plugging of a d.c. shunt motor. Note that armature connections are
reversed while the connections of the field winding are kept the same. As a result the
current in the armature reverses.

 During the normal running of the motor [See Fig. (i)], the back e.m.f. Eb opposes the
applied voltage V. However, when armature connections are reversed, back e.m.f. Eb and
V act in the same direction around the circuit.

 Therefore, a voltage equal to V + Eb is impressed across the armature circuit. Since Eb ~

V, the impressed voltage is approximately 2V. In order to limit the current to safe value,
a variable resistance R is inserted in the circuit at the time of changing armature
connections.

 The kinetic energy of the moving system is dissipated in the armature and braking
resistances.

 The large initial current and the resultant high mechanical stress restrict the application of
plugging to small motors only.

 braking torque depends upon the speed of the motor

Armature current

Braking torque
 For a shunt motor, is constant

Braking torque, TB = k5 + k6N

Or

Thus braking torque decreases as the motor slows down

 The supply must be switched off close to zero speed (unless the intention is to run the
motor in the reverse direction), using a current or speed directional relay and applying
back-up mechanical or hydraulic brakes to bring the motor to a halt.

 The large initial current and the resultant high mechanical stress restrict the application of
plugging to small motors only.

(ii) Rheostatic or Dynamic Braking:

 In this method, the armature of the running motor is disconnected from the supply and is
connected across a variable resistance R. However, the field winding is left connected to
the supply.

 The armature, while slowing down, rotates in a strong magnetic field and, therefore,
operates as a generator, sending a large current through resistance R. This causes the
energy possessed by the rotating armature to be dissipated quickly as heat in the
resistance. As a result, the motor is brought to standstill quickly.

 Fig. (5.13) (i) shows dynamic braking of a shunt motor. The braking torque can be
controlled by varying the resistance R. If the value of R is decreased as the motor speed
decreases, the braking torque may be maintained at a high value.
 At a low value of speed, the braking torque becomes small and the final stopping of the
motor is due to friction. This type of braking is used extensively in connection with the
control of elevators and hoists and in other applications in which motors must be started,
stopped and reversed frequently.

Dynamic braking, shunt motor

 The armature is disconnected from the supply and then a braking resistor Rbis
immediately connected across it (Fig.). The motor acts as a generator, driven by the
stored kinetic energy dissipating power in Rb. This is a simple method of bringing a
motor nearly to a standstill.

 The braking time is a function of the system inertia, load torque and motor rating. The
field circuit is left connected to the supply.

 The only danger is that if the supply fails, braking also fails. If the field is left connected
across the armature, then initially the braking torque is the same but starts falling sharply
with speed, and the problem arises once the speed falls below the critical value for self-
excitation.

 For a series motor, it is necessary for braking to reverse either the field or the armature
winding connections for build-up of the armature emf. The value of Rbshould be such
that (Rb+ Ra + Rse) is less than the critical resistance for the speed at which the braking
is commenced.

(iii)Regenerative Braking:

 The condition for regeneration is that the rotational emf is more than the applied voltage
so that the current is reversed and the mode of operation changes from motoring to
generating. Regeneration is possible with a shunt and separately excited motors and with
compound motors with weak series compounding. Series motors need a reversal of either
the field or the armature connections.
 In the regenerative braking, the motor is run as a generator. As a result, the kinetic energy
of the motor is converted into electrical energy and returned to the supply. Fig. shows
two methods of regenerative braking for a shunt motor.

Regenerative Braking for a shunt motor

 In one method, field winding is disconnected from the supply and field current is
increased by exciting it from another source [See Fig. (i)]. As a result, induced e.m.f. E
exceeds the supply voltage V and the machine feeds energy into the supply. Thus braking
torque is provided upto the speed at which induced e.m.f. and supply voltage are equal.
As the machine slows down, it is not possible to maintain induced e.m.f. at a higher value
than the supply voltage. Therefore, this method is possible only for a limited range of
speed.

 In a second method, the field excitation does not change but the load causes the motor to
run above the normal speed (e.g., descending load on a crane). As a result, the induced
e.m.f. E becomes greater than the supply voltage V [See Fig. (ii)]. The direction of
armature current I, therefore, reverses but the direction of shunt field current If remains
unaltered. Hence the torque is reversed and the speed falls until E becomes less than V.