Optical Microcavities: Insight
Optical Microcavities: Insight
Optical Microcavities: Insight
Optical microcavities
Kerry J. Vahala
California Institute of Technology, Mail Stop 128-95, Pasadena, California 91125, USA (e-mail: [email protected])
Optical microcavities confine light to small volumes by resonant recirculation. Devices based on optical
microcavities are already indispensable for a wide range of applications and studies. For example, microcavities
made of active III–V semiconductor materials control laser emission spectra to enable long-distance
transmission of data over optical fibres; they also ensure narrow spot-size laser read/write beams in CD and
DVD players. In quantum optical devices, microcavities can coax atoms or quantum dots to emit spontaneous
photons in a desired direction or can provide an environment where dissipative mechanisms such as
spontaneous emission are overcome so that quantum entanglement of radiation and matter is possible.
Applications of these remarkable devices are as diverse as their geometrical and resonant properties.
L
ike its acoustic analogue the tuning fork, the
optical microcavity (or microresonator) has a
size-dependent resonant frequency spectrum. Photon
Microscale volume ensures that resonant
frequencies are more sparsely distributed
throughout this spectrum than they are in a corresponding
‘macroscale’ resonator. An ideal cavity would confine light
indefinitely (that is, without loss) and would have resonant
frequencies at precise values. Deviation from this ideal
condition is described by the cavity Q factor (which is
proportional to the confinement time in units of the
optical period). Q factor and microcavity volume (V)
figure prominently in applications of these devices, and a
Quantum dot
summary of values typical for the devices discussed in this
review is given in Table 1. In addition, representative
examples of the three methods of confinement employed
in microcavities are provided in Figs 1–3 (refs 1–7).
In this review, I consider four applications of optical
microcavities: strong-coupling cavity quantum electro-
dynamics (QED), enhancement and suppression of sponta-
neous emission, novel sources, and dynamic filters in optical
communication. These areas are just four of several possible,
and many topics, such as soliton effects8,9, chaos10 and effects
in quantum-well microcavities11, will not be reviewed Figure 1 Micropost (or micropillar) cavities1,2 have played a major role in
because of space limitations. Also, I will not review micro- recent applications of the Purcell effect to triggered, single-photon sources.
cavity types in commercial semiconductor lasers because They offer small cavity volume and relatively high Q, have an emission pattern
extensive texts and treaties on this subject already exist12,13. that is well suited for coupling and manipulation of emitted photons56 (for
Even for the four applications discussed, there are by neces- example, with optical fibres) and can incorporate quasi-atomic, quantum dots
sity omissions. Cavity QED, for example, is a vast topic, and as emitters. In the rendering, Bragg mirrors3 at the output (upper stack near
selections have been made on the basis of their importance arrow) and below provide one dimension of cavity confinement, whereas air-
and for the interesting design limits they illustrate. I will pro- dielectric guiding provides lateral (in-the-plane) confinement. A single
vide a brief introduction to each area, then describe a few quantum dot is shown spontaneously emitting a photon that is subsequently
representative applications, their microcavity requirements, directed via the Purcell effect through the cavity top. The inset shows a
and the state-of-the-art for these devices, before outlining scanning electron micrograph of such a micropost cavity used in recent
the challenges for the future. triggered single-photon source experiments. Inset micrograph courtesy of Y.
Yamamoto76 (Stanford University, CA).
Strong-coupling cavity QED
An electron transitions within an atom from an excited state
to a ground state, emitting a photon into the continuum of cavity states (states that are not factorable into cavity and
radiation modes14. This irreversible behaviour is an example atom components)18. If the probe frequency is maintained at
of weak coupling. If the same atom is inserted into a micro- the cavity’s original resonant frequency, then the entry of a
cavity and if the strong-coupling conditions15–17 described in single atom into the cavity can block transmission19 (that is,
Box 1 are satisfied, then the atom can interact coherently the probe is reflected). In state-of-the-art systems, the result-
with a cavity mode for a meaningful time. This can take place ing extreme sensitivity of transmission to the atom’s posi-
even when the mode is initially in its vacuum state (ground tion within the cavity is used to ascertain atomic centre-of-
state or state of lowest energy). Use of a weak optical probe mass motion20–22, such as the orbital motion of ultracold
reveals that the cavity’s transmission spectrum is split by the atoms entrained by their interaction with the cavity
presence of the atom into two distinct peaks, which corre- mode21,22 (Fig. 4). In addition, such a cavity containing cold
spond to eigen frequencies of the quantum entangled atom- atoms exhibits extreme dispersive properties, which have
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native measure of cavity perfection that does not include propaga-
Silica toroid tion effects within the cavity as does the Q factor, of 1.92106 (ref.26)
has been obtained using these mirrors. Optimization of no and No,
however, involves joint optimization of the mode volume and finesse
Optical wave
(or Q). So, for example, the results cited above used a resonator with
mode volume V=1.692103 µm3 and finesse of 4.8×105. A detailed
review of the technological limits imposed by mirror technology in
optimizing Fabry–Perot microcavities for strong-coupling studies
has recently been performed32.
In addition to ultrahigh-finesse Fabry–Perot microcavities, the
whispering gallery modes of silica and quartz microspheres have
received considerable attention27–29,33,34. Whispering gallery res-
Silicon post
onators are typically dielectric spherical structures in which waves
are confined by ‘continuous total internal reflection’. Silica micros-
Fibre-taper pheres, which are robust ultrahigh-Q microresonators, were first
waveguide studied by Braginsky and Ilchencko35. Spheres feature an atomic-like
mode spectrum in which high , number (principal angular index or
optical mode) and low radial number modes execute orbits near the
42.5 µm sphere’s surface33 (Fig. 5). Excellent surface finish is crucial for maxi-
mizing Q, and the formation of spheres through surface tension (that
Figure 2 Rendering of an ultrahigh-Q microtoroid resonator6. An optical wave, shown is, as a molten droplet) provides a near atomically smooth surface
in red, is coupled from a fibre-taper waveguide and subsequently guided within and (with only a few nanometres or less of surface roughness28,29). The
along the periphery of the microtoroid in a whispering gallery mode, which is named bulk optical loss from silica is also exceptionally low and record Q fac-
after its acoustic equivalent5. Whispering gallery microcavities can be found in several tors28,29 of 82109 (and finesse29 of 2.32106 ) have been obtained. For
geometries including spheres (see Fig. 5), disks (see Fig. 6) and rings (inset to Fig. 6). these measurements, dependence of Q on sphere diameter is consis-
Inset: A scanning electron micrograph of a microtoroid resonator consisting of a thin tent with Q being limited by losses of surface roughness29. Also, a time
silica layer upon a silicon post and substrate. The device has a diameter of 120 µm dependency for the measured Q was observed and is believed to result
and exhibits a Q factor in excess of 100 million. The smooth exterior toroid surface is from water adsorption and formation of OH groups at the sphere’s
the result of the toroid going through a molten state during its fabrication. Inset surface28,34. For diameters below 20 mm in silica spheres, radiation
micrograph courtesy of D. Armani6. leakage becomes a significant factor in determining Q31. The lowest
order radial modes (in terms of nodes) with m=,31 are minimal vol-
ume, equatorial ring orbits (see Fig. 5) and are best suited for cavity
recently been observed23. These measurements, as well as applica- QED. Experimental work has demonstrated strong coupling in this
tions of cavity QED to quantum information studies, have recently system34, and recent modelling31 shows that substantial improve-
been reviewed elsewhere24,25. ments in strong coupling are possible using spheres with reduced
Efforts to increase strong-coupling effects (as measured by reduc- diameters.
tions in saturation photon number, no, and critical atom number, No Microcavities based on photonic crystals (Fig. 3) can provide
(see Box 1)) have provided much impetus for research into ultrahigh- extremely small mode volumes7, and donor-mode cavity geometries
Q, small-volume resonant cavities17,26–30. Both no and No have been (in which a small additional hole is drilled within the design of Fig. 3)
lowered from near unity levels in the earliest demonstrations of sin- have been modelled with a neutral atom suspended within the hole30.
gle-atom vacuum Rabi splitting at optical frequencies to recent levels Strong coupling is theoretically feasible; however, at present, Q values
of no42.82210–4 and No46.1210–3 (refs 21,31). Microcavities in in fabricated structures are well below the theoretical optima.
these experiments feature Fabry–Perot-style resonators (an optical For the purposes of optical probing/output-coupling,
resonator in which feedback is accomplished using two mirrors) with Fabry–Perot cavities enable direct ‘endfire’ coupling along the cavity
ultrahigh reflectance mirror technology26. A cavity finesse, an alter- axis. Whispering gallery modes, however, must be phase matched36,
Table 1
The microcavities are organized by column according to
the confinement method used and by row according to
high Q and ultrahigh Q. Small mode volume and Fabry–Perot Whispering gallery Photonic crystal
ultrasmall mode volume are other possible classifications
that are somewhat complementary to this scheme.
Representative, measured Qs and Vs are given and have
been taken from the following cited references. Upper
High Q
design, QIII–V.
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Box 1
Strong coupling
An atom, initially in the excited state of a dipole transition, enters a 1992, unity no and No were demonstrated at optical frequencies18.
lossless microcavity of volume V. A single mode of the cavity, in its Recently, state-of-the-art, strongly coupled systems have produced
ground state, is resonant with the transition. The atom and ‘vacuum no and No values that are much less than unity, reflecting a
field’ couple, which results in a quantum of energy shifting back and fundamental Rabi dynamic that exists over many cycles. For reviews
forth between the atom and the mode at the vacuum Rabi frequency. of strong coupling and its application to cavity QED see refs
The interaction strength of atom and cavity mode is linear in the field 17,25,46,120.
and hence smaller cavity volumes concentrate the vacuum field of the γ
mode, producing larger Rabi frequencies. This fundamental dynamic
of the atom–field system is reversible as long as the system is isolated.
In reality the cavity will have a finite photon lifetime (finite Q) that will
limit, perhaps even prevent, Rabi oscillations by allowing the energy to
leak irreversibly into the continuum. Likewise, the atomic transition will
γ
couple to continuum radiation modes and thereby experience γ
spontaneous decay of its population as well as polarization
dephasing. Strongly coupled systems are those in which the Rabi
dynamic can exist, even if only briefly, despite the reality of dissipation.
g
Strong coupling occurs when the atom–field coupling strength, g
(which is half the Rabi frequency), is faster than any underlying τ–1 τ–1
dissipative rate and larger than 1/T where T is the interaction time17. γ
Under conditions of strong coupling, weak optical probing near the
microcavity resonant frequency reveals two spectral transmission
peaks (where only one existed before) giving the energies of new eigen
states, which are now entangled states of the atom and cavity field. τ–1
Given modal and atomic dissipation, the degree to which the atom
and cavity mode are strongly coupled can be quantified by defining a
saturation photon number (no) and critical atom number (No). These
quantities are, by necessity, functions of parameters describing both
the reversible dynamic and the various decay rates17,
Box 1 Figure Vacuum Rabi oscillation. An excited atom is introduced into the cavity
g⊥g|| g⊥ V
no ] }} 2 ]V No ] } } ]}} (top) and undergoes vacuum Rabi oscillation mediated by the atom-field coupling
g τg2 Q
strength, g, resulting in one quantum being added to the mode (shown in red)
where (g||, γ⊥) are the atomic dissipation rates (population relaxation (bottom). Dissipation mechanisms are also illustrated. γ is the atomic damping rate
and atomic dephasing, respectively) and τ is the cavity lifetime. In and τ is the cavity lifetime.
which is typically achieved using total internal reflection from the tional. Reviews of this mechanism both at optical and at microwave
back face of a prism . Other coupling methods have also been demon- frequencies appear in ref. 4 (chapter 2) and ref. 46.
strated37–40. For many applications of cavity QED, such as in quantum The ability to create InAs quantum dots that have excellent lumi-
information studies, parasitic loss in coupling to and from microres- nescent properties47 within III–V semiconductors was a turning
onators will figure prominently. A fibre-optic cable is considered a point in the recent history of the Purcell effect. As noted by Gerard1,
likely medium over which to transport quantum information41. In these structures can act as a local probe of the field within a III–V
this regard, fibre-optic tapers (see Fig. 5) provide ultralow loss, direct microcavity and can also efficiently capture and then confine elec-
coupling to ultrahigh-Q spheres42 and have been proposed as a means trons and holes, making them less susceptible to the semiconductor
to couple quantum states to or from a resonator onto a fibre42,43. Also, surface effects that occur when cavity dimension decreases. Quan-
the recent demonstration of a fibre-taper-coupled ultrahigh-Q tum dots are also well suited to the study of the Purcell effect in semi-
microtoroid-on-a-chip6 (see Fig. 2) enables integration of wafer- conductors, because, unlike bulk or quantum-well media, individual
based functions with ultralow-loss fibre-coupled quantum devices. quantum dots exhibit a relatively narrow spectral lineshape that fits
within a high-Q microcavity mode48,49.
Enhancement and suppression of spontaneous emission Using quantum-dot-loaded micropost1,3 (or micropillar) cavi-
Weak coupling results when dissipation overwhelms the fundamen- ties, such as the one shown in Fig. 1, with Qs of 2,000 (1 mm diameter
tal Rabi dynamic. The control of spontaneous emission through the posts), Gerard and coworkers showed a five-fold Purcell enhance-
Purcell effect44 in this regime has become an important application of ment48,50. Spontaneous emission suppression was later verified in
microcavities45. Because all cavities exhibit loss at some level, cavity similar structures using a metallic sidewall coating to exclude trans-
modes are, more rigorously, quasi modes, and, in the strictest sense, verse continuum modes51. Purcell enhancement of emission from a
the spectral–lineshape function of a ‘discrete’ mode is proportional single quantum dot within a micropost was later demonstrated2. In
to a continuum density of modes (DM) function (ref. 4, chapter 1, addition to microposts, microdisk cavities incorporating quantum
and references therein). Applications of the Purcell effect make use of dots support modes with Qs in the range of 10,000–17,00052,53, and
this duality by, on the one hand, using local enhancement of the con- Purcell enhancement has been measured54 up to 15-fold55 in these
tinuum DM function to influence spontaneous emission, while, on structures. Measured Purcell factors are influenced by radial spatial
the other, using the quasi mode of the resonator as the target of the averaging, which occurs over an ensemble of resonant emitters48,56,
emission process (see Box 2 for further discussion of this and the and estimated Purcell factors based on Q measurement and cavity
complementary effect, spontaneous-emission suppression). Thus, volume estimates are typically much higher. Using Q measure-
atomic decay rates are not only speeded-up but are also made direc- ment alone, a Purcell factor of 32 for microposts50 and a factor of
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Box 2
Purcell effect
A two level system will decay spontaneously by interaction with a presented on the basis of calculation of the continuum mode density
vacuum continuum at a rate proportional to the spectral density of (ref. 4, chapters 1 and 2 and references therein).
modes per volume evaluated at the transition frequency. Within a Design of microcavities for observation of the Purcell effect must
cavity, the density of modes is modified and large swings in its take account of the corresponding atomic (or atom-like) transition
amplitude can occur. From the viewpoint of cavity modes (which in characteristics. Use of a small microcavity volume is important
the presence of dissipation must be viewed as quasi modes (ref. 4, because enhancements driven by manipulation of Q alone are limited
chapter 1)), the maximal density of modes occurs at the quasi-mode by the spectral width of the transition. Likewise, all other things being
resonant frequencies and can greatly exceed the corresponding free- equal, narrow, atomic transitions can be Purcell-enhanced more as a
space density. Historically, Purcell44 arrived at this conclusion by higher Q becomes possible. It is for this reason that individual
noting that a single (quasi) mode occupies a spectral bandwidth n/Q quantum dots, with their relatively narrow transition widths (compared
within a cavity of volume V. Normalizing a resulting cavity-enhanced with bulk semiconductors), are playing a significant role in this field49
mode density per unit volume to the mode density of free space (see Fig. 1).
yields the ‘Purcell’ spontaneous emission enhancement factor44,46.
3 l 3Q
12
P 4 }}2 }} }}
4p n V
190 for 2 mm diameter microdisks52 have been inferred. Q factors as power into a single cavity mode (a necessity for efficient coupling to
high as 10,000 with corresponding mode volumes of 1.6 (l/n)3 have optical fibres). Instead, the Purcell effect is applied to improve cou-
been predicted to exist in optimized micropost cavities57. A post pling55. Both microdisk68 and micropost-based devices74–76 have been
diameter of 0.5 mm with an improved Q factor of 4,800 yields a Pur- demonstrated. Significantly, a single photon source that is an electrical-
cell factor of 14756,57. ly pumped single quantum dot has recently been demonstrated77. An
Since Yablonovitch first proposed using a photonic crystal for spon-
taneous emission suppression58, much attention has been directed to
photonic bandgap microcavities59,60. As noted earlier, photonic-crystal
defect microcavities can provide extremely small mode volumes7, and
large theoretical Q values have been predicted for certain designs30,61.
Recently, a Q of 4,000 for an H2 (seven holes removed to form the hexa-
gon) defect cavity59 and a Q of 13,00062 for a donor-mode cavity (calcu-
Etched
lated mode volume of 1.2 (λ/n)3) were reported. Purcell enhancement holes
has also been studied in this system60,63.
Controlling the emission of single photons has been a priority for
quantum encryption systems64. Single-photon sources, which are
required in these systems, are a recent application of the Purcell effect in
quantum-dot microcavities (see Fig. 1). Quantum dots are quasi-atom-
ic systems and hence share many properties with atoms. For example,
emission from a single atom or molecule and from quantum dots67 Defect region
exhibits non-classical photon anti-bunching behaviour, because, upon
emission, an interval must pass in order for the atom to be re-excited and Figure 3 Cross-sectional illustration of a photonic crystal defect microcavity laser. The
to emit a photon65,66. This behaviour in quantum dots has been adapted microcavity is formed by dry etching a hexagonal array of holes and subsequent selective
to generate triggered single photons68–71. Leading up to this application, etch of an interior region, creating a thin membrane. One hole is left unetched creating a
triggered single-photon emission using photo-pumped, single-mole- ‘defect’ in the array and therefore a defect mode in the optical spectrum. The mode
cule systems was demonstrated72,73. However, quantum-dot single- (illustrated in green) is confined to the interior of the array by Bragg reflection in the plane
photon sources, which are compact and potentially electrically and conventional waveguiding in the vertical direction. Also, shown in pink are quantum
pumped, are very appealing for many of the same reasons that semicon- wells that upon photo pumping provide the amplification necessary for laser oscillation7.
ductor lasers are so compelling in communications. Unlike lasers, how- Inset: Scanning electron micrograph of a photonic crystal defect microcavity laser.
ever, the useful emission in these new quantum sources is a spontaneous Micrograph is courtesy of O. Painter and A. Scherer (Caltech, CA).
photon; therefore, stimulated emission cannot be relied upon to direct
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exceeds 1 GWatt/cm2 with less than 1 mW of coupled input power.
Observation of stimulated Raman scattering92,93, multi-order Stokes
Mirror emission94, stimulated Brillouin scattering95 and many other nonlin-
surface ear effects were first studied in microdroplets by Chang92 and by
Campillo (ref. 4, chapter 5, and references therein). The Kerr effect
Probe has also been observed by Treussart et al. in ultrahigh-Q silica micros-
laser pheres96 at microwatt input power levels. More recently, efficient
solid-state Raman laser sources using fibre-coupled42 ultrahigh-Q
microspheres have been demonstrated, and they produced record-
low-threshold pump powers of 65 mW (ref. 43) (see Fig. 5). Raman
sources can be used to extend the wavelength range of conventional
lasers into difficult-to-access bands.
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