Hydraulic Structures
Hydraulic Structures
Hydraulic Structures
Hydraulic Structures
Hydraulic Structures
Table of Contents:
1 GENERALITIES 1
3 SPILLWAYS 13
ENERGY DISSIPATERS 31
6 NAVIGATION LOCKS 39
CONCEPT 39
6.2 TYPES AND CLASSIFICATION 39
6.3 LOCK CYCLE 40
6.4 RELEVANT HYDRAULIC ASPECTS 41
1.2 Introduction
In various textbooks on Hydraulic Structures one can find different contents. That is mainly due to
different perceptions about what the hydraulic structures are. The broadest definition is that: these
are “all structures in contact with water” that would include structures such as bridges, hydraulic
tunnels, docks, coastal and offshore structures etc. However, in this course curriculum is limited
only to hydraulic structures of interest for River Engineering and River Basin Development, and only
those that are not given elsewhere. For instance: dams are given in “Engineering of Dams”, and river
diversion structures in “River Diversions and Headworks”. Most other structures that are not related
to River Engineering and River Basin Development are covered in other Masters Programmes of IHE
especially in Hydraulic Engineering. Therefore, in this course the emphasis is given to structures that
are, in one way or the other, related to Dams like: Outlets, Spillways, Navigation Locks and the like.
Part of these lecture notes will be repeated in “Engineering of Dams” as a reminder, since some of the
structures given here can not be neglected in that course as they are inseparable parts of most of the
dams.
Humankind built hydraulic structures, in different forms, since the earliest days of known history, in
order to solve problems that could not be solved otherwise. Hydraulic structures are as old as
Civilization. There could not be a developed civilization without water management, and if one looks
back, one can see that all major settled civilizations were using water supply systems and irrigation.
At first, small diversion dams were used (there are records about the dam built on the Nile River
before 4000 BC) with water conveyance lines and irrigation networks. The oldest known aqueduct
was built near Nineveh, the capital of Assyria in 703 BC. The first Roman aqueduct was Aqua
Appia opened in 312 BC and it was supplying the city of Rome with water. Well-preserved remains
and remnants of some of those structures can still be seen. Some hydraulic structures as old as 400-
500 years are still in use.
Need, for hydraulic structures in order to solve water management problems is ever present, and it
will not be exhausted in foreseeable future if ever. These lecture notes will provide some references
that may help in proper planning, investigation, design and construction. It is not intended here to
provide a “recipe cook book” but rather basic considerations of major aspects, giving the clue where
1
and how to search for answers to questions that may arise in practice. Even then all the answers will
not be found. To try to find some of them, at least in special non-standard cases, further research may
be required.
1.3 Brief List Of Hydraulic Structures (including those out of the scope of
these lecture notes)
Dams (given in “Engineering of Dams”)
Intakes (partly given here partly elsewhere in the programme of this branch)
Energy Dissipaters: Stilling Basins, Plunge Pools, Flip Buckets, Ski Jumps, Aprons (given
here)
Navigation structures locks, ship-lifts and inclined planes (given here), inland ports
Steel structures like gates, valves, air-vessels, air vents, silt outlets etc. (partly given here)
Diversion work structures diversion dams and weirs, river intakes, settling basins, drop
structures etc. (given in “River Diversions and Headworks”)
Barriers weirs and barrages, bottom withdrawal or Tyrolean intakes (given in “River
Diversions and Headworks”)
Check dams
Earth retaining structures like sheet-piles, retaining walls, gabions, etc. (partly given elsewhere
in the programme)
Piers, jetties, groynes (groins) for river training and/or shore protection. (partly given
elsewhere in the programme)
Other river training structures like sills, cascades etc. . (partly given elsewhere in the programme)
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Bridges, viaducts, aqueducts
Drainage sluices
Irrigation structures
Revetments
Docks
Caissons
Offshore pipelines
Offshore structures
Man-made islands
Even this list is not exhaustive as one can think of even more structures that could be called
“hydraulic”. However, some of them, that are most important for program in River Engineering and
River Basin Development, are dealt with in this course. They are marked above, as well as other
structures that a taught elsewhere in the programme. Most of the others are covered in other two
programmes (branches) of Hydraulic Engineering at IHE.
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SOME IMPORTANT REFERENCES ON HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
A large variety of technical periodicals in a variety of languages with papers on hydraulic structures
(Russian Chertousov, Agroskin and Chugayev, then other books in English, German, Spanish,
Portuguese, Japanese, etc.)
A large variety of other texts (books, periodicals) on subjects related to hydraulic structures.
NOTE: Lists of good references can also be found in the appendices of several publications cited
above.
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2 Collection and Evaluation of Basic Data
In order to carry out reliable engineering activities of hydraulic structures there are major aspects that
could be regarded as basic “INPUT” data that must be carefully studied. Topography and geomorphology,
geology and hydrogeology, meteorology and climate, hydrology and hydraulics are among those. “Raw”
data must be collected, analyzed or investigated, tested and processed in other ways to obtain suitable and
reliable data for further activities. Extent of data collection and processing usually depends upon current
stage of the project. These would be discussed more into detail in the lecture notes and course on Dam
Engineering, but here just a brief list is included as a reminder. Most of those data depend on the purpose of
the structure, whether it is part of more complex structure (Dam or the like) or “stand alone” structure, and
they also depend on stage of the project. In a word: quantity and quality of data depends on the aim of the
present project stage, but they can also be limited by physical availability.
Methods
Aerial surveying (used both for preparation of maps and for different analysis of the area such as:
geological, geo-morphological, topographical, etc.)
Ground surveying (scale maps, ground profiles – sections…)
Different scale maps are used in the course of different phases. They depend upon the phase (of planning,
design or construction), and sometimes upon the importance of the structure. In some cases there may be
limitations in time or in site accessibility (related to technological availability of sophisticated – laser beam
based – surveying instruments in “inaccessible” gorges). Generally, the following are the minimum
requirements for scale maps:
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2.2 Geology
Apart from terrain shape, its geological and geomechanical characteristics should be known and described
in order to determine appropriate foundations and to study available natural construction materials. In
addition, relation of water and geological formations must be studied as well as possible seismo-tectonic
activities.
General – regional geological conditions (both plan view – maps, and elevation – profiles to be presented)
Engineering Geology
Foundation considerations
Rock foundations
Soil foundations
Availability
Quantities
Quality (types – gradation and mineral content, properties and characteristics – shear
strength, permeability, workability, compressibility, penetration resistance). Suitability
for:
Exploration and Investigation methods (both for foundation and construction materials)
Surface explorations
Subsurface explorations
Sampling methods
Logging Explorations
2.3 Hydrogeology
Ground water levels (piezometric stages for different seasons)
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Permeability (porosity, fissures, cracks, joints, faults, caves) and groutability
2.4 Seismology
In areas with higher seismological risk, special design and construction techniques must be applied in order
to meet required safety. For preliminary studies regional data, if any, can be used. However, for feasibility
study and onwards much more detailed seismic studies must be carried out to provide reliable data for
design.
Temperatures
Precipitation
Rainfall
Snow
Humidity
Solar radiation
Basic data – Streamflow records at various locations along the river (preferably at section of interest).
Area correlations
7
Rainfall-runoff models; transformation of precipitation in run-off + routing (SSAR, HEC)
Snowmelt – runoff models; transformation of (Snow + ice) in run-off + routing (DAD, etc.)
2.6.2 Floods
Risks
diversion – N = 1, 2, 3, years
R = 1 - (1 - 1/ TR)N
8
TR 10 20 50 100 1000 10000
N
1 10.0 5.0 2.0
2 19.0 9.7 4.0 Not usual
5 >> 22.7 9.6
10 >> >> 18.3 9.6 1.0 0.1
50 >> 4.9 0.5
100 Not usual >> 9.5 1.0
200 >> 18.1 2.0
(R in % )
Envelope curves for river basins – Myers, Creager, Crippen Qmax = CAn
Observation of floods – flood hydrographs
Statistical distribution – Gummbel, Log. Pearson, other distributions
Empirical methods based on runoff, precipitations, and basin characteristics.
Unit hydrographs techniques
Storm patterns, PMP/PMF techniques.
Usual design procedure – application of several methods. More and more widespread use of PMP/PMF
approach; checked against statistical methods.
PMP/PMF methodology
Divide drainage basin in meteorologically homogeneous sub-basins. Study applicable maximum moisture
content of atmosphere Evaluate worst antecedent condition (soil, moisture, base flow, etc..) Define most
possible storm pattern Route storm in each sub-basin with probable max. precipitation Route through
main channel system Analyze response sensitivity to different data and parameters Compare with
statistical methods.
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Routing through channel system.
Basic equations
Energy equation
y v 2 1 v
S f = S0 - - -
x x 2g g t
Continuity equation
v y y
A + vB +B =q
x x t
Methods
Diffusion method
y
S f = S0 -
x
Kinematic Wave
Sf = So
10
Storage routing
S(t)
I(t)
O(t)
O = f1(S) or S = f2(O)
Muskingum
O2 = O1 + C1 ( I 1 - O1 )+ C 2 ( I 2 - I 1 )
2( t 2 - t 1 )
C1 =
2K( 1 - X) + ( t 2 - t 1 )
2( t 2 - t 1 ) 2 KX
C2 =
2K( 1 - X) + ( t 2 - t 1 )
11
12
3 Spillways
One of the major aspects of dam safety during the operation of the dam is safe release (evacuation) of
excess water (mainly floods) from the reservoir behind the dam itself. The structures that are specially
designed and built to meet this goal are called spillways. Here they are referred to as complete set of
structures needed to convey the excess water from head water to tail water in safest possible way, having in
mind economical and other aspects such as optimized fitting in general lay-out of the dam with its other
auxiliary structures.
Q C 2 2g b H 3 2 C3 b H 3 2
According to shape:
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Sharp-crested NOTCH weir (C1=0.62; C2=0.413; C3=1.83)
Broad Crested (C1=1/3 for abstract case (for optimal practical shape it is about 94% of this, and it
can be taken down to 83% of that in worst case); C2=0.385; C3=1.707)
Practical profile OGEE spillway (C1=0.745 for design head; C2=0.497; C3=2.201). Here the head
measured from the crest is less compared to one from the corresponding notch! Shape (Creager), for
instance, can be expressed as:
0.85
y 0.5 x 1.85 H
For Hmax=1.65Hdesign cavitation occurs and actual head should never exceed this value. For this case C1=0.81.
Control weir (flow measurements, water level maintenance, other regulating functions)
Side channel spillway (spilling from a water body into a side channel spatially varied flow in
channel)
Side weir (Spilling from channel laterally into another channel or basin spatially varied flow in main
channel and on the spillway crest)
Most of them can have free flow or submerged flow, affected from downstream by tailwater conditions.
Control structure – component of spillway providing partial or complete control of discharges – gated or
ungated control structures
Terminal structures – structure at end of spillway providing adequate back flow of discharges to
downstream river channel
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15
Table (and sketch) above represents only major representatives of each group and it allows to make 375
combinations out of which 190 are possible and “only” ca. 65 MEANINGFUL. Considering, say, different
types of stilling basins as separate groups, then D1 could be split into more groups allowing for more
combinations.
Control structures
Straight, curved – B1
Side channel, double side channel – B2
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Drop
Labyrinth crest, orifice – B1, B5
Siphon, Stepped spillway – B4
Conveyance structure
Chute – C3
Conduit
Tunnel – C4, C5
Free fall – C1
Downstream developments
Flood studies
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Floodplain inundation maps
Upstream backwater
Structural safety
Function:
Economic considerations
Selection procedure
a. Determine outflow and surcharge (elevation of storage level) to accommodate design flood
b. Select alternatives
c. Combine components
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e. Select best alternative
d. Flood routing through reservoir, for different spillway alternative dimensions and types
Geometry of crest
Geometry of gates
Energy dissipation
Hydraulic pressures
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Cavitation index:
hv 2
pa / - pv / + h cos +
gr
=
v 2 / 2g
Where:
pa = atmospheric pressure
pv = vapor pressure
g = acceleration of gravity
r = radius of curvature
aeration
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Buckingham theorem:
/geometry \
= surface tension
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3.10 Control Gates
Plane:
Radial:
Tainter
Sector
Flap gates
Operation mechanisms
Cable
Chains
Rough estimation of weight for different type of gates can be done using correlation-derived formulae compiled
by Davis. Values can be used in very preliminary phases of projects and can be considered as slightly
conservative, but nonetheless useful in first assessment of the cost estimate.
W (kg ) 25 L( m )
1.9
H (m)
1.35
Gives the weight of moving part of the gate, while weight of embedded parts like anchorage, sills and steel
plates can be taken as 35% of this (actually varying from 10% to 50% for small and large gates respectively).
Weight of fixed-type hoist can be roughly estimated as W (kg)=300Capacity (tons), where capacity may vary
from 75% to 150% of the gate leaf weight. For traveling type hoists W (kg)=167Capacity (t) 1.33.
W ( kg ) 25.9 L( m )
1.5
H (m)
1.75
Gives the weight of moving part of the gate, while weight of embedded parts like anchorage, sills and steel
plates can be taken as 35% of this (actually varying from 10% to 50% for small and large gates respectively).
Weight of two-drum hoist can be roughly estimated as W (kg)=225Capacity (tons), where capacity may vary
from 120% (for fixed-wheel gates) to 150% (for sliding gates) of the gate leaf weight. Capacity exceeds the
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weight of the gate leaf by 10-20 % for lifting beam and the rest is difference due to friction. For single drum
hoists W (kg)=68Capacity (t).
W (kg ) 55.9 L( m )
1.5
H (m)
1.67
Gives the weight of moving part of the gate, while weight of embedded parts like anchorage, sills and steel
plates can be taken as 20% of cylinder weight. In average loading condition (depending on submergence of the
gate) the weight of the fixed-hoist unit with lifting chains can be taken as 30% of the cylinder weight.
Drum gates:
W ( kg ) 332 L( m ) H ( m )
1.33
Gives the weight of the gate including moving and embedded parts, operating mechanisms and piping.
CS A B
Where: f (W ) 1 ;
1000 2S
A and B = respective lengths of upstream and downstream legs of crane (ft), measured from runway rail to
hoist platform or trolley rails.
For more details on this matter consult “Handbook of Applied Hydraulics” by Davis, fourth edition 1993,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
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4 Outlet Works
As the spillways convey excess water from the reservoir in order to maintain safety of the dam, outlet
works convey required water to fulfill demand(s) downstream such as water supply, irrigation, hydropower,
etc… In other words, outlet works are “responsible for safe delivery of the project’s product” which is
water that should meet demand(s) in terms of both quantity and quality. In many cases outlets are used for
water evacuation, like during flushing operations or reservoir emptying, or can contribute to increase
evacuation capacity during floods.
Irrigation
Flood control
Power generation
River flows
H2
y2
Ha
2 Ha A ydy
T
a 2g
c 1 y
H1
y1
Ha
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c = discharge coefficient (can be assumed constant)
1
c
Here L
f
D
Where f is friction head loss coefficient (can be obtained from Moody diagram or assuming highly developed
turbulent flow for hydraulically rough pipes quadratic region and equating Darcy-Weisbach and Manning’s
formulae for given n f 124.6 n 2 3
D ). For details on this consult lecture-notes “Basic Hydraulics or
chapter 7 of these lecture-notes.
is sum of local head loss coefficients (such as trash rack, intake, bends, contractions, expansions,
branching, etc. – including exit loss coefficient which is equal 1.0 if outflow is to still or slow-flowing water or
air).
Combination of functions
Type of flow
Pressure flow
Combination
2 3 4
1
Gate Cham ber
Intake or Conduit
or
Inlet Channel Intake W aterway
Downstream Gate
Structure Tunnel
Structure
5 6 7
Energy
Chute Outlet Channel
Dissipator
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4.3 Inlet and Outlet Channels
Consideration of following important points
Adequate location
Stabilization of slopes
Adequate operation
Channel lining
Channel stabilization
Traps
4.4 Intakes
Important points
Special functions (for instance, selective withdrawal – multiple level intakes for water supply)
Plane gates:
Slide
Roller
Variations
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Radial gates:
Tainter
Top-seal radial
Valves:
Needle valves, tube valves (Can operate submerged, expensive, unstable for small openings
cavitation)
Butterfly
Howell-Bunger (Cone) up to 250 m of head, A=0.8Apipe, C=0.85-0.9; better dissipation with ring
(fixed large hollow cylinder) placed downstream of the cone ring jet valve C=0.75-0.80
Gate valves
Spherical valves
Structure:
Intake structure
Gate chamber
Lining
Energy dissipation
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Stilling basin (special case impact structure)
Dispersion of jet
No energy dissipation
Aeration
Abrasion:
Scouring:
Lining
Rockfill protection
Structural vibration:
Elastic properties
Vortices:
Anti-vortex devices
Other problems
Back current
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Hydrodynamic loads
Uplift
30
5 Energy Dissipaters
Energy dissipation process can be
considered in 5 separate stages:
1 e
1 Relative head loss: 1 2
2 E
After Novak and Čabelka (1981) for S/H<30 and smooth spillways:
1 1 0.0155S/H
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Impact (phase 3) provides main benefit in energy dissipation
Best results are for “disintegrated” jet, which occurs at distance L 6q1/3 from the crest.
S '0.5 y
L 2 2 H 0 cos( ) sin 2 2 sin
H0
Where
is take-off angle
Flip bucket is special version of the ski-jump usually placed at river bottom. Main parameters are R
(radius) and (take-off) angle.
At low flows bucket acts as stilling basin downstream protection against erosion is necessary
Major concern is to throw the jet as far as possible from the structure.
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Plain or slotted roller buckets (USBR)
Spatial hydraulic jump basins (change in width, change in depth, flow from lateral channels)
q2
E y1 and then second conjugate depth for rectangular basin:
2 g 2 y12
y1 q2
y2 1 1 8 3
2 gy1
Depth of the stilling basin respecting need for certain “submergence” as safety measure:
D = y2 y0
y0 is normal depth in the river downstream of the stilling basin usually obtained for computation from tail
water flow-rating curve.
is submergence coefficient and should be grater than 1.10, i.e., downstream conjugate depth should be
more than 10% submerged. This is stilling the jump surface and preventing cavitation on the apron slab.
As with computation of required depth, available energy for computation of y 1 changes (increases)
computation should be iterated until all values fit.
Length of the stilling basin can be adopted as: L = K (y2 y1), where 4.5 < K < 5.5 for 10 > Fr1 3
respectively.
Above formulae are valid for rectangular basin with horizontal bed. At the end of basin simple end sill can
be provided with slope of 1:3, where the basin length includes this sloped sill. Basin has to be safe for
whole range of discharges (not only the high design flow).
Structural concerns:
Abrasion
Vibration
Cavitation
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Design flow for stilling basin computation need not necessarily be equal to that of the spillway (and/or
outlet). Lower flows can be considered for economical reason, allowing some damage of the basin itself and
just downstream in very exceptional cases. However, spillway structure (or dam) should be designed for
higher flows.
Above there are two examples of USBR stilling basins. Although those types allow shallower and
somewhat shorter basins therefore saving in terms of excavation and sometimes concrete as well, they
have some serious disadvantages compared with simple hydraulic jump stilling basins. Construction of
baffle teeth-blocks requires “filigree” work in terms of reinforcement and formworks. In operation,
however, these types of stilling basins have proven to be vulnerable to devastating cavitation effects partly
induced by teeth themselves. Extensive repair works might be required usually involving use of expensive
epoxy-materials.
No stilling basin can dissipate 100% of the incoming energy. Erosion downstream of stilling basins or flip-
buckets and ski-jumps is to be expected.
Rip-rap
Concrete aprons
Expected erosion (scour depth) can be roughly estimated using Novak’s expression:
1
y0 3
y s 0.556 H * q 05
0.25
d y
0
90
Where
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Y0 is tailwater depth
Required length of downstream riprap (or apron) bed protection for low head structures after US War
Department:
3
1.435H o v 4 3
L , Ho = H+S (available energy see figure at the beginning of the chapter), yd =
yd
tail water depth, and v is tail water velocity. (This formula gives rather high values)
Scour of (in the) plunge pools can be expressed in general by equation of Locher & Hsu:
y
Cq x H 8 w
ys y0
dz
C = coefficient 0.65<C<4.7
x, y, w, z = exponents
0.5 < x < 067; 0.1 < y < 0.5; 0 < z < 0.3; 0 < w < 0.1
Neglecting the impact angle and elevation of the take-off, as well as composition of the riverbed can be
criticized. However, for most cases, according to experiments, major influence on scour hole is by unit
discharge, and then by total available head (which also represents jet’s velocity). In Russian practice
(Zamarin’s formula) more emphasis is given to position of the out-coming jet, angle of impact, jet’s velocity
and allowable velocity (the one that will not cause any scour which might be difficult to determine in
practice). Still major influence is by q in this formula as well.
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After flip bucket
y s 6 y cr tan 1
1 = upstream angle of the scour hole as a function of flip bucket exit angle
One has to be aware that all these formulae can just give an idea about possible location and order of
magnitude of the scour hole, so that necessary precaution measures can be foreseen. They might be useful
in comparison of different alternatives showing differences taking into account equal assumptions.
Aeration and dispersion of the jet above tail water, by means of gates or valves (e.g., hollow jet).
Reduction of specific discharge as it enters the stilling basin (gradual expansion, and/or deflectors).
Sudden expansion energy dissipaters possible cavitation effects that should be drifted away from the
boundaries of the structure.
By
direct impact of the jet against the wall or in the vertical stilling wells (for small-capacity outlets).
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Example of Spillway, Outlet Works and Stilling Basins (at Friant dam, USA):
37
Example of Spillway, Outlet Works and Stilling Basins (at Friant dam, USA)
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6 Navigation Locks
6.1 Concept
Navigation locks are hydraulic structures that are provided
to allow navigable connection between two water bodies
having different water levels. In this way concentrated
heads on canalized rivers and canals are usually overcome.
They normally appear in association with dams or similar
structures in natural streams or man-made channels.
Inclined planes
Ship elevators
In recent navigation practice, associated with current transportation requirements, most of the navigation
locks are of chamber type. Navigation locks of this type make it possible for ships to move from one part
(level) to the other by the operation of movable elements (gates, valves). These structures usually include
heads (at the ends) equipped with gates, and chamber(s) that can contain ships to be locked through. There
are filling (emptying) systems as well equipped by valves. Water level in the chamber is increased or
decreased to match upstream or downstream levels. Usual dimensions of chamber are in following range:
Width - up to 35 m
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With the chamber empty, opening of downstream gate
Entry of vessel in the chamber, mooring (securing) and closure of downstream gate
Filling of the lock chamber
Opening of upstream gate and exit of the vessel
This is followed by descending operation (from upper level to lower level).
A complete cycle usually requires from 20 min to 2 hrs, depending on the chamber dimensions and lift
height.
The lock operation uses water! In each cycle the equivalent of the chamber useful volume is conveyed
towards downstream.
Figure 1
The lower gates are closed; the drain valve is closed; the filling valve is open allowing the lock chamber to fill to the upper
level; and the upper gates have been opened allowing the towboat to enter the lock chambers.
Figure 2
Now the towboat is in the lock chamber; the upper gates and the filling valve are closed; and the drain valve is open allowing
water to drain out into the lower level. The towboat is lowered as the water level lowers.
Figure 3
When the water level reaches the lower level, the lower gates are opened allowing the towboat to leave the lock chamber and
proceed on down the river to the next lock and dam where it will go through the same procedure.
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Filling time:
Qdt ca 2 gh dt Adh
A is lock area in plan; a is filling system area (valve); c is outlet coefficient (function of time, but could be
taken as constant; h is head (difference in water levels); H is total lock’s head.
T1
2 AT1
tdt ca
0 2g
H hT1
4A H hT1
T1
ca 2 g
2 A hT1 T1 2 A H
And total filling time: T T1
ca 2 g 2 ca 2 g
2 A1 A2 H
T
A1 A2 ca 2g
A H
T
ca 2 g
If the opening is gradual but not linear, step method has to be used:
t
2A
hi 1 hi
ca 2 g
for adopted t hi can be computed and from there discharge as well Qi ca i 2 ghi
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Thrift locks (saving water, but expensive and slower, heads up to 30 m)
Lifts (up to 100 m in length, low water usage, high travelling speed – relatively high capacity)
Inclined planes (as above but trough is mounted on special leveling undercarriage which travels
along or normal to trough’s axis)
Usually boat is settled at the bottom of the trough by releasing some water prior to lifting operation.
Acceleration and deceleration during operation must be kept within acceptable limits. Lifts (vertical or
inclined) are more prone to damages and are more sensitive in operation than standard locks. They are
usually more expensive to build and maintain. Their capacity per lifting operation is much lower.
Nevertheless, if high head is to be overcome, alternative between single lift and multi-step locks should be
compared, and the former might have advantages (especially if the space is limited).
Example of part of the Navigation notice NO. 11997 (February 1997), from Ohio River
Division, North Central Division, Lower Mississippi Valley Division, regarding safety of navigation:
“SAFETY
1. Commercial and recreational craft shall use the locks at all
times except for navigable pass dams, and authorized fixed weir
passages.
2. Vessels shall not pass under gates in the dam when they are
out of the water and the river is flowing freely through the gate
opening.
3. Lockage of leaking or listing vessels may be refused.
Leaking or listing vessels shall be moored in a location outside
of the channel so as not to interfere with passing navigation.
4. All craft and tows approaching a lock, within a distance of
200 feet of the upper or lower lock gate, shall proceed at a
speed not greater than two miles per hour (rate of a slow walk).
5. All tows entering the lock shall be properly aligned with
the guide or lock wall. Tows may be required to stop prior to
entering certain locks at which unusual conditions exist.
6. When an amber flashing light is displayed and approval is
given by lock personnel, a descending or ascending vessel may
approach and moor with a backing line to the guide wall;
however, the head of the tow shall be no closer than 100 feet
from the near end of the lock gate recess.
7. Burning fenders shall be dropped overboard immediately
rather than being placed on the deck of a barge or towboat.
Fenders shall not be secured to cleats or timberhead and left
unattended.
8. When tows are underway in the lock approaches or lock
chamber and there is a potential for damage to the structure a
minimum of two deckhands with fenders shall be stationed at the
head end of every tow 100 feet or greater in width. One deckhand
with a fender shall be required at the head end of tows less than
100 feet in width. Additional personnel shall be required at the
aft end if the lock operator determines that it is necessary to
protect the lock and guide walls from damage.
9. It is the responsibility of the vessel operator to provide
42
adequate mooring lines. The lock operator may require mooring
lines to be replaced with satisfactory lines before lockage is
made if the lines appear to be of such quality, size, or
condition that would make safe lockage questionable.
10. Mates and deckhands, when preparing to moor within the lock
chambers, shall not throw heavy mooring lines onto the walls, but
shall wait for a heaving line.
11. All towboat crews, while locking or moving a tow into or out
of a lock chamber, must station themselves to preclude the
possibility of being injured by the parting of a cable or line
under strain. Single lines only will be used to check a moving
tow. During inclement weather conditions (snow and ice) the
working area of the tow where lines are used shall be free of
snow and ice to prevent injury to towing industry personnel.
Working lines shall be kept dry and in working condition (not
frozen) to allow lines to be worked properly and to prevent
injury to personnel.
12. Towboat crew members shall not jump between moving tows and
lock or guide walls while preparing for lockage, locking, or
departing lock. Use of lockwall ladder ways is permitted
only after tows are securely moored and the chamber is at upper
pool.
13. Tabulated below are the minimum number of vessel personnel
required for handling lines during lockages. The captain/pilot
can not act as a deckhand.
TYPE OF VESSEL MINIMUM MINIMUM MINIMUM
OR TOW NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF
PERSONNEL LINES USED EMERGENCY
USE LINES
Towboats with up to 1 1 1
one barge length and
all other vessels less
than 65 feet
All other vessels requiring 2 2 1
single lockage
Tows requiring double 3 2 1
lockage (one deckhand
to remain with first cut)
Setover tows 3 2 1
Knockout tows 2 2 1
14. All vessels, when in the locks, shall be moored and/or moved
as directed by the lock operator.
15. Commercial towing companies shall ensure that vessel
operators and boat crew members have received orientation and
training in all aspects of deck work and lockage procedures to
ensure the safety of personnel, floating plant, and structures.
16. All cylinders or containers holding gases or liquids under
pressure or any other chemical or substance shall be securely
fastened to the hull of the vessel to prevent their rolling
overboard into the lock chamber.
17. All containers holding paint, gasoline, or other volatile
materials shall be securely fastened with tight fitting covers.”
43
Other Instructions and data (such as operational aspects, etc.) are usually given in this kind of notices.
44
7 Pumping Stations and Pipeline Conveyance
Most large pumping stations pump water from open surface sources (rivers, lakes, canals, and basins,
i.e., sumps).
Usage:
Dewatering (drainage) behind a dike, or cofferdam
Lowering a water table (or groundwater table)
Pumping sewage or storm water (or sewer) flow to treatment plants
In water supply networks to supply to higher elevations, or (booster pumps) to boost pressure
heads
In Pump-Storage Hydropower schemes reversible pump-turbine units are used. In the past separate
units, for pumping and generation, were more common.
Abstraction from boreholes (or wells)
Different uses and purposes usually require different pumps. Common types of pumps are:
45
… CONTINUED
Most common pump type is centrifugal rotodynamic. Most important parameter that characterizes this
sort of pumps is specific speed of rotation:
Q
Ns N
H54
Where Q is discharge (l/s), H is manometric head (m) and N is the rotational speed (rpm).
Manometric head is gross head that includes difference in elevation of water levels in the sump and upper
basin plus head losses in suction part of the conveyance (from sump to the pump) and in distribution part
of the conveyance (from the pump on). Pump has to develop even higher head to overcome the impeller
(in)efficiency p. H = Hm / p
QH m
P 9.81 [in kW]
For clean water and Hm (m), Q(m3/s), and =pmt<1.0 (overall efficiency including pump, motor and
transformer if needed).
Mostly pumps operate under varying conditions of discharge and head. Then:
46
Pumps can be operated in “parallel” or in “series”. Later must be operated simultaneously. Pump with
impellers in series is called multistage or booster pump.
Pressure at the pump impeller inlet (p s) is usually below atmospheric pressure (p a). From Bernoulli’s
equation between the sump and this section:
Here Hs is position of the pump (above sump water level), Hs is head loss in suction pipe, and v s is flow
velocity there.
If ps < pv (vapor pressure) cavitation occurs. This can be dealt with by increasing intake and pipe dimension
(decreasing losses and velocity) and by limiting suction head (pump position):
( p a pv ) v2
hs H s s
g 2g
( pa pv ) v2
Net positive suction head (NPSH): NPSH hs H s s
g 2g
NPSH values are supplied by pump manufacturers. Nss (suction specific speed) is:
Most pumps, placed above water level, need priming (air must be expelled prior to pumping).
47
7.1.3 Design and Selection of Pump, Sump and Mains
To optimize the pipeline diameter for given pump, or to select a pump for given pipeline diameter a graph
H
pump characteristic
system
characteristics
efficiency
like this should be used. Pump characteristic and efficiency is obtained from manufacturer. System
characteristics are obtained for different pipelines by adding head losses to static head. Optimization in
economic terms is possible taking into account desired maximum flow rate and most frequent one. Note
that reasonable operating range of selected pump is relatively limited.
In case of considerable variations of levels or demands, or if the pipeline is expected to change roughness or
cross section (clogging) with time, additional care should be taken in order to select proper equipment.
In this course most important pumping installations are those for water supply. Common intakes for this
kind of installations can be:
Horizontal belmouth entry type from the water body (river, sump)
Vertical, horizontal or turned-down intakes in dry or wet wells. These can be separate for each pump
(single-pump) or combined for multiple pumps.
Approach velocity should be kept below 0.3 m/s, avoiding sudden or abrupt expansions and large
stagnant zones.
Vortex suppression devices could be applied (floating rafts, curtain walls, grating cages, etc)
48
Belmouth intake provides good inflow conditions and minimizes the entrance losses. Minimum
submergence of the intake should be:
h v
ab
d gd
Minimum sump volume depends on pumping flow rate, number of units and frequency of start-ups of the
pups. The later must be limited since in each start-up operation electric motor generates considerable heat.
Most pumping stations (especially sewage and storm-water) need to be provided with bar screens (trash
racks) to prevent larger objects from entering the sump. For this purpose usually steel bars spaced at ca.
30mm, and blocking about 40% of the area, are used. They are often inclined 6090o to horizontal. Head
loss of at least 0.15 m should be accounted for. To diminish turbulence they should not be placed too close
to the pump. Anti-swirling devices may be required.
av0
H
g
1 10 4
a
1 D D
50 k
K eE e
For steel E201010 N/m2, k=0.5; D is pipeline diameter, e is pipe wall thickness.
For other materials: k=1 (cast iron), k=5 (concrete, lead), k=10 (wood)
Opening or closure is considered to be quick if it’s shorter than time needed for pressure wave to travel to
the upper reservoir and back (0T, =2L/a).
Lv 0
If the opening or closure takes longer than pressure change is diminished: H 2 . If along the
gT
pipeline cross section changes, each change generates transmission and reflection pressure waves that
49
superimpose with original ones and affect the results. For branching or looping networks these must be
taken into account, and computation becomes rather more complicated. In pumping stations it is often
difficult to control times of opening and (especially) closure. Thus different measures can be applied to
control the drop/rise of head:
Flywheels if coupled with the pump they provide additional inertia so that pump rotates a while after
power cut occurs. Suitable for small installations.
Bypasses and pressure relief valves Bypass with non-return valve “sucks” part of the original flow
mitigating the negative effects of sudden stoppage. Pressure release valves and air inlet valves could be
provided in the pipeline as addition or alternatively.
Surge tanks and air vessels have to be placed as close to the pump(s) as possible. Therefore, often it
is not practicable to use open surge tanks (for they would require enormous heights). Rather, close air
vessels with air compressors are more commonly used. They “convert” (or limit in space) more severe
waterhammer effects to milder (and longer) surge (mass oscillation) effects.
Air vessels serve both for sudden opening and closure. A check valve should be provided between the pump
and air vessel. Predetermined extreme levels in the air vessel trigger the compressed air delivery.
Neglecting head losses, simplified solution for sudden complete closure (in terms of head change) is:
LH 0 gAH 0
H H 0 Q0 sin t
gAV 0 LV
0
LH 0
H min H 0 Q0
gAV 0
Vmax1.2Hmin=V01.2H0
2
T
gAH 0
LV 0
Including losses in the pipeline and (entrance into/exit from) the air vessel, computation gets somewhat
more complicated and is usually solved by finite difference equation or by using design graphs for given (or
assumed) head losses. For pipelines with changing diameters equivalent length (one diameter length that
would have same head losses as original pipe) can be used in simplified computations.
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7.2 Pipelines
Pipelines are used for water or sewer conveyance usually under pressure, but also with free flow. They can
be made of various materials such as: Steel, cast iron, concrete, wood (obsolete), vitrified clay (obsolete),
asbestos cement (recently considered environmentally dangerous), plastic materials (PVC) and other
materials for special purposes (brass, copper, lead, glass, rubber, etc.).
7.2.1 Hydraulics
Basic hydraulic problems for steady flow through pipelines can be solved by 2 formulae:
H is the sum of head losses between sections of interest. They include linear friction losses along the
pipe and local or “minor” losses (in bends, elbows, joints, valves, contractions, expansions, etc.).
Numerous formulae are available to compute linear friction losses. Probably the most universally used is
L v2
Darcy-Weisbach formula: H f f (in USA practice Hazen-Williams’ expression is more
D 2g
commonly used)
Here f is Darcy’s friction coefficient. Different researchers have determined its value in the past. There are
various experimentally obtained expressions used to determine f.
There are different flow regimes possible in the pipes, dependent on Reynolds number:
Re = vD/or ReR = vR/ R = D/4 is Hydraulic radius of the pipe. is kinematic coefficient of fluid’s
viscosity (for water: t = 20o = 1.01x10-6m2/s, and t = 10o = 1.3x10-6m2/s)
For Re<2320 there is laminar flow regime in the pipe, and then Darcy’s coefficient is:
64 16
f
Re Re R
Among many used formulae (like Nikuradze, Prandtl-Karman, etc.) Colebrook’s formula is given
here as probably the most practical:
1 Re
1.8 log
f 7
51
Transition turbulent flow (27[D/ < Re < 21.6 CD/, where C is Chezy coefficient = [8g/f])
1 2.51
2 log
f 3. 7 D
Re f
For even higher values of Re f = f() and does not depend on Re itself anymore (quadratic region of
flow resistance). Then for instance Nikuradze’s formula can be used:
0.25
f
log 3.715 D 2
For all regions with limited accuracy ( 5%) for /D<0.01 and f<0.05, Moody’s formula can be used:
f 5.5 10 3 1 3 2 10 4 D 10 6 Re
Material and the state of pipe (10-3m)
Concrete – rough 1-3
Concrete – smooth 0.3-0.8
Steel (welded) – new 0.04-0.1
Steel (welded) – used, stained, incrusted 0.15-1.5
Cast iron 0.25-1.5 (4)
More detailed list can be obtained from different handbooks. As most practical problems in hydraulic (civil)
engineering occur in the region of quadratic resistance (full turbulence), even manning formula could be
applied with reasonable accuracy. Then better known values for n can be used and/or converted to f. As
given before for this case: f 124.6 n 2 3
D
Minor or local losses are calculated based on experience and experiments. Some coefficients to
calculate local losses are given here:
Entrance: sharp – =0.5, rounded – =0.2, bell-mouth – =0.05, pipe sticking into reservoir – =1
2
D
2
Sudden expansion: 1 1 in regard to in-flowing velocity. If expansion is gradual then
D2
this coefficient would be diminished (by multiplier k<1) depending on the angle of expansion (for
5o – k=0.13, 15o – k=0.27, 25o – k=0.62…)
1 D
Sudden contraction: 1 2 , (based on out-flowing velocity) for gradual contraction
2 D1
coefficient would depend on angle and ratio of diameters.
52
3.5
Elbow: 0.1
L D
or 0.13 1.85 D where L is arc length, R is bend
R R 90 o 2 R
radius, D is pipe diameter, and is deflection angle of the curve.
Valves and gates: if open 0.05<<0.2 (0.10-0.12) depending on the type and condition. For
different closures values could be found in handbooks, but accurate ones only from manufacturers.
For gravity flow conditions in pipeline conveyance systems, Manning’s interpretation of Chezy equation
gives good results. Maximum flow capacity is where hydraulic radius is max. i.e., for profile ca 94% full.
However, if there is any miscalculation or difference in roughness (or if pipeline is not fitting into project
line or if there was abrasion or deposition…) then flow capacity calculated for max. conveyance would be
overestimated. It is more reasonable to limit maximum filling of the pipe (up)to ca 81%. At this point
conveyance of the gravity flow equals that of full cross section (100% – without pressure)
7.2.2 Loads
Internal pressures
Temperature loads (for open-air pipelines due to tendency of shrinkage and extension)
53
provision for corrosion and abrasion losses of the mass during operation). Such dimensions should be
checked if can withstand other loads, and adjusted if necessary.
Usually temperature induced loads should be alleviated using deformable coupling elements (expansion
joints) that can accommodate resulting deformations. Due to temperature changes pipe would tend to
expand (contract) between two fixed points (anchor blocks) depending on temperature difference between
particular moment and ambient temperature during pipe placement. Temperature linear expansion
coefficient is (m/moC). For steel it is about 12x10-6. Without anchors, extension of the pipe’s length would
be: L = Ltt. If expansion is disabled by anchor blocks reacting stress would develop:
= EL/L, E is modulus of elasticity of material (for steel 20 x1010 Pa). These stresses and resulting forces
can be unacceptable, and to diminish them special pipeline construction arrangements can be introduced –
either expansion joints or harp-shaped pipeline deformable parts.
For free surface or low-pressure pipes loads caused by burying, backfill and surcharge are more important.
The plate thickness required to resist buckling under uniform external pressure is approximately:
6
e 1.6 D 3 p
E
Own weight of the pipe and water in it must be taken into account for calculation of the forces acting on
supports and anchor blocks. Friction, inertial, deflection (centrifugal) and other effects must be accounted
for. Other loading conditions are going to be discussed more in the course Hydropower development.
Buried pipes:
Advantages – Keep water temperature pretty constant and protect from freezing; Ambient
temperatures do not impose extra loads (savings on expansion joints); Once placed they do not
consume extra space; Frequent anti-corrosion painting not needed…
Open pipes:
54
Disadvantages –water temperature affected by ambient and no protection from freezing; Ambient
temperatures impose severe extra loads (expensive expansion joints); They occupy a lot of valuable
space; Frequent anti-corrosion painting needed; Anchor blocks and numerous supports.
Economic considerations
Importance of optimized layout. Several alternatives should be compared. Saving in length and
diameter/wall thickness (as well as pumping facilities)
Selection of economic conduit size (Pumping stations, HPP, etc.). In case when plenty of head is
available (no pumping needed, or no HPP foreseen/feasible) then consideration of minimum diameter –
max. allowable velocity.
In terms of materials for the pipes in hydraulic construction (larger scale) most common are steel and
concrete. Asbestos-cement introduced after the other two, seemed to be promising due to its favorable
properties (durability, ease of placement, etc.), but lately it is suspected to be responsible for potentially
causing cancer, and is no longer considered environment-friendly material.
Steel pipes are mostly welded nowadays, though other types of joints are still used. They are relatively
expensive and require protection (and maintenance) against corrosion. Otherwise, they are comparatively
easy to handle, they can stand extreme pressure and tension stresses, easy to make fittings, joints, branches,
expansions, contractions, bends, and whatever else needed.
Concrete pipes are relatively inexpensive in terms of material. However, they are very difficult to handle
(for large diameters they become very heavy – if prefabricated for howling reasons they have to come in
short rings – too many difficult joins – leakage possibilities – in addition chance to divert from desired
route in “zigzag” fashion is high, therefore affecting roughness and length of the pipe and thus its
conveyance capability. They require precise and well-done bedding, and gentle placement of the backfill
due to their brittle nature. Still, in certain range of diameters (say 0.5-2.5 m), and for low to medium inner
pressures, they can prove to be good competitors, and often far cheaper than steel alternatives.
If free gravity flow is required then they basically (up to reasonable extent) “follow” contour lines. In this
case length of the pipelines connecting points A and B would tend to be much longer than strait distance
between these points. To reduce the length various structures are built such as:
Aqueducts
Inverted siphons
If pressure flow is more suitable, then length of the pipeline can be significantly reduced, but then the pipe
is usually going to be placed uphill downhill, as terrain requires. Since the pipes should be emptied for
55
various reasons (inspection, operation, etc.) additional structures should be provided for filling and
emptying:
Air vents (at summit points of vertical bends, to let the air in when emptying and let it out while
refilling the pipe with water again prior to next operation)
Silt outlets (at lowest points along the line in vertical bends to let the water and silt out when pipeline is
being emptied)
All these structures must be well maintained, and taken into account in design and cost estimate.
56
8 Special Structures
Many hydraulic works can have adverse environmental impacts. They can be mitigated in different ways.
Some of them are possible to mitigate by use of special environmental hydraulic structures. A few of those
structures are briefly discussed in this chapter to give the emphasis on the importance and sometimes
necessity of such structures (in particular the structures that mitigate impacts on fish and water quality).
Technologies of preserving natural fish reproduction in inland water bodies under intense hydraulic
construction (fish species conservation):
fish passageways, including single-lane fish locks with continuous attraction of fish, as well as a
mechanical fish hoist with a fish chute;
devices for diverting fish from water intakes, including fish-protection concentrating structures with
horizontal separation of fishes, and those with vertical separation of fishes, curtains;
the development of new types of artificial spawning grounds and channels, including use of
prefabricated spawning panels with an artificial substrate.
For upstream migrating fish: fish ladders, fish locks (lifts), tramways, facilities for trapping and
trucking the fish
Downstream migrating fish (e.g., smolts young salmon): arrangements to collect fish in the forebay at
fine mash screens (fixed or movable) and directing them to safe by-pass systems.
Fish passes should be designed so that fish can find the entrance to the system and be able to swim safely
through.
Structures:
Fish ladder upstream fish passage for heads up to 20 m. (Fish entrance, ladder proper, and fish exit)
Auxiliary water supply can be provided to attract fish. It consists of drops of ca 30 cm between pools
with slope of 1:8 to 1:15. One rest pool (of double size) is provided after every 5-6 standard pools 12
m deep, 25 m long and 210 m wide) . Entrance should be downstream parallel to the river, while exit
must be away from the spillway. Water flow velocity in the ladder should be about 0.5 m/s.
Fish lifts (locks) Operation similar to navigation lock, except that through-flow is maintained to
guide fish in and out of chamber. Cyclic operation. In comparison with the navigation locks and
overflow dam, the fish locks have the most complex and diverse mechanical equipment. (E.g., In
Tikhovsk Hydro Development Russia out of the total mass of 2560 tons of mechanical equipment the
57
fish locks accounts for 1130 tons! The upstream and downstream slotted gates form a working
chamber in which the pools are isolated and the fish are examined and counted. Directly behind the
upstream slotted gate is an ichthyological platform. The fish locks in addition to their main function
forceful transport of fish from the lower to the upper pool, can serve as a natural laboratory for
developing ways of attracting various fish species).
Fish traps for high head structures, fish ladders are not sufficiently feasible. Tramways or cableways
are used. Hoppers into which fish swim are transported to reservoir by one of these ways.
Fish barrier dams low head weirs with electrical field that stop induce fish to swim into a ladder or
hopper downstream. From there they are transported by tank tracks with cooled and aerated water.
Downstream passing facilities screens to divert fish from intakes and spillways into safer by-passes.
They can be mechanical or electrical. Water velocity is around 0.5 m.
Design of spawning channels depends a great deal on type of original climate and biota specific for the
river. Natural conditions should be restored/imitated as much as possible. Fish behavior, number,
58
swimming ability and other factors should be studied and accounted for. Geometry of the structure is of the
vital importance. Usually rectangular or trapezoidal shapes are selected. The entrance is most crucial. The
flow of water attracts the fish into the channel. In order to adjust entrance to water level fluctuations
additional fish ladder could be provided between the channel and lower pondage. Entrance should be close
to hydraulic obstruction and easily perceivable by the fish. It is essential to establish correct capacity of
inflow, where ichthyologist should contribute in the design. Favorable bed condition (sand or gravel), and
optimal water depth and channel slope should be provided. Flooding of the channel in spawning season
must be avoided at any cost. Settling of suspended materials as well, since silt deposition harms the eggs.
Prevention of entrance of predatory fish is important, but care must be taken to prevent humans as well.
Density of fish (can reach over 60 per m2) may attract people to harm the fish.
To illustrate main problems and diversity in the area of spawning channels, a few examples taken from the
abstracts in the literature are listed below:
Selection of spawning sites by kokanees and evaluation of mitigative spawning channels in the
Green River, Wyoming.
Selection of spawning sites by kokanees Oncorhynchus nerka was assessed over a 1-km reach of the Green River in
the tailwater of Fontenelle Dam in Wyoming, during 1990 and 1991. Within this reach three spawning channels
were constructed in 1990 to mitigate losses of spawning habitat that were believed to have resulted from extensive
deposition of gravel and rubble in 1986. The channels were built through an island of gravel and rubble in the river
channel. Kokanees selected certain water depths, current velocities, and substrate sizes for spawning, but these
three variables were not sufficient to fully account for spawning site selection. The distribution of recently
deposited gravel and rubble, and the presence of shallow riffles that discouraged entry to a spawning channel also
influenced spawning site selection. The spawning channels provided a substantial portion of the spawning habitat
used by kokanees during 1990 and 1991, but high spring flows in 1991 substantially altered the morphology of the
spawning channels and reduced their mitigatory value.
A fish migration channel for spawning at the Itaipu (Brazil and Paraguay) hydroelectric station was installed to
improve fish recovery downstream from the dam. The complex had caused a significant reduction in the spawning
area, with a deleterious effect on the reproductive cycle of the native species. An experimental model of a fish
migration channel was installed, having a system of 'tank steps' at the foot of the dam, a sheet-metal ladder, a
serpentine-style channel for the spawning of the fish, and two marginal lagoons for incubation of the eggs and
growth of the larvae. The return migration of the hatchlings will be made through a trough linking the marginal
lagoons directly to the Parana River. A 56-m-long ladder forms the first phase of the project. Preliminary data from
the first phase has proved that fish (3000/day) of tropical climates can ascend ladders exceeding 8 m. The results of
the first phase indicate the efficiency of the experimental project, with the entry and ascendancy of fish in a
migration channel ladder. These data now provide the technical basis for implementation of the complementary
spawning channel stage.
The fishes of Himalayan waters are biologically diverse. More than 130 species occur in the rivers and mountain
lakes of the Nepalese highlands. In some rivers, dams and barrages have been constructed for hydroelectric power
stations and navigational purposes. The dams do not have fish ladders and they obstruct and prevent upstream and
downstream movements of fish. Fisherman, poachers, and predatory animals, killing rare fishes exploit the shallow
tailwater regions below dams where fish congregate. The scientific management of the Nepalese mountain streams
has just begun. The local human population has increased dramatically. Sewage, detergents and herbicides entering
the rivers are causing a critical deterioration of water quality. Spawning beds are being removed to provide sand
and gravel for the building industry. Changes in land use and deforestation cause soil erosion and the rivers are
loaded with silt in the rainy season. In order to conserve the rare and threatened species in Nepal, suitable water
59
levels must be maintained in the tailwater regions of dams during the breeding season for stone carps, loaches, and
catfishes. The provision of special spawning channels would help to maintain populations of masheer, snow trout,
stone carp and torrent catfish. Consideration should also be given to the creation of one or more artificial river
parks, containing channels and impoundments suitable for breeding rare fishes
Mitigation, Compensation, and Future Protection for Fish Populations Affected by Hydropower
Development in the Upper Columbia System, Montana, U.S.A.
The construction of Hungry Horse Dam resulted in estimated annual losses of 65,500 migratory juvenile westslope
cutthroat and 1965 adult migratory bull trout from the Flathead Lake and River system. In addition, operations of
Hungry Horse and Kerr dams caused annual losses conservatively estimated at 96,300 river-spawning and 131,000
lakeshore-spawning kokanee adults. Water level fluctuations caused by dam operations at Libby and Hungry Horse
reservoirs result in: (1) altered thermal stratification; (2) indirect losses in phytoplankton and zooplankton
production, (3) direct washout of phytoplankton and zooplankton through dam penstocks; (4) reductions in
standing crop of benthic organisms and of insects on the water surface; and (5) reduced fish growth in the late
summer and fall. Mitigative measures include: (1) 99.2 and 113.3 cu m/s minimum flows in the Flathead and
Kootenai rivers respectively, to protect salmonid eggs and juveniles; (2) improvement of fish passage to restore
migrations between the Flathead and Swan systems; and (3) biological rule curves for operations at Libby and
Hungry Horse reservoirs. To compensate for fisheries losses, enhancement of spawning and rearing habitat,
introductions of hatchery juveniles, and spawning channels are recommended. In addition, protection from further
hydropower development for 100 stream reaches for fish species of special concern, and for outstanding sport
fisheries is recommended. These and other measures will be considered by various agencies in developing an
overall fisheries restoration plan which should be flexible, and employ principles of adaptive management.
The construction of a hydroelectric power scheme on a river usually creates a barrier or impediment to the passage
of fish travelling either upstream or downstream. This may adversely affect the fish population depending upon the
river, the fish species involved and the location of their spawning grounds. Some of the fish species present in New
Zealand, such as quinnat salmon, whitebait and some bullies, spawn in freshwater and the young in the form of
eggs, larvae or juveniles move into the sea for a period before returning to freshwater to complete the life cycle.
Some fish, such as eels, are catadromous, that is the adults migrate to the sea to spawn and the offspring move back
into freshwater to complete the life cycle. Other species may reside in freshwater for their entire life but migrate
from their residential areas to spawning areas. The need to maintain continuity between upstream and downstream
fish populations, each of which can exist separately, is less clear-cut. The measures taken to maintain the fish
population are usually either the provision of passage facilities or the provision of artificial spawning and rearing
areas such as in spawning races and hatcheries. This chapter reviews information on the passage of fish past
barriers, the problems associated with guiding or excluding fish and the construction and operation of spawning
channels. It also discusses provisions, which have been made on New Zealand hydroelectric schemes.
Babine Lake Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) Enhancement Program: Testing some Major
Assumptions
The objective of the Babine Lake sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) enhancement project was to increase fry
outputs (and thus, smolt outputs and adult returns) by expanding and improving available spawning beds through
the use of artificial spawning channels and related water flow control facilities. The project proceeded on four basic
assumptions: (1) the artificial spawning channels would prove an effective means of producing sockeye fry, (2) the
fry produced would be as viable as those produced from natural spawning beds, (3) the lake nursery area had the
capacity to support larger juvenile populations, and (4) increased smolt outputs would result in increased adult
returns. A before and after study has allowed these assumptions to be tested. Egg-to-fry survival in the channels
was close to 40%, as expected. Comparisons of wild and channel-produced fry did not reveal any substantial
difference in their distribution, growth, and survival in the lake. Increases in the abundance of fry were followed by
corresponding increases in the abundance of under-yearlings in the lake and seaward migrating smolts. No
significant change in the average size of the juveniles or their survival in the lake could be detected when
population size increased. While the assumptions regarding juvenile production were found to be generally valid,
60
adult returns did not meet expectations. This was due largely to the lack of response to increased smolt outputs
from even-numbered brood years. Some options for future management are offered.
On the other hand quality of water in the reservoir may be of interest. Adverse impacts of long water
residence time, stratification and other processes can affect water quality for supply and life of aquatic
fauna as well. To a great extent the ecological safety depends on structure design, equipment, and control
systems. A pronounced transformation occurs in a river ecosystem when a dam is built and a reservoir is
created. A river ecosystem with a longitudinal gradient continues to exist in the free stretches of the river,
and a new ecosystem with vertical trophic distribution forms in the reservoir. The relationship between
these two systems depends on the design of the conveyance structure. For example, the use of a selective-
type intake makes it possible to regulate the water quality in the downstream pools and to transport
aquatic biota. In order to decrease the ecological impacts a greater emphasis is being placed on monitoring
systems and the use of highly skilled personnel to conduct biological surveys. The problems of
incorporating ecological concerns in the design and implementation of large reservoirs require the
development of new ideas in hydraulic construction. Again, there is not much that can be done with
conventional intakes.
Both problems can be dealt with, up to certain extent, by implementation of several intakes at different
elevations or alternatively by single complex intake with inlets at different elevations – selective intake.
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Selective intakes can have different designs, but basic idea is to allow for water withdrawal at different
elevations. In most cases three elevations satisfy demands for water quality control, though other number
could be more appropriate in certain cases.
The number will depend on water quality and stratification studies. Basic schemes are:
Former is usually more economically appropriate. Control structures (gates) and access are usually
dictating intake’s layout. Common layouts are:
Intake at the abutment and control structure in the intake tower or underground shaft
Water inlets connected via elbow joints with vertical/sub-vertical collection pipe
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In any case they are equipped with:
Aeration pipes
Operation: One (or two) water inlets are open at one time withdrawing water from most desirable elevation
where water quality is most appropriate. This depends on the usage of water, climate, reservoir
characteristics and the policy regarding the quality of the water that remains in the reservoir. E.g., if the
water is for drinking purpose and saving in water treatment process is important, water from very top layer
in the reservoir would probably be most convenient.
In principle different parameters of water quality vary in different ways along the depth of the reservoir, for
instance:
Temperature drops (or rises in the very cold winter) gradually in first ca 5 m then it drops rather
severely and then gradually reaching more or less constant temperature in great depths
Salinity (if any) can have different patterns in different seasons that would be dictated by inflow and
stage of the reservoir. In principle it tends to be lower at the surface.
In most cases decision is driven by demanded water quality for supply. However, in some cases it might be
important to maintain reasonable quality of remaining water in the reservoir and the river downstream as
well and then other criteria might be used.
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