MARINE

ECOLOGY

22 Pollution in the Ocean

When you have finished this chapter, you should be able to:

DISCUSS the impact of sewage pollution on aquatic ecosystems.

DESCRIBE the effects of toxic chemicals on marine organisms.

EXPLAIN the importance of clean waters to aquatic life-forms.

DISCUSS the problem of solid wastes in marine ecosystems.

For years the ocean has been used as a dumping ground for the 22.1
disposal of human wastes and garbage. We now find wastes pro- Sewage
duced by industrial societies washing up on remote tropical islands. Pollution
Toxic chemicals have been found in the bodies of ocean animals.
Many people are now aware of the hazards of polluting the water 22.2
and are becoming involved in both local and large-scale efforts to Toxic
clean up the marine environment. Chemicals
This change in attitude and behavior occurred when people
realized that marine pollution can produce harmful effects in living
22.3
things, including humans. Although the ocean is vast and seems Clean, Clear Waters
capable of absorbing great quantities of wastes, it is not unaffected 22.4
by the activities of humans. Fortunately, the ocean is important to Litter in the Water
people—as a source of food, as a place for recreation, and for its
natural beauty. How polluted is the ocean? In this chapter, you will
learn about different kinds of pollution in the marine environment,
and about attempts to protect the ocean and improve its water
quality.

541
 22.1 SEWAGE POLLUTION

Tens of thousands of years ago, people lived in small groups that

traveled from one site to another as they hunted and gathered food.
Garbage and wastes rarely accumulated, since populations were
small and people never settled in one place for too long (and their
wastes were from natural materials that degraded easily). People
were able to move away from the messes they made. As they settled
in more permanent communities, and populations grew, wastes
began to accumulate.

Pollution of Water
Most human populations lived along rivers and coasts. In these
areas, there is access to water, food resources, and trade. Bodies of
water have always been convenient places for people to dispose of
wastes. In pre-industrial times, the water could dilute and wash
away most of the wastes that were dumped into it. However, human
populations along the world’s coasts have increased dramatically.
In the United States, about three-fourths of the population lives
within 80 km of a coast. As a result, there is a greater concentration
of wastes along the coasts, and these wastes may be dumped into
the sea. The quantity and quality of these wastes can, in some
instances, exceed the ocean’s capacity to store or dispose of them
without being damaged.
The natural by-products of living systems are wastes. Marine
organisms certainly produce their share of natural wastes; and,
as you learned in Chapter 21, ecosystems handle these wastes
through the processes of decomposition and nutrient recycling.
However, when people introduce substances into the environ-
ment that harm living things and damage water quality, it results
in the condition known as pollution. The substances that have a
harmful effect are called pollutants. Pollution not only threat-
ens the well-being of other living things but also endangers
human health, since we depend on Earth’s natural resources for
our survival.

542 Marine Ecology

Sewage and Sewage Treatment
Unlike the pristine tropical beach shown in Figure 22-1, many U.S.
beaches are closed periodically because they are contaminated, or
polluted, with sewage. Sewage is made up of the human intestinal
(fecal) wastes that are discharged into our waterways. Water that is
contaminated with sewage poses a serious public health problem.
Such water may contain a variety of harmful microorganisms, or
pathogens, that can cause life-threatening diseases such as typhoid
fever, cholera, dysentery, and hepatitis.
How do we know if the water is contaminated with sewage?
Public health scientists routinely test water samples for fecal coli-
form bacteria. Fecal coliform bacteria, which are present in the large
intestine of humans and normally do not cause disease, are used as
indicators of sewage pollution. The presence of coliform bacteria in
a water sample means that the water has been contaminated by
sewage. If coliform bacteria are present, there is a good chance that
disease-causing bacteria are also present. Usually, water from a har-
bor area has the highest bacterial count because raw sewage is
dumped into many harbors in industrialized or urban areas. Much
less raw sewage is dumped into the waters near public beaches and
fishing areas. (Raw sewage is waste material that has not been
treated; that is, the pollutants have not been removed from it.)

Figure 22-1 An unpol-

luted tropical beach.

Pollution in the Ocean 543

 Escherichia coli (E. coli) is one species of coliform bacteria found
in water samples contaminated with sewage. This rod-shaped uni-
cellular organism, only 1 micron (µm) in length, is too small to be
identified in a water sample. In order to be seen, the E. coli bacteria
have to be grown under suitable conditions until they produce
enough cells to form masses called colonies. A special procedure is
used to culture the coliform bacteria for easy identification. Bacter-
ial growth begins with the division of a single bacterium into two
cells. During a 24-hour incubation period, the cells multiply, pro-
ducing millions of bacteria that form raised colonies. The colonies
are counted and compared with EPA contamination standards to
determine if the water sample is, or is not, in compliance with the
standards.
Contamination of water by sewage can be reduced or even elim-
inated by sewage treatment, a process that helps kill bacteria and
other harmful microorganisms. Sewage is treated in facilities called
sewage-treatment plants. (See Figure 22-2.) Solid litter such as sticks,
rags, and other debris are separated from sewage and trucked to a
landfill or incinerator. Notice the large tanks that treat the incoming
sewage. In some tanks, bacteria are added to digest the fecal wastes.
(Remember, in nature, bacteria help break down organic wastes,
including those produced by people. But the great volume of
human waste that may be poured into an area can overload the nat-
ural ability of the area to deal with it. That is why sewage treatment
is so important.)

Figure 22-2 A sewage-

treatment plant.

544 Marine Ecology

 Figure 22-3 A sewage
effluent pipe along the
shore.

During treatment, the solid part of the sewage settles to the bot-
tom of the tanks, forming what is called sludge (a mixture of water
and solid wastes). The sludge is pumped into tankers and delivered
to other sites for further treatment. For many years, sewage sludge
was dumped at sea, without additional treatment. The sludge often
had a harmful effect on local marine life. Besides organic substances,
sludge may contain harmful chemicals from industry and agricul-
ture. Finally, in 1991, the federal government required that sludge
be recycled. For many centuries, people in rural societies have used
human wastes to fertilize their fields. Today, some sludge, which is
high in organic matter, is converted into fertilizer and sold to farm-
ers for commercial use. The liquid part of the sewage in the tanks is
further treated with chlorine to kill the harmful microorganisms
before it is discharged into waterways. As a result, the liquid dis-
charge, or effluent, contains far fewer pathogens than the raw
sewage that comes into the plant. (See Figure 22-3.)
In big cities, such as New York, there has been an upgrading of
sewage-treatment plants and an improvement in the local water qual-
ity. Yet, from time to time there is a sharp rise in coliform bacteria in
water samples from New York City harbors. The sudden increase in
fecal coliforms coincides with periods of heavy rain. When it rains
heavily, the sewage-treatment plants cannot handle the excess water
that comes in from storm drains in the streets. (In cities, much of the

Pollution in the Ocean 545

Figure 22-4 Coliform 100,000
trends in New York City
waters.

Total coliform bacteria (per mL)

10,000

1,000

100
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

ground is paved over, so much less water can be absorbed by the

ground.) This runoff water and the wastes it contains are diverted and
dumped untreated into local waterways. (See Figure 22-4.)
In southern California, an area prone to water shortages, one
facility has a productive and profitable way of treating sewage. The
purified sewage water is used for irrigation and to grow aquatic
plants and animals, and the leftover sludge is used for landfill. Wet-
lands, such as salt marshes, have the ability to purify polluted water.
As a result, marshes are being explored for their potential to natu-
rally treat sewage. Unfortunately, in many parts of the world,
untreated sewage is dumped directly into the sea—so sewage is still
a major source of pollution in the ocean.

22.1 SECTION REVIEW

1. Why are some waters more polluted than others?
2. How do we determine if water is contaminated with sewage?
3. Describe how a sewage-treatment plant works.

22.2 TOXIC CHEMICALS

In 1962, the American biologist Rachel Carson (1907–1964) pub-

lished a book called Silent Spring, in which she warned about the
increasing dangers of chemical pollutants in our environment. Car-

546 Marine Ecology

son, who was a respected marine scientist and writer, is generally
credited as being the first person to make the public aware of the
dangers of chemical contaminants to wildlife and, ultimately, to
ourselves. Chemicals that are harmful to living things are known as
toxic chemicals. Wastes or by-products from industrial, agricul-
tural, and domestic activities often contain toxic chemicals, which
are pollutants that harm the environment. Carson warned that
unless we cut back on the use of toxic chemicals—especially pesti-
cides, which can poison living things besides insects—we could
wake up to a “silent spring” in which no more birds would be left to
sing. Fortunately, many readers listened to her warning, and there
are ongoing efforts to protect the environment. One chemical
Rachel Carson warned about was DDT. The use of this chemical pro-
vides an important case study about the dangers presented by toxic
chemicals to the environment.

DDT
The toxic chemical DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) is an
insecticide. For more than 20 years in the United States, it was
sprayed on farms, in swamps, and in coastal areas to kill insects
such as mosquitoes. DDT belongs to a group of compounds called
chlorinated hydrocarbons. When DDT enters the marine environ-
ment, the chemical passes through the food chain where it accu-
mulates in ever-greater concentrations, from mosquito larvae to fish
to marine birds.
One marine bird, the California brown pelican, almost became
extinct in the mid-1960s as a result of DDT spraying. Scientists dis-
covered that DDT interfered with the birds’ use of calcium, an
important element in eggshells. DDT caused the pelicans to produce
thin-shelled eggs. Many of the eggs cracked during incubation. As a
result, the pelican population declined. DDT had similarly harmed
other predatory birds, such as the bald eagle, peregrine falcon, and
osprey. Since 1971, however, the U.S. government has banned the
use of DDT, and in recent years we have seen a gradual increase in
the populations of brown pelicans, ospreys, peregrine falcons, and
Figure 22-5 Brown peli-
eagles. (See Figure 22-5.) Unfortunately, the use of DDT is not
cans have made a come-
banned worldwide, and its effects are seen far from the areas in back since DDT was
which it is sprayed. DDT has been found in the fatty tissues of banned.

Pollution in the Ocean 547

 seabirds and marine mammals in the Arctic and the Antarctic, prov-
ing that the chemical can be carried quite far by air and water.

PCBs
Factory sites are usually located near bodies of water. The water is a
convenient place to dispose of chemical wastes produced by the fac-
tories. From 1950 to 1975, a company located along the Hudson
River in upstate New York dumped hundreds of thousands of kilo-
grams of another type of chlorinated hydrocarbon, called PCBs
(polychlorinated biphenyls), into the river. PCBs are used in a vari-
ety of consumer products, including paints and electrical compo-
nents. PCBs were found to cause cancer in laboratory animals and
are suspected of causing cancer and birth defects in humans. The
dangers of PCB contamination are now well documented.
After being discharged into the Hudson River, the PCBs sank to
the bottom, where they remained in the sediment for a long time.
Here they contaminated bottom-dwelling invertebrates. When fish
ate these animals, the PCBs in them entered the food chain. As the
PCBs moved up the food chain, their concentration increased.
Remember that this had also occurred with DDT. The increase in
concentration of a chemical substance, particularly a toxic one, as it
moves up a food chain is called biological magnification, or bio-
magnification for short.
In 1976, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) tested the
Hudson’s striped bass for PCBs, and found the concentration to be 5
parts per million (ppm)—more than twice the permissible limit. As a
result, the commercial fishing of striped bass in the Hudson River
was stopped. Like many other marine organisms that hatch and
develop in brackish water or freshwater, striped bass migrate between
the river (an estuary) and the ocean, forming a link with the marine
ecosystem. This connection is important, because PCBs have been
detected in the tissues of seals, porpoises, and beluga whales.
How has PCB contamination fared in recent years? There is some
good news. First, PCBs are no longer being dumped into the Hudson
River. As a result, PCB levels in striped bass have dropped to less than
2 ppm. Second, now that the level of contamination has dropped,
the striped bass fishing industry can start again in New York. (See the
feature about striped bass and the Hudson River on page 549.)

548 Marine Ecology

 ENVIRONMENT
Swimming with the Fishes

Who would have thought that New Yorkers

would ever be able to have locally caught
striped bass for dinner again? Well, the tide is
finally turning against water pollution in the
Hudson River. For more than two decades, com-
mercial fishing for striped bass has been forbid-
den due to the high levels of cancer-causing
PCBs in river sediments. The latest tests show
that, as result of cleanup efforts, PCB levels are
now low enough to again permit commercial
fishing for “stripers” in the lower Hudson
River.
There is more to this success story—you can
now “swim with the fishes” in the Hudson River.
The construction of new sewage-treatment
plants and the upgrading of other plants have
greatly reduced the levels of pathogenic bacte-
ria in the river. Marathon swims around the
island of Manhattan are now regular events
each summer because the water quality has
improved so dramatically. Also, when you swim,
you will have lots of company. Fishermen have With stripers thriving, water quality
reported record numbers of striped bass in improving, and New Yorkers discovering
some parts of Lower New York Bay. During the first-hand that Manhattan is indeed an island
spring, huge numbers of the adult bass swim city, we are reminded that success stories in
up the Hudson River to spawn. The fish are so the battle against water pollution are possible
numerous in some areas that they bump against when stewardship of the environment is taken
the fishing boats! seriously.

QUESTIONS
1. Why was commercial fishing for striped bass banned in the Hudson?
2. Explain why it is now safe for people to swim in the Hudson River again.
3. Why is a cleaner Hudson River important for the survival of the striped bass?

Pollution in the Ocean 549

 Mercury
Another toxic substance that has been dumped into the marine
environment is the element mercury (Hg). In Minimata Bay, Japan,
from the early 1950s to 1960, more than 100 people developed
tremors, fell into comas, and died. Many more were stricken with a
variety of nervous system ailments that included blindness, loss of
hearing, insanity, and paralysis. Doctors discovered that all victims
had consumed large amounts of local fish and shellfish, so they sus-
pected that the seafood was contaminated. When the seafood was
examined, high levels of mercury were found. The mercury was
traced to a nearby industrial plant that manufactured plastics and
chemicals. The factory’s liquid wastes, which contained mercury,
were being discharged into the bay.
How does mercury get into humans from a contaminated envi-
ronment? Like DDT and PCB, mercury enters the food chain. Wastes
that contain mercury compounds enter the water from industrial
sources. The mercury settles to the ocean bottom, where it is acted
on by bacteria and changed into a form that can be absorbed by
other organisms. First, plankton take up the mercury; then it moves
along the food chain to humans, increasing in concentration (bio-
magnifying) at each step. In the so-called Minamata disease that
occurred in Japan, small fish contained 24 ppm of mercury, while
people had 144 ppm. Doctors found that mercury binds to the pro-
teins in nerve cells. This explains why victims suffered from various
nervous system disorders.
In the 1970s, the chemical plant in Minamata finally stopped
discharging mercury. Unfortunately, as in the Hudson with its
PCBs, the sediments in Minamata Bay were still contaminated with
mercury. The events in Minamata spurred a global investigation
into mercury contamination. Findings showed that fish eaten in
other countries—including the United States—were contaminated
with mercury. In 1972, Congress passed the Clean Water Act,
which required industrial plants to install equipment that prevents
mercury from being released directly into the water. However, mer-
cury can also enter the ocean from factories (such as coal-burning
plants and paint and chemical factories) located inland. Mercury
in their smoke emissions is absorbed by moisture in the atmos-
phere. Winds carry the tainted air over bodies of water, such as

550 Marine Ecology

lakes and oceans. Then rain and snow deposit the mercury into
the ocean.
The U.S. government’s Food and Drug Administration (FDA) set
a limit of no more than 0.5 ppm of mercury in fish. As a result, the
occurrence of mercury poisoning from marine sources has declined
significantly in this country. (By contrast, in the 1960s, some fish
in the Great Lakes had mercury levels between 1 ppm and 2 ppm.)
Not all countries have strict environmental laws, so the mercury lev-
els in some food fish, such as swordfish, often exceeds the maxi-
mum level. Accordingly, the FDA has forbidden the importation of
swordfish from other countries. Swordfish that is sold in this coun-
try comes from U.S. waters. The FDA has also recommended that, in
the case of tuna, consumption be limited to no more than 400
grams (about four servings) per week. Tuna and swordfish are both
large, predatory fish. Since these fish are high on the food chain,
mercury concentrations are biomagnified in their tissues.

Other Heavy Metals

Mercury is classified among a group of elements known as heavy
metals. Other heavy metals, such as lead, cadmium, arsenic,
chromium, copper, nickel, zinc, and tin, are also discharged into the
world’s waterways as a result of industrial processes. Some of these
metals are discharged along with sewage sludge. Although these
metals may occur naturally in the ocean, they pose a problem when
they are present in large amounts. Like mercury, when these metals
accumulate in fish and shellfish, they can harm marine organisms
and present a health risk to people who eat them. The FDA moni-
tors the concentration of such toxic elements in seafood and offers
suggestions about safe levels of consumption.

Oil Pollution
On March 24, 1989, the oil tanker Exxon Valdez hit a reef in Prince
William Sound near Valdez, Alaska, and spilled about 50,000 tons of
crude oil. The oil spill affected marine life in the area. The crude oil
sank to the bottom, covering innumerable shellfish. Seabirds were

Pollution in the Ocean 551

 coated with oil. The birds could not remove the sticky oil from their
feathers, so their feathers could neither insulate them from the cold
nor be used for flight. Thousands of birds froze to death, drowned,
or were poisoned by the oil as they tried to clean themselves. Fish,
too, were covered with oil, which coated their gills and caused the
fish to suffocate. Countless microscopic plankton, on which all
other marine life depends, were killed by the oil.
This oil spill was only one of many spills that have occurred
over the years. The biggest spill occurred in 1978 when the tanker
Amoco Cadiz broke up in stormy weather off the coast of France and
spilled about 200,000 tons of oil into the sea. The oil continued to
leak from the tanker and washed ashore for weeks following the
accident. The damage the spill caused to marine life along a 300-
km stretch of coastline was enormous. As in the case of the Exxon
Valdez, thousands of fish, seabirds, plankton, and bottom-dwelling
invertebrates died. The effect on the marine environment lasted for
several years. Oil remained in the water and sediment, and the catch
of fish in commercial fisheries declined. For millions of years, oil
has been naturally seeping from sediments in parts of the marine
environment. However, the effects of natural seepage are small com-
pared to the impact of a major crude oil spill from a tanker.
In early 1996, the oil tanker Sea Empress ran aground off the
coast of Wales and leaked more than 70,000 tons of oil. Nearly 200
km of coastline were affected, and hundreds of square kilometers of
the sea were declared off-limits to the local fishing industry. In
November 2002, the oil tanker Prestige split in half and sank off the
coast of Spain, spilling at least 10,000 tons of toxic fuel oil into the
stormy North Atlantic. The oil slicks that resulted from the spill
damaged the region’s fishing industry, killed countless seabirds,
soiled more than 250 km of beaches, and harmed the fragile marine
ecosystem. Unfortunately, since more than 1 billion metric tons of
crude oil are transported by tankers each year, other large oil spills at
sea still may occur in the future.
As devastating as these oil spills are to the environment, they
account for only about 20 percent of all oceanic oil pollution. Most
oil pollution originates from what are called nonpoint sources. Unlike
a spill from a tanker, which is a specific point of origin for oil pol-
lution, nonpoint source pollution includes many diffuse sources
of pollution. For example, the discharge of consumer products that
contain oil into sewer systems from homes, businesses, and motor

552 Marine Ecology

vehicles is a major form of nonpoint source oil pollution. Such oil is
not removed during sewage treatment, so it is discharged with the
effluent into our waterways. Nonpoint source pollution is difficult
to correct because it occurs everywhere along the shore, especially in
harbors. Oil leaks out when ships dock and handle oil supplies, and
when ships flush their tanks at sea. The practice of flushing tanks
at sea is illegal, but it still occurs—often at night—because the sea-
water is readily available.
Efforts are underway to reduce oil contamination in the marine
environment. Regulations have been issued that call for the con-
struction of stronger, double-hulled tankers, which are less likely to
spill oil in the event of a collision. The occurrence of oil spills has
been decreasing. Yet slicks and globs of oil still float over the ocean’s
surface. In time, the oil dissipates in the environment because bac-
teria and wave action break it down. In addition, scientists have
identified certain bacteria that break down crude oil. These oil-eat-
ing bacteria are sprayed onto oil spills to try to clean them up before
they damage the marine environment. Scientists found these bacte-
ria to be effective in cleaning up the major oil spills that were caused
during the Persian Gulf War. In spite of those efforts, marine life
still suffered. The large amounts of oil that suddenly enter the ocean
from such spills are usually more than natural processes can handle.

Radioactive Wastes
Another type of pollutant that poses a risk to the health of the marine
environment is radioactive wastes. Radioactive wastes, also called
nuclear wastes, consist of radioactive isotopes, which are atoms of the
same element that differ in their atomic mass. Isotopes are unstable;
that is, they break down, or decay, into smaller atoms of other ele-
ments and emit high-energy rays and particles in the process. Each
element has its own half-life, which is the time it takes for half the
radioactive atoms present to decay into a stable nonradioactive sub-
stance. For some elements, the half-life is very short—less than a day.
For others, it is thousands of years. This means that the radioactive
material will be present for a very long time until it is completely
decayed. Such materials can threaten the well-being of living things.
The high-energy rays and particles that are emitted during decay
can pass through the tissues of organisms. As they do so, they can

Pollution in the Ocean 553

 damage DNA and other molecules. This damage can cause cancer
and genetic mutations. Energy from radioactive reactions is used for
military purposes and to run power plants that produce electricity;
radioactive elements are also used in medical procedures. The
above-ground testing of atomic weapons, which put radioactive
wastes into the atmosphere, has now been banned. However, the
other processes still generate large amounts of radioactive wastes.
For a long time, it was thought that radioactive wastes could be
safely stored on the ocean floor because it was thought to be calm
and barren. We now know that parts of the seafloor are actually very
active—geologically and biologically. Up until 1972, low-level
radioactive wastes were, in fact, placed in metal drums and dumped
hundreds of kilometers off the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Some of
these drums have since washed ashore on the West Coast, while
others have been pulled up in trawl nets from the Atlantic. Perhaps
even more frightening, other drums have rusted, causing the release
of their radioactive elements into the water. Radioactive fish and
invertebrates have been caught in the Pacific Ocean. Obviously,
there is a risk to marine organisms and to the people who eat them.
One radioactive isotope of particular concern is strontium-90,
which competes with calcium for a place in the bones. This element
can enter the marine environment as fallout from weapons tests, in
effluent from industrial wastes, or from leaking drums of wastes in
the ocean. Although we absorb some strontium-90 from normal
background radiation, exposure to it from tainted marine foods
could be dangerous. At present, much less than 1 percent of the
radioactive particles humans receive comes from marine resources.
Fortunately, in 1972, U.S. laws and an international agreement
were passed that prohibited the dumping of high-level radioactive
wastes into the ocean. In addition, clay in the ocean’s sediments
can absorb radioactive particles that are dispersed through the water.
However, there is still a chance that the ocean floor will be used as a
dumpsite for radioactive wastes, if they can be placed far below the
seafloor in geologically stable regions.

Thermal Pollution
Factories and power plants are often located along estuaries so they
can use seawater as a coolant for their machinery. Some plants dis-

554 Marine Ecology

 Figure 22-6 The
Phytoplankton populations
effects of thermal
Green
algae pollution on
Diatoms algae popula-
tions.

Blue-green
bacteria
(algae)

20 25 30 35 40
Temperature (°C)

charge the heated water back into the estuary. This creates a ther-
mal plume, a flow of water with temperatures that are significantly
higher than those of the water it enters. The release into natural
waterways of very warm water—which can adversely affect marine
life—is called thermal pollution. At higher temperatures, the pop-
ulations of microscopic phytoplankton such as diatoms and green
algae decline significantly, while the blue-green bacteria (algae)
greatly increase their population. (See Figure 22-6.)
Large numbers of blue-green bacteria produce foul odors and
toxic substances that are harmful to marine life. Fish avoid the high
temperatures and low oxygen levels of thermal plumes, resulting in
the decline of fish species in such areas. In shallow waters, benthic
invertebrates are not able to escape the thermal shock produced by
higher water temperatures.
Some communities have solved the problem of thermal pollu-
tion by constructing cooling towers at power plants. Others have
built shallow pools on the land to cool the heated water before it is
discharged into an estuary. Recently, some power-plant operators
have used the cooling pools to commercially raise fish and lobsters.

22.2 SECTION REVIEW

1. Explain how mercury in the marine environment is a potential
public health problem.
2. Why is dumping of radioactive wastes on the seafloor generally
considered an unsafe practice?
3. Why is thermal pollution damaging to estuarine ecosystems?

Pollution in the Ocean 555

 22.3 CLEAN, CLEAR WATERS

As you already learned, plants and algae need light in order to carry
on photosynthesis. The amount of light aquatic plants receive
depends on the clarity of the water they are in and the depth of
penetration of the sun’s rays. Clear waters that are not clouded by
suspended particles such as sand or silt, or fouled by an oil slick,
enable greater penetration of light, which marine plants can then
absorb. Likewise, polluted or murky waters decrease the light avail-
able for plants. The measure of the level of clarity or murkiness of
water is called turbidity.

Turbidity
How is water turbidity measured? A simple device called a Secchi
disk, named after the Italian scientist Father Pietro Secchi
(1818–1878), is used to measure the distance light penetrates into
the water. The disk, which has four alternating sections of black and
white, is gradually lowered into the water from a pier or a boat until
the disk can no longer be seen. The depth at which the disk is no
longer visible is defined as the turbidity. A reading of less than 2
meters indicates that the water is very turbid. (See Figure 22-7.)
Cloudy or turbid water can be caused by natural conditions. In
the northern latitudes, where light is less intense and high plankton
populations cloud the waters, visibility is low and turbidity is high.
Rope is In the tropics, where light is much more intense but there are fewer
knotted at
1-meter plankton, you can see more than 30 meters underwater, so turbidity
intervals is low. Other natural conditions, such as stormy weather and strong
ocean currents, can stir up bottom sediments and reduce visibility.
Human activities can also cloud the waters. Sometimes, poor
agricultural practices lead to soil erosion. When soil is blown or
washed off the land, it can enter rivers and streams and eventually
be carried out to sea. Great quantities of eroded soil cloud coastal
Secchi
disk waters and choke aquatic communities such as estuaries and coral
reefs.
During several summers in the late 1980s, the coastal waters off
Figure 22-7 How to use a
Secchi disk to measure
Long Island, New York, turned so cloudy that the condition became
water turbidity. known as brown tide. Marine biologists discovered that the cloudy

556 Marine Ecology

water was caused by an overpopulation of algae, called an algal
bloom. Water turbidity was so high that bathers could hardly see
their hands in front of them while swimming along the beach. The
situation became so bad that, in the summer of 1987, a fish kill
occurred in Hempstead Harbor, Long Island. (See Chapter 4 to
review information on algal blooms, brown tides, and fish kills.)
What caused the algal bloom and the fish kill? Scientists think
that pollution set into motion the chain of events that led to the
fish kill. Effluent that contained sewage and chemical fertilizers
from lawns and farms entered the harbor from the land. Organic
matter in the sewage and fertilizers contained high levels of phos-
phates and nitrates, which caused an algal bloom. The large algae
population used up oxygen and clouded the waters, reducing light
penetration. Other microscopic algae suspended in the water and
eel grass growing on the bottom died from lack of light. Dead plant
matter accumulated on the bottom, where it decayed. During the
process of decay, aerobic bacteria extracted still more oxygen from
the water. The result was a fish kill. Fish breathe by taking oxygen
out of the water through their gills. The fish suffocated because
there wasn’t enough oxygen dissolved in the water.
The discharge of sewage and chemical fertilizers into local
waterways are major factors that contribute to the poor water qual-
ity off Long Island and elsewhere around the country. Greater
efforts are needed to reduce the runoff of nutrient-rich wastes and
fertilizers into rivers and estuaries.

Dissolved Oxygen
In 1976, a major fish kill occurred in the waters between New Jersey
and New York. Scientific tests found that the amount of oxygen dis-
solved in the water was very low. The amount, or concentration, of
oxygen dissolved in water is called the dissolved oxygen (DO).
Depending on its temperature, ocean water has a DO concentration
that ranges from 1 to 12 ppm. On the day of the fish kill, the water
had a DO concentration of only 2 ppm. Scientists concluded that
the fish died of suffocation, because the DO level was below the crit-
ical threshold of 4 ppm, the minimum level of oxygen required for
fish to breathe. This aquatic condition is known as hypoxia, mean-
ing “low oxygen.”

Pollution in the Ocean 557

Figure 22-8 The DO levels 90
have been increasing in Top mean, during summer
the Hudson River. 80 Bottom mean, during summer

Dissolved oxygen (% saturation)

70

60

50

40

30

20

10
1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995

What caused hypoxia in these waters? The low DO levels were

found in an offshore area where the dumping of sludge had occurred
for a number of years. As in the case of the Hempstead Harbor fish
kill mentioned above, bacteria in the sludge were using up oxygen
during the process of decay. The DO levels declined over time and
then fell to 2 ppm. In light of these findings, the U.S. government
and the state of New York agreed to dump sludge farther offshore
and to eliminate ocean dumping entirely by 1993—which they did.
The reduction and elimination of sludge dumping in the ocean
has had a beneficial effect on DO levels in coastal cities such as New
York. Notice, in Figure 22-8, the overall rise in DO mean levels in
the Hudson River since 1925. There is still room for improvement,
and other cities around the country have not fared as well. How-
ever, the construction of new sewage-treatment plants and the
upgrading of older treatment plants will greatly improve the quality
of our local waterways. In addition, projects are being undertaken in
many cities to recycle some of the organically rich sludge for use as
fertilizer.

22.3 SECTION REVIEW

1. What is turbidity? How is it measured?
2. Explain how pollution can cause an algal bloom.
3. Describe how an algal bloom lowers DO levels and leads to a
fish kill.

558 Marine Ecology

 22.4 LITTER IN THE WATER

During the summer of 1988, a tide of solid wastes washed up on the

shore, from Massachusetts to Maryland. Much of the debris con-
sisted of medical wastes, including hypodermic syringes and other
products made of plastic. There was so much garbage in the water
that many beaches had to be closed. The public was frightened and
outraged.
No spot is too remote for seagoing trash. On Ducie Island, an
uninhabited spot in the middle of the South Pacific nearly 500 km
from the nearest inhabited island, scientists have discovered litter
washed up on its beaches. On one occasion, a scientist counted 953
pieces of trash, most of it plastic, along a 2.5-km stretch of beach.
Much of the garbage came from ships, such as cruise ships, that had
routinely dumped their trash overboard.
Litter is solid waste or garbage. Most litter consists of plastic,
glass, and metal—materials that do not undergo natural decay. Lit-
ter that cannot be broken down by natural processes is called non-
biodegradable. A nonbiodegradable waste such as plastic may
remain in the environment for hundreds of years.
Plastic wastes not only are unsightly but often pose a threat to
marine life. Some animals, particularly sea turtles that eat jellyfish,
mistake plastic bags for food. The turtles then die—either of starva-
tion (with plastic bags filling their stomachs) or of suffocation (after
choking on the plastic bags). Carelessly discarded plastic rings from
beverage six-packs trap and choke fish, birds, and other marine life
when the animals swim, or put their heads in, through the rings
and are unable to get them off their bodies. And each year, thou-
sands of fish, seabirds, turtles, and marine mammals die when they
become entangled in plastic gill nets, fishing line, and huge drift
nets that are discarded or lost at sea by fishing vessels.
The United States throws away more trash than does any other
nation in the world. More than 150 million tons of solid wastes, or
refuse, are thrown out each year—nearly 10 million tons of it into
offshore waters. Among the items dumped into the sea are millions
of old cars, along with old boats and military weapons. In addition,
millions of glass, metal, paper, plastic, and plastic foam items are
thrown into the ocean each year. Whereas many of these items may
be harmful to marine life and the environment, sunken cars and

Pollution in the Ocean 559

 Figure 22-9 An old tire
has become part of this
barracuda’s environ-
ment.

ships sometimes serve as artificial reefs that attract fish, which is

good for ocean life and for recreational activities. (See Figure 22-9.)
Approximately 75 percent of all garbage is buried in landfill
sites. But many U.S. cities and states are running out of such spaces
to dump their solid wastes. Landfills are supposed to be constructed
so that waste substances do not leach into the ground and contam-
inate groundwater. In spite of this, some landfills contain hazardous
chemicals that seep through the ground into drinking water sources
and into nearby waterways that are used for swimming and fishing.
The proper disposal of solid wastes is a serious problem because as
the U.S. population increases so too will the amount of garbage it
generates.

Solutions to Pollution
What can communities do to dispose of garbage properly, without
dumping it directly into the ground or the ocean? One method is
incineration, the disposal of solid wastes by combustion. There are
some 200 large incinerators now operating in the United States.
Although the burning of wastes can be used to generate energy, it is
not a perfect solution to waste disposal. Many towns cannot afford
to build an incinerator. In addition, incineration of garbage can pro-
duce air pollutants, especially when plastics are burned.
There are valid environmental and economic concerns about
the disposal of solid wastes in landfills and by incineration. A more
ecologically sound method of handling solid wastes is recycling—the

560 Marine Ecology

disposal of garbage by reusing it or by converting it into useful prod-
ucts. Some of the most commonly recycled items are paper, plastics,
glass, and metal. The incentive of deposit payments for beverage
cans and bottles has greatly diminished the number of such con-
tainers that are discarded. Billions of glass food jars and aluminum
cans are recycled in the United States each year. Incentives for the
recycling of paper have spawned about 2000 wastepaper dealers and
brokers nationwide. Out of an estimated 27 million tons of waste
paper, about 5 million tons have been recycled into packaging prod-
ucts and exported abroad. However, experts believe that recycling
at best will involve only 25 percent of our trash. Hopefully, compa-
nies will use more biodegradable products, and the government will
provide more economic incentives for companies and consumers to
recycle. In Japan, 50 percent of solid wastes are recycled. Citizen
participation in recycling programs is essential if we are to reduce
the amount of litter we produce and discard.

There Ought to Be a Law!

Pollution affects everyone. At best, it is an eyesore; at worst, it pre-
sents a hazard to the environment and to the health of all living
things. Knowing this, many governments, organizations, and indi-
viduals are working to develop solutions to pollution. These efforts
often specifically concern the marine environment.
What have governments done to prevent or reduce marine
litter? In 1973, the International Maritime Organization, an agency
of the United Nations, formed an agreement called MARPOL
(Marine Pollution) that regulates the disposal of hazardous chemi-
cals, sewage, and trash from ships at sea. As of 1992, fifty nations
had signed the MARPOL Treaty, which prohibits the dumping of
plastic trash overboard from ships at sea.

Groups and Organizations Against Pollution

Private industry, nonprofit research groups, environmental groups,
and government organizations are all working to find ways to
prevent and reduce debris in the marine environment. Plastics
manufacturers have introduced photodegradable plastics in some

Pollution in the Ocean 561

 consumer items. These plastics break down over time from the
action of sunlight on the product. Additional work has been done to
increase the feasibility of plastic recycling. The Society of Plastics
Industry, a trade organization of more than 1900 members, is trying
to solve the problem of plastic discarded at sea that breaks down
into pellets. These small pieces of plastic disperse throughout the
ocean and can be harmful to marine animals that eat them.
Federal agencies are also engaged in efforts to reduce marine
debris. The Environmental Protection Agency, National Oceano-
graphic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Coast Guard, Depart-
ment of the Interior, and U.S. Navy have undertaken a cooperative
effort to deal with the problem of garbage in the marine environ-
ment. The EPA and NOAA are cosponsors of the Center for Marine
Conservation. One of their initiatives is the national Beach Cleanup
Campaign, during which volunteers record the types and quanti-
ties of solid wastes that they collect along the shore. Clearly, it is
better to keep a beach free of litter than to risk the health hazards,
damage to wildlife, and high cleanup costs of pollution.
Individuals can make a difference in tackling ocean pollution,
too. By becoming informed about the problem, people can choose
to do a number of constructive things to help protect the marine
environment. They can actively clean up local beaches (or at least
not leave any debris on them that may damage the environment or
threaten marine life); request and purchase products that have less,
or recyclable, packaging on them; and lobby for the passage and
ongoing enforcement of environmental laws. Consumers must be
willing to assume the extra costs that may be involved in more envi-
ronmentally sound manufacturing and recycling processes, because
the costs involved in environmental degradation are much higher.

22.4 SECTION REVIEW

1. Explain why plastic debris is dangerous to marine life.
2. Which method of solid waste disposal is best for protecting the
environment?
3. What products can be reused through recycling of materials?

562 Marine Ecology

 Laboratory Investigation 22
Determining the pH of Water Samples

PROBLEM: How can the pH of various water samples be determined? What is

the pH of ocean water?

SKILL: Using chemical indicators to measure pH levels.

MATERIALS: Tray, loose-leaf paper, red litmus paper, blue litmus paper, pH
hydrion paper (wide range), medicine dropper, ocean water, rainwater, tap
water, pond water.

PROCEDURE

1. Place a piece of loose-leaf paper on your tray. Open the vials containing red
litmus paper and blue litmus paper. Remove four strips of red litmus paper
and four strips of blue litmus paper. Place them on the loose-leaf paper, in
four sets of one blue and one red each. Label each set with the type of water
being tested: ocean, rain, tap, and pond water.

2. Use the medicine dropper to place one drop of each water sample on the
red litmus paper and one drop on the blue litmus paper. Do one water sam-
ple at a time. Observe if there is a color change. Write the color in your copy
of Table 22-1. Repeat for each of the samples.

3. To determine if the water sample is acidic, basic, or neutral, you can use the
following scheme: Red litmus paper stays red in acid, but turns blue in base;
blue litmus paper stays blue in base, but turns red in acid.

TABLE 22-1 TESTING THE pH OF WATER SAMPLES

Sample Red Litmus Blue Litmus Acidic, Basic, or Neutral pH level

Ocean water

Rainwater

Tap water

Pond water

Pollution in the Ocean 563

 4. Litmus paper is useful only for determining whether your water sample is
acidic, basic, or neutral. To find the pH level, you need to use pH hydrion
paper, which comes in a container with a color scale that indicates pH values.

5. Remove four strips of pH paper from the container. Put a drop of water from
the first sample on one strip of pH paper. Compare the color on the strip
with the color scale on the container. Note the pH and record it in Table
22-1. Repeat for the other water samples.

6. Check your results by referring to the following pH scale: 0 to 6 ranges from

very to slightly acidic; 7 is neutral; 8 to 14 ranges from slightly to very basic
(alkaline).

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSES

1. What is the pH of ocean water? Find its location on the pH scale.

2. Briefly describe how you would determine the pH of ocean water.

3. What is the advantage of using pH hydrion paper instead of, or in addition

to, litmus paper?

564 Marine Ecology

 Chapter 22 Review
Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper.

Vocabulary
The following list contains all the boldface terms in this chapter.

biological magnification, effluent, heavy metals, hypoxia,

nonbiodegradable, nonpoint source pollution, pollutants,
pollution, radioactive wastes, sludge, thermal plume, thermal
pollution, toxic chemicals, turbidity

Fill In
Use one of the vocabulary terms listed above to complete each sentence.

1. Litter that cannot be broken down naturally is ____________________.

2. The solid part of the sewage that settles in tanks is ____________________.
3. The measure of water’s level of murkiness is called ____________________.
4. The liquid part of sewage that is discharged is the ____________________.
5. The condition called ____________________ describes a very low DO level.

Think and Write

Use the information in this chapter to respond to these items.

6. Explain why it might be dangerous to eat shellfish that were

gathered near a harbor.
7. How does oil pollution affect marine life? What are some ways
that its effects can be lessened?
8. What conditions can produce a low DO? What is its effect on
aquatic life?

Inquiry
Base your answers to questions 9 through 11 on the data below and on
your knowledge of marine science.
A group of marine science students wanted to know if the water at
their beach was clean enough to swim in. They decided to test the
water for the presence of fecal coliform bacteria to see if the level

Pollution in the Ocean 565

 was in compliance with EPA standards. (See the table below.) The
students used the membrane-filter technique to culture a 10-mL
sample of ocean water. A tap water sample was cultured as a con-
trol. After 24 hours, the Petri dishes were observed for the presence
of fecal coliform colonies. To compare to EPA standards, the stu-
dents counted the number of bacterial colonies in the dish, and
then multiplied by 10 to obtain the number of coliforms that would
be present in 100 mL of ocean water. (See diagram below.)
Culture of fecal coliform
bacteria from ocean water Type of Water EPA Fecal Coliform Standards

Bacterial
Drinking water Zero coliforms allowed
Petri dish colonies
Shellfish water Should not exceed 14 coliforms/100 mL

Swimming water Should not exceed 200 coliforms/100 mL

Harbor water Should not exceed 2000 coliforms/100 mL

9. How many colonies were found in the 10-mL sample? How

many coliforms would be in a 100-mL water sample?
10. Based on the EPA standards, would this ocean water be suit-
able for swimming in? Explain.
11. Would this ocean water be suitable for the harvesting of shell-
fish? Explain why or why not.

Multiple Choice
Choose the response that best completes the statement or answers the
question.

Base your answers to questions 12 and 13 on the

Green
algae graph and on your knowledge of marine science.
Diatoms
12. What would be a suitable title for this
graph? a. The effect of overcrowding on
Blue-green algae populations. b. The effect of salinity
bacteria
(algae)
on algae populations. c. The effect of
temperature change on algae populations.
20 25 30 35 d. The effect of temperature change on
Temperature (°C) zooplankton populations.

566 Marine Ecology

13. Based on the data in the graph, which is an accurate
statement? a. Green algae are best adapted to survive at the
highest temperatures. b. As water temperature increases, the
number of blue-green bacteria decreases. c. As water
temperature increases, the number of diatoms decreases.
d. Green algae are not affected by changes in temperature.
14. Which type of beach litter is biodegradeable? a. plastic
bottles b. soda cans c. nylon fishing line d. pieces of
wood
15. A pollutant that has biomagnified in aquatic food chains is
a. coliform bacteria b. PCBs c. crude oil d. hydrogen
sulfide.
16. A fish kill is most likely to occur in waters where there is
a. a high DO level b. a low DO level c. low turbidity
d. a high mercury content.
17. All of the following are examples of toxic substances except
a. PCBs b. mercury c. DDT d. manganese nodules.
18. The best explanation for why some swordfish have high
mercury levels is that a. they take in water containing
mercury b. they absorb mercury from bottom sediments
c. the mercury moves up the food chain to them d. they
are exposed to atmospheric mercury.
19. Which is the greatest source of oil pollution in the ocean?
a. oil well blow-outs b. nonpoint source pollution c. oil
spills from tankers d. oil refinery accidents
20. The instrument used to measure water turbidity is the
a. Secchi disk b. pH scale c. hydrometer d. barometer.
21. Acid rain is more of a problem in lakes than in the ocean
because a. it rains more on land than at sea b. air
pollution is greater inland than along the coasts c. the
buffering action of the ocean counteracts the acidity
d. ocean currents carry the acids away.
22. The type of pathogen that is used to indicate human sewage
as the source of water pollution is a. blue-green bacteria
b. coliform bacteria c. dinoflagellates d. diatoms.

Pollution in the Ocean 567

 Research/Activity

■ Build a Secchi disk from household items. Work with a team of

classmates to check water turbidity daily, weekly, or during the
tidal cycle, from the safety of a local dock or pier. Record your
results and prepare a graph. You can submit the completed proj-
ect to your school science fair.
■ Identify the types of items you are recycling that may be found
in the marine environment as garbage. Report on their impact
in the ocean in contrast to their use as recycled products.

568 Marine Ecology