RT Theory
RT Theory
RT Theory
Outline
• Application, Pros & Cons
• Principle/Source Generation
• Exposing Time, Film & its Characteristics
• Penetrameters / IQI
• Type of Technique
• Defects/Identification
• Film Interpretation
• Acceptance Criteria
• Report Format
• Safety Precaution
RT- Radiography Testing
Advantages & Disadvantages
S.No Advantages Disadvantages
1 Can be used to inspect virtually all Extensive operator training and skill
materials. required.
2 Detects surface and subsurface Depth of Discontinuity not Indicated
defects.
3 Permanent Test Report can be Access to both sides of the structure is
Obtained usually required.
4 Ability to inspect complex shapes, Orientation of the radiation beam to non-
Hidden areas and multi-layered volumetric defects is critical.
structures without disassembly.
5 Minimum part preparation is Relatively expensive equipment and
required. investment is required.
6 Technique standardized and Possible radiation hazard for personnel.
Reference standards available
Application:
o Pipe work
o Pressure vessels and boilers Note:
o Structural steel works Testing can be carried out upto 200 mm
o Ship building
Introduction to Radiography
o The radiation are of higher energy (shorter
wavelength) version of the electromagnetic waves
o Source – X ray/ Gamma ray High Electrical Potential
o X-rays are produced by an x-ray generator
o Gamma radiation is the product of radioactive Electrons
atoms. + -
Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample
X- ray film
The film darkness (density) will vary
with the amount of radiation reaching
the film through the test object.
= less exposure
Top view of developed film
= more exposure
Generation of Sources
Source Depends on Type of Material
Material Thickness
Location of Testing
Thickness , Energy , Penetration, Radiation Hazards
Steel Aluminum
Exposure Scale
Exposure Time for X – Ray
Less straight forward because the wavelength and intensity are variable
Controlled by Controlled by
Note
Object Should be kept as close as touch/near to Film
Object to be kept parallel to film axis
Central ray of beam (Focal Spot) should be perpendicular to film axis
Geometric Unsharpness (Ug) – Width b/w Umbra & Penumbra
Sharp Image – Umbra
Unsharp Image – Penumbra
To minimize penumbra
o Source size as small as possible
o SOD/FFD as large as possible
o OFD as small as possible
Ug= f x t /SOD
f – focal point
t - thickness (for solid object)
SOD – Source to Object Distance
Object Thickness / Ug
Below (50mm) = max. Ug. (0.50mm)
(50 - 75mm) = max. Ug. (0.75mm)
(75 - 100mm) = max. Ug. (1.00mm)
Above (100mm) = Ug (1.75mm)
Film Characteristics
Film Density - Degree of Blackening
Low Film/High Film Density
Measure by Densitometer
For X Rays :1.8 – 4; For Gamma rays : 2-4
Film Speed Film which gives exposing time
Exposing Time less – Fast Film
Exposing time medium – Medium Film
Exposing time Fast – Slow Film
Film Sensitivity Ability to detect smallest flaw
Film Resolution Separation of close lying Defects Film type Material Thickness
Film Graininess Small Size- Slow Film – Less Graininess
Class I T < 0.5”
Big Size- Fast Film – More Graininess
Class II T >0.5” to T < 1.0”
Film Contrast Degree of Shining
More Shining – High Film Contrast Class III T >1”
Less Shining – Low Film Contrast
Film Characteristics Curve / Sensitometric Curve/Hunter & Driffield Curve
Density is plotted against log of exposure
Film Characteristics Curve / Sensitometric /Hunter & Driffield Curve
1. Position of Curve on Exposure axis gives information on film speed
2. Position of Straight line portion of curve against density axis gives density range with which
the film is at its optimal
3. Gradient of Curve gives information on films contrast
Types of Processing
1. Manual
2. Semi Automatic
Stop Wash 3. Automatic
Dev. Fix Dryer
Bath Running Water
o Developer - converts latent image into manifest image (10-12 Min- Agitate)
o Stop Bath – Removes Excess Developer (10-15 Sec)
o Fixer -Clean the film of unexposed, undeveloped AgBr crystals, promotes archival quality (5 Min
o Wash – rid the film of residual chemicals
o Wetting the film to swell the emulsion
Note :For manual processing a floating thermometer, a timer and the time -temperature chart are
essential.
Penetrameters /Image Quality Indication
o To achieve a radiographic image with highest quality
o It provide a means of visually informing the film interpreter of the contrast
sensitivity and definition of the radiograph
o Weld/Casting/Forging/Assembled part
o Accessibility of Film
Radiography Techniques
Types of Techniques
Single wall Single Image (SWSI)
o Flat Surfaces/Plates/sheets/Large Pipe Joints (Dia> 8”)
o Film Inside, Source Outside
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) – Panoramic
o Film Outside, Source Inside
Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
o Film Outside, source outside (External Exposure), Dia of Pipe > 3inch
Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)
o Film Outside, source outside (Elliptical Exposure), Dia of Pipe <3inch
For Panaromic, Multiple films are used and films must be same type
One Inch film to be overlapped with other
Single Shot, No of IQI to be calculated
Double Wall Single Image Double Wall Double Image
SOD=Pipe Dia
Root Pass(Bottom side of Welded piece) Cap Pass (Top side of Welded piece)
Types of Defects
Defects in Welding
o Lack of Penetration
o Lack of Fusion
o Porosity Cluster Porosity
o Slag Inclusions
o Root Undercut
o Crown Undercut
o Mismatch
oInadequate Weld Reinforcement
o Excess Weld Reinforcement
o Cracks
o Weld Spatter
o Arc Strike
o Tungsten/Oxide Inclusions (In TIG Welding)
o Whiskers / Burn through ( In MIG Welding)
Defects in Welding
Defects in Welding
Defects in Welding
Types of Defects
Casting Defects Can be classified as
Filling related defect
oBlow Hole
oSand Burning
oSand Inclusion Cold Lap/Cold Shut
oMisrun
oGas Porosity
Shape related defect
oMismatch /Misrun
oDistortion/Wrap
oFlash
Thermal defect
oCrack/Tears
oShrinkage - Cavity/ Dendritic/Filamentary/Sponge
oSink Mark
Defect by appearance
oMetallic Projections
oCavities
oDiscontinuities
oIncomplete casting
oRat Tail/ Buckles
Defects in Casting
o Uneven Fixing
o Uneven Drying
Radiographic Interpretation in Steel Casting
ASTM E 446 - Reference Radiographs for Steel Castings Up to (51 mm) in Thickness
ASTM E 186 - Reference Radiographs for Heavy-wall (51 mm- 114 mm)) Steel Castings
ASTM E 280 - Reference Radiographs for Heavy-walled (114 to 305 mm)) Steel Castings
MIL STD 1265 A Radiographic Inspection, Classification & Sound Requirements for Steel Castings
Classification of Classes:
Radiographic Interpretation in Steel Casting
Aluminium Casting Defects
ASTM E 155 - Reference Radiographs for Inspection of Al & Mg Castings
MIL STD 139 A Radiographic Inspection, Soundness Requirements for Al & Mg Castings
Classification of Classes:
Acceptance Criteria for Al & Mg
Copper base & Nickel Copper Castings
ASTM E 155 - Reference Radiographs for High Strength Copper–base & Nickel-Cu Alloy Castings
Film Identification
Each radiograph shall be identified through the use of lead markers(numbers and letters).
1. Project Identification
6. Date of radiography
7. Welders identification
Film Viewing
o Equipment used to view radiographs for interpretation shall have a variable light source
sufficient for the essential designated IQI wire to be visible for the specified density range
of 2.0 to 4.0 High intensity light sources shall have exhaust arrangements for cooling to
prevent film damage
o Light from the viewer not transmitted through the film shall be masked when viewing the
radiograph.
o Calibrated densitometers or step wedge films shall be used to assure film density
compliance
Film Interpretation
they do not mask and are not confused with the image of any discontinuity in the area of
a) Fogging
a) All Welded joints surfaces shall be sufficiently free from coarse ripples,grooves, overlaps
and abrupt ridges & valleys to permit proper interpretation of radiographic and the
required non-destructive examinations. If any Default found on Surface, the film shall be
compared to the actual weld surface for determination of acceptability.
b) Indications shown on the radiographies of welds and characterized as imperfections are
un-acceptable under the following condition:
3) Any group of aligned indications that have an aggregate length greater than ‘t’ in a length
of ‘12t’ , except when the distance between the successive imperfections exceed 6L
where L is the length of the longest imperfection in the group.