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Categories
By Aristotle

Translated by E. M. Edghill

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SECTION 1

Part 1

Things are said to be named 'equivocally' when, though they have

a common name, the definition corresponding with the name differs
for each. Thus, a real man and a figure in a picture can both lay
claim to the name 'animal'; yet these are equivocally so named, for,
though they have a common name, the definition corresponding with
the name differs for each. For should any one define in what sense
each is an animal, his definition in the one case will be appropriate
to that case only.

On the other hand, things are said to be named 'univocally' which

have both the name and the definition answering to the name in common.
A man and an ox are both 'animal', and these are univocally so named,
inasmuch as not only the name, but also the definition, is the same
in both cases: for if a man should state in what sense each is an
animal, the statement in the one case would be identical with that
in the other.

Things are said to be named 'derivatively', which derive their name

from some other name, but differ from it in termination. Thus the
grammarian derives his name from the word 'grammar', and the courageous
man from the word 'courage'.

Part 2

Forms of speech are either simple or composite. Examples of the latter

are such expressions as 'the man runs', 'the man wins'; of the former
'man', 'ox', 'runs', 'wins'.

Of things themselves some are predicable of a subject, and are never

present in a subject. Thus 'man' is predicable of the individual man,
and is never present in a subject.

By being 'present in a subject' I do not mean present as parts are

present in a whole, but being incapable of existence apart from the
said subject.

Some things, again, are present in a subject, but are never predicable
of a subject. For instance, a certain point of grammatical knowledge
is present in the mind, but is not predicable of any subject; or again,
a certain whiteness may be present in the body (for colour requires
a material basis), yet it is never predicable of anything.

Other things, again, are both predicable of a subject and present

in a subject. Thus while knowledge is present in the human mind, it
is predicable of grammar.

There is, lastly, a class of things which are neither present in a

subject nor predicable of a subject, such as the individual man or
the individual horse. But, to speak more generally, that which is
individual and has the character of a unit is never predicable of
a subject. Yet in some cases there is nothing to prevent such being
present in a subject. Thus a certain point of grammatical knowledge
is present in a subject.

Part 3

When one thing is predicated of another, all that which is predicable

of the predicate will be predicable also of the subject. Thus, 'man'
is predicated of the individual man; but 'animal' is predicated of
'man'; it will, therefore, be predicable of the individual man also:
for the individual man is both 'man' and 'animal'.

If genera are different and co-ordinate, their differentiae are themselves

different in kind. Take as an instance the genus 'animal' and the
genus 'knowledge'. 'With feet', 'two-footed', 'winged', 'aquatic',
are differentiae of 'animal'; the species of knowledge are not distinguished
by the same differentiae. One species of knowledge does not differ
from another in being 'two-footed'.

But where one genus is subordinate to another, there is nothing to

prevent their having the same differentiae: for the greater class
is predicated of the lesser, so that all the differentiae of the predicate
will be differentiae also of the subject.

Part 4

Expressions which are in no way composite signify substance, quantity,

quality, relation, place, time, position, state, action, or affection.
To sketch my meaning roughly, examples of substance are 'man' or 'the
horse', of quantity, such terms as 'two cubits long' or 'three cubits
long', of quality, such attributes as 'white', 'grammatical'. 'Double',
'half', 'greater', fall under the category of relation; 'in a the
market place', 'in the Lyceum', under that of place; 'yesterday',
'last year', under that of time. 'Lying', 'sitting', are terms indicating
position, 'shod', 'armed', state; 'to lance', 'to cauterize', action;
'to be lanced', 'to be cauterized', affection.

No one of these terms, in and by itself, involves an affirmation;

it is by the combination of such terms that positive or negative statements
arise. For every assertion must, as is admitted, be either true or
false, whereas expressions which are not in any way composite such
as 'man', 'white', 'runs', 'wins', cannot be either true or false.

Part 5

Substance, in the truest and primary and most definite sense of the
word, is that which is neither predicable of a subject nor present
in a subject; for instance, the individual man or horse. But in a
secondary sense those things are called substances within which, as
species, the primary substances are included; also those which, as
genera, include the species. For instance, the individual man is included
in the species 'man', and the genus to which the species belongs is
'animal'; these, therefore-that is to say, the species 'man' and the
genus 'animal,-are termed secondary substances.

It is plain from what has been said that both the name and the definition
of the predicate must be predicable of the subject. For instance,
'man' is predicted of the individual man. Now in this case the name
of the species man' is applied to the individual, for we use the term
'man' in describing the individual; and the definition of 'man' will
also be predicated of the individual man, for the individual man is
both man and animal. Thus, both the name and the definition of the
species are predicable of the individual.

With regard, on the other hand, to those things which are present
in a subject, it is generally the case that neither their name nor
their definition is predicable of that in which they are present.
Though, however, the definition is never predicable, there is nothing
in certain cases to prevent the name being used. For instance, 'white'
being present in a body is predicated of that in which it is present,
for a body is called white: the definition, however, of the colour
white' is never predicable of the body.

Everything except primary substances is either predicable of a primary

substance or present in a primary substance. This becomes evident
by reference to particular instances which occur. 'Animal' is predicated
of the species 'man', therefore of the individual man, for if there
were no individual man of whom it could be predicated, it could not
be predicated of the species 'man' at all. Again, colour is present
in body, therefore in individual bodies, for if there were no individual
body in which it was present, it could not be present in body at all.
Thus everything except primary substances is either predicated of
primary substances, or is present in them, and if these last did not
exist, it would be impossible for anything else to exist.

Of secondary substances, the species is more truly substance than

the genus, being more nearly related to primary substance. For if
any one should render an account of what a primary substance is, he
would render a more instructive account, and one more proper to the
subject, by stating the species than by stating the genus. Thus, he
would give a more instructive account of an individual man by stating
that he was man than by stating that he was animal, for the former
description is peculiar to the individual in a greater degree, while
the latter is too general. Again, the man who gives an account of
the nature of an individual tree will give a more instructive account
by mentioning the species 'tree' than by mentioning the genus 'plant'.

Moreover, primary substances are most properly called substances in

virtue of the fact that they are the entities which underlie every.
else, and that everything else is either predicated of them or present
in them. Now the same relation which subsists between primary substance
and everything else subsists also between the species and the genus:
for the species is to the genus as subject is to predicate, since
the genus is predicated of the species, whereas the species cannot
be predicated of the genus. Thus we have a second ground for asserting
that the species is more truly substance than the genus.

Of species themselves, except in the case of such as are genera, no

one is more truly substance than another. We should not give a more
appropriate account of the individual man by stating the species to
which he belonged, than we should of an individual horse by adopting
the same method of definition. In the same way, of primary substances,
no one is more truly substance than another; an individual man is
not more truly substance than an individual ox.

It is, then, with good reason that of all that remains, when we exclude
primary substances, we concede to species and genera alone the name
'secondary substance', for these alone of all the predicates convey
a knowledge of primary substance. For it is by stating the species
or the genus that we appropriately define any individual man; and
we shall make our definition more exact by stating the former than
by stating the latter. All other things that we state, such as that
he is white, that he runs, and so on, are irrelevant to the definition.
Thus it is just that these alone, apart from primary substances, should
be called substances.

Further, primary substances are most properly so called, because they

underlie and are the subjects of everything else. Now the same relation
that subsists between primary substance and everything else subsists
also between the species and the genus to which the primary substance
belongs, on the one hand, and every attribute which is not included
within these, on the other. For these are the subjects of all such.
If we call an individual man 'skilled in grammar', the predicate is
applicable also to the species and to the genus to which he belongs.
This law holds good in all cases.

It is a common characteristic of all sub. stance that it is never

present in a subject. For primary substance is neither present in
a subject nor predicated of a subject; while, with regard to secondary
substances, it is clear from the following arguments (apart from others)
that they are not present in a subject. For 'man' is predicated of
the individual man, but is not present in any subject: for manhood
is not present in the individual man. In the same way, 'animal' is
also predicated of the individual man, but is not present in him.
Again, when a thing is present in a subject, though the name may quite
well be applied to that in which it is present, the definition cannot
be applied. Yet of secondary substances, not only the name, but also
the definition, applies to the subject: we should use both the definition
of the species and that of the genus with reference to the individual
man. Thus substance cannot be present in a subject.

Yet this is not peculiar to substance, for it is also the case that
differentiae cannot be present in subjects. The characteristics 'terrestrial'
and 'two-footed' are predicated of the species 'man', but not present
in it. For they are not in man. Moreover, the definition of the differentia
may be predicated of that of which the differentia itself is predicated.
For instance, if the characteristic 'terrestrial' is predicated of
the species 'man', the definition also of that characteristic may
be used to form the predicate of the species 'man': for 'man' is terrestrial.

The fact that the parts of substances appear to be present in the

whole, as in a subject, should not make us apprehensive lest we should
have to admit that such parts are not substances: for in explaining
the phrase 'being present in a subject', we stated' that we meant
'otherwise than as parts in a whole'.

It is the mark of substances and of differentiae that, in all propositions

of which they form the predicate, they are predicated univocally.
For all such propositions have for their subject either the individual
or the species. It is true that, inasmuch as primary substance is
not predicable of anything, it can never form the predicate of any
proposition. But of secondary substances, the species is predicated
of the individual, the genus both of the species and of the individual.
Similarly the differentiae are predicated of the species and of the
individuals. Moreover, the definition of the species and that of the
genus are applicable to the primary substance, and that of the genus
to the species. For all that is predicated of the predicate will be
predicated also of the subject. Similarly, the definition of the differentiae
will be applicable to the species and to the individuals. But it was
stated above that the word 'univocal' was applied to those things
which had both name and definition in common. It is, therefore, established
that in every proposition, of which either substance or a differentia
forms the predicate, these are predicated univocally.

All substance appears to signify that which is individual. In the

case of primary substance this is indisputably true, for the thing
is a unit. In the case of secondary substances, when we speak, for
instance, of 'man' or 'animal', our form of speech gives the impression
that we are here also indicating that which is individual, but the
impression is not strictly true; for a secondary substance is not
an individual, but a class with a certain qualification; for it is
not one and single as a primary substance is; the words 'man', 'animal',
are predicable of more than one subject.

Yet species and genus do not merely indicate quality, like the term
'white'; 'white' indicates quality and nothing further, but species
and genus determine the quality with reference to a substance: they
signify substance qualitatively differentiated. The determinate qualification
covers a larger field in the case of the genus that in that of the
species: he who uses the word 'animal' is herein using a word of wider
extension than he who uses the word 'man'.

Another mark of substance is that it has no contrary. What could be

the contrary of any primary substance, such as the individual man
or animal? It has none. Nor can the species or the genus have a contrary.
Yet this characteristic is not peculiar to substance, but is true
of many other things, such as quantity. There is nothing that forms
the contrary of 'two cubits long' or of 'three cubits long', or of
'ten', or of any such term. A man may contend that 'much' is the contrary
of 'little', or 'great' of 'small', but of definite quantitative terms
no contrary exists.

Substance, again, does not appear to admit of variation of degree.

I do not mean by this that one substance cannot be more or less truly
substance than another, for it has already been stated' that this
is the case; but that no single substance admits of varying degrees
within itself. For instance, one particular substance, 'man', cannot
be more or less man either than himself at some other time or than
some other man. One man cannot be more man than another, as that which
is white may be more or less white than some other white object, or
as that which is beautiful may be more or less beautiful than some
other beautiful object. The same quality, moreover, is said to subsist
in a thing in varying degrees at different times. A body, being white,
is said to be whiter at one time than it was before, or, being warm,
is said to be warmer or less warm than at some other time. But substance
is not said to be more or less that which it is: a man is not more
truly a man at one time than he was before, nor is anything, if it
is substance, more or less what it is. Substance, then, does not admit
of variation of degree.
The most distinctive mark of substance appears to be that, while remaining
numerically one and the same, it is capable of admitting contrary
qualities. From among things other than substance, we should find
ourselves unable to bring forward any which possessed this mark. Thus,
one and the same colour cannot be white and black. Nor can the same
one action be good and bad: this law holds good with everything that
is not substance. But one and the selfsame substance, while retaining
its identity, is yet capable of admitting contrary qualities. The
same individual person is at one time white, at another black, at
one time warm, at another cold, at one time good, at another bad.
This capacity is found nowhere else, though it might be maintained
that a statement or opinion was an exception to the rule. The same
statement, it is agreed, can be both true and false. For if the statement
'he is sitting' is true, yet, when the person in question has risen,
the same statement will be false. The same applies to opinions. For
if any one thinks truly that a person is sitting, yet, when that person
has risen, this same opinion, if still held, will be false. Yet although
this exception may be allowed, there is, nevertheless, a difference
in the manner in which the thing takes place. It is by themselves
changing that substances admit contrary qualities. It is thus that
that which was hot becomes cold, for it has entered into a different
state. Similarly that which was white becomes black, and that which
was bad good, by a process of change; and in the same way in all other
cases it is by changing that substances are capable of admitting contrary
qualities. But statements and opinions themselves remain unaltered
in all respects: it is by the alteration in the facts of the case
that the contrary quality comes to be theirs. The statement 'he is
sitting' remains unaltered, but it is at one time true, at another
false, according to circumstances. What has been said of statements
applies also to opinions. Thus, in respect of the manner in which
the thing takes place, it is the peculiar mark of substance that it
should be capable of admitting contrary qualities; for it is by itself
changing that it does so.

If, then, a man should make this exception and contend that statements
and opinions are capable of admitting contrary qualities, his contention
is unsound. For statements and opinions are said to have this capacity,
not because they themselves undergo modification, but because this
modification occurs in the case of something else. The truth or falsity
of a statement depends on facts, and not on any power on the part
of the statement itself of admitting contrary qualities. In short,
there is nothing which can alter the nature of statements and opinions.
As, then, no change takes place in themselves, these cannot be said
to be capable of admitting contrary qualities.

But it is by reason of the modification which takes place within the

substance itself that a substance is said to be capable of admitting
contrary qualities; for a substance admits within itself either disease
or health, whiteness or blackness. It is in this sense that it is
said to be capable of admitting contrary qualities.

To sum up, it is a distinctive mark of substance, that, while remaining

numerically one and the same, it is capable of admitting contrary
qualities, the modification taking place through a change in the substance
itself.

Let these remarks suffice on the subject of substance.

Part 6

Quantity is either discrete or continuous. Moreover, some quantities

are such that each part of the whole has a relative position to the
other parts: others have within them no such relation of part to part.

Instances of discrete quantities are number and speech; of continuous,

lines, surfaces, solids, and, besides these, time and place.

In the case of the parts of a number, there is no common boundary

at which they join. For example: two fives make ten, but the two fives
have no common boundary, but are separate; the parts three and seven
also do not join at any boundary. Nor, to generalize, would it ever
be possible in the case of number that there should be a common boundary
among the parts; they are always separate. Number, therefore, is a
discrete quantity.

The same is true of speech. That speech is a quantity is evident:

for it is measured in long and short syllables. I mean here that speech
which is vocal. Moreover, it is a discrete quantity for its parts
have no common boundary. There is no common boundary at which the
syllables join, but each is separate and distinct from the rest.

A line, on the other hand, is a continuous quantity, for it is possible

to find a common boundary at which its parts join. In the case of
the line, this common boundary is the point; in the case of the plane,
it is the line: for the parts of the plane have also a common boundary.
Similarly you can find a common boundary in the case of the parts
of a solid, namely either a line or a plane.

Space and time also belong to this class of quantities. Time, past,
present, and future, forms a continuous whole. Space, likewise, is
a continuous quantity; for the parts of a solid occupy a certain space,
and these have a common boundary; it follows that the parts of space
also, which are occupied by the parts of the solid, have the same
common boundary as the parts of the solid. Thus, not only time, but
space also, is a continuous quantity, for its parts have a common
boundary.

Quantities consist either of parts which bear a relative position

each to each, or of parts which do not. The parts of a line bear a
relative position to each other, for each lies somewhere, and it would
be possible to distinguish each, and to state the position of each
on the plane and to explain to what sort of part among the rest each
was contiguous. Similarly the parts of a plane have position, for
it could similarly be stated what was the position of each and what
sort of parts were contiguous. The same is true with regard to the
solid and to space. But it would be impossible to show that the arts
of a number had a relative position each to each, or a particular
position, or to state what parts were contiguous. Nor could this be
done in the case of time, for none of the parts of time has an abiding
existence, and that which does not abide can hardly have position.
It would be better to say that such parts had a relative order, in
virtue of one being prior to another. Similarly with number: in counting,
'one' is prior to 'two', and 'two' to 'three', and thus the parts
of number may be said to possess a relative order, though it would
be impossible to discover any distinct position for each. This holds
good also in the case of speech. None of its parts has an abiding
existence: when once a syllable is pronounced, it is not possible
to retain it, so that, naturally, as the parts do not abide, they
cannot have position. Thus, some quantities consist of parts which
have position, and some of those which have not.

Strictly speaking, only the things which I have mentioned belong to

the category of quantity: everything else that is called quantitative
is a quantity in a secondary sense. It is because we have in mind
some one of these quantities, properly so called, that we apply quantitative
terms to other things. We speak of what is white as large, because
the surface over which the white extends is large; we speak of an
action or a process as lengthy, because the time covered is long;
these things cannot in their own right claim the quantitative epithet.
For instance, should any one explain how long an action was, his statement
would be made in terms of the time taken, to the effect that it lasted
a year, or something of that sort. In the same way, he would explain
the size of a white object in terms of surface, for he would state
the area which it covered. Thus the things already mentioned, and
these alone, are in their intrinsic nature quantities; nothing else
can claim the name in its own right, but, if at all, only in a secondary
sense.

Quantities have no contraries. In the case of definite quantities

this is obvious; thus, there is nothing that is the contrary of 'two
cubits long' or of 'three cubits long', or of a surface, or of any
such quantities. A man might, indeed, argue that 'much' was the contrary
of 'little', and 'great' of 'small'. But these are not quantitative,
but relative; things are not great or small absolutely, they are so
called rather as the result of an act of comparison. For instance,
a mountain is called small, a grain large, in virtue of the fact that
the latter is greater than others of its kind, the former less. Thus
there is a reference here to an external standard, for if the terms
'great' and 'small' were used absolutely, a mountain would never be
called small or a grain large. Again, we say that there are many people
in a village, and few in Athens, although those in the city are many
times as numerous as those in the village: or we say that a house
has many in it, and a theatre few, though those in the theatre far
outnumber those in the house. The terms 'two cubits long, "three cubits
long,' and so on indicate quantity, the terms 'great' and 'small'
indicate relation, for they have reference to an external standard.
It is, therefore, plain that these are to be classed as relative.

Again, whether we define them as quantitative or not, they have no

contraries: for how can there be a contrary of an attribute which
is not to be apprehended in or by itself, but only by reference to
something external? Again, if 'great' and 'small' are contraries,
it will come about that the same subject can admit contrary qualities
at one and the same time, and that things will themselves be contrary
to themselves. For it happens at times that the same thing is both
small and great. For the same thing may be small in comparison with
one thing, and great in comparison with another, so that the same
thing comes to be both small and great at one and the same time, and
is of such a nature as to admit contrary qualities at one and the
same moment. Yet it was agreed, when substance was being discussed,
that nothing admits contrary qualities at one and the same moment.
For though substance is capable of admitting contrary qualities, yet
no one is at the same time both sick and healthy, nothing is at the
same time both white and black. Nor is there anything which is qualified
in contrary ways at one and the same time.
Moreover, if these were contraries, they would themselves be contrary
to themselves. For if 'great' is the contrary of 'small', and the
same thing is both great and small at the same time, then 'small'
or 'great' is the contrary of itself. But this is impossible. The
term 'great', therefore, is not the contrary of the term 'small',
nor 'much' of 'little'. And even though a man should call these terms
not relative but quantitative, they would not have contraries.

It is in the case of space that quantity most plausibly appears to

admit of a contrary. For men define the term 'above' as the contrary
of 'below', when it is the region at the centre they mean by 'below';
and this is so, because nothing is farther from the extremities of
the universe than the region at the centre. Indeed, it seems that
in defining contraries of every kind men have recourse to a spatial
metaphor, for they say that those things are contraries which, within
the same class, are separated by the greatest possible distance.

Quantity does not, it appears, admit of variation of degree. One thing

cannot be two cubits long in a greater degree than another. Similarly
with regard to number: what is 'three' is not more truly three than
what is 'five' is five; nor is one set of three more truly three than
another set. Again, one period of time is not said to be more truly
time than another. Nor is there any other kind of quantity, of all
that have been mentioned, with regard to which variation of degree
can be predicated. The category of quantity, therefore, does not admit
of variation of degree.

The most distinctive mark of quantity is that equality and inequality

are predicated of it. Each of the aforesaid quantities is said to
be equal or unequal. For instance, one solid is said to be equal or
unequal to another; number, too, and time can have these terms applied
to them, indeed can all those kinds of quantity that have been mentioned.

That which is not a quantity can by no means, it would seem, be termed

equal or unequal to anything else. One particular disposition or one
particular quality, such as whiteness, is by no means compared with
another in terms of equality and inequality but rather in terms of
similarity. Thus it is the distinctive mark of quantity that it can
be called equal and unequal.

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SECTION 2

Part 7

Those things are called relative, which, being either said to be

of something else or related to something else, are explained by reference
to that other thing. For instance, the word 'superior' is explained
by reference to something else, for it is superiority over something
else that is meant. Similarly, the expression 'double' has this external
reference, for it is the double of something else that is meant. So
it is with everything else of this kind. There are, moreover, other
relatives, e.g. habit, disposition, perception, knowledge, and attitude.
The significance of all these is explained by a reference to something
else and in no other way. Thus, a habit is a habit of something, knowledge
is knowledge of something, attitude is the attitude of something.
So it is with all other relatives that have been mentioned. Those
terms, then, are called relative, the nature of which is explained
by reference to something else, the preposition 'of' or some other
preposition being used to indicate the relation. Thus, one mountain
is called great in comparison with son with another; for the mountain
claims this attribute by comparison with something. Again, that which
is called similar must be similar to something else, and all other
such attributes have this external reference. It is to be noted that
lying and standing and sitting are particular attitudes, but attitude
is itself a relative term. To lie, to stand, to be seated, are not
themselves attitudes, but take their name from the aforesaid attitudes.

It is possible for relatives to have contraries. Thus virtue has a

contrary, vice, these both being relatives; knowledge, too, has a
contrary, ignorance. But this is not the mark of all relatives; 'double'
and 'triple' have no contrary, nor indeed has any such term.

It also appears that relatives can admit of variation of degree. For

'like' and 'unlike', 'equal' and 'unequal', have the modifications
'more' and 'less' applied to them, and each of these is relative in
character: for the terms 'like' and 'unequal' bear 'unequal' bear
a reference to something external. Yet, again, it is not every relative
term that admits of variation of degree. No term such as 'double'
admits of this modification. All relatives have correlatives: by the
term 'slave' we mean the slave of a master, by the term 'master',
the master of a slave; by 'double', the double of its hall; by 'half',
the half of its double; by 'greater', greater than that which is less;
by 'less,' less than that which is greater.

So it is with every other relative term; but the case we use to express
the correlation differs in some instances. Thus, by knowledge we mean
knowledge the knowable; by the knowable, that which is to be apprehended
by knowledge; by perception, perception of the perceptible; by the
perceptible, that which is apprehended by perception.

Sometimes, however, reciprocity of correlation does not appear to

exist. This comes about when a blunder is made, and that to which
the relative is related is not accurately stated. If a man states
that a wing is necessarily relative to a bird, the connexion between
these two will not be reciprocal, for it will not be possible to say
that a bird is a bird by reason of its wings. The reason is that the
original statement was inaccurate, for the wing is not said to be
relative to the bird qua bird, since many creatures besides birds
have wings, but qua winged creature. If, then, the statement is made
accurate, the connexion will be reciprocal, for we can speak of a
wing, having reference necessarily to a winged creature, and of a
winged creature as being such because of its wings.

Occasionally, perhaps, it is necessary to coin words, if no word exists

by which a correlation can adequately be explained. If we define a
rudder as necessarily having reference to a boat, our definition will
not be appropriate, for the rudder does not have this reference to
a boat qua boat, as there are boats which have no rudders. Thus we
cannot use the terms reciprocally, for the word 'boat' cannot be said
to find its explanation in the word 'rudder'. As there is no existing
word, our definition would perhaps be more accurate if we coined some
word like 'ruddered' as the correlative of 'rudder'. If we express
ourselves thus accurately, at any rate the terms are reciprocally
connected, for the 'ruddered' thing is 'ruddered' in virtue of its
rudder. So it is in all other cases. A head will be more accurately
defined as the correlative of that which is 'headed', than as that
of an animal, for the animal does not have a head qua animal, since
many animals have no head.

Thus we may perhaps most easily comprehend that to which a thing is

related, when a name does not exist, if, from that which has a name,
we derive a new name, and apply it to that with which the first is
reciprocally connected, as in the aforesaid instances, when we derived
the word 'winged' from 'wing' and from 'rudder'.

All relatives, then, if properly defined, have a correlative. I add

this condition because, if that to which they are related is stated
as haphazard and not accurately, the two are not found to be interdependent.
Let me state what I mean more clearly. Even in the case of acknowledged
correlatives, and where names exist for each, there will be no interdependence
if one of the two is denoted, not by that name which expresses the
correlative notion, but by one of irrelevant significance. The term
'slave,' if defined as related, not to a master, but to a man, or
a biped, or anything of that sort, is not reciprocally connected with
that in relation to which it is defined, for the statement is not
exact. Further, if one thing is said to be correlative with another,
and the terminology used is correct, then, though all irrelevant attributes
should be removed, and only that one attribute left in virtue of which
it was correctly stated to be correlative with that other, the stated
correlation will still exist. If the correlative of 'the slave' is
said to be 'the master', then, though all irrelevant attributes of
the said 'master', such as 'biped', 'receptive of knowledge', 'human',
should be removed, and the attribute 'master' alone left, the stated
correlation existing between him and the slave will remain the same,
for it is of a master that a slave is said to be the slave. On the
other hand, if, of two correlatives, one is not correctly termed,
then, when all other attributes are removed and that alone is left
in virtue of which it was stated to be correlative, the stated correlation
will be found to have disappeared.

For suppose the correlative of 'the slave' should be said to be 'the

man', or the correlative of 'the wing"the bird'; if the attribute
'master' be withdrawn from' the man', the correlation between 'the
man' and 'the slave' will cease to exist, for if the man is not a
master, the slave is not a slave. Similarly, if the attribute 'winged'
be withdrawn from 'the bird', 'the wing' will no longer be relative;
for if the so-called correlative is not winged, it follows that 'the
wing' has no correlative.

Thus it is essential that the correlated terms should be exactly designated;

if there is a name existing, the statement will be easy; if not, it
is doubtless our duty to construct names. When the terminology is
thus correct, it is evident that all correlatives are interdependent.

Correlatives are thought to come into existence simultaneously. This

is for the most part true, as in the case of the double and the half.
The existence of the half necessitates the existence of that of which
it is a half. Similarly the existence of a master necessitates the
existence of a slave, and that of a slave implies that of a master;
these are merely instances of a general rule. Moreover, they cancel
one another; for if there is no double it follows that there is no
half, and vice versa; this rule also applies to all such correlatives.
Yet it does not appear to be true in all cases that correlatives come
into existence simultaneously. The object of knowledge would appear
to exist before knowledge itself, for it is usually the case that
we acquire knowledge of objects already existing; it would be difficult,
if not impossible, to find a branch of knowledge the beginning of
the existence of which was contemporaneous with that of its object.

Again, while the object of knowledge, if it ceases to exist, cancels

at the same time the knowledge which was its correlative, the converse
of this is not true. It is true that if the object of knowledge does
not exist there can be no knowledge: for there will no longer be anything
to know. Yet it is equally true that, if knowledge of a certain object
does not exist, the object may nevertheless quite well exist. Thus,
in the case of the squaring of the circle, if indeed that process
is an object of knowledge, though it itself exists as an object of
knowledge, yet the knowledge of it has not yet come into existence.
Again, if all animals ceased to exist, there would be no knowledge,
but there might yet be many objects of knowledge.

This is likewise the case with regard to perception: for the object
of perception is, it appears, prior to the act of perception. If the
perceptible is annihilated, perception also will cease to exist; but
the annihilation of perception does not cancel the existence of the
perceptible. For perception implies a body perceived and a body in
which perception takes place. Now if that which is perceptible is
annihilated, it follows that the body is annihilated, for the body
is a perceptible thing; and if the body does not exist, it follows
that perception also ceases to exist. Thus the annihilation of the
perceptible involves that of perception.

But the annihilation of perception does not involve that of the perceptible.
For if the animal is annihilated, it follows that perception also
is annihilated, but perceptibles such as body, heat, sweetness, bitterness,
and so on, will remain.

Again, perception is generated at the same time as the perceiving

subject, for it comes into existence at the same time as the animal.
But the perceptible surely exists before perception; for fire and
water and such elements, out of which the animal is itself composed,
exist before the animal is an animal at all, and before perception.
Thus it would seem that the perceptible exists before perception.

It may be questioned whether it is true that no substance is relative,

as seems to be the case, or whether exception is to be made in the
case of certain secondary substances. With regard to primary substances,
it is quite true that there is no such possibility, for neither wholes
nor parts of primary substances are relative. The individual man or
ox is not defined with reference to something external. Similarly
with the parts: a particular hand or head is not defined as a particular
hand or head of a particular person, but as the hand or head of a
particular person. It is true also, for the most part at least, in
the case of secondary substances; the species 'man' and the species
'ox' are not defined with reference to anything outside themselves.
Wood, again, is only relative in so far as it is some one's property,
not in so far as it is wood. It is plain, then, that in the cases
mentioned substance is not relative. But with regard to some secondary
substances there is a difference of opinion; thus, such terms as 'head'
and 'hand' are defined with reference to that of which the things
indicated are a part, and so it comes about that these appear to have
a relative character. Indeed, if our definition of that which is relative
was complete, it is very difficult, if not impossible, to prove that
no substance is relative. If, however, our definition was not complete,
if those things only are properly called relative in the case of which
relation to an external object is a necessary condition of existence,
perhaps some explanation of the dilemma may be found.

The former definition does indeed apply to all relatives, but the
fact that a thing is explained with reference to something else does
not make it essentially relative.

From this it is plain that, if a man definitely apprehends a relative

thing, he will also definitely apprehend that to which it is relative.
Indeed this is self-evident: for if a man knows that some particular
thing is relative, assuming that we call that a relative in the case
of which relation to something is a necessary condition of existence,
he knows that also to which it is related. For if he does not know
at all that to which it is related, he will not know whether or not
it is relative. This is clear, moreover, in particular instances.
If a man knows definitely that such and such a thing is 'double',
he will also forthwith know definitely that of which it is the double.
For if there is nothing definite of which he knows it to be the double,
he does not know at all that it is double. Again, if he knows that
a thing is more beautiful, it follows necessarily that he will forthwith
definitely know that also than which it is more beautiful. He will
not merely know indefinitely that it is more beautiful than something
which is less beautiful, for this would be supposition, not knowledge.
For if he does not know definitely that than which it is more beautiful,
he can no longer claim to know definitely that it is more beautiful
than something else which is less beautiful: for it might be that
nothing was less beautiful. It is, therefore, evident that if a man
apprehends some relative thing definitely, he necessarily knows that
also definitely to which it is related.

Now the head, the hand, and such things are substances, and it is
possible to know their essential character definitely, but it does
not necessarily follow that we should know that to which they are
related. It is not possible to know forthwith whose head or hand is
meant. Thus these are not relatives, and, this being the case, it
would be true to say that no substance is relative in character. It
is perhaps a difficult matter, in such cases, to make a positive statement
without more exhaustive examination, but to have raised questions
with regard to details is not without advantage.

Part 8

By 'quality' I mean that in virtue of which people are said to be

such and such.

Quality is a term that is used in many senses. One sort of quality

let us call 'habit' or 'disposition'. Habit differs from disposition
in being more lasting and more firmly established. The various kinds
of knowledge and of virtue are habits, for knowledge, even when acquired
only in a moderate degree, is, it is agreed, abiding in its character
and difficult to displace, unless some great mental upheaval takes
place, through disease or any such cause. The virtues, also, such
as justice, self-restraint, and so on, are not easily dislodged or
dismissed, so as to give place to vice.

By a disposition, on the other hand, we mean a condition that is easily

changed and quickly gives place to its opposite. Thus, heat, cold,
disease, health, and so on are dispositions. For a man is disposed
in one way or another with reference to these, but quickly changes,
becoming cold instead of warm, ill instead of well. So it is with
all other dispositions also, unless through lapse of time a disposition
has itself become inveterate and almost impossible to dislodge: in
which case we should perhaps go so far as to call it a habit.

It is evident that men incline to call those conditions habits which

are of a more or less permanent type and difficult to displace; for
those who are not retentive of knowledge, but volatile, are not said
to have such and such a 'habit' as regards knowledge, yet they are
disposed, we may say, either better or worse, towards knowledge. Thus
habit differs from disposition in this, that while the latter in ephemeral,
the former is permanent and difficult to alter.

Habits are at the same time dispositions, but dispositions are not
necessarily habits. For those who have some specific habit may be
said also, in virtue of that habit, to be thus or thus disposed; but
those who are disposed in some specific way have not in all cases
the corresponding habit.

Another sort of quality is that in virtue of which, for example, we

call men good boxers or runners, or healthy or sickly: in fact it
includes all those terms which refer to inborn capacity or incapacity.
Such things are not predicated of a person in virtue of his disposition,
but in virtue of his inborn capacity or incapacity to do something
with ease or to avoid defeat of any kind. Persons are called good
boxers or good runners, not in virtue of such and such a disposition,
but in virtue of an inborn capacity to accomplish something with ease.
Men are called healthy in virtue of the inborn capacity of easy resistance
to those unhealthy influences that may ordinarily arise; unhealthy,
in virtue of the lack of this capacity. Similarly with regard to softness
and hardness. Hardness is predicated of a thing because it has that
capacity of resistance which enables it to withstand disintegration;
softness, again, is predicated of a thing by reason of the lack of
that capacity.

A third class within this category is that of affective qualities

and affections. Sweetness, bitterness, sourness, are examples of this
sort of quality, together with all that is akin to these; heat, moreover,
and cold, whiteness, and blackness are affective qualities. It is
evident that these are qualities, for those things that possess them
are themselves said to be such and such by reason of their presence.
Honey is called sweet because it contains sweetness; the body is called
white because it contains whiteness; and so in all other cases.

The term 'affective quality' is not used as indicating that those

things which admit these qualities are affected in any way. Honey
is not called sweet because it is affected in a specific way, nor
is this what is meant in any other instance. Similarly heat and cold
are called affective qualities, not because those things which admit
them are affected. What is meant is that these said qualities are
capable of producing an 'affection' in the way of perception. For
sweetness has the power of affecting the sense of taste; heat, that
of touch; and so it is with the rest of these qualities.

Whiteness and blackness, however, and the other colours, are not said
to be affective qualities in this sense, but -because they themselves
are the results of an affection. It is plain that many changes of
colour take place because of affections. When a man is ashamed, he
blushes; when he is afraid, he becomes pale, and so on. So true is
this, that when a man is by nature liable to such affections, arising
from some concomitance of elements in his constitution, it is a probable
inference that he has the corresponding complexion of skin. For the
same disposition of bodily elements, which in the former instance
was momentarily present in the case of an access of shame, might be
a result of a man's natural temperament, so as to produce the corresponding
colouring also as a natural characteristic. All conditions, therefore,
of this kind, if caused by certain permanent and lasting affections,
are called affective qualities. For pallor and duskiness of complexion
are called qualities, inasmuch as we are said to be such and such
in virtue of them, not only if they originate in natural constitution,
but also if they come about through long disease or sunburn, and are
difficult to remove, or indeed remain throughout life. For in the
same way we are said to be such and such because of these.

Those conditions, however, which arise from causes which may easily
be rendered ineffective or speedily removed, are called, not qualities,
but affections: for we are not said to be such virtue of them. The
man who blushes through shame is not said to be a constitutional blusher,
nor is the man who becomes pale through fear said to be constitutionally
pale. He is said rather to have been affected.

Thus such conditions are called affections, not qualities.

In like manner there are affective qualities and affections of the

soul. That temper with which a man is born and which has its origin
in certain deep-seated affections is called a quality. I mean such
conditions as insanity, irascibility, and so on: for people are said
to be mad or irascible in virtue of these. Similarly those abnormal
psychic states which are not inborn, but arise from the concomitance
of certain other elements, and are difficult to remove, or altogether
permanent, are called qualities, for in virtue of them men are said
to be such and such.

Those, however, which arise from causes easily rendered ineffective

are called affections, not qualities. Suppose that a man is irritable
when vexed: he is not even spoken of as a bad-tempered man, when in
such circumstances he loses his temper somewhat, but rather is said
to be affected. Such conditions are therefore termed, not qualities,
but affections.

The fourth sort of quality is figure and the shape that belongs to
a thing; and besides this, straightness and curvedness and any other
qualities of this type; each of these defines a thing as being such
and such. Because it is triangular or quadrangular a thing is said
to have a specific character, or again because it is straight or curved;
in fact a thing's shape in every case gives rise to a qualification
of it.

Rarity and density, roughness and smoothness, seem to be terms indicating

quality: yet these, it would appear, really belong to a class different
from that of quality. For it is rather a certain relative position
of the parts composing the thing thus qualified which, it appears,
is indicated by each of these terms. A thing is dense, owing to the
fact that its parts are closely combined with one another; rare, because
there are interstices between the parts; smooth, because its parts
lie, so to speak, evenly; rough, because some parts project beyond
others.
There may be other sorts of quality, but those that are most properly
so called have, we may safely say, been enumerated.

These, then, are qualities, and the things that take their name from
them as derivatives, or are in some other way dependent on them, are
said to be qualified in some specific way. In most, indeed in almost
all cases, the name of that which is qualified is derived from that
of the quality. Thus the terms 'whiteness', 'grammar', 'justice',
give us the adjectives 'white', 'grammatical', 'just', and so on.

There are some cases, however, in which, as the quality under consideration
has no name, it is impossible that those possessed of it should have
a name that is derivative. For instance, the name given to the runner
or boxer, who is so called in virtue of an inborn capacity, is not
derived from that of any quality; for lob those capacities have no
name assigned to them. In this, the inborn capacity is distinct from
the science, with reference to which men are called, e.g. boxers or
wrestlers. Such a science is classed as a disposition; it has a name,
and is called 'boxing' or 'wrestling' as the case may be, and the
name given to those disposed in this way is derived from that of the
science. Sometimes, even though a name exists for the quality, that
which takes its character from the quality has a name that is not
a derivative. For instance, the upright man takes his character from
the possession of the quality of integrity, but the name given him
is not derived from the word 'integrity'. Yet this does not occur
often.

We may therefore state that those things are said to be possessed

of some specific quality which have a name derived from that of the
aforesaid quality, or which are in some other way dependent on it.

One quality may be the contrary of another; thus justice is the contrary
of injustice, whiteness of blackness, and so on. The things, also,
which are said to be such and such in virtue of these qualities, may
be contrary the one to the other; for that which is unjust is contrary
to that which is just, that which is white to that which is black.
This, however, is not always the case. Red, yellow, and such colours,
though qualities, have no contraries.

If one of two contraries is a quality, the other will also be a quality.

This will be evident from particular instances, if we apply the names
used to denote the other categories; for instance, granted that justice
is the contrary of injustice and justice is a quality, injustice will
also be a quality: neither quantity, nor relation, nor place, nor
indeed any other category but that of quality, will be applicable
properly to injustice. So it is with all other contraries falling
under the category of quality.

Qualities admit of variation of degree. Whiteness is predicated of

one thing in a greater or less degree than of another. This is also
the case with reference to justice. Moreover, one and the same thing
may exhibit a quality in a greater degree than it did before: if a
thing is white, it may become whiter.

Though this is generally the case, there are exceptions. For if we

should say that justice admitted of variation of degree, difficulties
might ensue, and this is true with regard to all those qualities which
are dispositions. There are some, indeed, who dispute the possibility
of variation here. They maintain that justice and health cannot very
well admit of variation of degree themselves, but that people vary
in the degree in which they possess these qualities, and that this
is the case with grammatical learning and all those qualities which
are classed as dispositions. However that may be, it is an incontrovertible
fact that the things which in virtue of these qualities are said to
be what they are vary in the degree in which they possess them; for
one man is said to be better versed in grammar, or more healthy or
just, than another, and so on.

The qualities expressed by the terms 'triangular' and 'quadrangular'

do not appear to admit of variation of degree, nor indeed do any that
have to do with figure. For those things to which the definition of
the triangle or circle is applicable are all equally triangular or
circular. Those, on the other hand, to which the same definition is
not applicable, cannot be said to differ from one another in degree;
the square is no more a circle than the rectangle, for to neither
is the definition of the circle appropriate. In short, if the definition
of the term proposed is not applicable to both objects, they cannot
be compared. Thus it is not all qualities which admit of variation
of degree.

Whereas none of the characteristics I have mentioned are peculiar

to quality, the fact that likeness and unlikeness can be predicated
with reference to quality only, gives to that category its distinctive
feature. One thing is like another only with reference to that in
virtue of which it is such and such; thus this forms the peculiar
mark of quality.

We must not be disturbed because it may be argued that, though proposing

to discuss the category of quality, we have included in it many relative
terms. We did say that habits and dispositions were relative. In practically
all such cases the genus is relative, the individual not. Thus knowledge,
as a genus, is explained by reference to something else, for we mean
a knowledge of something. But particular branches of knowledge are
not thus explained. The knowledge of grammar is not relative to anything
external, nor is the knowledge of music, but these, if relative at
all, are relative only in virtue of their genera; thus grammar is
said be the knowledge of something, not the grammar of something;
similarly music is the knowledge of something, not the music of something.

Thus individual branches of knowledge are not relative. And it is

because we possess these individual branches of knowledge that we
are said to be such and such. It is these that we actually possess:
we are called experts because we possess knowledge in some particular
branch. Those particular branches, therefore, of knowledge, in virtue
of which we are sometimes said to be such and such, are themselves
qualities, and are not relative. Further, if anything should happen
to fall within both the category of quality and that of relation,
there would be nothing extraordinary in classing it under both these
heads.

----------------------------------------------------------------------

SECTION 3

Part 9

Action and affection both admit of contraries and also of variation

of degree. Heating is the contrary of cooling, being heated of being
cooled, being glad of being vexed. Thus they admit of contraries.
They also admit of variation of degree: for it is possible to heat
in a greater or less degree; also to be heated in a greater or less
degree. Thus action and affection also admit of variation of degree.
So much, then, is stated with regard to these categories.

We spoke, moreover, of the category of position when we were dealing

with that of relation, and stated that such terms derived their names
from those of the corresponding attitudes.

As for the rest, time, place, state, since they are easily intelligible,
I say no more about them than was said at the beginning, that in the
category of state are included such states as 'shod', 'armed', in
that of place 'in the Lyceum' and so on, as was explained before.

Part 10

The proposed categories have, then, been adequately dealt with.

We must next explain the various senses in which the term 'opposite'
is used. Things are said to be opposed in four senses: (i) as correlatives
to one another, (ii) as contraries to one another, (iii) as privatives
to positives, (iv) as affirmatives to negatives.

Let me sketch my meaning in outline. An instance of the use of the

word 'opposite' with reference to correlatives is afforded by the
expressions 'double' and 'half'; with reference to contraries by 'bad'
and 'good'. Opposites in the sense of 'privatives' and 'positives'
are' blindness' and 'sight'; in the sense of affirmatives and negatives,
the propositions 'he sits', 'he does not sit'.

(i) Pairs of opposites which fall under the category of relation are
explained by a reference of the one to the other, the reference being
indicated by the preposition 'of' or by some other preposition. Thus,
double is a relative term, for that which is double is explained as
the double of something. Knowledge, again, is the opposite of the
thing known, in the same sense; and the thing known also is explained
by its relation to its opposite, knowledge. For the thing known is
explained as that which is known by something, that is, by knowledge.
Such things, then, as are opposite the one to the other in the sense
of being correlatives are explained by a reference of the one to the
other.

(ii) Pairs of opposites which are contraries are not in any way interdependent,
but are contrary the one to the other. The good is not spoken of as
the good of the had, but as the contrary of the bad, nor is white
spoken of as the white of the black, but as the contrary of the black.
These two types of opposition are therefore distinct. Those contraries
which are such that the subjects in which they are naturally present,
or of which they are predicated, must necessarily contain either the
one or the other of them, have no intermediate, but those in the case
of which no such necessity obtains, always have an intermediate. Thus
disease and health are naturally present in the body of an animal,
and it is necessary that either the one or the other should be present
in the body of an animal. Odd and even, again, are predicated of number,
and it is necessary that the one or the other should be present in
numbers. Now there is no intermediate between the terms of either
of these two pairs. On the other hand, in those contraries with regard
to which no such necessity obtains, we find an intermediate. Blackness
and whiteness are naturally present in the body, but it is not necessary
that either the one or the other should be present in the body, inasmuch
as it is not true to say that everybody must be white or black. Badness
and goodness, again, are predicated of man, and of many other things,
but it is not necessary that either the one quality or the other should
be present in that of which they are predicated: it is not true to
say that everything that may be good or bad must be either good or
bad. These pairs of contraries have intermediates: the intermediates
between white and black are grey, sallow, and all the other colours
that come between; the intermediate between good and bad is that which
is neither the one nor the other.

Some intermediate qualities have names, such as grey and sallow and
all the other colours that come between white and black; in other
cases, however, it is not easy to name the intermediate, but we must
define it as that which is not either extreme, as in the case of that
which is neither good nor bad, neither just nor unjust.

(iii) 'privatives' and 'Positives' have reference to the same subject.

Thus, sight and blindness have reference to the eye. It is a universal
rule that each of a pair of opposites of this type has reference to
that to which the particular 'positive' is natural. We say that that
is capable of some particular faculty or possession has suffered privation
when the faculty or possession in question is in no way present in
that in which, and at the time at which, it should naturally be present.
We do not call that toothless which has not teeth, or that blind which
has not sight, but rather that which has not teeth or sight at the
time when by nature it should. For there are some creatures which
from birth are without sight, or without teeth, but these are not
called toothless or blind.

To be without some faculty or to possess it is not the same as the

corresponding 'privative' or 'positive'. 'Sight' is a 'positive',
'blindness' a 'privative', but 'to possess sight' is not equivalent
to 'sight', 'to be blind' is not equivalent to 'blindness'. Blindness
is a 'privative', to be blind is to be in a state of privation, but
is not a 'privative'. Moreover, if 'blindness' were equivalent to
'being blind', both would be predicated of the same subject; but though
a man is said to be blind, he is by no means said to be blindness.

To be in a state of 'possession' is, it appears, the opposite of being

in a state of 'privation', just as 'positives' and 'privatives' themselves
are opposite. There is the same type of antithesis in both cases;
for just as blindness is opposed to sight, so is being blind opposed
to having sight.

That which is affirmed or denied is not itself affirmation or denial.

By 'affirmation' we mean an affirmative proposition, by 'denial' a
negative. Now, those facts which form the matter of the affirmation
or denial are not propositions; yet these two are said to be opposed
in the same sense as the affirmation and denial, for in this case
also the type of antithesis is the same. For as the affirmation is
opposed to the denial, as in the two propositions 'he sits', 'he does
not sit', so also the fact which constitutes the matter of the proposition
in one case is opposed to that in the other, his sitting, that is
to say, to his not sitting.

It is evident that 'positives' and 'privatives' are not opposed each

to each in the same sense as relatives. The one is not explained by
reference to the other; sight is not sight of blindness, nor is any
other preposition used to indicate the relation. Similarly blindness
is not said to be blindness of sight, but rather, privation of sight.
Relatives, moreover, reciprocate; if blindness, therefore, were a
relative, there would be a reciprocity of relation between it and
that with which it was correlative. But this is not the case. Sight
is not called the sight of blindness.

That those terms which fall under the heads of 'positives' and 'privatives'
are not opposed each to each as contraries, either, is plain from
the following facts: Of a pair of contraries such that they have no
intermediate, one or the other must needs be present in the subject
in which they naturally subsist, or of which they are predicated;
for it is those, as we proved,' in the case of which this necessity
obtains, that have no intermediate. Moreover, we cited health and
disease, odd and even, as instances. But those contraries which have
an intermediate are not subject to any such necessity. It is not necessary
that every substance, receptive of such qualities, should be either
black or white, cold or hot, for something intermediate between these
contraries may very well be present in the subject. We proved, moreover,
that those contraries have an intermediate in the case of which the
said necessity does not obtain. Yet when one of the two contraries
is a constitutive property of the subject, as it is a constitutive
property of fire to be hot, of snow to be white, it is necessary determinately
that one of the two contraries, not one or the other, should be present
in the subject; for fire cannot be cold, or snow black. Thus, it is
not the case here that one of the two must needs be present in every
subject receptive of these qualities, but only in that subject of
which the one forms a constitutive property. Moreover, in such cases
it is one member of the pair determinately, and not either the one
or the other, which must be present.

In the case of 'positives' and 'privatives', on the other hand, neither

of the aforesaid statements holds good. For it is not necessary that
a subject receptive of the qualities should always have either the
one or the other; that which has not yet advanced to the state when
sight is natural is not said either to be blind or to see. Thus 'positives'
and 'privatives' do not belong to that class of contraries which consists
of those which have no intermediate. On the other hand, they do not
belong either to that class which consists of contraries which have
an intermediate. For under certain conditions it is necessary that
either the one or the other should form part of the constitution of
every appropriate subject. For when a thing has reached the stage
when it is by nature capable of sight, it will be said either to see
or to be blind, and that in an indeterminate sense, signifying that
the capacity may be either present or absent; for it is not necessary
either that it should see or that it should be blind, but that it
should be either in the one state or in the other. Yet in the case
of those contraries which have an intermediate we found that it was
never necessary that either the one or the other should be present
in every appropriate subject, but only that in certain subjects one
of the pair should be present, and that in a determinate sense. It
is, therefore, plain that 'positives' and 'privatives' are not opposed
each to each in either of the senses in which contraries are opposed.

Again, in the case of contraries, it is possible that there should

be changes from either into the other, while the subject retains its
identity, unless indeed one of the contraries is a constitutive property
of that subject, as heat is of fire. For it is possible that that
that which is healthy should become diseased, that which is white,
black, that which is cold, hot, that which is good, bad, that which
is bad, good. The bad man, if he is being brought into a better way
of life and thought, may make some advance, however slight, and if
he should once improve, even ever so little, it is plain that he might
change completely, or at any rate make very great progress; for a
man becomes more and more easily moved to virtue, however small the
improvement was at first. It is, therefore, natural to suppose that
he will make yet greater progress than he has made in the past; and
as this process goes on, it will change him completely and establish
him in the contrary state, provided he is not hindered by lack of
time. In the case of 'positives' and 'privatives', however, change
in both directions is impossible. There may be a change from possession
to privation, but not from privation to possession. The man who has
become blind does not regain his sight; the man who has become bald
does not regain his hair; the man who has lost his teeth does not
grow his grow a new set. (iv) Statements opposed as affirmation and
negation belong manifestly to a class which is distinct, for in this
case, and in this case only, it is necessary for the one opposite
to be true and the other false.

Neither in the case of contraries, nor in the case of correlatives,

nor in the case of 'positives' and 'privatives', is it necessary for
one to be true and the other false. Health and disease are contraries:
neither of them is true or false. 'Double' and 'half' are opposed
to each other as correlatives: neither of them is true or false. The
case is the same, of course, with regard to 'positives' and 'privatives'
such as 'sight' and 'blindness'. In short, where there is no sort
of combination of words, truth and falsity have no place, and all
the opposites we have mentioned so far consist of simple words.

At the same time, when the words which enter into opposed statements
are contraries, these, more than any other set of opposites, would
seem to claim this characteristic. 'Socrates is ill' is the contrary
of 'Socrates is well', but not even of such composite expressions
is it true to say that one of the pair must always be true and the
other false. For if Socrates exists, one will be true and the other
false, but if he does not exist, both will be false; for neither 'Socrates
is ill' nor 'Socrates is well' is true, if Socrates does not exist
at all.

In the case of 'positives' and 'privatives', if the subject does not

exist at all, neither proposition is true, but even if the subject
exists, it is not always the fact that one is true and the other false.
For 'Socrates has sight' is the opposite of 'Socrates is blind' in
the sense of the word 'opposite' which applies to possession and privation.
Now if Socrates exists, it is not necessary that one should be true
and the other false, for when he is not yet able to acquire the power
of vision, both are false, as also if Socrates is altogether non-existent.

But in the case of affirmation and negation, whether the subject exists
or not, one is always false and the other true. For manifestly, if
Socrates exists, one of the two propositions 'Socrates is ill', 'Socrates
is not ill', is true, and the other false. This is likewise the case
if he does not exist; for if he does not exist, to say that he is
ill is false, to say that he is not ill is true. Thus it is in the
case of those opposites only, which are opposite in the sense in which
the term is used with reference to affirmation and negation, that
the rule holds good, that one of the pair must be true and the other
false.

Part 11

That the contrary of a good is an evil is shown by induction: the

contrary of health is disease, of courage, cowardice, and so on. But
the contrary of an evil is sometimes a good, sometimes an evil. For
defect, which is an evil, has excess for its contrary, this also being
an evil, and the mean. which is a good, is equally the contrary of
the one and of the other. It is only in a few cases, however, that
we see instances of this: in most, the contrary of an evil is a good.

In the case of contraries, it is not always necessary that if one

exists the other should also exist: for if all become healthy there
will be health and no disease, and again, if everything turns white,
there will be white, but no black. Again, since the fact that Socrates
is ill is the contrary of the fact that Socrates is well, and two
contrary conditions cannot both obtain in one and the same individual
at the same time, both these contraries could not exist at once: for
if that Socrates was well was a fact, then that Socrates was ill could
not possibly be one.

It is plain that contrary attributes must needs be present in subjects

which belong to the same species or genus. Disease and health require
as their subject the body of an animal; white and black require a
body, without further qualification; justice and injustice require
as their subject the human soul.

Moreover, it is necessary that pairs of contraries should in all cases

either belong to the same genus or belong to contrary genera or be
themselves genera. White and black belong to the same genus, colour;
justice and injustice, to contrary genera, virtue and vice; while
good and evil do not belong to genera, but are themselves actual genera,
with terms under them.

Part 12

There are four senses in which one thing can be said to be 'prior'
to another. Primarily and most properly the term has reference to
time: in this sense the word is used to indicate that one thing is
older or more ancient than another, for the expressions 'older' and
'more ancient' imply greater length of time.

Secondly, one thing is said to be 'prior' to another when the sequence

of their being cannot be reversed. In this sense 'one' is 'prior'
to 'two'. For if 'two' exists, it follows directly that 'one' must
exist, but if 'one' exists, it does not follow necessarily that 'two'
exists: thus the sequence subsisting cannot be reversed. It is agreed,
then, that when the sequence of two things cannot be reversed, then
that one on which the other depends is called 'prior' to that other.

In the third place, the term 'prior' is used with reference to any
order, as in the case of science and of oratory. For in sciences which
use demonstration there is that which is prior and that which is posterior
in order; in geometry, the elements are prior to the propositions;
in reading and writing, the letters of the alphabet are prior to the
syllables. Similarly, in the case of speeches, the exordium is prior
in order to the narrative.
Besides these senses of the word, there is a fourth. That which is
better and more honourable is said to have a natural priority. In
common parlance men speak of those whom they honour and love as 'coming
first' with them. This sense of the word is perhaps the most far-fetched.

Such, then, are the different senses in which the term 'prior' is
used.

Yet it would seem that besides those mentioned there is yet another.
For in those things, the being of each of which implies that of the
other, that which is in any way the cause may reasonably be said to
be by nature 'prior' to the effect. It is plain that there are instances
of this. The fact of the being of a man carries with it the truth
of the proposition that he is, and the implication is reciprocal:
for if a man is, the proposition wherein we allege that he is true,
and conversely, if the proposition wherein we allege that he is true,
then he is. The true proposition, however, is in no way the cause
of the being of the man, but the fact of the man's being does seem
somehow to be the cause of the truth of the proposition, for the truth
or falsity of the proposition depends on the fact of the man's being
or not being.

Thus the word 'prior' may be used in five senses.

Part 13

The term 'simultaneous' is primarily and most appropriately applied

to those things the genesis of the one of which is simultaneous with
that of the other; for in such cases neither is prior or posterior
to the other. Such things are said to be simultaneous in point of
time. Those things, again, are 'simultaneous' in point of nature,
the being of each of which involves that of the other, while at the
same time neither is the cause of the other's being. This is the case
with regard to the double and the half, for these are reciprocally
dependent, since, if there is a double, there is also a half, and
if there is a half, there is also a double, while at the same time
neither is the cause of the being of the other.

Again, those species which are distinguished one from another and
opposed one to another within the same genus are said to be 'simultaneous'
in nature. I mean those species which are distinguished each from
each by one and the same method of division. Thus the 'winged' species
is simultaneous with the 'terrestrial' and the 'water' species. These
are distinguished within the same genus, and are opposed each to each,
for the genus 'animal' has the 'winged', the 'terrestrial', and the
'water' species, and no one of these is prior or posterior to another;
on the contrary, all such things appear to be 'simultaneous' in nature.
Each of these also, the terrestrial, the winged, and the water species,
can be divided again into subspecies. Those species, then, also will
be 'simultaneous' point of nature, which, belonging to the same genus,
are distinguished each from each by one and the same method of differentiation.

But genera are prior to species, for the sequence of their being cannot
be reversed. If there is the species 'water-animal', there will be
the genus 'animal', but granted the being of the genus 'animal', it
does not follow necessarily that there will be the species 'water-animal'.

Those things, therefore, are said to be 'simultaneous' in nature,

the being of each of which involves that of the other, while at the
same time neither is in any way the cause of the other's being; those
species, also, which are distinguished each from each and opposed
within the same genus. Those things, moreover, are 'simultaneous'
in the unqualified sense of the word which come into being at the
same time.

Part 14

There are six sorts of movement: generation, destruction, increase,

diminution, alteration, and change of place.

It is evident in all but one case that all these sorts of movement
are distinct each from each. Generation is distinct from destruction,
increase and change of place from diminution, and so on. But in the
case of alteration it may be argued that the process necessarily implies
one or other of the other five sorts of motion. This is not true,
for we may say that all affections, or nearly all, produce in us an
alteration which is distinct from all other sorts of motion, for that
which is affected need not suffer either increase or diminution or
any of the other sorts of motion. Thus alteration is a distinct sort
of motion; for, if it were not, the thing altered would not only be
altered, but would forthwith necessarily suffer increase or diminution
or some one of the other sorts of motion in addition; which as a matter
of fact is not the case. Similarly that which was undergoing the process
of increase or was subject to some other sort of motion would, if
alteration were not a distinct form of motion, necessarily be subject
to alteration also. But there are some things which undergo increase
but yet not alteration. The square, for instance, if a gnomon is applied
to it, undergoes increase but not alteration, and so it is with all
other figures of this sort. Alteration and increase, therefore, are
distinct.

Speaking generally, rest is the contrary of motion. But the different

forms of motion have their own contraries in other forms; thus destruction
is the contrary of generation, diminution of increase, rest in a place,
of change of place. As for this last, change in the reverse direction
would seem to be most truly its contrary; thus motion upwards is the
contrary of motion downwards and vice versa.

In the case of that sort of motion which yet remains, of those that
have been enumerated, it is not easy to state what is its contrary.
It appears to have no contrary, unless one should define the contrary
here also either as 'rest in its quality' or as 'change in the direction
of the contrary quality', just as we defined the contrary of change
of place either as rest in a place or as change in the reverse direction.
For a thing is altered when change of quality takes place; therefore
either rest in its quality or change in the direction of the contrary
may be called the contrary of this qualitative form of motion. In
this way becoming white is the contrary of becoming black; there is
alteration in the contrary direction, since a change of a qualitative
nature takes place.

Part 15

The term 'to have' is used in various senses. In the first place it
is used with reference to habit or disposition or any other quality,
for we are said to 'have' a piece of knowledge or a virtue. Then,
again, it has reference to quantity, as, for instance, in the case
of a man's height; for he is said to 'have' a height of three or four
cubits. It is used, moreover, with regard to apparel, a man being
said to 'have' a coat or tunic; or in respect of something which we
have on a part of ourselves, as a ring on the hand: or in respect
of something which is a part of us, as hand or foot. The term refers
also to content, as in the case of a vessel and wheat, or of a jar
and wine; a jar is said to 'have' wine, and a corn-measure wheat.
The expression in such cases has reference to content. Or it refers
to that which has been acquired; we are said to 'have' a house or
a field. A man is also said to 'have' a wife, and a wife a husband,
and this appears to be the most remote meaning of the term, for by
the use of it we mean simply that the husband lives with the wife.

Other senses of the word might perhaps be found, but the most ordinary
ones have all been enumerated.

THE END

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Translation of "The Deeds of the Divine Augustus" by Augustus is
copyright (C) Thomas Bushnell, BSG.