Ayurveda Padartha Vigyana Theretical Foundations of Ayurveda Kannan K.S. - Text PDF
Ayurveda Padartha Vigyana Theretical Foundations of Ayurveda Kannan K.S. - Text PDF
Ayurveda Padartha Vigyana Theretical Foundations of Ayurveda Kannan K.S. - Text PDF
Foundations
I-AIM - CTF Publication Series - Issue No. 4
AYURVEDIYA
PADARTHA-VUNANA
THE THEORETICAL
FOUNDATIONS OF AYURVEDA
Text Book of Ayurveda
(As per BAMS Syllabus)
“Vidyanidhi”
K.S.KANNAN
I-AIM
cfamPrcT:
Institute of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine, (I-AIM)
Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT),
Bangalore
2011
v
AYURVEDIYA PADARTHA-VIJNANA - THE THEORETICAL
FOUNDATIONS OF AYURVEDA - Text Book of Ayurveda (as per Editorial Board
Syllabus prescribed for BAMS Course : by “Vidyanidhi” K S Kannan,
Prof, and Head, Department of Sanskrit, The National Degree College
(Autonomous), Jayanagar, Bangalore - 560 070.
Mr. Darshan Shankar
Vice-Chairman,
Pages: xvi + 462 + viii Institute of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine (I-AIM),
Size: • Demy Octavo Bangalore
Price: Rs. 350 (within India)
$ 20 (outside India)
Dr. Padma Venkat
First Edition: 2011
Director,
Published by: Institute of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine (I-AIM),
Institute of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine, (I-AIM) Bangalore
Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT),
74/2, Jarakabande Kaval, Post Attur, Via Yelahanka Dr. G. G. Gangadharan
Bangalore - 560 064.
Medical Director,
Web: www.iaim.edu.in; email: [email protected]
Institute of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine (I-AIM),
© Publishers Bangalore
ISBN : 978-81-908965-9-7
Prof. M. A. Lakshmithathachar
Senior Hon. Advisor,
This publication is brought out with the financial Centre for Theoretical Foundations,
assistance provided under the Inter-university Institute of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine (I-AIM),
Endogenous Programme, called CAPTURED, Bangalore
supported by DGIS, Govt. of Netherlands.
Dr. M. A. Alwar
The printing of this book is partly funded from the grant Hon. Project Director,
received by I-AIM from the Jamsetji Tata Trust, Bombay Centre for Theoretical Foundations,
House, Mumbai, which is gratefully acknowledged. Institute of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine (I-AIM),
Bangalore
Cover Design:
Mr. K. Lokesh, Mysore
Printed at:
M/s Tech Prints, Mysore
(0821) 2330 380.
I-AIM is a multi-disciplinary research, education and
outreach arm of a public trust called Foundation for
Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT). In
2008, the FRLHT governing council resolved to subsume
FRLHT initiatives developed during 1993-2008 into an
Institute ofAyurveda and Integrative Medicine (I-AIM) in order
. Foreword to execute a bold strategy to upscale and diversify FRLHT‘s
education, research and outreach programs to demonstrate
India carries the legacy of Ayurveda (the Science of life) an innovative Institutional model for the promotion of
which is more than three millennia old. An estimated 100,000 Ayurveda for the new millennium. One of the key activities
manuscripts on Ayurveda have been produced over the period of I-AIM is the Centre for Theoretical Foundations of
1500 BC to 1900 AD covering different aspects of positive Ayurveda (CTF).
health, medicine and surgery. These manuscripts primarily
The two main research activities of the Centre for
cover eight branches (astanga) of Ayurvedic Knowledge
Theoretical foundations of Ayurveda(CTF) are (i) analysis,
which are medicine (kayacikitsa), pediatrics (balacikitsa),
translations and critical editions of unpublished medical
psychiatry (grahacikitsa), ENT (Urdhvdhga), surgery {Salya),
manuscripts, and (ii) epistemology and ontology of Ayurveda.
Toxicology (damstra), Geriatrics (Jard) and Reproductive
The centre began its work in 2007 with support from the
health (vrsacikitsa). However apart from medical subjects,
National Manuscripts Mission of the Govt, of India and many
the manuscripts also cover sophisticated schools of logic and
of its projects are currently being supported by the Dept, of
epistemology (Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhya, Vedanta).
AYUSH, Govt, of India.
According to scholars, the general structure of the corpus
Work on analysis, translations and critical editions
of Ayurvedic knowledge can be classified into three
of unpublished medical manuscripts is in full swing with I-
dimensions viz; (i) the principles (Tattvas and Siddhdntas),
AIM conducting Training programmes on deciphering,
(ii) the science i.e, the operational rules & laws (Sastra) and
preparing critical edition of unpublished medical
(iii) the applications (Vyavahara). While the principles
Manuscripts. This programme is targeted towards scholars
{Tattvas) underlying the Ayurvedic knowledge system are
who are genuinely interested in engaging in serious translation
declared by primary texts to be unchanging {SaShwat), the
of medical manuscripts and their interpretation, preservation
Science {Sastra) has evolved in terms of additions and
and propagation. It has also brought out a work called
deletions, the applications however are required to necessarily
“Handbook on Medical Manuscriptology” that deals with
change in time and space. The literary history of Ayurveda
different aspects of Manuscriptology in general and Medical
thus reveals that it is an evolving knowledge system. It is in
Manuscriptology in particular. It is a comprehensive treatise
fact this evolving nature of Ayurveda that has kept it
covering a range of subjects right from knowing and
contemporary, throughout its long history.
IV
understanding the materials used for creating manuscripts, endowed with commendable abilities of effective articulation
the various scripts used therein, methods of conservation, and graphic presentation, vivified by his background
methods of cataloguing, editing and other technical aspects knowledge of science & mathematics, linguistics & machine
translation. He is known for his felicity of expression in
concerning this field.
English and Kannada, and can wield a good pen in Sanskrit
Extensive work has also been done regarding epistemology
also. Books edited by him have been prescribed/published
and ontology of Ayurveda. In the year 2007, a National
by universities. He has presented many papers in national/
Seminar was organized by the CTF of IIAM on
international seminars/conferences. One finds in him a
“Contribution of Indian Philosophical Systems to Ayurveda”,
smooth blend of the ancient and the modern, the oriental
at Choksi Hall, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. The
and the occidental, and the metaphysical and the scientific.
Seminar was aimed at improving the understanding of the
He combines in himself the virtues of versatility and
theoretical foundations of Ayurveda. As a sequel and as a
simplicity. The present book vouches for the same. I express
result of the recommendations made at the seminar, an
my gratefulness to Prof. Kannan for his association with
authentic, comprehensive text book delineating all the aspects
the I-AIM for the last few years and also authoring this book
concerning this topic is being published now.
in a versatile manner. I also hope that this association
Just as the theoretical foundations of modern medicine continues for a long time, which will be helpful in bringing
are based on logical positivism and Aristolian logic, the many such editions.
system of Ayurveda is based on the epistemology and
I congratulate the CTF group, especially Prof M.A.
ontology of the Indian philosophical systems of Nyaya,
Lakshmithathachar for giving valuable inputs and Dr.
Vaisheshika and Sankhya etc. Ayurvedic practitioners today
M.A.Alwar for coordinating the work of this project, which
are generally not well-versed in these aspects leading to a
has resulted in bringing out this very reader-friendly edition.
lack of the proper knowledge of the fundamentals of
It is through such scholarly efforts that I believe Ayurveda
Ayurveda, which severly affects its proper practice. The
can enlighten the world at large.
present book proposes to fill this void. This book is prepared
in such a manner that even persons not familiar with the
Dr. Padma Venkat
basic tenets of Indian philosophy or Ayurveda, but having
Director,
basic education of the pre-university level, would be able to
understand the same without undergoing undue difficulty. It I-AIM, Bangalore
also focuses on the syllabus that is prescribed for the BAMS
so so so so
courses at the Graduate level. Xr X X X
“Vidyanidhi” K.S.Kannan is a meticulous scholar and a
votary of Sanskrit - the language, its literature, and
philosophy. He has earned reputation as a gifted teacher
VI
long time. It is to undertake this very important, difficult
and mammoth task that the Centre for Theoretical
Foundations has been carved out as a separate centre under
the school of trans-disciplinary studies of the I-AIM, FRLHT.
The present work is a result of many years’ of research
work and explains in an authentic and lucid fashion, the
fundamental theoretical foundations of the Ayurveda Sastra.
Preface
The book also conforms to the BAMS syllabus on Basic
India has a unique and rich tradition of medicine. The principles of Ayurveda, prescribed at the state and National
principal systems of Indian medicine are Ayurveda, Siddha, levels. Hence, it will be most useful for all students of
Swa-rigpa and Unani. All these systems of medicine have Ayurveda both from the examination point of view as well as
drawn inspiration and knowledge extensively from other for gaining knowledge about the subject. Therefore, in my
streams of knowledge / philosophy that were prevalent during opinion, reading and assimilation of this book is a must for
the time of their evolution and development. all students of Ayurveda.
Each of the six Indian philosophical systems have The author of this book is ‘Vidyanidhi’ Prof. K.S.Kannan,
contributed to the evolution and practice of Ayurveda in an outstanding scholar of great repute in Sanskrit literature
unique and extensive ways. This was well known to the old and Indian Philosophy as well the modern streams of
practitioners of Ayurveda, for whom learning Sanskrit knowledge. He is known for his simplicity, humility and
Language and some works of the Indian philosophical versatility. He is also very adept in explaining even complex
systems was mandatory. However in modern Ayurvedic concepts and thoughts in an easy to understand and versatile
educational institutions established after 1947, not much manner. He has authored several text books that have been
attention is paid to the theoretical foundations of Ayurveda. prescribed by several Universities, many independent works
No careful analysis, as such, is available with regard to the and a number of articles that have caught the imagination
part played by the Indian philosophical systems to the various and appreciation of the scholar and layman alike. He is also
subjects pertaining to Ayurveda. This has resulted in the well known for his unique bridge-building capabilities that
theoretical foundations of Ayurveda being neglected in have seen him relate and nicely blend the ancient with the
modern educational institutions. modern, Oriental with the Occidental and the metaphysical
Unless the theoretical foundations of any subject are with the scientific streams of knowledge. I-AIM is grateful
strongly established, it would be impossible for the practice to Prof. Kannan for authoring this work in a very easy-to-
of that subject to stand the test of intellectual scrutiny. understand manner, that will help students and scholars alike
Therefore it is imperative for a comprehensive medical to properly understand the theoretical foundations of
science like Ayurveda to be established on strong theoretical Ayurveda. I express my sincere thanks to him and also hope
foundations, based on which it can serve the world for a long that many more such works will flow from the pen of Prof.
viii IX
Kannan to enrich the current subject further.
I express my gratefulness to Dr. K.P.Muraleedharan, an
outstanding scholar of Ayurveda and Dr. Manoj
Shankaranarayanan, a very emotional and versatile scholar
of Ayurveda for reviewing the present work and giving
valuable inputs that have been incorporated in the book. I
thank Ms. Venetia Ansell, an outstanding scholar in English
and expert in editing, for copy-editing this work. Author’s Words
This publication is brought out with the financial “A picture is worth a million words” - says a Chinese
assistance provided under the Inter-university Endogenous proverb. Picturesque representation vivifies even dry/abstract
Programme, called CAPTURED, supported by DGIS, Govt, material that may need a careful perusal. Graphics and
of Netherlands. The printing of this book is also partly funded Tabular presentations succeed no less in this.
from the corpus grant received by I-AIM from the Jamsetji
A great deal of material in Ayurvedic texts deserves to be
Tata Trust, Bombay House, Mumbai, which is also
presented in a a vivid manner. Students who enroll
gratefully acknowledged.
for Ayurveda today will have passed the Preuniversity
Further, I congratulate the CTF team of our organization, Course. A good many text books on Science in recent times
especially its Senior Honorary Advisor Prof employ such modes of presentations as Tables, Graphs, and
M.A.Lakshmithathachar and Hon. Project Director Dr. Flow charts. It is only to be expected, therefore, that students
M.A.Alwar for guiding and coordinating the present work come with apposite expectations regarding the material in
respectively. It is due to their untiring efforts that this Ayurvedic texts. An attempt has been made to present
publication has come out in a beautiful and utilitarian manner. material on Padartha-Vijnana (prescribed by the CCIM for
I hope that they will continue to bring out many more such Phase I of the BAMS Course) being taught in over 250
publications, in the future too, under the banner of the ClV Ayurvedic colleges in India.
that will help in the conservation and propagation of the
Unfortunately, most of the books on Ayurveda available
Indian Medical Heritage.
in the market today simply lack such sophisticated
Dr. GG Gangadharan presentations as we obtain in books on science and
Medical Director, mathematics, and which these students are already
I-AIM, Bangalore accustomed to. Not unoften, even the English is poor in a
majority of the Ayurvedic books in the market, and
transliteration inconsistent, or even frequently faulty.
25 Pramanantara 365 lr
e ai o 3^ au 3#
PART 3 : Praklrna - Miscellaneous
m h •
26 Karyakaranabhava 377
27 Sastra & DarSana 399
28 Srsti 421
k w kh s g \ gh \
n \
29 Prakrtipurusasamyoga 451 \
c xTs ch j jh n
30 Moksa 461 \ \ S
t cTs th s
d T\ dh s
n Ws
Appendix t 7Ts th d dh y\ n Ts
\
p V\ ph W b ¥s bh s
m TT S
\
y ■^rs r Ts 1 cTs V s
s s \
s TTV h f
ksa jna ?T
X X
XIV xv
ILLUSTRATIONS
for Transliteration
-cHch^BdT carakasamhita
w susruta
3 astangahrdaya
trftarr parlksa
■o
nighantu THE THEORETICAL
visesa FOUNDATIONS OF AYURVEDA
dalhana
MI6 patha
TTsRJlT sangraha
riidhi
svaccha
m nlti
5ff
X X' X" X
XVI
CHAPTER 1
DAR&ANA: INTRODUCTION
Essential Goal
It is almost a self-evident truth that all actions of all
living beings have but one essential purpose viz. the
attainment of happiness. Vagbhata makes it a point to
explicitly state this, in order, no doubt, to lay the
foundation for what we call today a holistic approach to
life. Says he: “It is deemed that all impulses of all beings
are directed towards happiness. Happiness issues not, else
from [the pursuit of) dharma. One ought, hence, to be
dedicated to dharma.”1
Just as it is easy to say, “Be a good man!”, but is
difficult all the same to define what goodness is, it is easy
to say “Be happy,” yet difficult to define what happiness
is. It is not very difficult to notice, however, what people
constantly seek to avoid. None in his senses wishes to die,
and none, similarly, is not relieved when he recovers from
an illness. As to the first, nature has never favoured bodily
immortality, hence none can ever escape death; one may
at best try to postpone death - that is all.
1 Astangahrdaya 1.2.20
sukhdrthdh sarvabhutanam matdh sarvah pravrttayah \
sukham ca na vina dharmat tasmad dharmaparo bhavet 11
1. Darsana: Introduction /. Darsana: Introduction
The second aim - of curing illnesses - is the more tackle them2. Similarly the most famous and ancient Yoga
important concern of Medicine as a branch of Knowledge. text opens with the remark that Yoga restores one to
Postponement of death to the extent possible, or more one’s very own nature - implying that it is the lack of the
plainly, attainment of longevity - is also, by corollary, the same that is the cause of our being ill at ease (which
aim of the science of medicine; as, too, prevention of question it takes up explicitly later also)3.
illnesses. It is pertinent to note in this context that
An even more explicit statement of the aforesaid Four
Ayurvedic texts actually have major/primary chapters/
Factors is encountered in a commentary on the Yogic text,
sections dwelling on these latter themes, hence entitled
which plainly states that the Yogic system has its analogue
dirghan-jivitiyadhyaya /same as dyus-kamiyddhydya) or
in the Science of Medicine. Says Vacaspati MiSra in his
roga-anutpadaniya-adhyaya. _
gloss on the celebrated commentory on Yogasutra-s thus:
The Yogasutra has separate names for these as listed in Components in English
Table 1. Ayurveda Rendering
1 row Illness
The parallel Buddhist Schema is presented in the
2 roga-hetu Cause of Illness
table below. The similar Ayurvedic Scheme is also
presented here 3 arogya Health
4 bhaisajya Medication
The following Table lists a few important senses of the The more popular lexicon viz. Amarakosa, treats five
word dar&ana as per the different rules of Panini’s grammar. words as synonymous, enumerated in Table 6.
However the Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary knowledge, precedent and subsequent sins are nullified,
of Apte gives over 20 senses, presented in Table 7. says the Brahmasutra8.
It is only as a sample of methods of word-study that It is in our country that the highest importance has
the Tables have been provided here. It is also done in been attached to Knowledge or Comprehension. The
order to indicate to the serious student the kind of Nyaya and the Vaisesika darSana-s insist on knowledge as
exploration he must take up for a grasp of the denotations the means to salvation. Gotama says that Right
and connotations of technical words. See Cakrapani on Knowledge leads to liberation and that with the dispelling
Carakasamhita 6.25.22-23 for a comment on darSana. of erroneous cognition (apdya of mithyajhana) will finally
result a cessation of all sorrows, no different from
liberation (apavarga)9. Kanada says that the summum
The Importance of Knowledge bonum (niMreyasa) is attained by a true grasp (tattva-
and Understanding jhanat) of the points of commonality and difference of the
various entities (padartha-s) in the world10.
A proper understanding/overview of life,
sometimes called samyag-dariana, is considered supremely Ayurveda itself speaks of the dartona (perception) of
important. One who is endowed with the same, ceases to the rsi-s (sages) through their jhanacaksus (eye of
be shackled by karman-s, and one who is destitute of it is wisdom)11.
susceptible to the cycle of births and deaths, says Manu6 *.
Glossing on this verse, Kulluka, the commentator, draws
our attention to some parallel statements in the Upanisad-
8 Brahmasutra 4.1.13
tad-adhigama uttara-purvaghayor a&lesa-vinatou tad-
s and Brahmasutra. Just as water-drops do not stick to the vyapade&at |
lotus-leaf, even so evil acts do not stick to the 9
Nyayasutra
comprehensor, says an Upanisad1. Upon attaining
1.1.1 pramdna-prameya-samSaya-prayojana-drstdnta-
siddhantavayava-tarka-nirnaya-vada-jalpa-vitandd-
hetvdbhdsa-chala-jdti-nigraha-sthdndndm tattva-jndnan-
nihSreyasddhigamah |
6 Manusmrti 6.74 says : 1.1.2 duhkha-janma-pravrtti-dosa-mithydjndndndm
samyag-darsana-sampannah karmabhir na nibaddhyate \ uttarottara-apaye tad-anantara-apayad apavargah
darSanena vihinas tu samsaram pratipadyate 11
_
10 Vaisesikasutra 1.1.4
<7
dharma - v'tiesa-prasutdd dra vya-giina-karma-samanya - v'tiesa -
Chandogya Upanisad 4.14 says:
samavdyanam padarthandm sddharmya-vaidharmydbhydrh
yathd puskara-pala&a apo na slisyanta, evam evamvidi papam
tattva-jndndn-niMreyasam |
karma na Slisyate | |
Cf. Svetasvatara Upanisad 6.15 11 Carakasamhita 1.1.9 :
tam eva viditva atimrtyum eti \ tenarsayas te dadriuryathdvaj jndnacaksusa
8 Padartha • - Vijhana 9
1. Dartona: Introduction 1. Darsana: Introduction
“DarSana” can have technical sense, as noted by The darSana-s have been broadly divided into two -
Madhavacarya. It has reference to a comprehension of viz. astika-dariana-s and nastika-darfana-s, sometimes also
things which may be subtle or screened or distant - not referred to as vaidika-dar&ana-s and avaidika-darfana-s.
perceived, that is, in the normal course and with our The words astika and nastika are often taken (or
naked eye or naked ear etc12. rendered) as theistic and atheistic.
Three sources of darSana have been noted viz. It is more accurate to say that they refer to ‘one who
Sravana, manana and dhyana. It can be taken as implied believes in the idea that the World Hereafter exists’, and
that the three must be concurrently / serially pursued. Of to ‘one who does not believe that the World Hereafter
these the first is a reference to “listening” - of the exists’14.
scriptures, that is, as taught by a proper preceptor. The
Yet another criterion to differentiate the two is the
second has a reference to logical analysis - of, that is, what
belief in the Veda15. In the context of the classification of
has thus been listened to, and the third to contemplation -
dartona-s, the latter basis seems to be more pertinent.
of, that is, what has been analysed13.
12 Padartha - - Vijhana 13
1. Darsana: Introduction 1. Darsana: Introduction
The astika-dar$ana-s have a Vedic inspiration and On the contrary, there is an ancient saying in Sanskrit
therefore a verse in an ancient epic decries the nastika that the various treatises (Mstra-s) have been written only
attitude as springing from delusion17. to enlighten one about the attainment of peace. He is
hence [to be deemed asl knowledgeable in them all, whose
1 Carvaka =Lokayata mind is always peaceful20.
2 Arhata —Jaina
3 Ramanuja — VRistadvaita 1 §aiva
4 Pumaprajna =Dvaita 2 Vaismva
5 Auliikya = VaUesika 3 §akta
6 Jaiminiya =Mimdmsd
4 Saura
7 Aksapada =Nyaya
5 Vainayaka
8 Paniriiya = Vydkarana
6 Skanda
9 Pdtahjala =Yoga
17 Mahdbhdrata 12.123.16
prajna-natetmako mohas tatha dharmartha-na&akah \
tasmin nastikata caiva durdcdras ca jayate | |
18 Refer:
Saivarh ca vaisnavam saktam sauram vainayakam tatha \
For a tongue-in-cheek parody of the numerous schools of
skandam ca bhakti-margasya darSanani sadeva hi | |
thought, read Cicero: There is no idea so foolish that some
- Parasaramadhaviya of Vidyaranya (alias Madhava)
philosopher has not thought about it.
19 Nyayabhasya of Vatsyayana (on Nyayasutra of Jaimini,
4.2.49): 20 iamdrtham sarva-Sastrani vihitani manisibhih \
anyonya-pratyanikdni pravadukanam darsandni \ svapaksa- sa eva sarva-Sastrajho yasya Santam manah sada 11
ragena caike nyayam ativartante \
14 Padartha - - Vijhana 15
2. Dravya
Simple Definitions
would be nothing to differentiate the two. Guna and called adhyahara), we get the full sentence as yatha
karma can both be said to have dravya&rayitva. tantavah patasya samavayi-karanam tatha.
A second example is also given there - as pataSca
svagata-rupadeh where once again supply the missing word
Technical Definitions whence we get pataSca svagata-rupadeh samavayi-karanam
. The relationship noted here is between the cloth (which
However there are two technical definitions for now is the karana) and the form of the cloth (the karya).
dravya listed in this Table :
The definition offered there runs thus:
dravyatva-jatimattvam Possession of the class yat-samavetam karyam utpadyate, tat samavayikaranam \
1
dravya-laksanam dravyatva Note here, that the expression “yat-samavetam” is a
2 samavayi-karanatvam Being an Intimate Cause single word, not two words, as yat and samavetam. “yat-
dravya-laksanam samavetam” is a saptami-tatpurusa compound, hence to be
dissolved as yasmin samavetam. It is easily noticed that
Table 15: Technical definitions of dravya tantu in the first case is a dravya, and pata in the second is
also a dravya. This idea of a dravya alone being the
The first definition serves the purposes of a Intimate Cause is stated explicitly by ViSvanatha :
logician well, and can be said to add no information for
the layman. One can add the expression “-tva-jatimat- samavayi-karanatvam dravyasyaiveti vijheyam
tvam” to any item, more or less, and get such a technical (Bhasapariccheda 23).
definition (one has to apply the filter of jati-badhaka-s The problem of defining anything is ultimately in
(dealt with later) first, though). terms of some essential attributes or essential functions.
But when we try to get very technical, we would like to say
that the substance is in essence different from those
Examples for Intimate Cause attributes or functions, but in which case we are left with
no criterion at all whatsoever. It is this problem that must
The second definition is technically correct as it is
have egged on the Sahkhyan-s and the Grammarians to
only a dravya that can become a samavayi-karana. In a think of a definition like guna-samuho dravyam. Patanjali
later section in Tarkasangraha, the different types of refers to the view guna-samudayo dravyam (under
karana-s are defined and illustrated. The illustration given Astadhyayi 4.1.3 striyam). A very practical, hence simple
for samavayi-karana is the threads. Threads are a cause
for the cloth. The threads constitute the cause, karana;
and the cloth, karya. Annambhatta says there yatha
tantavah patasya. The sentence is elliptic, and when the
needed word is supplied from the context (technically
18 Padartha - - Vijndna 19
2. Dravya 2. Dravya
and broad, definition is also offered in grammar : 6 Stem dru yat 5.1.66 dravam arhati
whatever can be referred to by a pronoun is a dravya . tadarhati
20 Padartha - • Vijnana 21
2. Dravya 2. Dravya
Synonym Source Usage Dravya is the first among the padartha-s. It is the
1 viSesyam Cf. vikesyam eva ca first among the bhava-padartha-s also. The prime place
Patanjali(pa5i/m)
dravyam accorded to dravya in Ayurveda can be gathered from the
2 sattvam Cf. ayarh sattva- remark of SuSruta that rasa, virya, and vipaka depend all
Patanjali under Sabdo’styeva upon dravya itself.
Astadhyayi 1.4.57 dravya- Caraka defines it as that where reside Actions and
paddrthakah Attributes and which is an Intimate Cause24. Cakrapani
3 karakam Kaiyata under Ci.karaka-Sabdena notes that dravya alone can be the Intimate Cause of
Astadhyayi Saktyadhdro dravya, guna, and karman25. He supplies the definition of
2.1.1 dravyam ity ucyate samavayi-kdrana here and shows how guna and karman do
4 adharah Cf. karma-
Kaiyata under not qualify to become the Intimate Cause26.
Saktyadharo
Astadhyayi 3.1.67 Working out the applicability of the definition on
dravyam
5 adhikaranam Cf. dravyam hi all items listed as Substances, Arunadatta says that all the
Patanjali under points noted in the definition do not apply to all of the
loke ’dhikaranam
Astadhyayi 2.3.50 members of the set of Substances, and that some apply to
ity upacaryate
6 sahkhyeyam NageSa under Cf. sahkhyeyam some, and therefore that they must appropriately be
Astadhyayi 2.2.24 dravyam applied, and illustrated with the cases of mind and air 7.
7 sadhanam Patanjali under Cf. sadhanam vai
Astadhyayi 5.3.55 dravyam eva 24 Carakasamhita 1.1.50
8 vyaktih Cf. vyakty-akrti- yatraSritah karma-gundh karanam samavdyi tat \ tad
Nyayasutra 2.2.9 jatayastu dravyam | Cakrapani explains aMtah as samavetah \
padarthah 25 Cakrapani on Carakasamhita 1.1.50
9 atma Cf. atma vastu dravyam eva hi dravya-guna-karmanam samavayi-kdranam |
10 vastu svabhavafcal
26 Cakrapani on Carakasamhita 1.1.50
11 svabhdvah Sariram tattvam ity
Vakyapadiya samavayi-kdranam ca tad yat sva-samavetarh karyarh janayati
12 Sariram api | dravyam ity
3.2.1 ' ; guna-karmani tu na sva-samavetam karyarh janayatah, ato
13 tattvam asya paryayah/ na te samavdyi-karane |
tacca nityam iti
smrtam \ 27 Arunadatta on Carakasamhita 1.1.50
etani karma-gundSrayitva-samavdyi-kdranatvani yadyapi
sarvani sarvasmin dravye na vidyante. tathapi yadyatra
Table 17: Synonyms of dravya
sambhavati tena tasya dravyatvam kalpyam \ tadyatha -
manasah karma-gundsrayitvena, vayvadinam tu karma-
gundsrayatvena, samavayi-karanatvena ca \ |
22 Padartha - - Vijnana 23
2. Dravya 2. Dravya
26 Paddrtha - • Vijnana 27
2. Dravya 2. Dravya
Type of dravya Characteristic existence of the five indriya-s in plants and trees. In other
1 cetana- Sentient sendriyam Endowed with words, some plants can see, some can smell etc. His
dravya substance sense organs instances are tabulated in Table 2238.
2 acetana- Insentient nirindriyam Not endowed
A third type of classification of dravya-s is on the
dravya substance with sense
basis of the function of the dravya-s inside the human
organs
body. The threefold classification obtained as per this
Table 21: Types of dravya
1 jangamam = gacchatlti Caraka first gives two lists - the first and the last -
2 audbhidam = udbhidya prthivim jayate iti = vrksadi corresponding to these items. Refer to Table 26 and Table
3 parthivam = ukta-prakara-dvayatiriktah prthivi- 27.
vikarah
As regards the second one viz. audbhida, he first
Table 25: Etymologies of Technical Words gives some subclassifications and then proceeds to give
the list. See Table 28.
32 Padartha - - Vijnana 33
2. Dravya
2. Dravya
Susruta’s Classification
43 Says Sarikaramisra
42 Susrutasamhita 1.1.23 cestavattvam indriyavattvam ca nodbhidam sphutataram, ato
jahgamah khalv api caturvidha jarayujd’ndaja- tia Sarira-vyavahdrah |
svedajodbhijjah
- Vijhana 35
34 Pad art ha -
3. Pafwa-bhuta
grasps smell but not the form. And so on. The respective
objects of the sense organs may be broadly listed thus:
Sense Organ Object
CHAPTER 3 1 the nose Smell
2 the tongue Taste
3 the eye Form
THE FIVE BHUTA-S ("ELEMENTS")
4 the skin Touch
All living beings undergo various experiences. Life 5 the ear Sound
is a system which is in constant interaction with the
Table 31: Sense Organs and their Objects
environment. We experience the world around us through
our sense organs. The sense organs are the channels of {indriya-s and their visaya-s)
perception.
The aforesaid objects or domains are also seen as
Sense Organs and Their Objects the primary / predominant "properties" of what are called
the Five Elements. The Properties or Attributes are called
We are all endowed with 5 sense organs. The word guna in Sanskrit, and the Elements are called bhiita. The
for Sense Organ is indriya in Sanskrit. The list below Five Elements are here tabulated against the Properties
shows them {bhiita-s against their guna-s).
Sense Organs
Property Element
1 The eye
1 Smell Earth
2 The ear
2 Taste Water
3 The nose
3 Form Fire
4 The tongue
4 Touch Air
5 The skin
5 Sound Ether
Table 30: Sense Organs {indriya-s) Table 32 : Elements and their Primary Properties
{bhiita-s and their guna-s)
The sense organs have fixed/specialised domains.
They are called artha or visaya in Sanskrit. The eye grasps The two tables may now be merged into one as
form, but cannot sense smell or taste. Similarly the nose there is a regular one-is-to-one correspondence. The
common column shows how the indriya-visaya-s coincide
with the bhuta-guna-s.
36 Padartha - - Vijnana 37
3. Pahca-bhuta 3. Pahca-bhuta
1 akaSa (m/n)
1 Nose ghrana (n), ndsika(f),ndsa(f)
2 gagana (n)
2 Tongue rasanaka (n), rasana(f), jihva(i)
3 kha (n)
3 Eye caksus (n), nayana(n), netrain), aksi (n),
4 vyoman (n)
locana(n)
5 nabhas (n)
4 Skin carman (n), tvac (f)
5 Ear krotra (n), $ruti(f), karna(m)
Table 38: Words for Ether
(f) The five bhiita-s are collectively referred to in three Table 40: indriya-s - English and Sanskrit Words
ways as
(i) prthvy-ap-tejo-vayv-akaSa, or briefly as
It may be noticed that the Five elements exhaust all
(ii) prthvyadi (prthvi + adi) or yet briefly as
that is in the world. That is why Caraka says sarvam
(iii) khadi (kha+ adi), i.e the items beginning with the
dravyam pahcabhautikam asminn arthe (CS 1.26.10) :"In
Earth, or the items beginning with the Ether.
this discipline {asmin arthe), all things are made of the
Five Elements"44.
Pancadafi.46 vayu - • - - -
tejas - - • - -
Illustrating the Principle of Inheritance, the text
goes on to show the existence of Sound, for example, in all ap - - - • -
While Table 42 focuses on the distinct attributes of Similarly, the ap-mahabhuta has half of ap-bhuta,
the bhuta-s, Tables 43 & 44 shows the cumulative the remaining ones all contributing in equal proportion to
progression of the bhiita-s in the course of their evolution. make the other half. The results of this representation
may thus be tabulated :
Actually speaking, both the Tables refer to the
subtle stage (suksma-avastha) of the bhiita-s. Similarly Bhiita Components
combining to produce compounded elements is pahcikrta apahcikrta other 4 (apahcikrta)
pahcikarana. The essential idea is that the Five Elements mahabhuta mahabhuta bhiita constituents
are nowhere available in Nature in their 1/8 ( p a t v)
akaia (a) V2 a
pure/unitary/isolated/unalloyed forms. All the five betray
vayu (v) Vi v 1/8 ( p a t a)
the properties of all of them, some prominently, some not
tejas (t) V2 t 1/8 (p a v a)
prominently. Water, for example, can show smell. The five
apja) V2 a 1/8 ( p t v a)
as they come within the ambit of our experience are
Pithvi (p)_ 2 p
V 1/8 ( a t v a)
maha-bhuta-s. Vedantic texts even posit a certain ratio in
the intermingling of components.
Table 45 : maha-bhuta-s and their bhuta components
Composition
Padartha - - Vijhdna 47
46
3. Panca-bhuta 3. Panca-bhuta
prathamaprathamabhdgdmMndm caturnam madhye of our own times. The commentary very well brings out
ekaikasya yojanat, te viyad-adayah pratyekam the difference between prthivibhuta and prthivitattva,
pahcapahcatmaka bhavanti \ \ between samastisrsti and vyastisrsti.
50 Padartha - - Vijhana 51
3. Panca-bhuta
Interpenetration
Definition
Darshan Shankar
48 Tarkasahgraha
tatra gandhavatl prthivi \
49
Bhasapariccheda 32
sneha-hina gandhayutah ksitavete caturdaSa | |
50 Vaisesikasutra 2.2.2
vyavasthitah prthivyam gandhah \
52 Padartha - - Vijnana 53
4. Prthvi 4. Prthvi
Type of prthivi Locus Other properties are also noted64. As regards the
1 §ariravidha Body such as asmadadinam types of rupa in it, as also those of rasa, gandha, and
prthivi ours sparSa.
2 indriyavidha Nose gandha-grahakarh
Taking a Samkhyan approach, SuSruta notes that
prthivi ghranam
prthivi has a predominance of tamas65.
3 visayavidha Mud, stone etc mrtpdsdnadih
pythivi
1 rupa
Table 47 : Types of karyarupa prthivi 2 rasa
3 gandha
Helaraja points out how from a small lump of mud 4 sparSa
to a mountain, everything is felt as prthivi alone60. For 5 samkhya
PraSastapada three grades can be perceived in visaya- 6 parimana
prthiv?1. He further notes two types of Sarira-prthivt2.
7 prthaktva
8 samyoga
9 vibhaga
Properties
10 paratva
Prthivi has 14 guna-s listed in Table 4863: 11 aparatva
12 gurutva
13 dravatva
14 samskara
60 Helaraja on Vdkyapadiya (3.1.41)
(a) losto’pi prthivi-mpena pratiyate,
(b) mrtsamiiho’pi,
Table 48 : Guna-s of prthivi
(c) ghato’pij
(d) parvato’pi \ 64Siddhdntamuktavali -
56 Padartha - - Vijhana 57
4. Prthvi
Origin
68 Tarkasahgraha
§ita-spar&avatyah apah
(Dissolve the first word thus :
Si lascasan sparsaS ca Sita-spariah | sah asu astiti Sita-
sparfavatyah).
Note that apah is grammatically Feminine Plural; the word
is always plural.
69 Vaisesikasutra 2.2.5
apsu fitata |
As Water may be hot also (when heated), SankaramiSra
qualifies it, saying water betrays a natural coldness. Thus
66 Taittiriya Upanisad 2.1.1 says Upaskara (on Vaisesikasutra 2.2.5) :
adbhyah prthivi | svabhavika-Sitata apam laksanam |
Cf. Kalidasa’s Raghuvaritsa 5.54
67
Brhadaranyaka Upanisad 1.2.2 usnatvam anyatapa-samprayogat
tadyad apam §ara asid. tat samahanyata, sa prthivyabhavat | Saityam hiyatsa prakrtih jalasya |
58 Padartha - - Vijnana 59
5. Jala 5. Jala
eternal, nitya and anitya is as with the Earth. Hence a perceived as water73.
similar tabulation.
Nature Further Types Properties
Type
1 nitya apah paramanuriipah Nil
The various properties of Water are listed by
2 anitya apah kdryariipdh Three
PraSastapada thus.
60 Padartha - Vijhana 61
5. Jala
5. Jala
75 Susrutasamhita 3.1.19
sattva-tamo-bahula apah \
76 Carakasamhita 1.26.39
saumyah khalv apah antariksa-prabhavah prakrti-Sitah
laghvyaSca avyakta-rasaS ca, tas tu antariksad bhrafyamanah
bhrastaSca pahca-mahabhuta-guna-samanvitah, jahgama-
sthavarandm bhiitanam murtih abhipnnayanti, tasu murtisu
sad abhimurcchanti rasah \ \ 80 Carakasamhita 1.26.11
77 drava-snigdha-Jita-manda-mrdu-picchila-rasa-guna-bahulani
Tarkasahgraha
apyani | tarty upakleda-sneha-bandha-visyanda-mardava-
curnadi-pindibhava-hetiih giinah snehah | jala-matra-vrttih | prahlddakardni |
70
83
There are 4 types of visaya here : the names of
Tarkasangraha these and their etymologies are noted in Table 54.
usna-spartavat tejah |
Dissolve the compound: While Annambhatta gives two examples each for
ustiaScasau spartaSca = usnaspartah \ so'syasti = the visaya of prthivi and ap, he mentions 4 types of visaya¬
usnaspartavat \ tejas. There are some peculiarities of the naiyayika
Note that tejas is Neuter in gender. doctrine here.
84 Vaisesikasutra 2.1.3 Among the illustrations offered, one or two need
tejo rupa-spartavat \ some explanations. Lightning is said to issue from a
Of
Padartha - - Vijhdna 65
64
6. Tejas
6. Tejas
Origin
Ayurvedic Aspects
93 Carakasarhhitd 1.26.11
usnatiksna-siiksma-laghu-niksa-vifada-rupa-giina-
bahulanydgneydni, tdni ddha-paka-prabha-prakato-
varnakardni |
Types
96 CarakasamhUa 1.28.3 99
vividham aiitam pitam lidham khaditam jantorhitam Tarkasahgraha
antaragni-sandhuksita-balena yathasvenosmand samyag riipa-rahita-spariavan vayuh \
vipacyamanam kalavad anavasthita-sarva-dhatu-pakam Dissolve:
anupahata-sarva-dhdtu$ma-mdruta-srota-kevalam iariram riipena rahitah rupa-rahitah \ spariah asya astlti spariavan |
upacaya-bala-varna-sukhdyusd yojayati, ianra-dhatun riipa-rahitai casau spariavdrhica = riipa-rahita-spariavdn j
iirjayatica \ Touching on the essential quality of vayu, Kanada refers to
it as spariavan vayuh (VaiiesikasiUra 2.1.4)
97 CarakasamhUa 1.25.40 100
agnih dmastambha-iita-iidodvepana-praiamandndm Pra&astapddabhasya (on Vaisesikasutra 2.1.4)
[ires(ham] | spar&o'syanusna-§itatve sati apakajah |
98 ViSvanatha reorders the words here to suit his metrical
CarakasamhUa 1.25.40 presentation (verse 42) :
yathdgnyabhyavahdro'gni-sandhukyandndm | apakxijo'nusnaSita-sparias tu pavane matah \
70 Padartha • - Vijndna 71
7. Vayu 7. Vayu
Properties
Paraphrasing Bhartrhari, Helaraja says that prana
accomplishes various activities such as going and coming, SuSruta notes that Vayu has a predominance of
being located in the joints of the various limbs106. rajo-guna10*. PraSastapada lists the properties thus:
Sometimes five more subdivisions (called
1 sparSa
upaprana-s) are stated with different functions listed
below. 2 samkhya
3 parimdna
upaprana Function 4 prthaktva
1 ndga udgara Belching 5 sarhyoga
2 kurma unmilana Opening eyes 6 vibhaga
3 krkara ksut Hunger 7 paratva
4 devadatta vijrmbhana Yawning 8 aparatva
5 dhanahjaya sarvavyapi Reaching all over 9 samskara
1 sthivana Spitting
2 ksavathu Sneezing
109 Carakasamhita 6.28.3 3 udgara Belching
vayur ayuh, balam vayuh, vayur dhata Saririnam | 4 §vdsa Respiration
vayuh viivam idam sarvam, prabhur vayidca kirtitah \ \
5 ahara Food intake
110 Cakrapani on Carakasamhita 6.28.3 + adi Jetc)_
yadyapi Sanrendriya-sattvatma-samyoga ayuh, tathapi tadria-
samyoge pradhanatvat prakrtistho vayur apy ayur ucyate \ Table 63 : Functions of prana
Cf. the maxim pradhanyena vyapadeia bhavanti \
which may be rendered as “Designations issue out of (b) Udana
predominance.”
111 pittam pahgu, kapham pahgu, pahgavo mala-dhatavah | Udana has three locations listed below115. It has
vayuna yatra riiyante tatra gacchanti meghavat \ \ over five functions116.
Also Cf. Carakasamhita 6.28.60
vayureva hi siksmatvdd dvayos tatrapy udiranah \ 113 Carakasamhita 6.28.6
112 Carakasamhita 6.28.5 sthanam pranasya murdhorahkantha-jihvdsya-ndsikah |
pranodana-samdndkhya-vydndpdnait ca pahcadha | 114 Carakasamhita 6.28.6
deham tantrayate samyak sthanesv avydhatai caran \ \ sthivana-ksavathudgdra-ivdsdhdradi karma ca \
76 Padartha - Vijhana 77
7. Vdyu 7. Vdyu
1 vakpravrtti
Table 67: Functions of samana
Urge to speak
2 prayatna Endeavour
3 urjas Enthusiasm (d) Vyana
4 bala Strength
5 varna Complexion Vyana, the swift wind, has its location all over the
+ (adi) body119, and has over four functions120.
_
Table 65: Functions of udana 1 1 sarva-deha-vyapi [ Pervasion all over the body
1 mti Motion
1 sveda-vahi-srotas Channels that carry sweat 2 prasarana Extension
2 dosa-vahi-srotas Channels that carry dosa-s aksepa Sudden movements
3
3 ambu-vahi-srotas Channels that carry liquid 4 nimesa Winking of eyes
material
+ (adi) (etc)
4 antaragni-pariva Neighbourhood of the
digestive fire Table 69: Functions of vyana
Table 70: Locations of apana 123 See Cakrapani on Carakasamhita 6.28.7. Also go through
Astahgahrdaya 1.20
1 Sukra-sarga Ejaculation
124 Carakasamhita 1.12.8
2 mutra-sarga Urination vayus tantra-yantra-dharah
3 Sakrt-sarga Evacuation
4 artava-sarga 125 Carakasamhita 1.12.8
Menstruation
pravartakaS cestanam uccavacdnam
5 garbha-sarga Parturition
126 Carakasamhita 1.12.8
Table 71: Functions of apana niyanta praneta ca manasah
Properties
1^9
Carakasamhita 1.12.8 136 Tarkasahgraha
kranta lokanam vayureva bhagavan iti. Sabda-gunakam akatom |
Also Cf. Carakasamhita 1.17.118 Cf. Bhasapariccheda 44
sarva hi cesta vatena sa pranah praninam smrtah \ akaSasya tu vijheyah iabdo vaifesiko gunah |
Cf. Carakasamhita 1.12.10 Also read Siddhantamuktdvali thereon :
vaiiesika iti kathanam tu vifesa-gunantara-vyavacchedaya.
133 See Susrutasamhita 2.1.4-11, and 12-17
Commenting on the first MaheSvarasiitra, Pataiijali notes
134 Taittiiiya Upanisad 2.1.1 the same idea
akaSad vdyuh Srotropalabdhih buddhi-nirgrahyah prayogenabhijvalitah
dkaSa-deiah Sabdah |
135 Taittiiiya Upanisad 2.1.1
vdyoragnih |
The inseparability of guna and gunin is hinted at by saying
dka&a-deiah Sabdah. Cf. Nirukta 14.4
The general maxim viz. vistam hyaparam parena works here
akaSa-gunah Sabdah \
as elsewhere.
82 Padartha - - Vijhana 83
8.Akdsa 8. Akasa
the substratum of stars and planets is rather well-known. possibility of the murta-dravya-s being blocked by dkaka140.
But when we say a portion of the earth is the substratum Annambhatta notes that there is but one akato, all-
for a chariot, ultimately, it is Ether that is the substratum pervasive and eternal141. All-pervasiveness is to have
for even this, says Helaraja, elucidating Bhartrhari138. contact with all items that have form (murta). The murta-
dravya-s are five, shown below.
1 Habda
2 samkhya
3 parimana
4 prthaktva
5 samyoga
6 vibhdga
Stated more explicitly, aka&a is the common SuSruta notes the abundance of sattva in aka&a142.
substratum if all murta items139. The murta substances
block one another whereas there can be no such
139
Helaraja (on Vakyapadiya 3.J.15) 142 Susrutasamhita
dkdkuh hi sarvesam miirtanam adhikaranam \ sattva-bahulatn dkdSam.
84 Padartha - - Vijnana 85
8. Akasa 8. Akasa
Etymology Origin
Reflecting on the lexical and semantic cognateness, Ether emanates from the Self (atman)147, as the
Helaraja says akaSa is so called because it gives room / Upanisad remarks. The Sankhya texts refer to the
space (avakafa)143. origination from the tanmatra-s14*. Caraka draws a parallel
between the genesis of the world and the genesis of the
Types child in the womb - macrocosm and microcosm, referring
thereby to the origin of akato149.
We have only one type viz. the organ (the ear)144.
Kaiyata elucidates this thus :
Types of akasa Locus yatha prthivya ekatve’pi Snighna-Mathuradi-deSa-vyavaharah,
1 torirakafo X evam dkatasyapi samyogi-ghatadi-padarthavacchedena
2 indriyaka&a bheda-vyavaharah \ For Bhartfhari on this, see Vakyapadiya
Srotra the ear
3.6.5. For related notions of samyoga/vibhdga/ upadhit
3 visayakato X
vyapyavrtti / digavaccheda / purva / apara, see Helaraja
Table 74: akasa Types thereon.
Ether is but one : however owing to adjuncts it 147 Taittinya Upanisad 2.1.1
appears as numerous, as with numerous ears145. Patanjali tasmad va etasmad atmana akaSah sambhutah |
had also noticed this146.
148 Sdhkhyatattvakaumudi (on Sankhyakdrika 3) pahca-
tanmatrani bhutanam dkd&ddinam prakrtayah \ where the
143 Helaraja (on Vakyapadiya 3.1.15)
tanmatra is stated as the cause of the bhfita, in alignment
civaka&a-danaddhi tad-akdiam
with the Sdhkhyasutra (of Kapila) 1.60 tanmatrebhyah
144 sthula-bhutani
Siddhantamulctavali (preface to Bhdsapariccheda 45) tatra
farirasya visayasya cdbhavad indriyam darfayati \
149 Carakasamhita A A.8 yatha pralayatyaye sisriksuh bhutani
145 aksara-bhuta atma sattvopadanah piirvataram dkaSarh srjati,
Siddhdntamuktavali (preface to Bhdsapariccheda 45)
tatah kramem vyaktatara-gunan dhatiin vayvadikami
akaSa eka eva sannapi upadheh karna-Saskulyader bhedad caturah, tatha deha-grahane’pipravartamanah piirvataram
bhinnam Srotratmakam bhavatity arthah \
akd&am eva upadatte, tatah kramena avyaktatara-gunan
Upaskdra asserts this thus (commenting on Vaisesikasutra
dhatiin vdyvddikdrhi caturah \ Commenting on this,
2.1.29 tattvam bhavena):
Cakrapapi makes many points of which two deserve
bhavah satta, sa yathaika, tatha dka&am apy ekam eva |
mention - that the genesis of akd&a is to be looked for in
Sankhya texts; and that the embryological concept has more
146 Mahabhasya (on Mahe&varasiitra no.l) of an agamic base than a yukti base.
ekam ca punarakafom, akaSa-de&a api bahavah |
86 Padartha - - Vijnana 87
9. Kala
140 There is some lack of clarity in the etymology - the first one.
That is why Dalhana offers, as though himself not quite Properties
satisfied with his own explanation, a variant reading. Read
suksmam api (= stokdm api) kalam (=bhagam) na liyate The most evident property of Time is the division
[gatimattvat] (=$listo na bhavati) \ anye tu ‘na liyate’ ityatra
into anterior/posterior, antecedent /subsequent. That is
‘kaliyate’ itipathanti, vyakhydnayanti ca - kaliyate
sahkhyayate - iti kdlah | why Kanada says these are the ‘marks’ {lihga) of Time161.
The idea seems to be that Time keeps moving; nothing of it, The vital role of the movement of the sun (tapana-
not the least portion of it, ‘sticks’ anywhere or with parispanda) is the background of the mutual relativity of
anything. More than a grammatical derivation, it is after the the old and the young, or what is the same, paratva and
fashion of the Nirukta derivation, based on isophonic words, aparatva, as the commentator remarks162. The factor of
often spoken of pejoratively as ‘folk etymology’, though Time, he goes on to add, functions as the Non-intimate
quite common in Vedic/Upanisadic literature. An Causal (asamavdyi-karana) with regard to the above
alternative etymology offered by Haranacandra is also pair163. Five properties are noted by Kanada listed
given viz.
below164.
suksmamapi kalam liyate, thus explained by himself:
suksmam api kalam kdlariifa-viSesam liyate Slisyati - kalasya
sarva-miirta-samyogitvdt \
The advantage with Haranacandra is, there is no adhyahara 161 Vaisesikasutra 2.2.6
of “na”, negation which is rather an awkward “supply”. aparasminnaparam yugapat dram ksipram iti kala-lihgani
The other etymologies are simple: sankalayati 162 Upaskara (on Vaisesikasutra 2.2.6)
(=samharanad ekara§ikaroti) bhutani iti va kdlah | At the bahutara-tapana-parispandantarita-janmani sthavire
time of Dissolution, all beings are made into a single heap yuvanam avadhim krtva paratvam utpadyate \ evam
by Time. Or bhutani sankalayati (=yojayati) [sukha- sthaviram avadhim krtva yuni aparatvotpattih iti \
duhkhabhyam] iti | i.e. what unites beings with joys and
sorrows. Or kalayati (samksipati) iti | i.e what condenses. 163 Upaskara continues:
kalasyaiva martanda-sarhyuktasya pindena samyogah
Or, kalayati (=mrtyusamipam nayati) iti | i.e what takes
paratva-aparatvayoh asamavdyi-karanam \
[creatures] to Death. Dalhana suggests one more
alternative reading kalayati iti, and says it is explained as 164 Vaisesikasutra
sahkhyati (Time reckons, or knows well, all things). tasya gunah sahkhyd-parimdna-prthaktva-samyoga-vibhdgah |
90 Padartha - - Vijiiana 91
9. Kola 9. Kola
be over (avirama), it is referred to as the Present171. This Speaking of its vital role he says the very life and death of
is an easy instance of the Present. But there are usages human beings is dependent on it175.
such as “Rivers flow, or Mountains stand” where the
actions are more or less for all times (nityapravftta). These Units of Time
are also to be reckoned as the Present172. The Present is,
again as Patahjali says, when the Past and the Future are SuSruta takes note of the primary basis for the
not173. various units of time. The movement of the sun over a
year generates all units, and the duration of a year
presents Time as a whole as it were176. The units noted by
In Ayurveda him are listed in Table 77.
In Ayurveda also kala is a dravya. And like every 175 Susrutasamhita 1.6.3
dravya, it has guna and karma. Some of the gum-s of kala atra rasa-vyapat-sampatti jivita-marane ca manusyanam
have already been noted. ayatte \
The word ‘rasa ’ stands for ‘madhura etc’, and by extension,
SuSruta reveres kala as a veritable Lord who has no
and more importantly, the drugs which possess properties
beginning, no middle, and no end, and self-originate174.
of being ‘madhura etc’. The potency and impotency (vyapat
and sampatti) of drugs depend on this. In other words,
proper administration of drugs also involves administering
171 Mahabhasya (on Astadhyayi 3.2.123) them in the right season of the year in the right hour of the
pravrttasyavirame Sasitavya bhavantl | day: samyagyoga and mithyayoga and consequences of right
The word bhavantl is used as a synonym for the Present and wrong administrations. Cakrapani extends the meaning
Tense (vartamana). of manusyanam as to cover paivadinam api.
172 This is in fact a Linguistic Universal. To cite Patahjali again : 176 SuSruta calls Time as samvatsaratma. Dalhana glosses atma
Mahabhasya (on Astadhyayi 3.2.123) as svarupa ‘nature’, and cites another’s gloss as Sarira,
nitya-pravrtte ca Sasitavya bhavantl | tisthantiparvatah ‘body\tasya [=kalasya] samvatsaratmano bhagavan adityah
\sravanti nadyah - iti | gati-viSesena aksi-nimesa-kdstha-kald-muhurta-ahoratra-
paksa-mdsa-rtu-ayana-sarhvatsara-yuga-pravibhagarh karoti \
173 Mahabhasya (on Astadhyayi 3.2.123)
Dalhana takes the Sun as only typical (upalaksana) and says
iha bhuta-bhavisyat-pratidvandvi vartamanah kalah \ na
the Moon is also to be taken, by implication :
catra bhuta-bhavisyantau kalau stah |
bhagavan aditya ityupalaksanam \ tena candro’pi grhyate \
174 Susrutasamhita 1.6.3 Alternatively, the Sun may alone be taken as explaining
kalo hi nama bhagavan-svayambhuh anadi-madhya- everything, he says. The duration of the utterance of a short
nidhanah \ syllable is what is called aksinimesa (literally ‘the blink of an
Some manuscripts do not have bhagavan, but the other eye’). A day has been divided in other words into 27,000
words convey the idea of Lordship. units. Ahoratra = 30 muhurta-s = 30x 20 kala-s = 60x 30
94 Padartha - - Vijhana 95
9. Kola
9. Kola
division of the samvatsara into rtu-s is the way Time has its
Abbr.
Name Ratio impact upon us with regard to our ahara and cestd (food
and other habits), technically described in terms of rasa
1 aksinimesa a LUM* and bala177.
2 kastha b 15 x a
3 kala c 30 xb = tapas + tapasya
SiSira
4 muhurta d 20 x c — magha + phalguna
5 ahoratra e 30 xd = madhu + madhava
vasanta
6 paksa f 15 x e = caitra + vaiSakha
7 masa 2xf = §uci + Sukra
§ grisma
8 rtu h 2xg = jyestha + asadha
9 ayana i 3xh = nabhas + nabhasya
varsa
10 samvatsara 2xi = Sravana + bhadrapada
j
11 yuga k = isa + urja
_ Sarat
= aSvina + kartika
* LUM = laghvaksaroccarana-matra = sahas + sahasya
hemanta
= margaSirsa + pausa
Table 77: Units of Time according to Susruta
98 Padartha - - Vijnana 99
9. Kola 9. Kola
Age 188 If one lives for 120 years, the units alter : He is bala for 36
years, madhya for 72 years, and vrddha for the rest.
Caraka also notes certain divisions of time within Cakrapani (on 3.8.122) discusses these, as also those who
die at 20.
the lifespan of an individual. This is necessitated by the
fact that the parameter of age is to be reckoned with, 189 Carakasamhita 3.8.125
among the ten parameters that a doctor is advised to take kdlah punah sarhvatsaraSca, dturavastha ca \
stock of before he administers medicine185. We have 1,0 Carakasamhita 3.8.125
broadly three divisions of age186, but in matter of fact, sarhvatsaro dvidhd tridha Sodha dvada&adhd bhuya&capyatah
more divisions are possible187. The classification could pravibhajyate tattat-kdryam abhisamiksya | etc.
vary with respect to the entire span188. The reference is to the two ayana-s, to the three spans of
heat, cold and rain, to the six seasons, and to the twelve
months.
185 Carakasamhita 3.8.94 For the ten parameters, including
1,1 Carakasamhita 3.8.128
vayastaSca, “age-wise”. He defines vayas thus (3.8.22):
asyam avasthayam asya bhesajasya akdlah, kdlah punar
kala-pramana-vi$esdpeksini hi iarirdvastha vayo’bhidhiyate \
anyasyeti | etadapi hi bhavaty avastha-vtfesena... muhur
186 Carakasamhita 3.8.122 muhur aturasya sarvavastha-vitesaveksanam yathavad-
tadvayo yathasthula-bhedena (v.l. yathavastha-bhedena) bhesaja-prayogartham |
trividham - balam, madhyarh, jirnam iti \ The division here is thus two-fold - kala and akala, timely
187 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 3.8.122) and untimely.
yathasthidabhedeneti-vacanad bala-balatara-ddi-avasthd- 192 Carakasamhita 3.8.128
bhedad adhikam api vayo bhavatiti dar&ayati | balo dvividhah na hi atipatita-kalam aprapta-kalam vd bhesajam
1®® Padartha - - Vijnana 101
9.Kdla 9. Kola
Even sleep and sexual intercourse and even good In the very first few sections of his text, BhavamiSra
delivery will involve considerations of time193. Thus sleep defines ayus itself in terms of time - in the context of
during daytime is generally condemned, yet there are defining Ayurveda196. Caraka mentions kala as a factor
numerous exceptions194. Duration of sleep is determined that governs all - life, diseases and the world itself in
by seasons also. general197.
Types and are all derivable from the iti of the Vaisesikasiitra, he
says205. See Table 83.
Direction is but one. But it is considered as
multiple. The cause of the divisions is the presence of the A different nomenclature is adopted by
adjunct. This has been mentioned by ViSvanatha202. The PraSastapada who refers to the various directions in terms
nomenclature as “the East” and “the West” has a of the divinities that are said to preside over them. His list
common basis viz. proximity or otherwise to the Rising is as in Table 84.
Mountain203. The nomenclature, again, of “the North”
and “the South” has another common basis viz. proximity 1 asmad idam purvam East
or otherwise to the Sumeru Mountain204. 2 asmad idam daksinam South
3 asmad idam pakcimam West
Direction is divided into ten, and is detailed by
4 asmad idam uttaram North
SankaramiSra, and contains what is meant by “East etc”
5 asmad idam daksina-paicimam Southwest
(pracyadi). The eight cardinal points plus the directions
6 asmad idam pa&cimottaram Northwest
“Above” and “Below” constitute the ten, tabulated below,
7 asmad idam uttarapurvam Northeast
8 asmad idam purvadaksinam Southeast
9 asmad idam adhastat Above
10 asmad idam uparistat Below
202 Karikavafi 46
upadhi-bhedad ekapi pracyadi-vyapade&abhak \ Table 83 : The Ten Directions
Cf. Vaisesikasiitra 2.2.13
karya-viSesena nanatvam j
The Grammarians (Vaiyakarana) are in full
203 The mountain behind which the Sun seems to rise is called agreement with the Logicians (Naiyayika/Vaitesika) and
the Rising Mountain (udayagiri); the mountain behind
which the Sun seems to set is the Setting Mountain
(astagiri) - though this latter has not been mentioned here.
Says Siddhanlamuktavali (on Karikdvali 46) :
yat-pumsasya udaya-giri-sannihita yd dik sa tasya pracl \
evam udaya-giri-vyavahita yd dik sa pratici \
205
204 Mt. Sumeru (or Meru) is the Northernmost mountain, as Upaskara (on Vaisesikasiitra 2.2.10)
Siddantamuktavali cites : etepratyayah uita idam” iti sautretind sangrhitah |
sarvesdm eva varsdnam menir uttaratah sthitah \ Cf. Amarakosa regarding the presiding Deities over the 8
Siddantamuktavali (on Karikavati 46) directions:
evam yat-purusasya sumeru-sannihita yd dik sd udici \ tad- indro vahnih pitrpatih nairrto vanino marat |
vyavahita tu avaci | kiibera i$ah patayah purvadinam ditem kramat | |
106 Padartha - - Vijhana 107
10. DU
10. Dis
so even with regard to childbirth215. The initiation of the direction, seen in a dream are indicators of good things to
disciple into Ayurveda also involves a ritual in which happen221. The Southern direction is ominous222.
direction plays a role216. __
Medicines made of trees in gardens to the south of
The Eastern wind and Sun’s heat must be which are water-spots, are praiseworthy223. Even the
eschewed217. j medical stores must be in an auspicious direction224.
The notions of above/below/horizontal also play When an operation is to be performed, the
roles as in the movement of breath218, the movement of directions faced by the patient and the doctor are also to
dosa-s219 etc. be proper225.
The considerations of direction also figure in the
“science of omens”, made use of in Ayurveda. Auspicious In this manner the sense of direction, whether
sounds and a gentle Southern wind forebode good external or internal has a significant role to play in
health220. Vehicular movement in the North or Eastern Ayurveda. And in many respects, thus, time and space, or
kdla and rftf, betray similarity in their properties and
215 Cf. Carakasariihita 4.8.50 functions.
prak-iirasam udak-iirasarh va samvefya
216 Susrutasariihita 1.2.4
upanayaniyarh tu brahmanam praiastesu tithikarana-
muhurta-naksatresupraiastayarh diiiiucau samedeie ...
Also Cf. Carakasamhita 3.8.11
deieprakpravane udakpravane... prarimukhah iucih 221 Carakasariihita 5.12.86
adhyayanavidhim anuvidhaya yanarh purvottarena ca |
217 Carakasamhita 1.8.19 222 Carakasariihita 5.5.8
purovata-atapa-avaiydya-atipravatan jahyat \ Svabir ustrair khagair vapi yati yo daksinarh dvSam |
218 Susrutasariihita 2.1.60 svapne yaksmanam asadya jivitarh sa vimuricati 11
adhogamah satiryaggdh dhamanih urdhvadehagah etc 223 Carakasariihita 7.1.9
219 Carakasariihita 1.17.112 pradaksodake... balavattarair drumaih ausadhani jdtdni
urdhvarh cadhaica tiryak ca vijheyo trividha gatih | praSasyante \
2JA
Cf. Carakasariihita 2.8.38 Susrutasariihita 1.36.17
prayas tiryaggatah dosah kletoyanty aturaih&ciram 11 praSastayarh diii Sucau bhesajagaram isyate \
220 Carakasariihita 5.12.79 225 Susrutasariihita 1.5.7
vedadhyayana-SabdaS ca sukho vayuh pradaksinah \ prahmukham aturam upaveSya, yantrayitva, pratyarimukho
pathi veSmapraveSe tu vidyad arogya-laksamm \ \ vaidyo... anulomarh &astrarh nidadhyat...
112 Padartha • - Vijnana 113
11. Atman
CHAPTER 11 1 prana
2 apana
ATMAN (THE SELF) 3 nimesa
4 unmesa
Definition 5 jivana
6 manogati
Annambhafta defines atman as ‘the substratum of
7 indriyantaravikarah
knowledge’226. ViSvanatha defines it as “the Principle
8 sukha
presiding over sense organs etc”227.
9 duhkha
Kanada lists a dozen items that betray the atman 10 iccha
(“dtmano lingani”) e.g breathing, blinking, joys, and 11 dvesa
sorrows. They are listed in Table 88. 12 prayatna
$ankarami&ra argues that raising a pestle and
letting it fall are actions requiring some effort; the entity Table 88: Features of atman
whose is the effort is atman 2*. He goes on to add that the
Paramatman
1 sukha The word Paramatman may be rendered as the
2 duhkha Supreme Self. Annambhatta characterises this Self by two
3 iccha expressions viz. Hvara and Sarvajha.
4 dvesa
The word Hvara applies to one who performs 3
5 prayatna
actions unique to Himself viz. sr$ti, sthiti, and samhara, or
6 prana
creation, maintenance, and dissolution236. The second
7 apana
word implies that He is omniscient237. He is called
8 unmesa
Paramatman for 3 reasons : (i) He is the Self of all
9 nimesa
creatures (ii) None can be His Self (iii) He is the Lord of
10 buddhi
the Selves238.
11 manas-sahkalpa
Paramatman is also known by the word
12 vicarana
Brahman239. Caraka refers to this as attainable by the Pure
13 smrti Intellect or the True Intellect240. It is this Intellect that
14 vijnana leads to Brahman as Never-getting-old, Never-dying,
15 adhyavasaya Never-changing, and Tranquil241. Caraka refers also to the
16 visayopalabdhi fact that the pure jiva can become Brahman, and
becoming That, transcends bonds of joys and sorrows242. knows246. Simple as it is, the statement requires certain
The Supreme Self is beyond all change, which is to say, qualifications. The knowledge is set into motion only with
free from diseases243. The Supreme Self can have no a conjunction with the “instruments”247. If there is no such
origin or cause for He is beginningless244. conjunction, knowledge cannot be possible; nor is it
possible if the instruments are impure248. He gives two
analogies - of a dusty mirror or dirty water that cannot
Jivatman reflect properly249. He takes the context to define the
karana-s - as the mind, the intellect, and the sensory and
The word tu in Tarkasangraha after describing motor organs250.
Paramatman, brings out the contrast from the latter245.
The relation between the Self and Knowledge is
The quintessential point about the jivatman is brought out through a few more categorical, nevertheless
noted in the pithy statement of Caraka that the Self paradoxical, statements. The mere presence of sense
organs does not ensure the occurrence of knowledge;
equally, the self does not become ignorant when the
242 Carakasamhita 4.5.21 senses fail. For the Self is never without Knowledge, and a
brahma-bhutasya sarhyogo na kiddhasyopapadyate \ particular type of sensory knowledge obtains when a
Cakrapani takes samyoga as particular mind (-the one flowing through that channel)
sukha-duhkha-hetu-dharmddharma-samyogah,
for it is the link with dharma and adharma that triggers
sukha and duhkha. For him, brahma-bhuta is tantamount to
jivanmukta, “Alive [yet] Liberated”.
246 Carakasamhita 4.1.54
243 Carakasamhita 1.1.56 atma jhah \
nirvikdrah parastv atma.
Here Cakrapani implies that vikara is rogah. Read 247 Carakasamhita 4.1.54
karanaih yogat jhanarh tvasya pravartate \
nirvikaro nirvikrtih, tena nirogatvam atmanah \
He also takes para here as Subtle/Great: 248 Carakasamhita 4.1.54
para iti suksmah Srestho va karananam avaimalyad, ayogad va, na vartate \
244 Carakasamhita 4.1.53 249 Carakasamhita 4.1.55
prabhavo na hyanaditvad vidyate paramatmanah \ paiyato 'pi yathddario sahkliste nasti darSanam |
This feature sets Him against the raSipumsa. tattvam jale va kaluse cetasyupahate tatha \ \
Cf. Carakasamhita 4.1.59
250 Carakasamhita 4.1.54
anadih puniso nityah, viparitas tu hetujah \
karanani mano buddhih buddhi-karmendriyani ca 11
245 tu-Sabdasya paramatma-vailaksanyam arthah \ The word buddhi-karmendriya is to be understood as
Ref. Commentary of Giryacarya on Tarkasangraha buddhindriya (same as jhanendriya), and karmendriya.
120 Padartha • - Vijhana 121
11. Atman
11. Atman
Synonyms
exists251. In other words, even when senses do not
function, a certain mental knowledge always exists, never
Nearly 30 synonyms of atman are listed by
forsaking the Self - as Cakrapani elucidates252.
Caraka256, listed in Table 91.
In the following sections, Caraka speaks about two
Caraka discusses many more issues pertaining to
Knowledges - (a) the Knowledge of the Self or spiritual
the Self such as - the inaccessibility of the [Supreme] Self
Knowledge and (b) the Knowledge during dreams. We
via the usual marks; how even screened things can get to
shall sketch only the former here, as he says that it is a
be visible; and how the atman is circumscribed within a
great one253. Further, this is also a paradoxical one.
body257.
Withdrawing the senses, and withdrawing the mind, and
getting established in the Knowledge of one’s own self 1 hetuh
alone, one comes to attain omniscience!254 2 karanam
3 nimittam
The Self is generally referred to as ‘Knowing the
4 aksaram
Field’ (ksetrajha) and as Witness(sdfc?w), among other
5 karta
things255.
6 manta
7 vedita
251 Carakasamhita 4.3.18 8 boddha
na catma satsv indriyesu jhah, asatsu va bhavaty ajhah; na
9 drastd,
hyasattvah kadacid atma, sattva-vi.iesac copalabhyate
jhanaviSesah - iti | 10 dhata
11 brahma
252 Cakrapani ( on Carakasamhita 4.3.18)
12 viSvakarma
yat tu etad-bahya-visayagatam jhanarh, tat sattvasya
indriyddhi$thana-vi$e$ad bhavati | tern, indriya-bhave 13 vi&varupah
indriya-janyam viSistarh jhanam bhavati; yat tu kevala- 14 purusah
manojanyam atmajhanam, tad bhavatyeva sarvada |
Cikitsya-purusa/karma-purusal
sad-dhatvatmaka-purusa Tridanda
Going by the Sankhyan approach, a living being The same question of the substratum is dealt with
must be said to comprise the 25 tattva-s. Yet in Ayurveda by Caraka also in the very opening chapter of his work as
sometimes the being is considered as comprising 6 dhatu- by SuSruta. Caraka brings in the analogy of tridanda or
s. The 6 are shown as the 5 Elements with the 6th as the Triple Staff. Mind, Self and body are the three that
Self265, tabulated below. constitute the same. All creatures need the conjunction of
the three. And of the three it is the Self that is the
substrate. And the very discipline of Ayurveda revolves
around him267.
The purpose of the analogy of the Triple Staff is
that they can act but in unison alone, and were even one
fail to act appropriately, all collapse. This is stated by
Cakrapani268.
24 “Principles” 24 purusa/prakrti
23 mahat
Elsewhere Caraka gives alternative formulations. 22 ahamkara
The Self is taken up as the dhatu-s, six in number, or as 21 manas
the sentient Principle alone; or, going by the Sankhyan 20 caksus
approach, the 24‘" Principle269. The 24 Principles of 19 srotra
Sankhya are listed in Table 94. 18 prana
17 rasana
16 sparsanaka
15 vac
tadvat | etena, yatha tridande’nyatamdpdye navasthanam, 14 pani
tatha sattvadinam anyatamapaye’pi na loka-sthitih - ityuktam
13 pada
hhavati \
12 payu
(By ‘lokahe takes ‘bhuta-grama’, ‘collection of creatures’)
‘samyogat tisthati’ - iti, parasparopagrahakat samyogat 11 upastha
svartha-kriyam kurvat na visakalitath bhavati. “They must all 10 sabda-tanmatra
hang together, or will all hang separately”! 9 sparsa-tanmdtra
8 rupa-tanmatra
269 Carakasamhita 4.1.16
16 khadayah cetanasasthah dhatavah purusah smrtah \ 7 rasa-tanmatra
cetanadhatur apy ekah smrtah punisa-samjnakah \ \ 6 gandha-tanmdtra
17 punas ca dhatu-bhedena caturvimsatikah smrtah | 5 dkdsa
The word khadayah means, as Caraka himself would state 4 vayu
later on, the five Elements (bhuta-s) viz. kha, vayu, agni, ap, 3 tejas
and ksiti (=Ether, Air, Fire, Water, and Earth). These five
2 ap
dhatu-s (Basic Constituents) together with the Principle of
1 prthvl
Sentience (cetana) constitute pumsa. As pointed out
earlier, the quintessential item is the Sentient One
(cetanadhatu). For Cakrapani, the word cetana implies Table 94: The 24 Principles of Sankhya
samanaskah atma, the Self along with Mind; secondly, the
second idea that cetanadhatu alone is also “remembered” as The 24th item here is avyakta, an umbrella term
pumsa means that the author is only citing another school that includes purusa and prakrti (separately reckoning the
of thought (Sdstrantara-vyavaharanurodhat). Caraka himself two, it is more common to speak of the purusa as the 25th
points out later(in 4.1.36) that due to the involvement of in Sankhya).
rajas and tamas, the samyoga(pumsa) will have endless
possibilities rajas-tamobhydm yuktasya samyogo’yam
anantavan |
here: the Knowledge of the Sastra-s , ideas of bandha and position has its sanction both from the Scriptures and the
moksa will all get nullified274. other valid sources of Knowledge (pramana)211.
Apart from showing how such notions can lead to Caraka presents and refutes the view of the
absurdities, Caraka continues his reductio ad absurdum via nastika-s, ( kecit - who are actually Buddhists, as
two strong analogies. As Cakrapani notes, the two confirmed by Cakrapani, the commentator). The view of
analogies are important for establishing an important momentary existence of entities and momentary
thesis275. replacement by similar-looking (tatsadrSa) entities serially
Should somebody try to assert that the Faculties (paramparya) does not hold water278. To argue that one
(karana-s) by themselves could coagulate and constitute does some deed and another one arrives to eat its fruit
the body, it is tantamount, he argues, to saying that a pot does not sound logical279.
gets done by means of the mud (mrt), the staff(danda) and Caraka furnishes further proofs to strengthen his
the wheel(at^ra), all by themselves - even without a case. Conceding easily to the momentary thesis
potter (kumbhakara); equally, a house would get built by (nimesakdlad bhavdnam) and in fact, building upon it, he
mud, grass (tma) and wood {kastha) all by themselves,
bereft of the constructor of the house (grhakara). krtam mrt-trna-kdsthaii ca grhakarad vina grham \ \
Any such assertion can spring only out of 44 yo vadet sa vaded deham sambhuya karanaih krtam \
ignorance. It would have the basis neither of proper logic vina kartdram ajhanad yukty-agama-bahiskrtah \ \
(yukti) nor Scriptural authority(<2garaa)276. The contrary 277 Carakasamhitd4.1.45
kdranam punisah sarvaih pramanair upalabhyate |
274 Carakasamhitd 4.1.39 & 40 yebhyah prameyam sarvebhyah agamebhyah pramiyate \ |
39 bhas-tamah satyam anrtarh vedah karma subhasubham \ Commenting on this verse, Cakrapani derives dgama as
na syuh karta ca boddhd ca pumso na bhaved yadi \ agamayanti (=bodhayanti) iti agamah \
40 ndSrayo na sukham nartir na gatir nagatir na vak | 278 Carakasamhitd 3.1
na vijhdnam na sdstrdni na janma maranam na ca \ 46 na te tatsadrsds tvanye pdrampaiya-samutthitah \
na bandho na ca moksah syat pumso na bhaved yadi \ \ sariipydd ye ta eveti mrdisyante nava navdh 11
275 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhitd 4.1.43) 47 bhavas tesdm samudayo ninsah sattva-samjhakah \
atmanam vina sanranutpade drstanta-dvayam prameya- karta bhokla na sa puman - iti kecid vyavasthitah \ \
gauravadaha \ 279 Carakasamhitd 3.1.48
276 Carakasamhitd 4.1.43-44 tesdm anyaih krtasydnye bhdvd bhavair navdh phalam \
43 krtam mrd-danda-cakrai$ ca kumbhakarad lie ghatam \ bhuhjate sadrsdh praptam - yair dtmd nopadisyate |
134 Padartha - - Vijnana 135
11. Atman
MANAS (MIND)
Definition
281
Tarkasahgraha
sukhddy-upalabdhi-sddhanam indriyam manah |
Dissolve the first word here as
sukham adih yesam te sukhddayah \ sukhadindm upalabdhih
= sukhddy-upalabdhih | tasydh sadhancim = sukhddy-
upalabdhi-sddhanam |
The word upalabdhi is glossed as saksatkara.
Cf. Nyayabodhini (on Tarkasahgraha)
sukha-duhkhddi-sdksdtkdra-kdranatve sati indriyatvam
manaso laksanam \
280 Carakasamhita 3.1
50 nimesa-kalad bhavanam kdlah fighrataro’tyaye \ 282 Karikavali 85
bhagnanam na punarbhavah krtam nanyam upaiti ca 11 saksatkaro sukhadindm karanam mana ucyate \
51 matam tattvavidam etadyasmat tasmat sa kdranam \ The words karana and sadhana are synonymous, as are
kriyopabhoge bhutanam nityah pumsa-samjhakah \ \ upalabdhi and saksatkara.
Reckoning factors that vitiate the body and the Taking this factor of their regulation of mind to the state
mind, Caraka says that two factors vitiate sattva, the mind, of supreme concentration called samadhana, the Yogin
289
viz. rajas and tamas . can perceive even inhibited objects293. This has come to be
looked upon as an exceptional situation for the reason
The mind has no sentience but is nevertheless
that the mind is all the time (nitya) under limitations,
active290. There is an Impeller (cetayita) of the mind, and
highly circumscribed, for the actions are such in fact,
animated by the Impeller alone can the mind act. And for
confining it to but a body294.
this reason - going, that is, beneath the surface - it is that
Impeller alone that can be justly spoken of as the Agent, The condition of the mind figures as a factor even
kartr191. in the definition of health295. Mental ailments are best
handled through the expansion of knowledge, cultivation
Were there no Impeller who is also the Controller
of courage, improvement in concentration, and so on296.
('va&in), there would be no withdrawal of mind at will292.
aniste'rthe va.fi san ayarh mano nivartayati \ yadi hyayarh va.fi
na syat, na mano nivartayiturh .fakmtydi \
289 Carakasarhhita 4.4.34
293 Carakasarhhita 4.1.80
dvau punah sattvadosau rajas tamaf ca \ tau sattvarh
manasas ca samadhanat pafyatyatma tiraskrtam \
dusayatah \ tdbhydth ca sattva-Sarirabhyarh dustabhyarh
Cf. NageSa says
vikrtir upajayate nopajdyate capradustabhyam \
sarva-vrtti-nirodhena yoginam sarva-vastu-jhanam |
Cf. Carakasamhita 4.2.38
rajas-tamobhyam hi mano'nubaddham | If the mind is well-focused, as in the case of the Yogin-s, it is
possible even to probe another's mind - called cetaso
290 Carakasarhhita 4.1.75 jhanath - among the 8 powers that the Yogin obtains.
acetanarh kriyavacca manah Carakasarhhita 4..140-141. .ft i ddh a -sattva -sa m d dh dndt
tatsarvam upajayate \ manah sahksipya cahcalam | ... sarva-
291 Carakasarhhita 4.1.75
bhavan pariksate \ \ Also Cf. Carakasarhhita 4.3.21-22
cetayita parah |
294
yuktasya manasa tasya nirdisyante vibhoh kriyah \ Carakasarhhita 4.1.81
76 cetanavan yata.fcdtmd tatah karta nimcyate \ nityanubandham manasa deha-karmanupatina |
acetanatvdcca manah kriyavadapi nocyate \ \ sarva-yonigatam vidyad ekayonavapi sthitam \ \
The commentator Cakrapani supplies the missing word Such actions as lead to take newer bodies - newer births to
“adhyahdra” in the last line viz. kartr, which amounts to wit (<dehakarma) - limit the mind temporally and spatially.
saying kriydvat api manah kartr nocyate - active though the Contrast nitya and sarva with these two respectively.
mind is, is not [to be] spoken of as the Agent, for the reason
295 Susrutasamhita 1.15.41
that it lacks sentience.
samadosah samdgniS ca samadhatu-mala-kriyah |
292 Carakasarhhita 4.1.78 prasannatmendriya-manah svastha ityabhidhiyate \ |
vaSi cetah samadhatte \
296 Cf. manaso jhdna-vijhana-dhaiiya-smrti-samddhibhih |
Cakrapani explains well:
140 Padartha - - Vijhana 141
12. Manas 12. Manas
Synonyms and Etymology (lit: atomicity)), and its unitary nature {ekatva). These two
Amarasimha lists half a dozen words as synonyms features are deduced on the basis of the fact that
of mind297, noted below. simultaneous knowledges are not possible, which would
rather be possible were the mind all-encompassing or
1 cittam multiple300.
2 cetah
In the situation of transmigration, it is the mind
3 hrdayam
which plays an important role, to the accompaniment of
4 svantam
the 4 bhuta-s, the Elements301.
5 hrt
6 manasam Mind has five objects, called artha-s302, tabulated in
7 manah,
Table 96.
If the mind is ailing from bad conditions such as The word hrdaya itself is sometimes used to stand
jealousy, even food will not be well-digested309. for the navel (ndbhi), as in SuSruta313. Caraka notes that
the head (Siras) is where all the vital breaths and all the
The mind thus plays a vital role in creating and
maintaining excellent health.
310 Siras-talvantaragatam sarvendriyaparam manah \
tatrastham taddhi visayan indriyanam rasadikan 11
samipasthan vijanati tiin bhavandca niyacchati \
Location of Manas
tanmanah-prabhavam capi sarvendriyamayam balam \ \
There is some debate regarding the location of 311 karanam sarva-buddhinam cittam hrdaya-samsthitam \
mams. There are two theories, one claiming that the locus kriyanam cetasam capi cittam sarvasya karanam \ |
is the heart, and the other that it is the brain. Cf. Mddhavanidana 20.5 buddher nivasam hrdayam
pradusya... pramohayantyaSu narasya cetah |
GUNA (ATTRIBUTES)
Polysemy
13 dravatva fluidity
Sense Example 14 sneha viscosity
1 sama-avayava Limb dviguna rajjuh 15 Sabda sound
2 dravya Substance gunavan ayam 16 buddhi intellect
deiah 17 sukha pleasure
3 apradhana Subordination gunabhutah vayam 18 duhkha pain
atra 19 iccha desire
4 acara Conduct gunavan ayam
20 dvesa hatred
brahmartah
21 prayatna effort
5 samskara Quality samskrtam annam
22 dharma merit
gp.na.vat
23 adharma demerit
Table 98: Senses of guna and examples 24 samskara imprint
Table 100 : List of 17 guna-s as per Kanada The definition offered by grammarians agrees
largely with the above definitions321. That guna has no
Kanada originally listed only 17, shown in Table
independent existence is illustrated by an example by
100.
Kaiyata : When you say “Bring the white [one]”, you
From a comparison of the two Tables, we can necessarily have to bring a white cloth or such; not
deduce the 7 items added to the Kanada-list by otherwise522.
Annambhatta, which are shown here:
1 gurutva In Ayurveda
2 dravatva
3 sneha The primary role of Ayurveda is to change a living
4 iabda being from a diseased state to a healthy state. This can be
5 dharma effected by means of administering medicines, for the
6 adharma selfsame Properties (guna) that are in Substances(dravya)
7 samskara are also the ones in the body also, as SuSruta states323. It is
- Vijnana 155
13. Guna 13. Guna
1 vaifesika-guna
2 samanya-guna (b) Gurvadi List of Pairs
3 atma-guna
The gurvadi-guna-s are 20 in number, and may
Table 103 : Classification of guna-s as per Cakrapani actually be shown as 10 pairs of opposite features333 .
All these, Cakrapani notes, are Common
Certain guna-s are Vaisesika, ‘unique’.. Thus Sabda
Attributes (sadharana-guna-s), as they are common to
is the guna, predominantly of akasa alone; sparto
Earth etc334.
predominantly of vayu alone; and so on331.
If other qualities
* are also found, it is because of the 332 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 1.1.49)
interpenetration of bhuta-s" . anya-gunanam canyatra darSanam bhiitdntardnupraveSdt |
vacanam hi uvistam hyaparam parena | ” (Nyayasutra 3.1.66)
attached to the tree344. Similarly he says “Flow is due to SuSruta deals with 20 guna-s and their impact in the
liquidity”345. last chapter of Sutrasthana. Before dealing with them, he
makes a general remark to the effect that the guna-s
residing in varied dravya-s are inferable through their
There are two types under dravatva viz. Natural
actions347.
{samsiddhika) and Artificial (naimittika). The example for
the first is water, and of the second, melted ghee346. Of the guna-s he speaks thus of, gurutva
(Heaviness) imparts lackadaisicalness, increases exertion,
engenders strength, is appeasing and causes heftiness348.
344 As SankaramiSra explains, samyoga is a cover term for all (-
matra) blocking factors: Upaskara (on VaiSesikasutra 5.1.7) Dravatva, moistens349. For SnmiSrabhava, the guru items
samyoga-padena pratibandhaka-matram upalaksayati \ tone down vata, cause nourishment, increase Slesman and
He gives the examples of the fruit and the bird. The latter take long to digest350.
makes a sustaining effort (vidharakah prayatnah) so as not
to fall. In the next aphorism Kanada says that even
(ii) Laghutva and sandratva
samskara can prevent falling. Vaisesikasutra 5.1.8
sarhskarabhave gunitvat patanam \
Laghutva and sandratva do not figure in
where sariiskdra = vega. As the commentator says :
Tarkasahgraha.
Upaskara (on Vaisesikasutra 5.1.8)
gumtvam sarhskarena pratimddham patanam najijanat \ SuSruta dismisses laghutva with a simple remark
An example for water not so falling is when it is held in that its effects are the opposite of gurutva351. Denseness
check by the cloud : megha-samyogasyabhave as
makes it thick and strong .
Sarikaramisra puts it (in Upaskara (on Vaisesikasutra 5.2.3
apam samyogabhave gurutvat patanam))
347 SuSrutasamhitd 1.46.514
345 VaiSesikasutra 5.2.4
karmabhis tvanumiyante nanadravyaSrayah gtinah \
dravatvat syandanam
348 SuSrutasamhitd 1.46.518
346 VaiSesikasutra 2.1.6 cites sarpis,jatu, and madhiicchista
sada-upalepa-balakrd gumh tarpana-brmhanah \
requiring the application of heat in order to flow. 2.1.7 lists
The first word sada is explained as anga-gldni by Dalhana;
trapu, sisa, loha, rajata and suvarna, similarly. These have no
upalepa - malavrddhi. He interprets bala as Slesman.
samsiddhika-dravatva. Kaiyata makes a reference to the
melting of copper. 349 SuSrutasamhitd 1.46.520
Pradipa(on Mahabhasya (on Astadhyayi 2.2.29)) dravah prakledanah
vahni-sannidhdveva tamrarh dravanipam bhavati \
350 Bhavaprakasa 1.6.203
The example Sinam ghrlam given by Bhattoji ( under
gunir vataharam pusti-Slesmakrt cirapaki ca
Astadhyayi 6.2.24), shows their notice of
contraction/coagulation under cold, (and melting under 351 SuSrutasamhitd 1.46.519
heat, conversely). laghuh tadvipantah syat |
164 Padartha - - Vijhana 165
*
13. Guna 13. Guna
SuSruta notes drava as moistening353. Sometimes snigdha is equated with sneha which
induces cohesiveness358.
(iii) Slta and usna
(v) Picchila and visada
SuSruta refers to Sita as gladdening and stupefying,
and alleviative of epilepsy, thirst, sweating and burning Picchila is animating, strengthening, and capable of
sensation354. He refers to usna as having an opposite effect conjoining broken items, causing phlegm, and is difficult
as that oiiita, and also that it ripens wounds especially355. to digest359.
Vtfada is its opposite, absorbing secretions and
(iv) Snigdha and ruksa healing360.
Table 117: Types of karmaja-samyoga Cakrapani elucidates the notion of vibhaga not just
being a negation of samyoga and being, on the other hand,
The grammarians need samyoga in no other a positive entity (bhavarupa)™2.
manner than the VaiSesika-s380.
The state that is created by destruction of (Iii) Sahkhya
conjunction (samyoga) is what is meant by Disjunction
(vibhaga). As this is a state created by a specific action, it Annambhatta defines sahkhya as what is
is not a mere negation or absence of samyoga. Vibhaga, responsible for the usage viz. oneness etc383.
like samyoga, is no action, but a state - hence a guna, not a Sahkhya figures as the first among the ten
karman. Vibhaga is generated after, and is not samanya-guna-s that reside in all padartha-s384.
simultaneous with, samyoga-na&a. Like samyoga, vibhaga is
For grammarians, sahkhya is what marks off the
also divided into three381.
quantum of things, as NageSa says'385. Bhartrhari also
390 Tarkasahgraha 395 Pradipa (on Mahabhasya (on Astadhyayi 5.1.119)) He refers
mdna-vyavahdra-asddhdranam karanam \ to the parimana and parimanin.
The definition of PraSastapada, which Annambhatta draws
396 Carakasarhhita 1.26.34
upon, does not have the word ‘asadharana’.
parimanam punar manam
391 Upaskdra (on Vaisesikasutra 7.1.8)
397 Cakrapani (on Carakasarhhita 1.26.34)
sthido nilah kalasah -iti pratyaksika-pratyaye yatha riilam
manam prastha-ddhaka-ddi-tula-adi-meyam |
riipam visayah, tathd parimanam iti \
- Vijhana 175
174 Padartha -
13. Guna
13. Guna
samskara as a special type; going however by its utility in For Gotama, the three words buddhi, upalabdhi,
medication it deserves a separate mention - opines and jhana are synonymous411.
Cakrapani407. Caraka considers buddhi as one among the items of
adhyatma-dravya/guna412. The perceptions of the sense
organs are also known as indriya-buddhi-s413.
(C) Adhyatimika guna-s
Caraka defines sukhayus and asukhayus. A man has ViSvanatha divides prayatna into three viz. pravrtti,
sukhayus if he enjoys good health and enjoys life well429; nivrtti, and jivana-karana.
else he has asukhayus4 .
Sukha and duhkha are known to reside in atman
only431. KHARADI AND SATTVADI
PROPERTIES OF MAHABHUTA-S
(iv) Prayatna
The various dravya-s have been studied from
Annambhatta defines prayatna as krti,
different angles. One way to study is to look into their
endeavour432.
properties as we can discern them ourselves - at the
Prayatna resides in atman only433. physical level, that is. Another way is to look into their
Prayatna may be nitya or anitya depending on tendencies and the influences they can wield, adopting a
whether it is of iSvara or of jiva434. Sankhyan approach for the same - at the metaphysical
level, that is. The former yields what are called the kharadi
properties of the bhuta-s and the latter, the sattvadi
properties of the bhuta-s.
CHAPTER 14
KARMAN (ACTION)
Definition
only with reference to what are called murta-dravya-s viz. and creation of newer contacts452. Actions are said to have
five stages as listed below.
prthivi, jala, tejas, vayu, and manas449.
Action is said to reside in an object (dravya), and
Stage No
the object is said to be the substratum (adhara,
Stages
adhikarana) of the action. Karman resides in but one
object. In other words, the action present in one object is
not to be attributed to another. An assertion to this effect 1 dravye karmotpattih Action generated
is made primarily in order to contrast karman with guna, 2 tato vibhagah Separation
as the latter sometimes can be. Thus conjunction 3 tatah piirva- Disjunction from the
(samyoga) can simultaneously “dwell” in two things. This samyoga-na&ah antecedent
is noted by Kaiiada450. The difference between karman 4 tatah uttara-de$a- Conjunction with the
and dravya is that guna-s reside in dravya, but no guna can samyogah subsequent
reside in a karman451. 5 tatah karma-na$ah Destruction of Action
There are discussions in texts on Dharma&astra as In Ayurveda, all actions are attributed to vayu -
well as Ayurveda regarding our past actions, called adrsta. whether the causation of their diseases, or their
It is to focus on future actions that are open to us that the cessation460. Karman-s betray the guna-s in the various
author states it as pertaining to what may be dravya-s461.
accomplished457.
Actions are all in the form of the acts committed at Doctoral Karman-s
the levels of body, speech, and mind. Their over¬
functioning, non-functioning, and wrong functioning cause All actions must be undertaken by the doctor with
all diseases458. a thorough knowledge first of all, says Caraka462:
knowledge as of the causal agent, instrument, material,
operation, objective, post-operative action, space and
Ayurvedic Karman-s time463. Any medical treatment involves four factors viz.
the doctor, and the medicine, and the patient and the
We come across various actions in Ayurveda such
nursers464. There is also a broad division into purva-karma,
as gatikarma, agnikarma, and jalakarma as functions of
vata, pitta and kapha ; others as dipana, pacana, recana,
460 Carakasarhhita 1.17.118
svedana; as also Sodhana, marana, dravana-, and lahghana,
sarva hi cesta vatena sa pranah praninam matah |
brmhana, snehana and so on. All actions are ultimately to
tenaiva rogd jayante tena caivopamdhyate | |
be traced to manas, at the root of the impulses of which Cakrapani on this:
are rajas and tamas . upamdhyate = mriyate
461 Susrutasamhitd
karmabhis tvanumiyante ndnd-dravyd&raya gunah \
457 Says Cakrapani:
kriya-mpasya karmanah idam laksanam, na adrstadeh iti. 462 Carakasarhhita 3.8.68
jhana-purvakarh hi karmanam samarambham praSarhsanti
458 Carakasarhhita 1.11.39 kuSalah |
karma vah-manah-farira-pravrttih \ tatra vah-manah-farira-
pravrttir atiyogah | sarvaio ’pravrttir ayogah |... 40 463 Carakasarhhita 3.8.68
atiyogayogavarjam karma vari-manah-farirajam ahitam jhatva hi kdrana-karana-karyayoni-kdrya-
anupadistamyat tacca mithyayogam vidyat 11 kdryaphaldnubandha-deia-kdla-pravrtty-updydn samyag
abhinirvartamanah etc.
459 Carakasarhhita 4.2.38 In the sections to follow (69-77), all these items are defined.
rajas-tamobhydm hi mano’nubaddham jhdnarh vina tatra hi
sarva-dosdh | 464 Carakasarhhita 3.8.129
gati-pravrttyo’stu nimitta-yuktam manah sadosam balavacca pravrttistu pratikarma-samarambhah \ tasya laksanam
karma | | bhisag-aiisadha-dtura-paricdrakdnam kriya-samayogah |
CHAPTER 15
SAMANYA (GENERALITY)
Definition
467 Tarkasahgraha
nityam ekam anekanugatam samanyam \
465 Carakasamhita 1.1.53
468 Vaisesikasutra 1.2.3
dhatusamya-kriya cokta tantrasyasya prayojanam 11
samanyam vifesa iti buddhyapeksam \
196 Padartha - - Vijnana 197
15. Samanya 15. Samanya
When we see many things, we learn which features differentiates), Cakrapani elucidates the notion of
they have in common. For example, the notion of samanya in a lucid manner472.
existence (satta) is felt in the case of every substance
(dravya). The notion is countenanced in every encounter,
which is called anuvrtta-buddhi. The same is the case with Types / Divisions
attributes (guna) and actions (<karman)469.
We have already come across the more
The notion of satta is not characterised or marked circumscribed generality and the less circumscribed one.
off from item to item, immaterial of which dravya it is. No Thus prthivitva is more circumscribed as against dravyatva.
different is the case with items of guna, or items of The former is called Lower Generality and the latter,
karman. Hence there is the experience of unitary Higher Generality. Speaking relatively, Existence (satta) is
nature470. Therefore it is that we have the notion of the highest generality, we can see that dravyatva is a subset of
generality of dravya-s called dravyatva. We similarly have satta; and in turn, prthivitva is a subset of dravyatva413. The
notions of gunatva and karmatva. Not only that, we have Higher and Lower are respectively called para and apara.
other notions of circumscribed generality as in prthivitva
etc; similar is the case of rupatva or utksepanatva and so
on471. 472 Carakasamhita 1.1.45
samanyam ekatvakaram, viSesastu prthakvakrt \
Remarking on the pithy statement of Caraka viz.
tulyarthata hi samanyam, viSesastu viparyayah \ \
that samanya unifies (ekatvakara) (as against viSesa which
Says Cakrapani
ekatvakaram iti ekabuddhikaram, samanyam yad anekasu
bhinna-deSa-kaldsugavadi-vyaktisu “ayam gaurayarhgoh”
469 Says SankaramiSra (Upaskara on Vaisesikasutra 1.2.3
ityakara ekakara buddhih, tat samanyam \
anuvrtta-buddhih samanyasya) That the notion of satta is
After referring to the samanya among dravya-s (as
met with in the case of dravya, guna, and karman is noted by
illustrated by the case of the cow), he refers to that among
Kanada. Vaisesikasutra 1.2.7 kriya and guna by the illustrations of “ayam pacako’yam
sad itiyato dravya-guna-karmasu, sa satta |
pacakah” and “ayam Suklo’yarh Suklah”.
470 Vaisesikasutra 1.2.17
413 Upaskara (on Vaisesikasutra 1.2.3)
sad iti lingdvisesdd visesa-lihgabhdvdcca eko bhavah \
samanyam dvividhath - param aparan ca \ tatra param satta,
(The words bhava and satta may be treated as synonymous).
apararh satta-vyapyam dravyatvadi |
471 Vaisesikasutra 1.2.5 Visvanatha sets all this forth succinctly.
dravyatvam karmatvarh samanyani viSesaS ca. Bhasapariccheda 8 to 10 :
Upaskara thereon: samanyam dvividhath proktam param caparam eva ca \
cakarena prthivitvadini dravyagata-jatih, mpatvadini dravyadi-trika-vrttis tu satta paratayocyate 11
gunagata-jatih, utksepanadini karmagata-jatiS ca parabhinna ca yd jatih saivaparatayocyate |
samuccinoti \ vyapakatvat para’pi syat vyapyatvad aparapi ca \ \
An intermediate one is also sometimes posited - as vyapaka-samanya which is the widest set,
parapara. Further as the notions are relative, the same vyapya-samanya which is the narrowest, and
item can now be a samanya and now be a vUiesa with vyapya-vydpaka-sdmanya which is a
respect to different things, as remarked by middling.
PraSastapada474.
The examples given are shown as the following
Sometimes samanya is classified into three in a Table.
different manner as atyanta-samanya, madhya-samdnya,
and ekadefo-samanya. Cakrapani notes this, as also Type Example
another tripartite classification as dravya-gocara, guna- 1 vyapaka-samanya satta
gocara, and karma-gocara. These can be listed as follows: 2 vyapya-vyapaka-samanya dravyatva
3 vyapya -samanya ghatatva
Type 1 Type 2 Type 3
Table 127 : Examples of samanya
1 para dravya-gocara atyanta-samanya
as treated in Tarkamrta
2 parapara guna-gocara madhya-samanya
3 apara karma-gocara ekadeSa-samdnya The end and aim of Ayurveda is harmonisation :
decrease what is high; increase what is low and maintain
Table 126 : Three Tripartite Classifications of
the balance thereby476.
samanya
VISESA (PARTICULARITY)
Distinction
ViSesa is the counterpart of samanya. As with
samanya, however, it must be said of viSesa that it is also Siddhantacandrodaya (of Srikrsnadhurjati), a
one among the padartha-s. This is the second item in the commentary on Tarkasahgraha, makes a reference to the
list of padartha-s envisaged by the great sages477. ineluctability of positing the viSesa by speaking of the
contrast between a pot and a cloth - the former has the
The contrast between samanya and visesa has been
kapala-samavaya as the distinct mark - the Ultimate
brought out by Caraka himself. The first is an intensifier
Atoms too should have some factor to facilitate
(yrddhi-kdrana) and the latter a reducer (hrasa-hetu)478.
differentiation. Such things whose components are not the
And in the succeeding verse he refers to the fact that
same are also not the same481.
samanya unifies whereas viSesa differentiates479.
While samanya seeks to find the common factor
among things, vtfesa seeks to find the individuality of each 480 Tarkasahgraha
thing. nityadravya-vrttayo viSesastv ananta eva \
Dissolve the first word thus :
nityani ca tani dravyani - nityadravyani \ tesu vrttih yesam te
nityadravya-vrttayah \
The former is a karmadharaya compound, and the latter a
bahuviihi.
Cf. Bhasapariccheda 10
477 Carakasamhita 1.1.28 antyo nityadravya-vrttih viSesah parikirtitah \
maharsayas te dadrsuryathdvaj jhana-caksusa \
samanyam ca vLiesam ca gunan dravyani karma ca \ | etc. 481 Siddhantacandrika (on Tarkasahgraha)
ghatadinam kapala-samavetatvadikam patadi-bhedakam asti,
478 Carakasamhita 1.1.44 paramanunam tu paraspara-bhedakam na kihcid asti \
sarvada sarva-bhavanam samanyam vrddhi-karanam \ ato’ndyatya viSesa aSrayitavyah |
hrasa-hetur vifesaf ca pravrttir ubhayasya tu 11 Kapala is a potsherd. The kapala-s constitute the
479 Carakasamhita 1.1.45 components (avayava) of the whole (avayavin). Two things
samanyam ekatvakaram viSesastu prthaktvakrt \ can be no different in essence if their components are also
no different. Components being different, wholes also
202 Padartha - - Vijhana 203
16. Visesa 16. Visesa
Types
ekavrtti- para-viSesa vyapaka-vLSesa dravya-
Cakrapani cites the opinion of others (anye) as viSesa visesa
classifying both samanya and viiiesa under similar headings ubhayavrtti- apara-viiesa vyapya-vitesa guna-vi$esa
viSesa
into three listed below:
parapara- vyapya- karma-
viSesa vyapaka-vi&esa vtfesa
Types of Types of
samanya visesa
Table 129 : Other types of visesa
1 dravya-gocara dravyagocara
2 guna-gocara gunagocara
3 karma-gocara karmagocara
206 Padartha -
- Vijnana 207
17. Samavaya
Paired Items adjective, it will have forms in all the three genders. In the
masculine, it will be -van and -man. Thus we have
Tarkasahgraha spells out five pairs where this rupavan ghatah (In the feminine, the suffixes are -vatl and
samavaya relationship subsists. They are listed below: -mati; and in the neuter, -vat and -mat). Where it is not a
unitary perception, we employ the dual, as in ghatapatau,
1 avayava - avayavin Part and whole ‘the pot and the cloth’. Where we have this Qualified
2 guna - gunin Attribute and object Perception we would not say capa-purusau. Thus there are
3 kriya - kriyavat Action and its substratum three things perceived here, not two : the bow, the man,
4 jati - vyakti Class and member and the relationship between the two493.
5 viSesa - nityadravya viiesa and eternal dravya
When we refer to dravya as gunavat, three things
similarly crop up. As the dravya and its guna, like milk and
Table 130: Pairs cemented by samavaya
its whiteness, are inseparable, they are aprthak-siddha.
The relationship between the dravya and the guna is
Note that the words gunin, kriyavat, and avayavin
samavaya. So when we say kriyavat dravyam, while
refer to dravya. Vyakti also refers to dravya. The dravya is
samyoga-sambandha may be visible to the eyes, samavaya-
the substratum for what is stated in the first column viz.
sambandha is technical (:iastriya). Samyoga is transient but
avayava, guna etc. As regards the last item, we have nitya-
samavaya is not.
dravya-s only instead of mere dravya-s.
Qualified Knowledge
We do not perceive the red jar as two items viz. the 493 These have been well stated in the Aloka commentary on
red colour and the jar. Suppose a man holds a bow in Tarkasahgraha by Navyamangalavaradacarya of our own
hand, we call him bow-man. When he comes we do not say times. Read his comments : (p223)
the ‘bow and the man came’. As long as he holds the bow, prthak-kartum afokyau id kathanenaiva tatra dvau vartete id
spastam | evam sad tayoh sambandho vaktavyah \ na ced
he is known as a bow-man, and the word implies his
viSistabuddhir na syat \ yatha guna-guninau \ “riipavan
possession of the bow. Thus, even though the bow is not
ghatah” id khalu vyavaharad \ etadrfa-vyavahara-visayo na
separately mentioned, its presence is indicated by a word kevalam riipam, na kevalam ghatah; kintu matubarthah
referring to the man. This way of referring to the man tayoh sambandho’pi \ nocet ‘nipa-ghatau’ityevocyeta - yatha
along with what he possesses is called Qualified ‘ghata-patau’id \ ato matup-pratyaya-vacyah tayoh
Knowledge or viiista-buddhi. The technical word for the sambandhah avafyakah \ ataSceyam vitista-buddhir
sense of possession is matubartha. This shows itself as the ityucyate\ ... danda-pumsayoh sambandhabhave ‘dandi
ending -vat or -mat in the base. By virtue of being an punisah’ id na syat kintu danda-pumsau - id syat \ atas tatra
dandah, punisah, tayoh sambandho - id trayam visayah |
210 Padartha - - Vijnana 211
77. Samavdya 17. Samavdya
Beginning
HD growth of a tree.
Type C Example
W
In Ayurveda
1 akaia
7MM4S(DARKNESS)
2 kala
There is some discussion in books on Logic as to 3 diS
whether darkness (tamas) is a Substance (dravya), and if 4 atman
yes, why it is not included among them as a tenth item. 5 manas
This issue is taken up by ViSvanatha503.
Table 133 : The Formless Five - akdsadi(amurta)
The reason for making out a case is thus advanced :
every dravya exhibits two properties viz. it has some Nor can it be grouped under Wind, for Wind too
attribute (guna) and some action (kriya). Govardhana has no form507. It cannot be brought under the Earth, for
makes this plain by invoking the common description viz. it has no smell508. It cannot be brought under either Water
“The blue darkness moves”3®4. or Fire as they are cold and hot respectively to the
touch509.
An Entity ?
506 Siddhantamuktavali (on Karikavali 3)
The question is also raised as to whether tamas can akasadi-pahcakasya riiriipatvat
be subsumed under any of the 9 dravya-s505.
507 vayor api nirupatvat na tesv antar-bhavah
A
19. Tamos 19. Tamas
gandhavattvabhavat sparki-rahitatvac ca \
All these are absent in Darkness.
516 Naisadha 22.26
510 tamasas tejo’bhavatvenaiva upapattau atirikta-dravya- dhvantasya vamom vicaranayam
kalpanayam manabhavat |
vaiSesikam cam matam matam me |
511 na ca vinigamana-virahat “teja eva andhakarabhava- aulukyam ahuh kila darSanam tat
svarupam” - iti vacyam \ ksamarh tamas tattva-niriipanaya \ \
512 tamo hi na riipavad-dravyam \ alokasahakrta- 517 There is an old tradition, calling the author (Kanada) as
caksurgrahyatvad alokabhavavat \ riipi-dravya-caksusa- Aulukya, known even to Udyotakara and Kumarila - that
pramayam alokasya karanatvat \ Lord Siva was pleased by the austerities of sage Kanada,
and appeared before him in the form of an owl (uluka) and
513 tasmat praudha-prakd&a-tejah-sdmdnydbhdvah tamah | taught him. Kanada’s aphorism succinctly captures the
514 riilam tamah calati - iti pratyayo bhramah \ entire gamut of the argument.
Vaisesikasutra 2.2.1.9
515 dipapasarana-kriyaya eva tatra bhanat \ dravya-gana-karma-nispatti-vaidharmyad abhavah tamah \
220 Padartha - 221
- Vijnana
20. Pramana
CHAPTER 20
Terminology
PRAMANA
The word for measurement in Sanskrit is mana.
The person who measures is matr. What is (to be)
There is a constant urge in man to know things.
measured is meya. Measurement is mid. The standard
This may also be said to follow as a corollary from
against which we match and measure is pramana. The
statements such as - the atman is the receptacle of
words mana itself is sometimes loosely used for pramana;
knowledge518. Our sense organs are our natural doorways
so with pramatr, prameya, and pramiti.
of knowledge. Our knowledge is not delimited by what our
senses grasp. What we obtain through our senses is, It is when we have ascertained something well that
consciously or unconsciously - and mostly the latter - we would know whether we want to get the thing or want
matched against, and mixed with, our previous knowledge to avoid the thing. The person who thus sets out to first
and impressions. get to know in order to acquire or eschew something is the
one whom we call pramatr19.
The knowledge provided by the senses is not
always final. First of all, all our senses have certain limits The instrument by which a pramatr gets to know
beyond which they cannot operate. Thus, very small things things is what is called pramana52°. The etymology of the
cannot be seen with our eyes, nor things very distant. word is concordant with this521. Pramana can enlighten us
Some animals hear sounds that we cannot. Like animals, not only about what is, but also what is not522. What we
we can also get misled by mirages. We see the sky as blue
which it is not. The Sun and the Moon are not as small as 519 Vatsyayana (on Nyayasutra 1.1.1)
they appear to be. Similarity between things can generate yasya ipsa-jihasa-prayuktasya pravrttih sah pramata | The
doubts, or confuse us. When the illumination is words ipsa and jihasa are desiderative nouns of Vop ‘to
insufficient, we are beset with doubts as to whether it is a acquire’ and 'Jha ‘to eschew’.
post or a man; we mistake a conch-shell as silver. 520 Vatsyayana (on Nyayasutra 1.1.1)
pramata yenartham praminoti tat \ Nyayamanjari gives the
It is against such a background that we need to
definition of pramana as pramayah karanam \
assess the information we receive through our senses.
521 pramiyate anena id pramanam - is the etymology.
not only about what is, but also what is not522. What we prameya521. Pramiti is valid knowledge. For Gotama 12
need for obtaining correct knowledge is an instrument items are prameya529, listed in Table 134.
that leaves us finally in no doubt, and in no confusion, and
helps us know what we had not known earlier523. 1 atman
2 Sarira
Pramana is also presented as the sine qua non in 3 indriya
the generation of all valid knowledge524. 4 artha
The valid knowledge that is obtained is called 5 buddhi
prama. Prama is the knowledge we acquire about the 6 manas
actual state of things. Things have certain properties 7 pravrtti
(idharma). We perceive things in some mode (prakara) or 8 dosa
the other. If the mode tallies with the feature, it is valid 9 pretyabhava
knowledge525. 10 phala
The thing that is sought to be known in truth is 11 duhkha
prameya526. What needs to be ascertained or marked off is 12 apavarga
522 Vatsyayana (on Nyayasutra 1.1.1) Table 134: List of prameya items
satah prakaSakam pramanam, asadapi prakafoyati \
Knower Knowable Knowledge
523 This feature of pramana is typically highlighted by the matr meya miti
Sankhya School who express it thus :
pramatr prameya pramiti
asandigdha-avipanta-anadhigata-visaya-bodhana-
sadhanatvam pramanatvam \ Cf. anadhigatarthagantr
Table 135 : Triplets of Knowing
pramanam (Mimamsaka definition).
Smrti
Prakara and Visesa
Annambhatta defines smrti (Memory) as springing
When we see a pot (ghata), the pot is the object of from Impressions (samskara) alone337. It is one of the two
our knowledge. The object is called the viSesya of the types of knowledge that buddhi is538. The other type,
knowledge. The factor that marks it off from other objects anubhava, is shown as what is else than smrti539.
and/or presents the quiddity of the object is the prakara of If the object we have seen earlier, and remember,
the knowledge. Thus ghatatva is the prakara of the
is presented before our eyes, and we recognise it as the
cognition. The cognition is ayam ghatah which can be spelt
object we had seen earlier, it is called pratyabhijhd. Thus
out as
while smrti springs from Impressions alone, pratyabhijhd
ghatatvavad-ghatavitesyaka-ghatatvaprakdrakam jnanam \
involves the presence of the said object in front of us,
Thus ghatatva has two roles to play here:
(a) ghatatva-vi§esana of the ghata and
(b) ghatatva = prakara of the ghatajhana
Whereas ghata is the viSesya Triggers of Memory
Hence the knowledge arising from a proper
Caraka defines Memory as recollection of things
perception of an object has two features:
seen, heard, or experienced in the past541. 8 instigators of
(a) x-vtfesyakam
(b) y -prakarakam
If x and y tally, the perception is also valid.
Tarkasahgraha
In the sentence "rajate 'idam rajatam' id jnanam samskara-matra-janyam jnanam smrtih \
prama \" which is in a standard format, there is only one
538 Tarkasahgraha
word in the Locative Case (saptami-vibhakti). The word in
sa [=buddhih] dvividha - smrtih, anubhavaS ca |
the Locative is the viSesya, says a commentary on
Tarkasahgraha536. 539 Tarkasahgraha
tadbhinnam [=smrtibhinnam] jnanam anubhavah \
Memory (smrti) have been listed by Caraka. They have (v) Sattvanubandha is mental focus. Strive and focus
been listed below. on something to be recollected, many details
surface.
Source of Memory Example furnished by (vi) Abhydsa is practice. If you have practised
Cakrapani something regularly, the very practice triggers
1 nimitta-grahana karanam drstva karyam memory/memories.
smarati | (vii) Jnanayoga is metaphysics. Attuned to a higher
2 rupagrahana vane gavayam drstva gam knowledge, one finds it easy to recollect even
smarati \ trivial things. At certain levels of spiritual
3 sadriya pituh sadr&am putram drstva attainment, events and actions of even previous
pitaram smarati | births are easily recalled.
4 [sadrfya ] viparyaya atyarthakurupam drstva (viii) Sruta is hearing. You had heard certain things in
pratiyoginam the past. You hear some of it again, and streams
atyarthasurupam smarati \ of memory gush.
5 sattvanubandha -
6 abhydsa -
In just the preceding section Caraka had listed
7 jnanayoga -
what all ideas/actions/attitudes and impulses are stirred by
8 punahSruta - a recollection of the knowledge of metaphysics (tattva-
smrteh upasthanat). Caraka lists over a dozen items
Table 137: Causal Factors in Memoiy consequent to such recounting there, noted in Table
138542.
Memory is stirred by 8 causes :
(i) Nimitta is cause. Look at the cause, you The concatenation from serving the noble to smrti
remember the effect. to duhkha-mukti has been noted by Caraka543.
(ii) Rupa is form/shape/look. Looking at some thing, The ideas of Caraka on smrti remind one of the
we are sometimes reminded of something same¬ causal links of smrti in Chandogya Upanisad544.
shaped.
(iii) Sadrfya is similarity. Someone resembles your
father. So, looking at him you remember your
father. 542 Carakasamhita 4.1.143-146
(iv) Viparyaya is contrast. Looking at someone very 543 Carakasamhita 4.1.147
ugly, we are reminded of someone who is very
charming. 544 Chandogya Upanisad 7.26.2
sattva-suddhau dhmva smrtih | smrtilambhe
sarvagranthindm vipramoksah \
230 Padartha - - Vijnana 231
20. Pramana 20. Pramana
dilemma (though trilemma or tetralemma could also be as high, or if the illumination is slightly better but not
possible)555. sufficient yet as to conduce for clarity, we encounter
doubts.
Bhranti It may be mentioned in passing that samtoya is
derived from sam + (fin svapne)', while ni&caya is
This is also known as viparyaya or viparyasa or
derived from nis + Vci (ci caye).
bhrama. It is simply defined as Wrong Notion556. In the
autocommentary he defines it as “Apprehending a feature The features of prama, samSaya and bhrama may
in a thing which has the very absence of that feature.”557 thus be noted in a tabular column.
factor viz. Certitude (niScaya). You get a feeling that the samSaya X S much
object has a certain feature, and you do not get a feeling bhrama 'Ohigh
at all that the object does not have that feature. You are
sure that you know, and you are not beset with doubts558. Table 141: Right and Wrong Apprehensions :
A difference between samSaya and viparyaya may
Commonalities and Differences
be noted. In both the cause for the absence of Right
Apprehension is similarity. If the similarity is very intense
Pramana-s : Number and Types
we have viparyaya. If it is less so, we have samSaya. It is the
high similarity in shape, and poor illumination makes a
Three well-known verses describe which pramana-s
person mistake a rope for a serpent. If the similarity is not
are recognised by which school of thought559. They are
listed in Table 142.
555 Nyayabodhini (on Tarkasangraha 3)
bhava-dvaya-kotika-sariisaya-prasiddheh sthanutva- 559 The verses are as follows:
sthdnutvdbhdva-punisatva-pumsatvdbhava-kotikah sarhsayah pratyaksam ekam carvakdh, kanadasugatau punah |
- ityarthah | Thus this is a catuskotika-samSaya. anumanam ca taccapi, sahkhyah fabdam ca te’pi ca \
nydyaikadeSino ’pyevam upamanam ca kecana |
556 Tarkasangraha
arthapattya sahaitani catvary ahuh prabhakarah \ \
mithydjnanam viparyayah
abhava-sasthany etani bhatta vedantinas tatha \
557
Tarkasangrahadipika sambhavaitihyayuktani tani pauranika jagnh \
tadabhavavati tatprakdraka-niicaya ityarthah Cf.
carvakas tavad ekam dvitayam api punar bauddha-vaiSesikau
558 Karikavali dvau / bhasarvajhaS ca sahkhyas tritayam udayanddydk
tadabhavaprakara dhih tatprakara tu niscayah \
catuskam vadanti |
236 Padartha - Vijnana 237
20. Pramana 20. Pramana
example for aitihya is asmin vrkseyakso vasati. “There lives with - the four pramana-s viz. pratyaksa, aeama, anumana,
a demigod on this tree.” This so overlaps with Sabda or and upamana5™.
aptopadeSa that it is hardly needed to accord a
pramana Example
special/individual status to it.
1 upamana gosadrfo gavayah
Typical examples of the subsumable pramana-s are 2 arthapatti grhe'bhavan caitrah grhad bahir bhavati
as in Table 144. 3 abhava nakulabhavajhane nakulavirodhino
It may be remarked that SuSruta and Caraka have, vyalasya kalpanam
in their treatment of pramana-s, given the number of 4 sambhava kharyarh dronadyavagamah
pramana-s as 4 or 3 or even 2, depending on the context. 5 aitihya iha vate yaksah prativasati
SuSruta makes a reference to an important aspect of
Ayurveda right in the opening chapter as in no wise going Table 144: Subsumable pramana-s and Their
contrary to - by which he implies thorough concordance Illustrations
SS Susrutasarhhita
568 —
Men of knowledge examine in 2 ways. The two are The final goal of pariksa, says Caraka, is proper
pratyaksa and anumana. Direct Perception and Inference. apprehension (pratipatti)574. He defines it as the grasp of
Or a third may be added viz. upadeto. Teachings of the the remedial measure as is commensurate with the
Wise572. aberration from health (vikara)575.
Ten items need to be examined, says Caraka. They
are listed below.
1 karanam bhisak
2 karanam bhesajam
3 karya-yonih dhatu-vaisamyam
4 karyam dhatu-samyam
5 karya-phalam sukhavaptih
6 anubatidhah ayuh
7 detoh bhumih, aturaSca
8 kalah sarhvatsaraS ca aturavastha ca
9 pravrttih pratikarma-samarambhah
10 upayah bhisagadinam sausthavam
abhividhanam ca samyak
kartum \
In the subsequent sections also (80 - 86) there are
discussions on pariksa.
572 Carakasamhita 3.8.83 574 Carakasamhita 3.8.132
dvividha tu khalu pariksa jnanavatam - pratyaksam pariksayas tu khalu prayojanam pratipatti-jhanam \
anumanam ca \ etaddhi dvayam updeSafca pariksa syat \
575 Carakasamhita 3.8.132
evam esd dvividha pariksa, trividha va sahopadeserta \
pratipattir rtama yo vikaroyatha pratipattavyah, tasya
573 Carakasamhita 3.8.86 - 130 tathanusthana-jhanam |
250
- Vijhana 251
Padartha -
21. Aptopadesa 21. Aptopadesa
Caraka takes the occasion to define an apta.Apta-s The definitions we obtain from other texts or other
are those (a) who with their strength of tapas and jriana, disciplines are also similar in content or essence. We may
are freed of rajas and tamas, and inclinations towards refer to Dalhana592 or Vatsyayana593.
passion and inertia. Their pure knowledge is all the time The word agama or Sabda is sometimes used in lieu
{trikalam) unimpeded. They are knowledgeable. Their of aptopadeSa594. There are interesting and concordant
utterances are undoubtedly true. Transcending rajas and etymologies of Sista-s also: Sista-s are those who rule the
tamas as they do, what for at all would they speak world through their teachings as regards what is right and
595
untruth?590 Untruth, glosses Cakrapani, from either wrong wrong etc .
knowledge (mithyajriana), or, if there is right knowledge,
from either bias for something, or against, {raga and
dvesa). The latter spring from rajas and tamas only591.
CHAPTER 22
Type Example
SABDA-PRAMANA 1 drstartha tribhir hetubhih dosah
(VERBAL TESTIMONY) prakupyanti600
2 adrstartha asti pretyabhavah
Definition 3 satya santy ayurvedopadeSah
4 anrta [na santy
While Sabda is a guna, Sabda is also a pramana. dyurvedopadeSah /601
How do they differ? While the former is something
perceived by the ear596, the latter is one of the four means Table 151: 4 Types of sabda and their examples
of cognition597, as Annambhatta says.
Sabda (Verbal Testimony) is the utterance of an
apta. In turn an apta is defined by Annambhatta as “a Vakya, pada, and sakti
speaker of truth”598.
After defining Sabda as dptavakya, “the Utterance
of the Adept”, Annambhatta defines vakya, Sentence. It is
Types
598 Tarkasahgraha 601 Actually Caraka has not given this example for anrta. On the
aptavakyam Sabdah \ aptas tu yathartha-vakta \ Dissolve
other hand, he has defined anrta. He defines it as satya-
viparyaya. The example we have supplied is based on this
yathdrtha as yathabhutah arthah \
definition.
254 Padartha -
- Vijhana 255
22. Sabda-pramana & Nighantu 22. Sabda-pramana & Nighantu
5. Vyavahara is verbal transactions by elders as in gam The denotation is called Sakti, and the connotation
anaya, gam badhana etc. is called laksana. Each has 3 subdivisions. These are
6. The meaning oiyava in “yavamayaS carur bhavati”, tabulated below:
a Vedic sentence may not be known. By the time Subtypes Example
Types
you come to the end of the sentence or the 1 pacakah
yoga
passage, you will have guessed the sense. Sakti
2 rudhi ghatah
7. Commentaries explain words by juxtaposing a Denotation
3 yogarudhi pah/cajam
synonym - as in ghatah kalaSah. If you know the vrtti 4 jahallaksana mahcah kroSanti
sense of one word, you could guess that of the
laksana 5 ajahallaksana chatrino yanti
other.
Connotation 6 jahad- so'yam
8. You did not know what pika meant in iha
ajahallaksand devadattah
sahakara-tarau madhuram piko rauti. As you know
the other words, you make a very good guess.
Table 157: Types of vrtti
sah = tatkalino the Devadatta that we The three types of Functions (vrtti), and Sense
devadattah saw in the past (artha) may thus be tabulated.
ayarh = etatkalino the Devadatta that we
Function Sense yielded
devadattah see in the present
abhidha vacyartha / mukhyartha
Table 159: Double Reference to a single entity laksana laksyartha
vyanjana vyahgyartha
Spatio-temporal Coordinates
Table 160 : Functions yielding Sense
Now, for identifying the two, we drop the
qualifications, viz. tatkatina and etatkalina, and retain the
rest.
Vdkydrtha-jnana
Sometimes a fourth variety is suggested viz. laksita-
A sentence has to make complete sense. In order
laksana. In the example dvirepha, standing for the ‘bee’,
that it may do so, certain conditions will necessarily have
the word literally means “a word having two r-sounds’;
to be followed. Three such conditions have been noticed
hence the reference is to the word ‘bhramara’ which has
in the Indian tradition. They are listed below:
two r-sounds. As the word bhramara means a bee, the
word dvirepha also came to mean a bee.
Condition Meaning Definition
Sometimes laksana is divided differently into two : 1 akahksa Expectancy abhidhanaparyavasanam
1. Rudha (also called Suddha) 2 yogyata Compatibility arthabadhah
2. Gauni (also called prayojanavati) 3 sannidhi Contiguity avilamboccaranam
In the example given above, wherever there is
mukhyartha-badha, that is, mukhyartha-anupapatti or Table 161: Sensible Sentence: Conducing
inapplicability of the primary sense, is rudha. Conditions
the two words. When you say “Bring”, the easily only destroy the plants in the field. Irrigation with water is
expectable question is “Bring what?” And “Bring cows” of course a well-known thing, and an expectable one.
supplies the answer.
When you say ‘irrigate’, an immediate Expectancy
Said in Sanskrit, sentence 1 below is no valid sentence, is no doubt raised which creates a slot, and ‘water’ would
and sentence 2 is. be the right candidate to be slot-filler. For water has what
1. *gaur aSvah puruso hastl | is called compatibility ox yogyata.
2. ga anaya \
Said in Sanskrit, sentence 1 is no valid sentence,
(It is a convention in Linguistics that a ‘*’ mark at the and sentence 2 is.
beginning of a sentence marks it as an invalid construction 1. * agnina sincati ksetram \
or unacceptable usage). 2. jalena sincati ksetram \
Annambhatta defines it as: The inability of a word to Govardhana defines yogyata as absence of
convey the meaning of a sentence owing to the absence of incompatibility607. The above results may thus be
some other word60 . tabulated:
606 Tarkasarigraha
607
padasya padantara-vyatireka-prayukta-anvaya- Nyayabodhini (on Tarkasarigraha )
ananubhavakatvam akanksa \ badhabhavo yogyata |
NIGHANTU (LEXICON)
The word nighantu is derived as “what expresses
ideas”609. Nighantu is a Proper Noun and stands for a work
written before Yaska, as Yaska already refers to such
works610. It is a work which has classified the Vedic
vocables, and grouped synonyms, and may thus represent
the world’s first thesaurus. The Nirukta of Yaska is a
608 q Tarkasahgraha
prahare prahare’sahoccaritani gamanayetyadi-padani na
pramanam sannidhyabhavat \
609 Derivation : ni + 'Ighat (ghati bhasarthe) + nic + ku (see 611 Thus we have nighantavah kasmat ? nigamanat |
Unadisutra 1.37). The dissolution/definition is arthan Hence nigantu and nighantu become synonymous.
nighantayaty asmat nighantuh parikirtitah \ Cf. nigama ime bhavanti | chandobhyah samahrtya
610 Nirukta samamnayas te nigantava eva santo nigamanat nighantava
tam imam samamnayam nighantava ity acaksate \ ucyante ity aupamanyavah \
268 Padartha - - Vijhana 269
23. Pratyaksa-pramana
5 indriya-s
In Ayurveda 1 calcsus
2 Srotra
Caraka defines it in no different terms618. Yet 3 ghrana
another description obtains in Caraka, where the two 4 rasana
types viz. bahya external and manasa internal / mental are 5 sparSana
also referred to619.
Table 164: Five indriya-s
5 indriya-dravya-s
Generation of Knowledge
1 kha
It is when the mind presides over, that the sense 2 vayu
organs become capable of perception of their objects . 3 jyotis
4 ap
Caraka takes the occasion to spell out the five
5 bhu
sense organs and their objects etc. tabulated below. It is
obvious that Caraka has followed the Sankhyan order in Table 165: Five indriya-dravya-s
enumerating the sense organs.
5 substrata of indriya-s
1 aksini
2 karnau
618 Carakasamhita 1.11.20
3 nasike
dtmendriya-mano’rthdndm sannikarsatpravartate \
vyakta taddtve yd buddhih pratyaksam sa nirucyate \ \ 4 jihvd
As Cakrapani points out the quintessence of the definition 5 tvak
is indriyartha-sannikarsa only. Buddhi here = indriya-
Table 166 : Five Substrata
buddhih
Sannikarsa-s 2 Analogies
Caraka refers to the five “sense-intelligences”, Going by common sense, one can see an evident
indriya-buddhi-s621. They spring from the four-point- contradiction between momentariness and
alignment {sannikarsa)*22 shown below: determinateness. In order to dispel such a possible
confusion, Cakrapani provides the analogy of the flame of
1 indriya a lamp625.
2 indriyartha
3 sattva Elsewhere, he gives another analogy to show how
4 atman knowledge is generated. Issuing from the finger and the
thumb, and arising from the stringed lute and the nail, the
Table 168: Four-point alignment (sannikarsa) in sound is perceived. So is the perception obtained through
pratyaksa the combination of the four factors626.
The primary role of mind in all perception is
He also mentions that the indriya-buddhi-s are clearly recognized and amply underscored by Caraka.
momentary (ksanikah,), and determinate (niScayatmikah).
That is why he says that mind has two features:
Glossing the passage, Cakrapani takes care to see knowledge or absence of knowledge627.
that ksanikah is not interpreted in its Buddhist
connotation, but as fleeting623. Nevertheless they lead to a
determinate knowledge of the object624. 625 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 1.8.12)
ksanikatve’pi vastu-paricchedakatvam pradipdrcir-jvalanavad
buddhinam avimddham - ityarthah |
Karana-s (Organs - Sensory and Motor) ISvarakrsna provides the list of jhanendriya-s and
karmendriya-s632 in a sequence which is adhered to in
The universe we live in, perceive, and interact with Ayurvedic texts also.
is handled with our organs, external and internal. The
means of interaction are called karana-s “faculties”. They 1 vac
are divided into two, as shown below: 2 pani
Faculty Divisions No Breakup 3 pada
5 jhanendriya-s + 5 4 payu
bahyakarana 10 5 upastha
karmendriya-s
karana
manas, ahahkara,
antahkarana 3 Table 174: karmendriya-s
buddhi
Table 172 : Faculties and their Divisions The nature of mind as both a jnanendriya and
karmendriya is also spelt out there633.
Thus the total comes to 13, which has been The double role of mind in another fashion - as an
detailed by Kvarakrsna631. He lists the jhanendriya-s (also indriya and an atindriya - has been set forth by Caraka634.
known as buddhindriya-s) and karmendriya-s (Table 173 &
174).
1 caksus
2 Srotra 632 Sahkhyakdrika 26
Table 176: vrtti-s ofjhanendriya-s The different roles of the karana-s are spelt out by
ISvarakrsna648. They are tabulated below:
Table 178: vrtti-s of antah-karana-s 644 In the words of Cakrapani, nirvikalpena grhyate.
645 Cakrapani paraphrases gunatah and dosatah by upadeyataya
Caraka points out the different roles of the two and heyataya.
types of karana-s. The sense organs perceive their objects.
646 Adhyavasyati is followed by vyavasyati.
647 Vaktum kartum vti, as put by Caraka (Carakasamhita 4.1.23)
648 Sdhkhyakarikd 32
642 VacastpatimiSra (on Sdhkhyakarikd 29 svalaksanyam etc)
karanam trayodaia-vidham
mahato’dhyavasdyah, ahankarasyabhimanah, sankalpo
tadaharana-dharana-prakaSakaram |
manaso vrttih vyaparah \ mahat and buddhi are
kdryarh ca tasya da&adha”
synonymous.
haryam dharyam prakdfyam ca 11
282 Padartha -
- Vijndna 283
23. Pratyaksa-pramana 23. Pratyaksa-pramana
30 Karya Items
prakasya
aharya i divya-Sabda
divya-vacana 2 divya-sparfa
1
divyadana 3 divya-rupa
2
divya-viharana 4 divya-rasa
3
divyotsarga 5 divya-gandha
4
divyananda 6 adivya-Sabda
5
adivya-vacana 7 adivya-sparfa
6
adivyadana 8 adivya-rupa
7
adivya-viharana 9 adivya-rasa
8
adivyotsarga 10 adivya-gandha
9
10 adivyananda
dharya
1 divya-parthiva Faculties: Temporal Aspect
2 divyapya
Another factor that contrasts the Internal and
3 divya-taijasa
External Faculties is that the External ones are limited to
4 divya-vayavya
5 divyakafya
6 adivya-parthiva Interpretations vary regarding the roles of the jhanendriya-%,
7 adivyapya karmendriya-s, and antahkarana. See Gaudapada, Mathara,
and Paramartha on this verse: each differs from the other.
8 adivya-taijasa
We have presented the analysis of VacaspatimiSra.
284 Padartha -
- Vijnana 285
23. Pratyaksa-pramana 23. Pratyaksa-pramana
the present time; the Internal ones pertain to all times - Every bhoga, “enjoyment” - joy or sorrow, that is -
the past, the present, and the future650. is accomplished for the purusa by buddhi only. And, even
ultimately, the difference between purusa and prakrti is
Supremacy of Buddhi
also brought about — i.e. brought home — to the purusa
Kvarakrsna also points out the superiority of the only by the buddhi, and also for the reason that at almost
Internal Faculties to the External Faculties; and even all times the buddhi acts on behalf of the purusa, and that
among the three Internal Faculties it is the Intellect all the karana-s, twelve in number, are deemed
(mahat or buddhi) that is supreme651. subordinate to the buddhi. It is the buddhi that
Why is the Intellect to be considered supreme? immediately presents ( - i.e. submits without mediation)
Why not manas or ahahkara which are also dvarinl This all experience to the purusa. It is for this vital role that the
buddhi is deemed supreme652.
question is answered by Kvarakrsna in the subsequent
karikd.
Types of Pratyaksa
State Undifferentiated Differentiated Aspects such as name and class are the factors that
Example idarh kihcit dittho’yam constitute the prakara-s. The knowledge here is one that
This is something This is Dhtha envelopes the relation between the vtfesana and vtfesya,
etc. the qualifier and the qualified654.
Table 183: Types of pratyaksa The viSesya must be perceived as vitiesanavat. Thus
ghata must be perceived as ghatatvavat. Stated formally it
Annambhatta notes two types of pratyaksa viz.
will be as ghatatvavan ghatah | On the other hand, where
Indeterminate and Determinate. The two are noted in
the viiesya is perceived, as too is the viSesana, but not their
Table 183.
relation, then the individual knowledges are disjunct. A
conjunct knowledge of the two will be sambandhavagahi
Knowledge Of and Knowledge As whereas the disjunct knowledge is sambandhanavagahi.
When we see something, we may not take note at Actually speaking, even pratyaksa is not a straight
once of the thing in all its aspects and details. This is and simple cognition. Unless a person has a store of
especially the case when we notice it from a distance, or information regarding the prakarata-s, he cannot link
when the light is not quite sufficient. When we begin to them to the viSesyata. Hence what impacts upon our sense
get close, or when more and more light is getting shed on organs, and what memories of possibilities of prakarata
the object, more and more details come to be grasped. pertinent to the vi&esyatd are stirred - together determine
The first kind of knowledge is tiirvikalpaka, and the pratyaksa - that is to say savikalpaka-prayaksa.
second is savikalpaka.
For a gradual progression from nirvikalpaka-
Wherever we perceive something we take note of pratyaksa to savikalpaka-pratyaksa, read the following
its qualities. Knowledge of qualifications always precedes verse describing Narada who is at first spotted as but a
the knowledge of the qualified653. mass of brightness. It was in the fourth step that he was
noted as Narada655. Table 184 shows the gradual
Prakara is the mode of knowledge. In ghatajnana,
progression from tiirvikalpaka to savikalpaka: 1 -> 4
ghatatva is the prakarata, and in patajnana, patatva
constitutes the prakarata. It is by means of the different
prakarata-s that the vi&esyata-s are differentiated. 654 Says Tarkadipika:
ndma-jatyadi-viSesana-viSesya-sambandha-avagahi”.
Nyayabodhini defines nirvikalpakatva as
prakdrata-Sunya-jhanatva.
653 This is stated in Logic as
For Karikavali, tiirvikalpaka is thus : KdrikdvaTt 136 :
nagrhita-vifesand buddhih viiesyam upasahkramati |
prakdratadi-iunyam hi sambandhanavagahi tat |
Cf. Tarkadipika
vtiistajhanam viSesana-jhana-janyam | 655 The full verse (Sisupalavadha of Magha, 1.3) runs thus :
cayas tvisam ity avadharitam pura
288 Padartha -
- Vijndna 289
23. Pratyaksa-pramana 23. Pratyaksa-pramana
(P) ab =
(b) vayu samyoga Further Sabda = guna of akaSa. The relationship
between a dravya and its guna is samavaya. Hence
Table 193 : Tactile Contact the relationship between akaSa and Sabda is
samavaya.
294 Padartha - - Vijnana 295
23. Pratyaksa-pramana
23. Pratyaksa-pramana
the one now seen. As this is not seen via any sense
There are two types of pratyaksa viz. (a) organ, the pratyaksa here is labelled as alaukika-
nirvikalpaka and (b) savikalpaka. Under the second there pratyaksa.
are two types viz. (bl) laukika-pratyaksa and (b2)
Sometimes “asatti” is used in lieu of pratyasatti.
alaukika-pratyaksa.
The word laksana means the same as visaya. The
Under (bl), we have 5+1 pratyaksa-s feminine word laksana was not used in the sense of
corresponding to the pratyaksa-s obtained through the five the vrtti entitled laksana, but only as an adjective of
sense organs, and the 6th, viz. manas, hence named pratyasatti, the feminine gender of which has
caksusa-pratyaksa etc. and manasa-pratyaksa. influenced this term. Hence the above may also be
called sdmdnya-visayaka-jndna659.
jnana-laksana-pratyasatti where one perception led Table 201: Two Types of Yogin-s and their
to another perception660. Perceptions
(c) Yogaja pratyasatti
This is an alaukika-pratyaksa that belongs
exclusively to Yogin-s. Things that we cannot see
are perceived by them. Perceiving the self or the
paramanu661 is possible for Yogin-s only.
There are two types among the Yogin-s662: Indriya-sannikarsa according to Ayurveda
1 atyugra-Sabda -Havana
2 Sabdasya sarvaSah na ca Havana
3 atihlnanam Sabdanam Sravana
4 purusa -sucaka-Sabda
samayoga
5 udbhisana-sucaka-Sabda
6 aSasta -sucaka-Sa bda
7 apriya-sucaka-Sabda
8 vyasana-sucaka-Sabda
i-H CM CO lO VO
cintyadyayoga
rupayoga
rasayoga
1 Means
rupatiyoga
rasatiyoga
Sabdatiyoga
gandhatiyoga
cintyadyatiyoga
119 punisodbhisanaSastapriyavyasanasucakaih \
spar&amithyayoga
rupamithyayoga
rasamithyayoga
cintyadimithyayoga
Sabdamithyayoga
gandhamithyayoga
3 Analogies Analogy 3:
There is a set of people - one is an expert in
VacaspatimiSra gives some telling analogies for the javelin, another in the staff, another is an archer, and yet
above two.
another wields a sword - all set to attack someone. The
Analogy 1 Tiger and Lightning signal got, they all proceed to pounce on him - but each
Analogy 2 Robber and Dim Light takes his own weapon only and not that of any other.
Analogy 3 Men of Arms : Respective Weapons Similar is the case with the faculties. While they all spring
into action at once, they just act their respective roles with
Table 212: Vacaspati’s Analogies just no confusion whatever679.
Analogy 1:
It is dense darkness; lightning flashes; and a fellow 679 VacaspatimiSra (on Sahkhyakdrikd 30) [example for drste
sees a tiger facing him close by : all the 4 faculties function yugapat:]
at once, as shown here. yada santamasandhakare vidyut-sampata-matrad vyaghra
abhimukham atisannihitam paSyati, tadd khalvasya alocana-
Function Faculty
sahkalpa-abhimana-adhyavasayah yugapad eva
1 Alocana caksus
pradurbhavanti, yatastata utplutya tatsthanad
2 Sahkalpa manas ekapade’pasarati |
3 Abhimana ahahkdra [example for drste krama&ah\\yadd mandalokeprathamam
4 adhyavasaya buddhi tavad vastumatram sammugdham alocayati, atha
pranihitamanah “karndntdkrsta-safara-sinjita-mandalikrta-
Table 213: Faculty and Function - Simultaneity kodandahpracandatarah pataccaro’yam” iti nifcinoti, atha ca
“mam pratyeti” ityabhimanyate, athadhyavasyati
6/7 Sahkhyakdrikd 30 “apasaramitah sthanat” iti \ (on Sahkhyakdrikd 31) Example
yugapat catustayasya tu vrttih krama$a§ca tasya nirdista | for resumption of respective roles by karana-s •
drste tathapyadrste trayasya tatpurvika vrttih 11 simultaneously yet synchronisedly) yathd hi bahavah
678 Sahkhyakdrikd 31 pumsah Sdktika-ydstika-dhanuska-kdrpanikdh krtasahketah
paravaskandanaya pravrttah, tatra anyatamasya akutam
svarit svam pratipadyanteparasparakiita-hetukam vrttim \
avagamya anyatamah pravartate, pravartamdnastu Saktikah
310 Padartha - - Vijnana 311
23. Pratyaksa-pramana 23. Pratyaksa-pramana
pratyaksa691 - viz. dissimilarity among the kids of the same SuSruta refers to “3 means” and “6 means” of
parents692. diagnostic procedures “seeing, touching, and asking the
In pariksa-s like astasthana-pariksa and dakavidha- patient” - these constitute the three;” through all the five
pariksa, there is an obvious involvement of pratyaksa sense organs and enquiring with the patience” - these
approaches/ varieties/ processes. constitute the six696.
but there is no smoke. But there are no instances where Notion of Vyapti
smoke is, but fire is not. He has seen this often in the
kitchen {mahanasa). As he has not come across a single The notion of vyapti involves two entities viz.
instance where ‘smoke is, but fire is not’ situation, he vyapya and vyapaka (respectively dhuma and vahni, here).
concludes that it is safe to conclude : wherever smoke is, Technically the two are hetu and sadhya, for we establish
therever fire is. The mountain, then, must have fire. fire through smoke.
This ‘wherever-therever’ pattern is called vyapti, Vyapti can be conclusively established if we can
often translated as Invariable Concomitance. The spot or state the idea formally in these two ways:
item about which some question has arisen is called paksa. (i) Where dhuma is, there vahni is.
Here the question is as to whether fire is present on the (ii) Where vahni is not, there dhuma is not.
mountain. The mountain (parvata), therefore, is the As we can notice, the structure of the two statements is:
paksa. All instances of smoke (dhuma) are accompanied (i) If‘a’, then‘b’
by fire {vahni). (ii) If no ‘b’, then no ‘a’.
Of the two, (i) is called anvaya-vyapti and (ii) is called
There are even instances where fire is but smoke is
vyatireka-vyapti.
not. Hence vahni is vyapaka (more extensive), and dhuma
is vyapya (less extensive). Hence dhuma is always vahni- Again, parvata is called paksa. Paksa is that where
vyapya. This is known as sahacarya-niyama. The dhuma on the existence of the sadhya is sought to be ascertained. A
the mountain is no exception to this. Hence we can say concordant spot, viz. the kitchen, which also has smoke is
this parvata is vahni-vyapya-dhumavan. The vyapya viz. called sapaksa. The opposite, i.e. the discordant spot, viz.
dhiima characterises the paksa, the mountain. the iron ball, which has no smoke, is called vipaksa. Thus
we have mahanasa as sapaksa, and ayogolaka as vipaksa.
Hence the vyapya is paksa-vrtti {=parvata-vrtti).
Hetu is invariably present in sapaksa and invariably absent
vrtti” at the end of the compound in such instances as
in vipaksa. All these may be noted in a tabular column:
these, means “existing in/on/at/upon”. The knowledge of
the paksadharma (here, the mountain having the smoke) Items in the Feature Technical
as vyapti-vitista (= characterised by Invariable Illustration Name
Concomitance) is what is meant by vyapti-vitista- parvata hetuman paksa
paksadharmata-jhanam paramarSah. In our instance, dhuma vyapya hetu
“vahni-vyapya-dhumavan ayam parvatah” : this knowledge vahni vyapaka sadhya
is paramarta. Where vyapya is, vyapaka invariably is. Here, mahanasa sapaksa
where dhuma is, there vahni is. This dhuma is on the ayogolaka vipaksa
mountain. Hence vahni is on the mountain. This is stated
as parvato vahnimdn. Table 225 : Inferential Terms Illustrated
_
Ayurvedadipika ( on Carakasamhita 1.11.21 )
pratyaksa-purvam iti - vyapti-grahaka-pramanapurvakam |
Furtheron, he supplies, the “intended/assumed fill-ups”
(called vakya&esa), thus making the sense and the sentence
formal and complete : pratyaksa-purvam yena anumiyate, tad
anumanam, having bearing thus on the very etymology of
anumana. The full force of the same is best cited in his own
words: [vyapti-grahanad] anu [anantaram] miyate [samyah-
niSclyate paroksartho\yena - tad anumanam; and as he
paraphrases it well: vydpti-smarana-sahaya-lihgadar&anam -
ityarthah | vyapti is verily the heart of anumana. The job of
anumana is over once we have confirmed the existence of
vyapti-vi$ista-hetu in the palcsa.
vyapti-pratipadakam
The sentence in the
paksavacanam (or
convince the other about this (para-pratipatti). So he uses
Elucidation
abadhitatvadika-
paksadharmata-
Concomitance
a pancavayava-vakya, “Five-Limb-Sentence”. That is a
prayojanakam
sadhyavattaya
pratipadakam
pararthanumana “Inference for Another’s Sake”710.
Dissolve parartha as: parasya arthah [prayojanam] yasya tat
vacanam
jhanam
Pancavayava-vakya
The mountain
Because it has
smoky is also
Whatever is
Hence so.
In the pararthanumana quotation from
So is this
kitchen
is fiery
Tarkasahgraha cited above, the five sentences (1) to (p)
smoke
constitute what is called a pancavayava-vakya. Each of
Example
them has a label. The terms and examples for each are
tabulated in Table 230.
yoyo dhumavan
tasmat tatha [=
sa so’gniman -
yatha pratijha]
dhumavattvat
tatha cayam
mahanasah
[=paksah]
vahniman
parvato
yatha
710 Tarkasahgraha
Application
Conclusion
Illustration
Assertion
(S)yat tu dhumad agnim anumaya
Reason
(k) para-pratipattyartham pahcavayava-vakyam prayuhkte, tat E
pararthanumanam \ yatha U
QJ
(l) parvato vahniman H
(m) dhumavattvat "3
u
(n) yoyo dhumavan sa sa vahniman -yatha mahanasah *£
-A
u <3 3
(o) tatha cayam QJ
'<3 g
(p) tasmat tatha - in \ H 8 3 i
(q) anenapratipaditat lihgat paro’py agnimpratipadyate \ \ 5 •3 3
The goal of pararthanumana is the generation of the same S
a.
^3
3 ST
$
sort of paksadharmata-jhdna as has arisen during *
svarthanumana.
The etymology of nigamana711 given by Vatsyayana anumana, and hence lihga-paramar&a is itself to be taken
is significant. as anumana713.
Neither hetu alone nor vyapti alone can establish
Caraka speaks of over half a dozen limbs712. They
the Enunciation (pratijna). On the other hand the hetu
are tabulated below.
should be vyapti-viSista. In other words hetu is the viSesya
1 pratijna sadhyavacanam and vyapti, the vLSesana.
2 sthapana pratijhdyah sthapana - hetu- viSesana
1 vyapti vyapti
drstantopanaya-nigamanaih
2 hetu viSesya paksadharmata
3 pratisthapand = parapratijhdydh vipantartha-sthapana
4 hetuh upalabdhi-karanam Table 232: Relation Between vyapti and
5 drstantah yo varnyam varnayati hetu/paksadharmata714
6 upanayah nothing different from Annambhatta’s
7 nigamanam nothing different from Annambhatta’s hetu = (a) vyapti-viSistata
8 uttaram (a) sadharmyopadiste hetau _(b) paksadharmata-viSistata
vaidharmya-vacanam
(b) vaidharmyopadiste va hetau Table 233 : Two Features of hetu
sadharmya-vacanam
The etymology of lihga-paramarSa has thus been
Table 231: Limbs espoused by Caraka given: the matter that is not explicit (i.e. the idea that
needs to be inferred) is brought home to us by linga; this it
Linga-paramarsah does through the force of vyapti. Smoke is such a linga. A
Nature and Role technical consideration of the same is a kind of
knowledge. And that is paramarSa71S.
Annambhatta considers linga-paramarSa as the
instrument (karana) common to both svarthanumana and 713
Tarkasangraha
pararthanumana. These two exhaust the types of svarthanumiti-pararthanumityoh lihga-paramarsa eva
karanam \ tasmdt linga-paramarsah anumanam |
Anvaya-vyapti is the vyapti between hetu and sadhya Here the example given is “prthvi is different
(same as vyapya and vyapaka) whereas vyatireka-vyapti is from others; as it has sound”.
the vyapti between sadhyabhava and hetvabhava. Take A sapaksa instance is one which has smell, and
note of the sequence of items in the pair hetu-sadhya and has itarabheda, which should be concomitant.
in sadhydbhdva-hetvabhava. Such an example does not obtain.
(a) anvaya-vyatirekin A vipaksa instance is one which has no smell
In the first variety viz. anvaya-vyatireki we have and has no itarabheda : 8 dravya-s and 6
both cases applicable : if A then B & If no B padartha-s answer to being odourless; they also
then no A } where A = dhuma = hetu and B = have no itarabheda. So we have vipaksa
agni = sadhya. The sapaksa and vipaksa instances.
examples taken up are the kitchen and the
pond respectively. The following table compares and contrasts the 3 types
(b) kevalanvayin
This is a case where there is a positive vyapti vyaoti drstanta
only. The sadhya (A) is abhidheya ‘nameable’ anvaya- vyatireka- sapaksa- vipaksa-
and the hetu (B) is prameyatvat ‘as it is vyapti vyapti drstanta drstanta
knowable’. anvayva-
V S V V
As (A) and (B) (or sadhya & hetu) are vyatirekin
coextensive, it is just not possible to think of a kevalanvayin S X V X
r-
2 svarupasiddha
II
'
the vipaksa 2 sapaksa-sattva 3 asadharana- (2) = [1.2]
4 abadhita-visayatvam hetu should not be contradicted savyabhicara
by a stronger proof 4 anupasamhari- (3) = [1.3]
5 asatpratipaksatvam hetu should not have a savyabhicara
counterbalancing reason 3 vipaksa-sattva 5 vyapyatvasiddha (8) = [4.31
6 viruddha (4) = [21
Table 237 : Features of a sad-hetu 7 sadharana- (1) = [11]
savyabhicara
Of these the first three may be considered as
4 abadhita- 8 badhita (9) - [5]
elementary: factors 2 and 3 almost just follow from the
visayatva
definitions of sapaksa and vipaksa.
5 asatpratipaksatva 9 satpratipaksa (S)'= [31
Matching against the above five, it is only the
anvaya-vyatireki that passes the test. Kevalanvayin fails Table 239: Vitiated hetu-s and their Labels
Test 3 as the very possibility of a vipaksa is ruled out.
Kevala-vyatirekin on the other hand, fails in Test 2 as the Legend : In the last column are mere numbers. Some
very possibility of a sapaksa is ruled out. are in Simple Brackets (), and some are in Square Brackets [].
They all stand for hetvabhasa-s, numbered dually. There are 5
hetvabhasa-s, numbered 1 to 5, presented in Square Brackets.
2 3
Of them, 1 and 4 have subdivisions, three each, shown as 1.1,
anvayva-vyatirekin ✓
4.2 etc. The numbers in Simple Brackets give a running number
kevalanvayin ✓ X
of the total number of hetvabhasa-s, counting all subdivisions
kevala-vyatirekin X also, hence 1 to 9.
Ahetu
Explanation of ahetu types :
Caraka devotes a section for ahetu or Non-reason.
(a) prakarana-sama “Proposition-as-Cause”
Cakrapani glosses on it saying it is what cannot prove716.
As Cakrapani explains, prakarana is the same as
He classifies this under three heads shown below.
paksa111. The flaw in prakaranasama is that
paksa is taken as sadhya.
Name Example in Caraka Comment in
Caraka The pratijhd is that the soul, being different
1 prakarana¬ (a) anyah Sarirad na hiya eva from the body, is eternal.
sama atma nityah paksah sa eva The opponent will say : The body is ephemeral.
(b) yasmadanyah hetuh - id Hence the self ought to be different from it.
Sarirad atma tasmat This is no reason. For what is paksa has itself
nityah \ been made the hetu\ns That is unacceptable.
Sariram hyanityam ato
vidharmina catmana (b) samtoya-sama “Equality of Doubt”
bhavitavyam \ One says: This fellow tells a portion of
2 samtoya- (a) ayam na hiya eva Ayurveda. Can he be a doctor?
sama ayurvedaikadeSam samtoya-hetuh sa If the other now says: As he knows some
aha - kimnvayam eva sam&aya- portion of Ayurveda, he is a doctor. The very
cikitsakah sycit na va? ccheda-hetuh point of doubt is presented as a removal of
(b )yasmad ayam bhavad doubt.
ayurvedaikadeSam
(c) varnya-sama “The To-Be-Proved as Analogy”
aha
tasmaccikitsako ’yam
3 varnya- (a) asparSatvad varnyah tiabdah
sama buddhir anitya buddhir api varnya 717 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 3.8.57)
- tadubhaya- prakriyate sadhyatvenddhikriyate = paksah \ tena samah
Sabdavat \
varnydviiistatvdd prakaranasamah |
Varieties
Number
ephemeral as it cannot be touched - like sound.
of
When the ephemerality of sound itself remains cn fH T—1
Unestablished
Contradicted
Challenged
Discrepant
Hetvabhasa
Falsified
Name of Fallacy
Fallacious Logic
Total = 9
Errors in logical thinking can lead to wrong
conclusions. Hence fallacies need to be studied.
Annambhatta considers hetvabhasa-s under 5 heads,
1
savyabhicara
tabulated in Table 241 (see next page)
viruddha
asiddha
badhita
Govardhana defines hetvabhasa as “what appears
as a hetu”720, paraphrasing such items as dusta-hetavah,
“Vitiated Causes”. It is not only a positive knowledge that
1s
helps but also a negative knowledge. One must know what
Unestablishment
a thing is, but also what it is not.
Contradiction
Falsification
The etymologies are listed in Table 242.
Discrepancy
Challenge
Total = 5
Flaw
719 ~
Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 3.8.57)
vyabhicara
pratipaksa
na ca sadhyo drstanto bhavati |
virodha
asiddhi
720
badha
Nyayabodhini (on Tarkasangraha)
hetuvad abhasante - id hetvdbhasah [
The word can also be analysed as hetoh abhasah = what
looks like, but is not, a proper hetu. It can also be analysed
as hetau abhasah = error in the hetu. Tarkadipikd defines i-H
hetvabhasa thus:
anumiti-pratibandhaka-yatharthajhana-visayatvam Table 241: Logical Fallacies
hetvdbhasatvam |
5
r
#S
G
Q
JO
fl
G
6
ICS
Example Why Fallacious
348
pratijna/ hetu/
<udaharana >(=
t-H
•»«*
8
*-H
^
§
24. Anumana-pramana
w
parvato vahniman prameyatvam
•—• <0
IQ
<3
5
•Q <3
*§
•Q Is.
-§*
•Xt-
/ prameyatvat vahnyabhavavati hrade
vidyate
>
§
Sabdo nityah /
S'
Sabdatvam sarvebhyo
--- Q
C '«3
§ s
JO
§•
ju.
■x:-
Sabdatvat nityebhyo ’nityebhyoSca
vyavrttam tobdamatra-vrtti
iH
•43
1
sarvam anityam /
^
sarvasyapi paksatvat
<3 ^3
• a
--- Q
Xj
co SS
'<3
§• g
.r*
1
•5
|
||
i •«.
prameyatvat drstanto nasti
co §"
i
SJ
•a
•<3
04
M
.g
•g
si
$
§
•x;.
Sabdo nityah / krtakatvam
c7
1
05 *x;
krtakatvat nityatvabhavena
anityatvena vyaptam
Padartha
CO
yasya sadhya-bhava- Sabdo nityah /
21 §
Co g
3
•X5-
sadhakam iravanatvat /
Vijnana
hetvantaram vidyate Sabdatvavat
Tf
cs
rg
8
3
-xi-
surabhi / nastyeva
r=z S'
aravindatvat /
sarojaravindavat
a
^ §
R.'S
5 ^
2 I-
S.
-xt-
iabdasya Sravanatvat
sadhya-vyapi dhumavan /
•x;*
21 ^ 21 §>
sadhanavyapakah vahnimattvat
'S
uo
.2
S
C.
S
i
2 3
J3
<3
a X!-
pramanan-tarena dravyatvat
«
S|s
II |
2 -2
nifcitah
ill
S> S3- S,
a w cv.
24. Anumana-pramana
349
354 Padartha -
Vijnana 355
24. Anumana-pramana 24. Anumana-pramana
against anumana. Hence we have a badhita here. In other words the extent of the vydpaka must be greater
than that of the vyapya, or at least equal to the same. The
Vyapti-vimarsa word niyama is sometimes expanded to
samanbdhikaranatyantdbhdvdpratiyogi. There are
Annambhatta defines vyapti “pervasion”, as the numerous expansions of this, and the essential point is to
rule of concomitance (sahacarya-niyamah)121. The ensure that the proposed vyapti is not the concomitance
statement “where smoke is, there fire is” is only a between just a single individual instance of dhuma and
demonstration of the same, he says728 in his Dipika. vahni, or only some instances of the same, but all dhuma-s
and all vahni-s.
If vyapti is the heart of anumana, sahacarya is the
heart of vyapti. Sahacarya “going together” is the same as A difference between the kdrya and karana
samanadhikaranya, being together - in the same locus729. relationship as in the world and as in logic may also be
Hetu and sadhya should invariably be always together730. noted. Wet fuel by itself does not generate smoke. When
it is set fire to, smoke issues. Thus fire is the cause and
Vyapti is obviously the relationship between
smoke is the effect. But in logic dhuma is taken as the
vydpaka and vyapya. Hetu is the vyapya and sadhya is
cause and vahni is taken as the effect. For, we infer fire
vydpaka. In the illustrations, vahni is the vyapaka and
from smoke.
dhuma is the vyapya. Niyatam is glossed as niyamena
Vyapti is taken as of two types.
vartamanam, what necessarily, i.e. unfailingly, exists. In
other words, niyata brings out the aspect of universality. It
anvaya- tat-sattve tat-sattvam If A then B
is this that gives the power that vyapti is credited with, and
vyapti
actually possesses. The essential rule is that the extent of
vyatireka- tad-abhave tad-abhavah If no B then
the vydpaka should never be less than that of the vyapya.
vyapti no A
Formalization of vyapti can thus have an important hypothetically accept that. Were there no fire in it, smoke
role to play in etiology and medication in Ayurveda. would also not have been there. In other words, were the
mountain not fiery, it would not have been smokey either.
Tarka This however is not the case - as smoke is indeed seen on
the mountain; which is to say, the hypothetical acceptance
Annambhatta defines tarka, “Hypothetical was wrong. When there is no error in logical thinking, if
Assumption”, as a deduction of the more pervasive by a you still arrived at a wrong result i.e. at something which
less pervasive, and as this is invalid, classifies it under goes contrary to facts, then your error ought to be in your
aprama or Invalid Knowledge731. assumption732.
The word tarka is used in a different sense also.
The three types of ayatharthanubhava may thus be
SuSruta says, tarkagranthartharahito naiva
shown.
grhnatyapanditah | He who has no knowledge of the
IS ame Definition Example matter of texts of logic, is ignorant. Gautama defines it as
sarhfoya Doubt ekasmin dharmini sthanur vd, an inference (uka) arrived at for the sake of knowledge of
viruddha- puruso vd? truth via reasons regarding something unknown733.
nanadharma-
vaLUstya-jhanam Drstanta
viparyaya Mistake mithya-jhanam Suktau
viparyayah “idam Gautama defines it as the similar intellectia
rajatam” regarding some object734. We have drstanta-samadhi and
tarka Assumption vyapyaropena yadi vahnih
vyapakaropah na syat tada 732 Tarkabhdsa
dhumo’pi na parvato’yam sagnih uta anagnih ? iti sandehanantararh yadi
kaScinmanyate anagnih iti, tada tam prati “yadyayam anagnih
syat
abhavisyat, tarhi dhiimavan nabhavisyat - ityavahnimattvena
adhumavattva-prasahjanam kriyate \ sa canista-prasahgah
Table 256: Types of ayatharthanubhava
tarka ucyate \ evampravrttah tarkah anagnimattvasya
pratiksepat anumanasya bhavatyanugrahakah \
If a person were not to agree that the mountain is
fiery as it is smokey, then this tarka argument is presented 733 Nyayasutra 1.1.40
to him: You say there is no fire there. Let us avijhata-tattve’rthe karanopapattitah tattvajhanartham uhah
tarkah \
717
Carakasamhita 3.4.7
rasam tu khalu atura-Sariragatam indriya-vaisayikam api
anumanad avagacchet \ na hyasya pratyaksena grahanam
upapadyate | etc.
718
Carakasamhita 3.4.7
710
Carakasamhita 3.4.8
Vijhana 363
362 Padartha -
24. Anumana-pramana
(Contd.)
Mode Inferible Item
26 kdlaviSesa vayas
27 de£avi§esa bhakti
28 upafayavtfesa samya CHAPTER 25
29 vedana-viSesa vyadhi
30 upaSayal vedana-vitesa samutthana PRAMANANTARA
31 upa&aya /anupatoya gudha-liriga-vyadhi
32 apacara-viSesa dosa-pramana-viSesa Upamdna/Yukti/Arthdpatti/Anupalabdhi/Aitihya/
33 arista ayusah. ksaya Cesta/Sambhava
34 kalyanabhiniveSa upasthita -Sreyastva
35 avikara amalasattva
36 atura-paripra$na grahanimrdutva Upamana
37 atura-paripratna grahanidarunatva
38 atura-paripra&na svapradar&ana Upamana has been defined as the instrument of
39 atura-pariprafna dvista the knowledge called upamiti740.
40 atura-paripra£na ista Calling it aupamya, Caraka defines Analogy as an
41 utura-paripraSna sukha exposition based on the resemblance of one with
42 atura-paripratna duhkha another741.
Caraka gives three analogies for Analogy, Finally, it must be remarked that while Caraka
tabulated in Table 262. deals with aupamya, as a vadapada (or more accurately, as
Some apta (Knowledgeable-cum-well-wisher one among the 44 bhisagvada-mdrga-jhdndrtham
friend) has furnished an analogy for the disease is called adhigamyani padani, terms and characterisations that are
dandaka. The disease is unknown but the analogy is required to be known in the course of doctoral debates). It
known. After all everyone knows what a staff is. Dandaka is SuSruta who deals with it as a pramana, a means to valid
is a disease marked by the rigidity of the body muscles. knowledge of things unknown743.
Cakrapani discusses yukti on two other counts : arthapatti, Implication753. The example given is: when you
formal and utilitarian. To take the latter up first, it is with say that a certain disease is not curable by Nourishing
yukti, mostly, that an urge for accomplishing dharma, Medication, it follow from it that the disease is curable by
artha, and kama can spring749. As regards the first, he an Alleviating Therapy754, as the negation of one implies
presents the discussion by Buddhist writers Santaraksita the other.
and KamalaSIla about yukti. As to its pattern, it is (a) if A Actually speaking, what Caraka means by
then B; (b) if no A then no B750. Though it looks much the arthaprapti is more usually called arthapatti. It is for this
same as anumana, the drstanta element of anumana is reason that Cakrapani begins his commentary on this
missing here751. section saying that arthaprapti means arthapatti155. He uses
And finally, yukti can be subsumed under the word ‘say’ to hint at the two types of arthapatti756.
anumana, going by a remark on the latter by Caraka Caraka does not seem to like to accord a pramana-
himself752. status to arthapatti. Though he does not explicitly state so,
his commentator does. This arthapatti is either sensible or
Arthapatti not. If it is redundant (<anyathopapatti), it deserves no
When you say one thing, and another thing follows 754 Carakasarhhitd 3.8.48
it as a corollary though unstated, it is what is called “nayam santarpana-sadhyo vyadhih” - ityukte,
bhavatyarthapraptih - <<apatarpana-sddhyo,yam,} iti |
status as a pramana. If it is flawless, it can be There can be half a dozen reasons for the first type.
accommodated right under anumana151. These have been detailed in karika of Sdhkhyakdrika59.
In his conclusion, Caraka perhaps wanted to hint at The second type is when no such hindrance is there, yet
the identity of arthaprapti and arthapattv, hence he has nothing obtains as knowledge - for the simple reason that
chosen the stock example given for the latter by most no thing is there. The conclusion that such a thing is not
writers758. A detailed discussion about arthapatti can be there is valid here.
found in Sdhkhyatattvakaumudi of VacaspatimiSra on In Tarkasahgraha, such a perception as “the
karika 5 of Sahkhyakdrikd. ground has an abhava of ghata, the pot,” is taken as a type
of pratyaksa160.
Anupalabdhi Aitihya
Something does not present itself before you, and “Aitihya” has been used by Caraka (in his
you deduce conclusions based on the same - this is the gist bhisagyada-marga-jhanarthadhigamya-pada list) as
of treating anupalabdhi as a pramana. synonymous with aptopadeSa161. Veda etc. come under this
It is considered to be of two types. head.
Discussion as to the pramana-hood of aitihya may
1 samanyanupalabdhi Thing exists, but not perceived
be found in Sdhkhyatattvakaumudi of VacaspatimiSra.
2 yogyanupalabdhi Thing is non-existent; hence not
Aitihya here is tantamount to hearsay, as there is no
perceived
authentic source for the same, and its only claim to
Table 268 : Two types of anupalabdhi
759 ISvarakrsna presents 8 instances where pratyaksa gets
sabotaged: Too distant and too close objects, for example,
cannot be seen. A fuller treatment of this is in another
section of this book. His karika 8 has the word
757 Ayurvedadipika ( on Carakasamhita 3.8.48)
‘anupalabdhi’.
iyarit ca arthapattih
(a) anyathopapattya na pramdnam - iti na 760 Annambhatta calls it vi$esana-vi$esya-bhava, the 6,h type of
pramanaprakarane pathita \ sannikarsa. Cf. Ayurvedadipika ( on Carakasamhita 4.1.30
(b) yd tu dosarahita sd anumanantargataiva - iti bhavah | yad indriyam yad grhnati, tat tasya abhavam api grhnati). For
division of anupalabdhi into jnata and ajnata types etc. See
758 Carakasamhita 3.8.48
Tattvavali of Candrakanta Tarkalankara. Hvarakrsna has
“na anena diva bhoktavyam” - ityukte bhavatyarthapraptih
presented two types viz. sau/csmyat and abhavat.
“ni$i bhoktavyam”- iti | “Don’t eat during the day” implies
“Eat during night”. Also cf. pino devadattah diva na 761 Carakasamhita 3.8.41
bhunkte \ aitihyam nama aptopadefo vedadih |
validity being its longevity762. The stock example is “There Sometimes cesta is divided into two as tabulated
is a Yaksa in this tree.”76 below.
VacaspatimiSra’s verdict on this is that it is not 1 krtasamaya Conventionalised E.g. Sahkhadhvanau
trustworthy, hence cannot be a pramana. On the other tvaya agantavyam
hand, if it is ascertained that it has a creditable origin, 2 akrtasamaya Not E.g. payojakabhipraya-
issuing from an dpta, it is no different from agama. In conventionalised mdrika cesta
either case, it cannot lay claim to being an altogether
different pramana764. Table 269: Divisions of cesta
Cesta
Sambhava
Cesta is considered a pramana by Tantrika-s,
followers of the Tantra systems. No such status is accorded Caraka discusses sambhava under the section of
to the same by the Naiyayika-s. Gesticulations can be bhisagvada-mdrga-jhdnarthadhigamya-pada-s. Sambhava is
made so as to cause one to remember, or infer, certain origin. It has various etymologies all having the same
sounds. The gesticulations of a dumb fellow or a singer purport more or less766.
are typical examples.
Naiyayika-s say that there is just an anumana here, Caraka gives three examples.
and nothing more, as it is all suggestive of the verbal
expression765. (b) “ghatam dnaya”- iti Sabda-vyahjaka-cestdkartrtvat
{c)yathaaham \
762
We thus have two steps :
Sdhkhyatattvakaumudi ( on Sdhkhyakdrikd 5) (p) fabdanumiti and
anirdista-pravaktrkam pravada-pdramparya-matram - “iti (q) arthapratyaya: we infer words, and get at the sense
hocuh vrddhah” - iti aitihyam \ therefrom.
763
Sdhkhyatattvakaumudi ( on Sdhkhyakdrikd 5) 766 Three etymologies are presented here :
iha vateyaksah prativasati |
(a) Carakasamhita 3.8.49
' 4 Sdhkhyatattvakaumudi ( on Sdhkhyakdrikd 5) yoyatah sambhavati sa tasya sambhavah \
na tat pramdndntaram -
(a) anirdista-pravaktrkatvena samsayikatvdt \ (b) Ayurvedadipika ( on Carakasamhita 3.8.49)
(b) apta-vaktrkatva-ntfcaye tu agama eva \ sambhavati [vidyate] asmad iti \
(c) Ayurvedadipika ( on Carakasamhita 3.8.49)
765 The logical format is thus :
(a) ayatii “ghatam dnaya” - iti Sabda-visayakabhiprayavan v.l. sambhavati asmin iti \
374 Padartha - - Vijhana 375
25. Pramanantara
K
pata
As Tarkadipika notes, if niyata, ‘invariably’, had not been
introduced into the definition, any anterior thing(s) could have
become the cause of every posterior things : even a donkey Diagram: samanadhikarana -
which carried mud for the preparation of the pot would have to type of asamavayikarana
be deemed a cause of the pot. Says Dipika : “piirvavrtti
karanam” - ityukte, rasabhadav-ativydptih syat \ atoniyateti \
Actually ISvara is a Universal Cause. Naiyayika-s All sorrow springs from some cause, says Caraka
count that there are eight such universal causes, tabulated elsewhere in the same chapter773. Contrasting sampat and
vipat, generating wellness and illness, he refers to the
below.
causality in one as the negation of the other , thus
1 Uvara demonstrating the anvaya-vyatireka principle.
2 i$vara-jnana Statements of causality abound in Ayurveda, and
3 Uvareccha we may cite but one or two as examples. Srivijayaraksita
4 Uvara-krti and Sri Srikanthadatta say that the agitated mala-s are the
5 dik root-cause of all diseases; and the cause for that agitation
6 kala too is consumption of varied items that are bad for
7 adrsta = dharma/adharma health775.
8 karana-viSesa
- Vijhana 383
382 Padartha -
26. Kdrya-kdrana-bhava 26. Karya-karana-bhava
from the state of a cause to that of an effect is evolution, Five reasons have been adduced by ISvarakrsna in
and the resolution of an effect into its causal state is order to establish satkarya theory. He says that en effect
involution. In other words, the cause and effect are not [prejexists [in the cause] karyam sat - whence the
essentially different. nomenclature satkaryavada - on the following grounds779:
The most common analogy given is of the tortoise (a) What is not cannot be brought into being
withdrawing its limbs into its own shell and stretching (b) We take the material cause in order to bring about
them outwards later776. a particular effect
The tortoise is no different from its own limbs that (c) Everything cannot generate everything
may contract or expand; and even so, the pot and the
crown etc. are no different from mud or gold out of which (d) It is only out of something competent, that
they have been fashioned777. Certain other aspects of this competence could yield results
theory are brought out by Sankara well. When you say a (e) The effect is no different from the cause.
cause produces an effect, what is meant is that the
The idea is this :
previous effect was submerged and a new effect took
(a) Were the effect non-existent prior to the
shape. Or else, all effects would have to be simultaneous!
function of the cause, it (=the effect) cannot be
When the previous effect was undone, it is not as if the
brought into being by anybody. Not even a thousand
cause itself was undone778.
artists can turn out yellow out of blue. It makes sense
to bring to fore what already was within : as you press
oil out of sesamum, as you pound rice out of paddy, as
776 Sankhyatattvakaumudi (on Sdhkhyakdrika 9) you milch milk out of cows780.
yatha hi kurmasyahgani kiirma.farire niviSamandni tirobhavanti,
nihsaranti cavirbhavanti, na tu kurmatah tadahgani utpadyante
pradhvamsante va |
The application of this analogy is thus stated : atmakaryasya tirodhanam kurvat, kaiyantaram utpadayati |
evam ekasyah mrdah suvarnasya va ghata-mukutadayo vifesah ekasmin karane yugapad aneka-karya-virodhat \ naca
nihsaranta avirbhavanta “utpadyanta” - ity ucyante, niviSamdnah purvakaryopamarde kdramsya svatmopamardo bhavati \
tirobhavanto “vinaSyantV’ty ucyante, na punah asatam utpadah, 779 Sdhkhyakdrika 9
satarh va nirodhah \
(a) asad-akaranat
777 Sankhyatattvakaumudi (on Sdhkhyakdrika 9) (b) upadana-grahanat
kurrnah svavayavebhyah sahkoca-vikaSibhyo na bhinnah \ evam (c) sarvasambhavabhavat \
ghata-mukutadayo’pi mrt-suvarnddibhyo na bhinnah \ (d) Saktasya Sakyakaranat
(e) karanabhavat ca satkdryam \ \
778 Brhadaranyakopanisadbhdsya (on Brhadaranyaka Upanisad
1.2.1) 780 Sankhyatattvakaumudi (on Sdhkhyakdrika 9)
sarvam hi kdranam karyam utpadayat, piirvotpannasya asat cet karanavyaparat purvam karyam, nasya sattvam kenapi
384 Padartha - - Vijnana
26. Karya-karana-bhava
26. Karya-karana-bhava
(b) When you prepare a pot, you start with
mud. The mud becomes the pot. Mud is related to the the cause is real. How can the effect, which is little else
pot. Upadana is cause. Grahana is relation with effect. than the cause be unreal?784
A relation can only be with something existing, not a
VacaspatimiSra adduces three reasons in order to
non-existent thing7*1.
establish the identity of the cause and the effect, in order
(c) Anything could be created of anything - if to assert that the effect is preexistent - prior, that is, to its
unrelated things could create items. However there is own manifestation.
a regularity which belies such a possibility782.
(d) The question is whether the potency is
related to the effect or not. If it is, it is not with a non-
existent item .
Asatkaryavada
(e) The effect is of the same nature as the The arguments of Naiyayika-s against the Sahkhya-
cause. The effect is no different from the causes and s are the very opposites, leading to an exactly opposite
conclusion. First of all, the size and shape of the effect is
different from the size and shape of the cause. Hence the
two are different. Typically, mrt or mud is the cause, and
ghata is the effect; and the very fact that the two have
karturh Sakyam | ... sataScabhivyaktih upapanna, yatha pidanena different designations viz. mrt and ghata is itself a pointer
tilesu tailasya, avaghatena dhanyesu tandulanam, dohanena to their non-identity. Further what work can be done
saubheyisu payasah | employing a ghata cannot be done employing mrt. Hence
781
Sankhyatattvakaumudi (on Sahkhyakdrika 9) the two are not the same. Again, making use of the same
upadanani (—karanani) tesam grahanam (=karyena mrt, different things can be created: You can create a
sambandhah) \ upadanaih karyasya sambandhat - iti yavat | ... ghata or you can create a Sarava. The two can be called El
sambandhah ca karyasya asato na sambhavati \ and E2. If each is equal to C, the cause, then ultimately El
782
Sankhyatattvakaumudi (on Sahkhyakdrika 9) should be equal to E2. For, this is as in Mathematics: if
asambaddhasya janyatve asambaddhatvavitesena sarvam a=c, and b=c, then a=b. if ghata = a set of paramanu-s,
karyajatam sarvasmad bhavet \ na caitad asti | tasmat na and if §arava = same set of paramanu-s, then ghata and
asambaddham asambaddhena janyate, api tu sambaddharh sarava cannot be differentiated at all, which is by no
sambaddhena janyata iti | ... asambaddhasya cotpattim icchato means the case. If the kapala-s can be considered to be the
na vyavasthitih |
783
Sankhyatattvakaumudi (on Sahkhyakdrika 9)
hakti-vihesah karyasambaddho va asambaddho va ? 784 Sankhyatattvakaumudi (on Sahkhyakdrika 9)
sambaddhatve nasata sambandhah - iti sat karyam | karyasya karanatmakatvat \ na hi karanad bhinnam karyam |
karanam nasat - iti katham tadabhinnam karyam asad bhavet ?
386 Padartha -
- Vijhdna 387
26. Karya-karana-bhava 26. Karya-karana-bhava
cause of ghata, then even these two will have to be the the things (dravya-s) in the world are themselves
same. countless.
For these and similar reasons, asatkaryavada is When 2 paramanu-s join, they form a dvyanuka (di¬
pitted against satkaryavada. Thus we find that the two atom). A tryanuka is the next formation, and the
approaches radically differ, and end in a draw, as it were. magnification goes upto the very brahmanda or the
Cosmic Egg.
787 Vatsyayana (on Nyayasutra 4.2.17 : pararh va truteh) 790 Carakasamhita 4.7.17
avayava-vibhagasya anavasthanad dravyanam asankhyeyatvat tesdm sarhyoga-vibhage paramanundm karanam vayuh karma
tmtitva-nivrttih iti \ svabhavaSca |
Vivartavada wind blows, clouds are dispelled and the sky is made
visible793.
Vivartavada is a tenet of the Advaita School of
Philosophy. The word vivarta literally means a turning World : Brahman
round, a revolution. It can mean modification791.
Whirling round can sometimes cause an illusion792. serpent : rope
- Vijnana 395
394 Padartha •
26. Karya-karana-bhava 26. Karya-karana-bhava
The food we consume consists of 6 rasa-s. all the Elemental. The attributes such as smell, oiliness,heat etc.
food is ultimately reduced to three elements viz. kapha, nourish, correspondingly, the smell, oiliness, heat etc. of
pitta, and vata. The process of this conversion is detailed the body809.
in Caraka805.
The transformation of the food we consume is thus Anekdntaxada
shown there : the five agni-s bring about transformation of
the five elements of food Different schools of thought have propounded
The food that we eat, made of 5 Elements (bhuta- different world-views. Four key schools have these
s), is broken down into five, or equally, into the respective primary tenets:
properties or attributes (guna)m. This metabolistic School Key Maxim
resolution into the components and componental Sahkhya sarvarh sat
attributes is elucidated in yet another verse808. As Bauddha sarvam asat
Cakrapani clarifies, Elements such as the Earth nourish Jaina/ Patahjala sarvam sadasat
the bodily dosa-s, mala-s, and dhatu-s which are also ViSuddhadvaita sarvam sadasadvilaksanam
Definition
Along with these, two more types are also mentioned of all branches of knowledge820. Happiness and sorrow can
be critically examined and analysed only with the aid of
Action Example anvlksiki, and the ultimate goal is to transcend the pair821.
1 nisiddha-karma n Prohibited Action svarna-steya
upavasa This school analyses everything in the world into 16
2 prayaScitta-karman Expiatory Action
categories and by a principial understanding of the same,
Table 280 : Actions to be Shunned / Actions for one can, it claims, attain the summum bonum822.
Atonement Whereas the Ancient School (pracinanyaya)
focuses on prameya (items to be understood), the Modern
The mimamsasutra-s being with an exploration into
School (navyanyaya) focuses on pramana (methods/means
dharma. For this, they have to depend on the Veda-s, and
of understanding).
set forth principles of interpretation. Each adhikarana sets
forth a maxim of interpretation. The VaiSesika school is propounded by Kanada or
Kanabhaksa. The school is also called AulukyadarSana.
Vedanta (also called uttaramlmamsa) is
The school is called vaiSesika as it lays stress on the
propounded by Badarayana and focuses on the nature of, concept of vtfesa823.
and relationship between, the three primary categories
viz. the world (jagat) the individual self (jiva) and the Lord
of the world(iSvara). The sutra-s of Badarayana provide
the principles of interpreting the Upanisadic passages.
However understanding the Upanisad-s is by no 820 Arthasastra 1.2
means an easy task and a number of schools of Vedanta pradipah sarva-Mstranam upayah sarva-karmanam |
a&rayah sarva-vidyanam kisvad anvlksiki mata 11
provide their own approaches. Of these, Advaita of
821
Sankara, and Vi&istadvaita of Ramanuja lay stress on Kamandakiyamtisara 2.11
perceiving unity. For this, the former negates all else than anviksikyatmavidya syad iksanat sukha-duhkhayoh |
Brahman and asserts that Brahman alone is true, and that Iksamanah taya tattvam harsa-Sokau vyudasyati \
others are illusory. The system of Ramanuja underscores 822 Nydyasutra 1.1
the essential unity but does not deny or ignore the pramana-prameya-sarhSaya-prayojana-drstanta-
triangular relation among the three entities. The other siddhantavayava-tarka-nirnaya-vada-jalpa-vitandd-
schools of Madhva, Vallabha, Nimbarka and others hetvdbhdsa-chala-jdti-nigrahasthdndnarh tattva-jnanan-
consider the relations with differing emphasis. nihSreyasddhigamah \
The Nyaya school is founded by Gotama or 823 Specialisation in these topics is called for : dvitva,
Aksapada. Also called anvlksiki, it is described as the light pakajapaka, vibhaga(ja). As the verse says:
dvitve ca pakajotpattau vibhage ca vibhagaje |
yasya na skhalita buddhih tam vai vai&esikam viduh \ \
402 Padartha -
- Vijhana 403
.
27 Sdstra and Darsana 27. Sastra and Darsana
As against the 16 categories of the Nyaya-school, is no philosophy as clear as Sankhya, there is no practice
this school proposes six categories. A knowledge of these, as effective as Yoga. The Mahabharata itself says this826.
in truth, leads one to liberation824.
Yoga is defined as the regulation or cessation of
The vaiSesika-s were the first to propose the mental activities827. Yoga has 8 limbs (listed in Table 281).
paramanu-s825.
By regulating the body and the breathing, we gain
Sankhya Darfana is propounded by sage Kapila. control over the mind, the goal of Yoga is being
Sankhya is so called because it counts the number of established in one’s self828.
tattva-s as 25. The most reputed text is the Sahkhyasaptati
(known as Sdhkhyakdrika) of ISvarakrsna. The essence of 1 yama
this school is that liberation follows anyatdkhyati or more 2 niyama
fully prakrti-purusdnyatdkhyati. Khyati is knowledge; anyata 3 asana
is ‘being different’. When the purusa realises that he is 4 pranayama
anya, different, from prakrti, he attains freedom from 5 pratyahara
bondage. Bondage consists in the wrong identification by
6 dharana
the purusa of what pertains to prakrti as his own. Hence
7 dhyana
kaivalya, Being Alone, is the goal of Sankhya.
8 samadhi
For this a knowledge of what goes to make this
world is essential. The world is made of 25 tattva-s. The Table 281: 8 Limbs of Yoga
purusa transcends prakrti when he realises the innate
transcendence.
Other darsana-s
The Yoga school is the greatest gift of India to the
world. The ideas of this school are presented in a Bauddha, Jaina, ar.d Carvaka are three other
systematic way in the Yogasutra-s of Patanjali. While there prominent schools of thought. They are grouped together
as nastika-dariana-%. However, Buddhism and Jainism
believe in punarjanma or rebirth, and the world beyond. 1 samyak darsana Right View
The schools and their Founders are shown below: 2 samyak jnana Right Knowledge
3 samyak caritra Right Conduct
Buddhism Gotama, The Buddha
Jainism Vardhamana Mahavlra Table 284 : Jainism : The Right Means
Carvaka Brhaspati Acarya
The philosophy of Jainism is called syadvdda or
Table 282 : Heterodox Systems and their Founders anekantavada where multiple viewpoints are stressed.
The Carvaka system is attributed to Brhaspati. The
Carvaka takes pratyaksa as the only pramana, and hence
Bauddha Darsana
the materialistic stand of the Carvaka. Hence the
acceptance of only 4 bhiita-s, viz. prthvi, ap, tejas, and vayu.
Buddhism does not accept the Vedic authority.
The Buddha claimed he was the 24th Buddha, and that he
started nothing new but only proclaimed the Law Eternal.
The Buddha taught that everything is momentary, that Darsana-s related to Ayurveda
everything led to sorrow, and that Nirvana attained by
desirelessness alone is peace. The various darsana-s have very many overlaps
The disciples of the Buddha developed serious with Ayurveda. The same have been pointed out in
differences and there arose 4 schools of Buddhism. requisite detail in the respective chapters. Here we take a
quick and brief overview of such items.
1 madhyamika
2 yogacara
3 sautrantika Vaisesika and Ayurveda
4 vaibhasika
The paramanu-vada of VaUesika-s is acceptable in
Table 283 : Schools of Buddhism Ayurveda also. We get an explicit reference to the
paramanu-s in the Sarirasthana of Carakasamhita. Says
Jainism was started by Vardhamana Mahavlra, who Caraka - Going by the paramanu count, the limbs of the
too claimed he was the 24,h Tirthankara, thus pointing to a body turn out to be innumerable - as they are just too
long tradition. He emphasised triple means tabulated in many, too subtle, and trans-sensory829. Many ideas on
Table 284.
829 Carakasamhita 4.7.17
sanrdvayavastu paramanu-bhedena aparisahkhyeyah
bhavanti - (a) atibahutvat (b) atisauksmyat (c)
406 Padartha -
- Vijnana 407
.
27 Sastra and Darsana 27. Sastra and Darsana
dravya-s / guna-s / karman-s etc. are common to the two set forth831. The withdrawal of the senses referred to by
disciplines. Caraka is also as per Yoga*32.
The syllogistic method of Nyaya is regularly used in Mimamsa and DharmaSastra go together.
Ayurveda. The very terminology of Causal Relations is Samskara-s mentioned in the texts on DharmaSastra, find
relevant to Ayurveda. The classifications of anumana, and a mention also in Ayurveda. The model of a sacrifice is
more fundamentally of pramana-s in general, have much also invoked in Ayurveda*33.
of overlap with Ayurveda. For Ayurveda examples of
anumana, see Carakasamhita 3.4.8.
Vedanta and Ayurveda
Sankhya and Ayurveda Vedanta and Ayurveda indeed come very close to
each other. The explicit mention of Brahman and
Genesis in Sankhya and Ayurveda have much in paramatman and many allied ideas/concepts figure in
common. The 25 tattva-s are common to both. Explicit Ayurveda: eg. Brahmavid, brahmibhuta etc. The relation to
references to Sankhya philosophers in general obtain in Yoga and moksa tally with Vedantic approach. Seldom
Carakasamhita83°. does a student of Vedanta come across passages in
Ayurvedic texts like Caraka or SuSruta where he/she is
uncomfortable. Ayurveda is indeed considered an upaveda
Yoga and Ayurveda of either Rgveda or Atharvaveda.
or animate are - such as the vegetation or animal products know, asserts SuSruta, multifarious disciplines840. Thus a
that can better our well being or worsen our illness. multi-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary approach leading
to a holistic conception and handling of problems has all
Padarthavijhana is foundational in nature. What is
along been stressed in Ayurveda from times immemorial.
detailed in later/advanced sections assume a knowledge of
the ideas presented under what has been called
Padarthavijnana. Characteristics of medicinal items and
characterisation of medical processes all necessarily Padartha Properties/Number/Types
involve a knowledge of Padarthavijhana. Even the Padartha - concept
definition of health can get technical, and the foundation
for a sound knowledge of Ayurveda has to be based on a The word padartha is usually taken to mean a thing
sound knowledge of Padarthavijnana. in Ayurveda. It is used as a technical term, and has a broad
And finally, the details spelled out in signification.
Padarthavijnana can help an understanding of the holistic Caraka and SuSruta have not missed even the
conception that Ayurveda presents, as items like manas, literal sense of the word viz. the sense of a word841.
buddhi, and atman are also discussed and detailed here.
Technical definitions of padartha are given in texts
“Psychosomatic Approach” may be modern to Modern
such as Tarkadipika, Saptapadarthi and
Medicine; but its ancient roots in Ayurveda becomes
Prasastapadabhasya.
evident by a perusal of Padarthavijnana.
Numerous are the occasions when jhana and
vijhana are together mentioned in Ayurveda. 840 Susrutasamhita 1.4.7
ekam Mstram adhiyano na vidyat tcistra - n itcaya m \
tasmad bahu&mtah Sastrarh vijaniyac cikitsarah |
The combination of theory and practice is thus 841 Susrutasamhita Going by the typical grammatical vigraha-
emphasized throughout. Padarthavijhana provides the vakya (Dissolution of a Compound) style, Susruta gives the
theoretical foundations and logistics of Ayurveda, dissolution aspadasya padayoh padanam vayo’rthah sa
providing a base of conceptual categories and elemental padarthah | In other words, padartha necessarily have to be
classifications and ramifications that all have meet the meaning of ‘a word’ only. Dual and plural senses of
applications - whether in academic analysis or practical pada are also technically admissible and semantically
feasible. Hence he has stated concisely what is usually said
utilities.
in 3 sentoids - (a) padasya arthah , (b) padayoh arthah (c)
It has also been stressed in Ayurveda that a padanam arthah \ A slightly more technical definition in
knowledge of but one field or discipline, howsoever Susrutasamhita isyo’rtho’bhihitah sutrepade va sah
thorough, is by no means sufficient. A doctor ought to padarthah | i.e. the matter expressed in an aphorism or a
word. Cf. Carakasamhita arthah padasya |
846 Tarkasangraha
kiktarh padam \
Table 288 : List of padartha-s as per Gotama Table 291: List of prakrti-vikrti Items
416 Padartha -
- Vijhana 417
27. Sastra and Dariana
27. Stistra and Dariana
5 Motor
Multi-member Group (=3) Organs
manas 1 yak
jnanendriya 5 pani
karmendriya 5 pada
bhutapancaka 5 payu
upastha
Table 292: List of vikrti Items
Table 295: karmendriya-pahcaka
5 Tanmatra-s
Sabda
5 Physical
_rupa_
Materials
sparSa
prthvi
_rasa_
gandha _«£_
tejas
vayu
Table 293: Tanmatra-pancaka
aka&a
Numbered Groups in Ayurveda/Sankhya Unknown.” The most well-known are the 5 bhuta-s, the
intermediary items partially known, and the
No. of Groups avyakta/purusa, the least-known. Hence it is that purusa is
items reckoned with as the last item in the series.
1 3 (i) antahkarana [= manas -1- buddhi +
In Sankhya, it is common to count purusa as the
ahartkara]
25th tattva, whereas in Ayurveda, purusa is called as the
(ii) \vyakta + avyakta + jna]
twenty-fourth850. The grounds for so considering in
2 5 (i) (maha)bhuta (=khadi)
Ayurveda are set forth by Cakrapani. Purusa is indifferent
(ii) tanmatra
(iudaslna). He has been put under avyakta itself (like
(iii) jnanendriya
prakrti), as reckoning an indifferent and subtle principle
(iv) karmendriya
as separate serves no purpose worth the name851.
(v) “ava&istapancaka”
3 6 dhatu-satka [= khadi (-5 bhuta-s)+ purusa] Caraka lists the various organs and their
4 8 astadhatuki prakrti [= 5 bhuta-s + buddhi + functions852.
ahartkara + avyakta]
5 10 indriya (or bahyakarana) [=5 jnanendriya-s+ 5 1 hastau pair of hands grahana- giving/
karmendriya-s 1 dharana taking
6 13 karana [= antahkarana (3) + bahyakarana (10)1 2 padau pair of feet gamana going
7 24 [manas + bahyakarana (10) + bhuta (5) + 3 guda anus visarga excretion
prakrti (8)1 4 upastha genitalia visarga release
8 25 [purusa + prakrti + antahkarana (3) + 5 jihva tongue vak speech
bahyakarana (10) + tanmatra (5) + bhuta (5)1
Table 298: karmendriya-s and their functions
Table 297 : Numbered Groups of tattva-s
He lists the five bhuta-s and their guna-s thus853: Earth khara Roughness
bhu
jala Water drava Liquidity
1 kha Ether §abda sound
anila Wind cala Movement
2 vayu Wind sparSa Touch
tejas Fire usna Heat
3 agrti Fire rupa Form
akaSa Ether apratighata Lack of Impedance
4 up Water rasa taste
5 ksiti Earth gandha smell Table 301: Tactile Attributes of the Elements
(kharadiguna)
Table 299 : Te 5 bhuta-s and their attributes
Actually speaking, aka$a has no tactile information
The Five Elements have 2 types of Qualities
to furnish. The very lack of such information being
(guna)*54
exceptional, is hence taken as its feature. Cakrapani takes
this occasion to lay down a maxim that every indriya
naisargika-guna Natural One each
grasps not only its own natural object, but also the absence
Attribute
of the object856.
bhutdntara- Interposal Importation from the
prave&akrta-guna Attribute Previous Element(s)
Carakasamhita 4.1.27 The sequence is, further, not very important here, as all items are
854
The expressions naisargika and bhutantara-praveiakrta are not handled independently; as against the previous verse where purva
from Caraka here, but Cakrapani thereon. See Ayurvedadipika and purvaguna and para all count as important.
(on Carakasamhita 4.1.27, 28) 856 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 4.1.30)
855 Carakasamhita 4.1.29,30: yad indriyam yad grhnati, tat tasyabhavam api grhnati | Thus the
29 khara-drava-calosnatvam bhu-jalanila-tejasam | eye perceives not only rupa but also rupabhava. And so on. In the
akasasyapratighato drstam lihgarh yathakramam 11 statement of Cakrapani, the first yad refers to indriya and both
30 laksanam sarvamevaitat sparsanendriya-gocaram | are in the Nominative Case. The second yad refers to the object
sparianendriya-vijheyah sparfo hi saviparyayah | | of the indriya and is in the Accusative Case. The first and second
It must be noted here that Caraka has altered the natural tad-s also have the same referents.
sequence of the Elements, as tejas should have preceded vayu. 857 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 4.1.31)
The exigencies of the metre must have compelled him to do so. akaSaparinama eva Sabdah |
424 Padartha -
- Vijhdna ^2i
28. Srsti-prakarana
28. Srsti-prakara na
Table 302 : The Object as the Effect of the Element 1-5 khddi
6 buddhi
7 avyakta
Vyakta and Avyakta 8 ahahkara
Manifest and the Unmanifest Table 303: bhuta-prakrti Items - as in Caraka
Whatever is grasped by the indriya-s is known as
vyakta*5*. What is elsewise is avyakta*59. What is trans- 863 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasarhhita 4.1.60) explains this as
sensory is graspable only via inference860. mahadadikam anityam | and dkaSam api vikararupatayd
anityameva \
The Eternal One is that which cannot be grasped 864 Carakasarhhita 4.1.61
by (or even issues from) something impermanent861. Being avyaktam atma ksetrajhah iaSvato vibhur avyayah \
such, avyakta, the Unmanifest, is Unthinkable862. Not so, 865 Carakasarhhita 4.1.63
khadini-buddhir avyaktam ahahkaras tathastakam \
However we have replaced kha, vdyu, agni, ap & ksiti, which is
what is meant by khddi here, by iabda-tanmatra, sparfa-tanmatra,
rupa-tanmatraf rasa-tanmdtra, & gandha-tanmdtra - for reasons of
clarity. This is as per Ayurvedadipika. And it stands to reason also.
858 Carakasarhhita 4.1.62 What is stated here is also stated as “mahadadyah prakfli-
vya/ctam aindriyikam caiva grhyate yad yad indriyaih | vikftayah saptayy by Kvarakrsna. Caraka has added mulaprakrti to
859 Carakasarhhita 4.1.62 the list of 7 given in Sahkhyakarikd; further, Caraka has used the
ato’nyatpunaravyaktam | word avyakta in lieu of mulaprakrti. Whatever tattva gives rise to
860 Carakasarhhita 4.1.62 another tattva is a prakrti. Cf. tattvantaropadanatvam
lihga-grdhyam atindriyam | prakrtitvam \ | In the nomenclature “bhutaprakrti”, note that the
word bhuta deos not stand for the Five Elements prthivi, ap, tejas,
861 Carakasarhhita 4.1.60
vdyu and aka&a (or stated in the reverse order, kha, vdyu, agni, ap
tadeva bhavad agrahyam | anddi and hetuja are antagonistic.
and ksiti). On the other hand, it stands for all living beings. That is
Cakrapani glosses bhavat as utpattidharmakat | and nityatvam na
why Cakrapani glosses bhutaprakrtih as bhutandm sthavara-
kutaScana bhavat | is paraphrased as nityam hi na kuto’pi bhavati |
jahgamanam prakrtih. Plants and trees are sthavara-bhuta;
The eternal cannot arise from things non-eternal (i.e. from things
animals (the ones capable of movement) are jahgama-bhuta. The
having birth).
862 bhuta-prakrti set is common for all of them, sthavara-bhuta-s and
Carakasarhhita 4.1.60
jahgama-bhuta-s.
tad avyaktam acintyam | Such is mulaprakrti.
- Vijhana 427
426 Padartha -
28. Srsti-prakarana 28. Srsti-prakarana
1 caksus
1 Sabda-tanmatra 2 frotra
2 sparSa-tanmatra 3 ghrdna
3 rupa-tanmatra 4 rasana
4 rasa-tanmatra 5 sparfanaka
5 gandha-tanmatra 6 hasta
6 buddhi 7 pani
7 mulaprakrti 8 guda
8 ahahkara 9 upastha
10 vagindriya
Table 304: Bhuta-prakrti Items - Elucidatory List manas
11
12 Sabda (=sthulakasa)
13 spar$a( =sthula-vayu)
14 rupa(-sthiila-tejas)
Vikara List
15 rasa(=sthula-jala)
The following 16 items are known as vikara-s. Vikrti 16 gandha(=sthiila-prthvi)
and vikara are synonymous866.
Table 306 : vikara Items - Elucidatory List
1-5 buddhindriya
6-10 karmendriya
11 manas
12-16 artha Ksetra List and Ksetrajha
Table 305 : vikara Items - as in Caraka Removing avyakta from the list, we get what is
referred to as the ksetra list867. Actually speaking, we have
to merge the 2 lists - of bhuta-prakrti and vikara, and
delete the avyakta item. Further, avyakta can refer to both
prakrti and purusa as both are Unmanifest. Hence both
will be missed in the ksetra list. See Tables 307 and 308.
866 Carakasamhita 4.1.63
vikaraS caiva soda&a |
Carakasamhita 4.1.64 867 Carakasamhita 4.1.65
buddhindriyani pahcaiva pahca karmendriyani ca | iti kfetram samuddistarh sarvam avyakta-varjitam \
samanaskai ca pahcarthah vikara iti samjnitah 11 Note that there is some difference between the list given here and
Construe 4.1.63 as sodasa vikardh eva = vikara only = vikrti only the list in Bhagavadgitd 13.05 as regards the ksetra.
428 Padartha - Vijhdna 429
28. Srsti-prakarana
28. Srsti-prakarana
11-15
(=$abda + spar^a +rupa +rasa +gandha)
panca karmendriya-s
I
(=vak+pani+pada +payu+upastha) khadi
16-20 panca jnanendriya-s
(=caksus+frotra +ghrana +rasana +sparfanaka)
21 manas Sequence box : Creational Sequence
22 ahankara as per Caraka
23 buddhi
The above may be elucidated in another box.
Table 308 : ksetra Items - Elucidatory List
(given in next page).
prakni
AT
buddhi
f
A
ahahkara
f
t t
indriya tanmatra
t
mahabhuta-s
Another remarkable thing to be noted is the unity Similarly avyakta and pradhana are opposites in
of the individual and cosmic cycles. Thus when the half a dozen ways. Curiously these half a dozen ways are
individual attains liberation, then too the same sequence shared by avyakta and vyakta; and the nine ways are
is followed. shared by avyakta and purusa*73.
It is as long as one is stuck in rajas and tamas that Schematically it may be represented thus.
one undergoes the rotary motion872. For it is this that N otation
ensures prakrti-purusa-samyoga.
V vyakta
A avyakta
P purusa
cause, hence there is no case of its taking refuge purusa is not so. So then purusa has no real
in a cause. sukha or duhkha or moha. It is only a case of
(g) Lihgam superimposition that makes the purusa think
that he has joys or sorrows.
All the vyakta items are insignia of avyakta.
Such is not the case with avyakta. (k )Aviveka
(h) Savayavam The idea of this epithet is not quite clear. ‘Not
able to differentiate one from the other’, and
The vyakta items can conjoin. What was
‘not acting singly’ are the two senses offered by
disjointed can become conjointed. Prthvi and ap Vacaspatimisra. Accordingly neither vyakta nor
can conjoin with buddhi or the further evolutes. avyakta is either discreet or discrete!
This is because they have never been, nor can
they ever be, in fact, disjunct. The relationship (l) Visaya
between avyakta and the further evolutes is one Both vyakta and avyakta are objects of
of tadatmya, [a sort of) consubstantiality. It perception; they are no perceptors themselves.
would be a misnomer to speak of a conjunction
of even sattva, rajas and tamas, for when have (m) Samanyam
they ever been isolated one from the other? Both vyakta and avyakta can be common
objects of experience. Were the evolutes of
(i) Paratantram
prakrti all merely an ‘idea’, and nothing more,
When buddhi needs to evolve ahahkara, it such possibilities cannot be contemplated. The
needs succor from avyakta. This kind of glances of a dancing girl can draw many. A
subordination is never a feature of avyakta. philosophy that would say “All are no more
than notions” -cannot explain situations as of
the dancing girl875.
Shared Features
(n )Acetanam
Coming now to the shared features between vyakta and Both vyakta and avyakta are insentient. This is
cnyakta: directed against the opponent’s imagination
(j) Trigunam that intellect has sentience.
avyakta X
vyakta
u
3
H—> (d) (e) (f) prakaSa-pravrtti-niyama rajas spurs.
3
I § S.S
*Q o
3 •r? 3 ■g c2
3
liS •S? o 878 VacaspatimiSra argues that prityatmakah is studied thus: prltih
^ 3 « 3 > Oh
z (D z-n 3 atma [bhavah] yesarh te - prityatmakah | He summons our own
fH
3 *7^ JO g o o*
'—✓ C/3
W' Oh Oh
experience to vouch for this bhavasvarupata caisam
anubhavasiddha. Were they mere mutual negations, their mutual
r-H (N CO dependency obviates the truth of even one of the two, and can
culminate in an annulment of both.
442 Padartha - Vijhana 443
28. Srsti-prakarana 28. Srsti-prakarana
(a) Anyonyabhibhava-vrtti
When any one of these rises to action, the other
two subdue it; or again one subdues the other
two. When sattva has its role, it overpowers
rajas and tamas, and thereby imparts Santa
vrttim. Similarly rajas would, in its turn, impart S
ro
QJ
3
883 Sahkhyatattvakaumudi (on Sahkhyakdrika 13) Take vrtti (‘action’) 3
H
with all the four action words, vrttih kriya, sa ca pratyekam
abhisambadhyate \
884 Sahkhyatattvakaumudi (on Sankhyakarika 12)
sattvam rajas-tamasi abhibhuya Santam atmano vrttim
pratilabhate |
885 VacaspatimiSra cautions not to take aSraya in a literal sense - of
adharddheya-blidva. He defines dsraya thus-yadapeksaya yasya
kriya, sa tasydsrayah \ If B can function requiring the aid of A,
then A is the afiraya of B.
446 Padartha - 447
Vijhana
28. Srsti-prakarana 28. Srsti-prakarana
The Gita also speaks of these aspects886. The answer lies in the two analogies :
(c) Anyonyajanana-vrtti (a) the analogy of a lamp where the different elements
To say one generates the other is not to say the act towards a single
other was not earlier; nor even to say it is goal890. The wick and the oil are inimical towards
impermanent. An effect concordant with one’s the flame: put a heap of wicks or a gallon of oil on
own nature is what is meant by production887. the flame all of a sudden, the flame will be snuffed
out.
(d )Anyonyamithuna-vrttayah
This means that they always act in conjunction. (b) the analogy of the three ‘humours’ viz. vata, pitta,
They are all mutual companions, and are never and flesman, which, for all their opposite streaks,
to be found one without the others888. act towards a common goal891.
As all the 4 types of actions are constantly at work,
each one of the three guna-s can have multiple behaviours
Analogies
at the same time, after the analogy of a well-endowed
woman892.
The excellent analogy of the lamp is furnished by
Sdhkhyakdrika illustrative of all these multifarious
relationships among the guna-s.
If the guna-s are all mutually antagonistic, is it not
natural, asks Vacaspati, that they destroy each other? He boon to the effect that none could kill them, except themselves
gives the analogy of Sunda and Upasunda who destroyed mutually. And in exactly the same fashion, they destroy each
each other889. other.
890 Sdhkhyakdrika 13
pradipavaccarthato vrttih \
891
Sdhkhyatattvakaumudi (on Sdnkhyakdrika 13)
886 Bhagavadgitd 14.10
(a) yatha vartitaile anala-virodhini, atha ca milite sahanalena rupa-
rajas-tamas cabhibhuya sattvam bhavati bharata \
prakd&a-laksanarin karyam kurutah \
rajah sattvam lamas caiva, tamah sattvam rajas tatha | |
(b) yatha ca vata-pitta-Slesmanah paraspara-virodhinah Sarira-
Sdhkhyatattvakaumudi (on Sdhkhyakdrika 12) dharana-laksana-karyakarinah |
jananarh ca gunanam sadrsarupah parinamah \ 892
Sdhkhyatattvakaumudi (on Sahkhyakarika 13)
ata eva na hetumattvam... napyanityatvam... |
ekaiva stri rupa-yauvana-kula-fda-sampanna
Sdhkhyatattvakaumudi (on Sdnkhyakdrika 12) (a) svaminam sukhakaroti, tat kasya hetoh ? svdminam prati tasyah
anyonya-sahacarah - avinabhavavrttayah - itiyavat \ sukharupa-samudbhavdt
Sankhyatattvakaumudi (on Sdhkhyakdrika 13) (b) sapatnih duhkhdkaroti, tat kasya hetoh ? tah prati tasyah
nanu ete paraspara - vi rod hast hi gunah sundopasundavat duhkharupa-samudbhavat
parasparam dhvamsante - ityeva yuktam ? (c) purusantararh tam avindamanarh saiva mohayati \ tat kasya hetoh ?
Sunda and Upasunda were two demons who sought and got a tam prati tasyah moharupa-samudbhavat |
448 Padartha - - Vijhana 449
28. Srsti-prakarana
lame who can show the path. This serves the purpose of
And again, prakrti wants that purusa should attain
both895.
kaivalya. But that desire will not arise till he has
Similar is the union of prakrti and purusa. undergone the various bhoga-s, which all amount to
VacaspatimiSra pays attention to the syntactical nuances duhkhatraya (viz. adhibhautika, adhidaivika, and
in the verse, without which it can be a little confusing. For, adhyatmika). At first purusa has desires aplenty; but
purusa needs no seeing - i.e. being seen; and prakrti needs getting to know that his indulgences in what are
no kaivalya - i.e. is after all ineligible for the same; an extraneous to him ultimately, the bhoga-s, that is, can only
elementary knowledge of Sanskrit alone cannot help here; lead from misery to misery, even if interspersed here and
it would rather be misleading to construe the phrasal there with some joys, he realizes that his pristine state is
groupings as purusasya darSanartham and pradhanasya one of desirelessness, the state of kaivalya. Prakrti can
kaivalyartham. offer support for either - depending upon his own
maturity or evolution.
(h) purusasya yat kaivalyarh pradhanena saha (a) The cow wants her calf to grow well. Hence does its
sambhinnasya, tadartham \ milk flow. Prakrti wants purusa to be liberated.
Hence flow the impulses of prakrti*96.
To paraphrase and elucidate the two:
(b) When something is new, there is great curiosity
(a) bhogartham evinced towards it. The same however soon dies
(b) kaivalyartham out when its charm is gone. Prakrti offers
895 Sahkhyakarikd 21
896 Sdhkhyakdrika 57
puntsasya darsandrtham kaivalyartham tatha pradhanasya
vatsa-vivrddhi-nimittam ksirasya yatha pravrttir ajhasya |
pahgvandhavad ubhayor api samyogah tatkrtah sargah \ \
pumsa-vimoksa-nimittam tatha pravrttih pradhanasya |
452 Padartha -
- Vijhana 453
29. Prakrti-purusa-sarhyoga
29. Prakrti-purusa-sarhyoga
enjoyments to purusa so that he outgrows However, one often gets a doubt as to the basis of
this idea of rebirth. There are some clues in Ayurveda texts
them897.
regarding an answer to the doubt.
(c) The dancing girl presents herself on the stage.
Audience satisfied, she withdraws. Prakrti
presents herself to purusa in all her attires and Four Evidences
attractions. When he loses his relish for them,
he is no more bound to prakrti, whence the 1. Agama Indication
satisfied prakrti haunts him no more, but just
(a) The Dharmasastra texts of the sages do not
withdraws from him898-
speak of cessation of births in the case of
those whose minds are not yet freed of the
vitiations of mind900.
Punarjanma
2. Pratyaksa Indications
The desires of the purusa are however not easily Caraka gives 14 commonplace recurrences as
quenched in a single lifetime. The countless desires bind indicative of punarjanma, and each one has several
the purusa to the realm of prakrti for long. It is only details too.
suffering, it seems, that imparts maturity to the purusa*99.
(a) Parents having very dissimilar (visadrSa)
kids is an indication.
The backlog of karman or previous actions
have caused this difference : one is ugly,
897 Sankhyakdrikd 58 another, handsome.
autsukya-vinivrttyartham yatha kriyasu pravartate lokah \
pumsasya vimoksartham pravartate tadvad avyaktam \ \ (b) People having similar genesis (tulya-
sambhava) betray numerous particularities
898 Sankhyakdrikd 59 in terms of
rahgasya dariayitva nivartate nartaki yatha nrtyat \
purusasya tathatmanam prakafya vinivartate prakrtih \ \
899 Carakasamhita 1.11.28
na ca anativrtta-sattvadosdnam adosaih apunarbhavah
dharmadvaresu upadisyate | The Sanskrit here is very
delectable, but not transparent to a beginner. Hence some
notes: dharma-dvara = dharmasdstra; adosa = maharsi;
sattvadosa = manodosa = rajas-tamas; punarbhava = 900 Carakasamhita 1.11.30
matapitroh visadjSani apatyani
rebirth.
Padartha - • Vijnana 455
454
29. Prakrti-purusa-samyoga
29. Prakrti-purusa-samyoga
enjoyments to purusa so that he outgrows However, one often gets a doubt as to the basis of
them897. this idea of rebirth. There are some clues in Ayurveda texts
regarding an answer to the doubt.
(c) The dancing girl presents herself on the stage.
Audience satisfied, she withdraws. Prakrti
presents herself to purusa in all her attires and Four Evidences
attractions. When he loses his relish for them,
he is no more bound to prakrti, whence the 1. Agama Indication
satisfied prakrti haunts him no more, but just
(a) The Dharmasastra texts of the sages do not
withdraws from him898.
speak of cessation of births in the case of
those whose minds are not yet freed of the
vitiations of mind900.
Punarjanma
2. Pratyaksa Indications
The desires of the purusa are however not easily Caraka gives 14 commonplace recurrences as
quenched in a single lifetime. The countless desires bind indicative of punarjanma, and each one has several
the purusa to the realm of prakrti for long. It is only
details too.
suffering, it seems, that imparts maturity to the purusa*99.
(a) Parents having very dissimilar (visadrSa)
kids is an indication.
The backlog of karman or previous actions
have caused this difference : one is ugly,
897 Sdhkhyakarikd 58 another, handsome.
autsukya-vinivrttyartham yatha kriyasu pravartate lokah \
purusasya vimoksartham pravartate tadvad avyaktam | | (b) People having similar genesis (tulya-
sambhava) betray numerous particularities
898 Sdhkhyakarikd 59
in terms of
rahgasya darSayitva nivartate nartaki yatha nrtyat \
purusasya tathdtmanarh prakaSya vinivartate prakrtih | |
899 Carakasamhitd 1.11.28
na ca anativrtta-sattvadosanam adosaih apunarbhavah
dharmadvaresu upadifyate | The Sanskrit here is very
delectable, but not transparent to a beginner. Hence some
notes: dharma-dvara = dharmasastra; adosa = maharsi;
sattvadosa = manodosa = rajas-tamas; punarbhava = 900 Carakasamhitd 1.11.30
matapitroh visadjSani apatyani
rebirth.
- Vijnana 455
454 Padartha - 31
29. Prakrti-purusa-samyoga 29. Prakrti-purusa-samyoga
Here is the fruit915 of my own action in a previous sprout from something that does not count
body - action that I cannot escape, that is not for a seed at all920.
nullified (except through experiencing its
consequences), and tracks me through births and is (d) Fruits are commensurate with deeds; “like
' ' . nil
There is also this integrative logic: To conclude, four pramatia-s have been adduced in
order to teach punarbhava or rebirth.
(a) Being born in the womb is a consequence of
the coming together of the 6 dhatu-s,18. Punarbhava has been taught by the great sages of very
very ancient times. They have seen it with their divine
(b) Actions are possible only when the agent eyes923 and only then taught it924. How are the sages
and the instrument come together919. themselves?
(c) Fruits spring from out of only deeds done,
not ones not done: after all there can be no
920 Carakasamhita 1.11.32
krtasya karmanah phalam nakrtasya; nahkurotpattir abijat -
915 Ayurvedadipika(on Carakasamhita 1.11.31) which is to say slavery or mastery, the result, cannot spring
visadr$a - apatyotpada-adiphalam but out of apposite action.
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iv Appendix Appendix V
Paddrtha Vijnana Vol.l by Shastri, Sri Satyanarayana /Samvat 2016
Varanasi/ Pub: Pandcya, K and Pandeya, V
Paddrtha Vijnana by Dvivedi, B K and Dvivedi, L/2007 Varanasi/ Pub:
Chowkhambha Krishnadasa Academy
Paddrtha Vijnana by Narasimhacharyulu, K V L/2009 Varanasi/ Pub:
Chowkhambha Krishnadasa Academy
Paddrtha Vijnana by Mishra, Y C/2007 Varanasi/ Pub: Chowkhambha
Sanskrit Pratishthan
Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali (with com. of Vyasa) (Ed.) Aranya,
Hariharananda (Translation to English by Mukerji, P N)
/1977 Calcutta/ Pub: University of Calcutta
Yoga-System of Patanjali, The (with Yogabhasya of Vedavyasa and
Tattvavaisdradi of Vacaspatimisra thereon) (Ed.) Woods J H
(Indian re-print) 1966 Delhi/ Pub: Motilal Banarsidass
vi Appendix
About I-AIM
I'AIM is a multi-disciplinary research, education and outreach arm of a public
trust called Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions
(FRLHT). In 2008, the FRLHT governing council resolved to subsume
FRLHT initiatives developed during 1993-2008 into an Institute of Ayurveda
and Integrative Medicine (I-AIM) in order to execute a bold strategy to
upscale and diversify FRLHT’s education, research and outreach programs to
demonstrate an innovative Institutional model for the promotion of Ayurveda
for the new millennium. FRLHT - I-AIM is recognized by Department of
Scientific & Industrial Research (DSIR) as a Scientific & Industrial Research
Organization (SIRO). The Ministry of Environment and Forests and the
Ministry of Health have designated it as a National Center of Excellence for
medicinal plants and Ayurveda respectively.
4<o--•
Institute of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine (IAIM)
Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT)
74 /2, Jarakabande Kaval, Post Attur, ViaYelahanka, Bangalore - 560 064
d)cb>HPld:
Karnataka, India.
ISBN: 978-81-908965-9-7
Price (within India) 350/-
Price (Outside India) - US $ 20
v.