Notes on the Calusari

MIRCEA ELIADE
University of Chicago

Having all his life studied the origin and function of the seasonal masquerades, espe-
cially the early history of the mummers' play and the custom of riding the hobbyhorse
at seasonal festivals, Theodor H. Gaster could not ignore the Romanian Calu~ari.1 It is
appropriate then to contribute to a volume in his honor these notes on one of the most
spectacular popular dances of Europe, and the more so since some recent works in Eng-
lish might convey to a nonspecialist an incomplete or even devious image of the Calujari.2
The problem is far from simple. The most specific, and certainly the most archaic
elements, indicate an association on the order of a Miinnerbund , with a choreographic
ritual and cathartic purposes. However, the mythical model of the Calu5ari seems to be
comprised of a specific group of fairies (zane, iele), namely the Rusalii. The patroness of
the dancers is Irodiada (=Herodiada) or Arada, a folkloric demigoddess who is also called
"Queen of the Fairies" (Doamna Zanelor) . In addition, there are contaminations or
influences from other seasonal masquerades. As it was performed during the nineteenth
century, the calli) certainly presented a composite character.
The name of the dance, c'a!u!j , derives from the R~manian term for 'horse', cal (Latin
caballus). Moreover, a wooden horsehead, partially or wholly covered, is carried by one
of the dancers. These facts must be kept in mind while investigating the origin and func-
tion of the dance group. Symbolically, the "horse" inspires some of the most daring
choreographic and acrobatic movements. The group is composed of seven, nine or eleven
young men, selected and instructed by a leader (vataj).3 One of them carries the "flag,"

1 In the Foreword to his edition of F. M. Corn ford, The Origin of Attic Comedy (New York, 1961),
xx, n. 33 (p . 231). Gaster quotes the article of R. Vuia, "The Roumanian Hobby-horse: the Clilu§ari"
Uournal of the English Folk Dance and Song Society 11 119351, 97-111.). However, he does not seem to
be aware of Vuia 's monograph, "Originea jocului de caJu§llri" (Dacoromania 11 [19221, 215-54), which
presents and analyzes all the pertinent informations available at the time.
2 For instance, the extract from Alex Helm's manuscript of his Lectures at Keele University, Folk
Studies Conference (Summer 1966) published by Alan Brody as an Appendix to his book, The English
Mummers and their Plays: Traces of Anciellt Mystery (Philadelphia, 1969), 163-66, presents a distorted
version, inappropriately designated as "The Rumanian Kalusari Play ." Cf. our forthcoming review in
History of Religions (1974) . The most important documentary sources are: Tudor Pamfile, Sarbatorile
de varl! la Romani (Bucharest, 1910), 54-75: Theodor T . Burada, Istoria teatrului In Moldova (jassy, 1915),
1: 62-70. New materials are presented by Mihai Pop, "Consideratii etnogr'afice ~i medicale asupra calu§ului
oltenesc" in Despre medicina popular;; romQneasca (Bucharest, 1970), 213-22 ; Gheorghe Vrabie, Folclorul
(Bucharest, 1970), 511-31; Horia Barbu Oprisan, CalujIlrii (Bucharest, 1969).
3 In some provinces, the age of the calu~ari ranges between twenty and sixty years. Usually, one remains
with the group at least three years. The leader (vataf! is not elected, but appointed by his predecessor; he
keeps the position as many years as he wants, in some cases all his life.
 JANES 5 (1973) Eliade: Notes on the Calusari

116

a pole 4 decorated with multicolor ribbons and a bag of medicinal plants (mugwort,
garlic, etc.) on the top. Another man, called the "Mute" (mutul, in Vallachia) or the
"Dirty One" or the " Masked" (bloj in Transylvania) is, as we shall see, a figure clearly
distinct from the rest of the group. The instruction given to these young men mainly
consists of learning to perform the numerous dances, especially the acrobatic jumping in
the air with the legs tucked together. The training is carried out during two or three
weeks in a nearby forest. Once definitely accepted by the vata[, the men gather on Whit-
sunday's eve at a secret place; and with the hands on the "flag" they swear to God to
respect the calu)ari's customs and rules, to be like brothers to one another, to observe
chastity for the coming nine (or twelve or fourteen) days, to not divulge to an outsider
what they will see or hear, and especially to obey the leaderS During the oath-taking
ceremony, the "Mute" stands at a certain distance, without uttering a single word. At
the end, all of them pass under the arch formed by the arms of two caluJari.
In Banat, the ceremony is carried out on Whitsunday, at dawn, and is concluded with
the "sunrise dance": the leader raises his sword upright and the first caluJar (who carries
the wooden horsehead) touches it with a stick, to which a small hammer is fastened at
its end. In Transylvania the ritual of oath-taking is accomplished at a place "within the
nine boundaries." The calu,mri, each carrying a bludgeon, arrange themselves in a circle
and pray to Irodeasa (=Herodiada) for protection; when the leader sprinkles them with
water "drawn from nine sources," the dancers raise the clubs and, looking towards the
East, knock the clubs one against the other. Finally they go home, without glancing
back 6 From then on, until the ceremonial dispersal of the group, the caluJari stay to-
gether: no one is allowed to be alone, not even for a short period. After the oat h-taking
the "flag" with medicinal plants is hoisted and the caluJari are forbidden to speak, for
fear of being "taken by the c'(!lu)," that is, made sick by the Rusalii.
Most of these elements remind one of an initiation in a Mannerbund; the isolation
in the forest, the vow of secrecy, the role of a flag, the club and the sword, the symbolism
of the wooden horsehead. In his Descriptio Moldaviae, Prince Dimitrie Cantemir adds
some significant information. According to him, the caluJari

dress themselves in women's clothes and wear on their heads wreathes made of
mugwort. They decorate themselves with flowers; they speak with feminine
voices, and in order not to be recognized they cover their faces with white linen.
Each has a sword ready to slay anyone who would dare to uncover their faces.

4 Cf. Tudor Pamfile, Vazdu/ml dupa credin~ele poporului roman (Bucharest, 1915), 75f.; Oprisan,
caluJarii, 162f.
5 On the oath-taking ceremony cf., inter alia, T. Francu and G. Candrea, Romanii din Muntii Apuseni
(Bucharest, 1888), 131 L; G. T. Niculescu-Varone, }ocurile nafionale romane5ti (Bucharest, 1938), 136f.;
Octavian Bohociu, Le folklore roumain de printemps (typewritten thesis, Universite de Paris, 1957) , 239L
6 Francu and Candrea, Romanii, 130-31; Vrabie, Folcloml, 512, 516f.
 JANES 5 (1973) Eliade: Notes on the Calusari
117

If they kill someone, they are not held responsible, for they possess this privi-
lege as an old custom . . ..They know more than one-hundred different dances,
and some of the steps are so marvelous that those who dance do not seem to
touch the ground , as if they were actually flying in the air .... They sleep only
in churches, for. they sa y. if they slept elsewhere they would be tormented by
the mischievous fairies. The simple people credit the calu .1ari with the power of
driving away many diseases}

Some of the details communicated by Cantemir are nowhere else recorded during the nine-
teenth century; for instance, the masks,8 the change of voice ("feminine voices") in order
not to be recognized,9 the "swords without sheaths." As for the "old custom" exempting
the caluJari from trial in case of homicide, this was a priviledge also granted to other
associations, especially that of the colindatori (singers of Christmas carols) . Until recen tly,
when two groups of call/Jari met one another they engaged in a vio'lent fight. 1 0 The
most important element in Cantemir's description of the cail/Jari is his reference to their
exceptional choreographic mastery. As a matter of fact, the first historical records emphasize
exclusively the acrobatic excellence of the dancers. Thus, a certain Daniil Dozsa describes
minutely the fete given by the Prince of Transylvania, Zigmund Bathori , at Alba lulia, on the
19th of October 1599, in honor of the family of Mihai the Brave, the Voivode of Vallachia.
Twelve pillars were planted in a circle, and on top of each was placed a plank of two square
meters. On each plank a caluJari was dancing. At a certain moment during the dance, all the
cillu§ari jump from one pillar to the next, exchanging their pLaces simultaneously. As a finale,
each pulls a rope at the end of which is attached a large piece of canvas. On it stands their
leader who is gradually raised from the ground. As he nears the top, with a sudden jerk of
the canvas, he is tossed high in the air. 11
Thus the central and specific attribute of the c'fliuJari seems to have been their acrobatic-
choreographic skill especially the ability to create the impression of flying in the air. Even
today the most spectacular of their many dances is a series of very high, repeated jumps in the
air. These dances are exhausting but they are not "ecstatic," and the fatigue of a c7lluJar
does not resemble that of a shaman . It is obvious that springing, leaping, jumping and bound-
ing indicate the galloping of the horse and, at the .same time, the flying and the dancing of the
Rusalii. As a matter of fact, those who are supposed to have been made sick by the Rusalii

7 Dimitrie Cantemir, Descriptio Moldaviae (Bucharest, 1872), 129-30 (new Romanian translation,
Bucharest, 1956, 249). Most probably, Cantemir's memories from his childhood in Modavia go back to
the years 1685-86.
8 One can still recognize the traces of a mask on the ribbon handing down from the back of the calu~ar 's
hat ; cf. Romulus Vulcanescu, Maftile popl/lare (Bucharest, 1970), 168.
9 As a rule, the call/sari do not speak much .
10 We shall discuss ~his problem in a comparative article on the seasonal and cathartic dances in Eastern
Europe.
11 The relation of Dozsa was abundantly quoted; cf. Burada, lstoria tl!atrului til Moldova. 68f; idem,
lstoria teatrului;', Romania (Bucharest, 1965), 1 :48; Vulcanescu, Mastile popillare, 165f. On the ground
another hundred call/sari were dancing. Being an official reception in 'honor of the reigning Prince, most
probably the call/sari'were not permitted to wear masks; cf. Vulcanescu, ibid., 166.
)
 JANES 5 (1973) Eliade: Notes on the Calusari

118

begin to jump and shout "like the caluJari" and it "seems that they do not touch the earth ."12
The intimate relationship between the Rusalii and the calu~ari is undoubted; specific diseases13
are caused by the Rusalii during the Whitsunday week, and only the calu§ari have the power
to cure them, and they have this power only during these days. Furthermore, the patient is
indifferently designated as having been "taken by the Iele" (Rusalii), or "taken by the calur"
As we have already noticed, the ciHuJari are very much afraid of the Rusalii and they protect
themselves by following certain rules, and making special use of medicinal herbs. 14
The relations between calusari and Rusalii are paradoxically ambivalent: the dancers ask
for and count on, the protection of Herodiada, but they also risk becoming the victims of her
troop of attendants, the Iele and Rusalii. At least in the past (cf. Cantemir) the calu~ari
endeavored to look like women, and in their dances they imitated the flying of the Rusalii.
At the same time they emphasized their solidarity with the horse, a masculine and "heroic"
symbol par excellence (in spite of the horse's funerary role as a psychopomp). It was generally
held that the Iele were afraid of horses and ran away from them. For this reason there is the
the custom of sticking a horsehead on a pole, or of carving the image of a horse on a door, on
the pillars of a veranda or on the beams sustaining a roof. 15
These ambivalent relations between the calu¥lri and the Rusalii are manifest also in their
patterns of behavior and their activities. For approximately two weeks the calu§ari visit all the
villages and hamlets in the neighborhood, accompanied by two or there fiddlers, dancing and
playing, and at times trying to cure the victims of the Rusalii. It is believed that during the
same period, that is, from the third week after Easter until around Whitsunday, the Rusalii are
flying, singing, and dancing, especially by night; one can hear their bells, and also the drums
and other musical instruments, for the fairies have at their service a number of fiddlers and
bagpipers, and even a flag bearer. 16 According to the general tradition, there are nine rele or
Rusalii, but others believe that there are either twelve or more, or else only two or three. They
have wings and fly disheveled, sometimes with the breast naked. They paralyze or maim those
who see them dancing, or who work on the Thurdsay after Easter or on Whitsunday. 17 'The
most effective protection against the Rusalii is the garlic and the mugwort, that is, the same

12 Cf. Vrabie, Folclorul, 525.

13 Among them, rheumatism, hemiplegia, epilepsy, cholera, pellegra, and pest: see Pop, Considerafii,
216f. Cf., also C. C. Ghenea, "ContribuJii la studiul dansului dilusarilor," lstoria Medicinei. Studii si
Cercetari (Bucharest, 1957), 232-41, esp. 237f.
14 In the province of Oltenia there is a belief that among the caluIari [hose who have broken [he oath
are "taken by the caluf." (Even the entire group is "taken" if it let the "flag" fall down). The same thing
can happen to anyone who comes too close to the dancers. For this reason the dancing ground is marked
with a circle (cf. Pop, Consideratii, 217) and also the "Mute," whirling his whip menacingly, keeps the
spectators away from the caluJari's circle.
15 Cf. Ghenea, ContribuJii, 239 .
16 The most complete survey of the belief in [ele and Rusalii, based on materials collected around 1885,
is to be found in Ion Muslea and Ovidiu Blrlea, Tipologia folclorului, din raspunsurile la chestionarele lui B. B.
P. Hasdeu (Bucharest, 1970), 209f.
17 The Romanian name of Whitsuntide (Pentecost) is Rusalii, from Latin Rosalia, a feast of [he dead,
when the tombs were adorned with roses. The fact that the old Italic name was adopted by the mixed
 JANES 5 (1973) Eliade: Notes on the Calusari
119

magico-medicinal plants that are in the bag tied to the top of the "flag." The calu§ari chew
as much garlic as they can stand, and in the course of the cure, the vata[ spits garlic on the
patient's face.
Essentially the cure consists of the performance of specific dances dedicated to the invalid
and concluded by some ritual acts. The sick person is touched with herbs and spit on with
garlic, a jug with water is broken, one black chicken is sacrificed, etc. 18 In the province of
Oltenia the patient is carried outside the village to the edge of a wood and .placed in the\middle
of the calu~ari's circle. The most dramatic moment is the "throwing down" of one of the
dancers . A particular calu§ar, who has been indicated by the leader's steady gaze upon him,
dances more and more frantically and, at a certain moment, when the vata[ touches him with
the "flag," he "falls down ." The syncope, whether real-that is, obtained through suggestion
or autosuggestion- or faked, lasts between two and five minutes. At the moment of the
calu§ar's fall the patient is supposed to rise and run away ; in any case, two call/§ari take him
under their arms and run far from the place. 19 The therapeutic intention of the syncope is
obvious; the illness leaves the patient and enters into a calu§ar, who consequently "dies" but
soon returns to life for he is an "initiate." A similar scenario is re-enacted, but in a gay and
parodying mood, in the intervals between the dances and particularly on the last day of the
caluJ.
A series of burlesque sketches are usually performed betwee'n the dances or at the end.
For instance, one of the calu~ari disappears and the leader orders the "Mute" to go and search
for him . When the "Mute" brings back the fugitive, a number of his companions begin beat-
ing his soles with their clubs. The "Mute" tries to rescue him, but he himself is seized by the
calu5ari, raised on the clubs and suddenly dropped on the ground. Considered dead, the
"Mute" is lamented by the entire group and prepared for burial, but not before they skin him,
etc. 20 The most successful of the "dramatic" sketches take place in the last day, when the
group returns to the village. The final dramatization is called the "war." The "flag" is solidly
fixed in the ground and one calu§ar climbs the pole and shouts: "War, dear ones, war!" After
that, four caluFri impersonate in a grotesque manner a number of familiar characters- the

population (Greek, Getae, Romans) of the towns and villages of Scythia Minor and Dacia, and persisted in
Romanian, proves the importance of the corresponding autochthonous festival of the dead. It is still unclear
how among the many names of the fairies (iele, zane, 'dansele', 'frumoasele', etc. ) that of Rusalii was included.
Morphologically, the Rusalii are different from the spirits of the dead.
18 See some examples in Pamfile, Sarbatorile de var«, 56f., 67f: Vrabie, Folclorul, 519f. In some regions
it is believed that the cure takes place after the invalid is visited three consecutive years by the caluJari.
Many young men decide to learn the calu~ in order to protect themselves against the Rusalii; cf. Vrabie,
ibid., 524-25.
19 Cf. Pop, COllsideraJii, 221. A similar cathartic, but in a different psychopathologic context, was
utilized by the dancers called carabu~j ('cockchafers') among the Romanian population of Timoc (Yugoslavia);
cf. M. Eliade, Zalmoxis, The Vallis/)j"nX God (Chicago, 1972), 199f. See also Alois Closs, "Siidosteuropa
als ethnohistorisches Untersuchungsfeld iiber ekstatisches Brauchtum," Wiener Ethnohistorische Bliitter,
vol. 3 (1971), 3-22, particularly 8f.
20 C. Radulescu-Codin and D. Mihalache, Sarbatorile poporului, culegere din parJile Muscelului (Bucharest,
1909), 69f.; Vrabie, Folclorul, 520f.
 JANES 5 (1973) Eliade: Notes on the Calusari
120

priest, the Turk (or Cossack), the doctor, and the woman . The plot is simple: each one of the
"actors" tries to make love to the woman. Eventually the woman becomes pregnant, one of
the acto rs is "killed," but is ultimately "resurrected," and so forth. The pantomime is licent-
ious and sometimes brutally enacted. The "Mute," wearing a wooden phallus, plays the most
important role ; his grotesque and eccentric gestures provoke general hilarity.21 The influence
of other folkloric spectacles (winter masquerades , puppet shows) is obvious.
The "breaking of the caluJ" is effected on the same spot where the oath was taken. The
leader unfastens the bag with garlic and medicinal plants, distributes the garlic among the
dancers and gives the bag to the flag bearer. He takes back the clubs . He also takes the sword
from the "Mute," breaks the flagpole and buries the chips a t the root of a tree. He then orders
the cctlu~ari to disperse as quickly as they can. 22
In a future article we will compare the calu} with other similar European dances, particularly
those of the Balkan peninsula. Whatever its origin, the cii lu~, in the forms known in the last
centuries, is found only in Romania and can be considered a creation of Romanian folk culture .
What strikes the researcher is both the archaism of the scenario and, at the same time, its
open structure. We have already pointed out a number of para-Mann erbund elements. We may
add that in some regions the cCiluJa ri wear spurs. 23 Like other military emblems (the flag, the
sword) , the spurs indicate a feudal tradition. But this rather recent paraph ernalia was super-
imposed on a rural and more archaic layer of culture , still recognizable by the ritual use of the
club and by the fa ct that the pole of the "flag" is made from a fir tree. The solar symboli sm ,
rightly emphasized by Vuia, partakes of a pre-Christian tradition. Although the oath-taking
is made in the name of God, the mythico-ritual scenario of the calu~ has nothing in common
with Christianity. We can assume that in early times the ecclesiastical authorities fought against
the caluJari with the same virulence displayed against the seasonal masquerades. Even as late
as the end of the nineteenth century the crdu§ari were, in some regions, excluded from
communion for three years. 24
It is apparent that the open structure of the scenario allowed a continuous assimilation of
new elements from other mythico-ritual systems. A contamination from the winter masquerade
is probably quite recent. 25 However, we must not conclude that the open structure permitted
only such type of syncretistic assimila~ion. The paradox and t he amb ivalence characterize this '
mythico-ritual scenario from the very beginning.
An illuminating parallel to the ambivalent relationship between the Rusalii and the c'atu§ari
is to be found in the feast of the Santoaderi . According to tradition they are the seven sons
of St. Theodor (=Santoader) and they have manes and hooves. 26 The Santoaderi are also
described as nine young men with long teeth and with manes covered by their cloaks who visit

21 Cf., int er alia, Oprisan, Calu3arii, 178f.

22 Cf. Vrabie, Falclarul, 522. There are, of course, a number of variations; see, for example , Oprisan,
CalUsarii, 195f.
23 E.g., in Muscel ; see Vrabie, FolcloruI, 515 .
24 E. N. Voron ca, Sarbatoarea Mo~ilor in BucureJti (1915) , 92; Buhociu, Le folklore, 244, n. 3.
25 In some places, the cclluFri dances are performed also between New Year and Epiphany.
26 Marian, Sarbatorile la Romani, 40f.; Buhociu, Le folklore, 164f.
 JANES 5 (1973) Eliade: Notes on the Calusari 121

the villages during the three nights before Shrove Tuesday. They advance singing and beating
the drum, appearing suddenly and again mysteriously disappearing. One hears the metallic
sound of their heavily shod feet. They dance on the bodies of their victims or they bind them
with chains, thus provoking rheumatical pains. The Sintoaderi are considered to be very mali-
cious; if a woman works on their days, they come and take her. Particularly are young girls
afraid of the Santoaderi and do not dare to venture out of the house during the three nights.
Most of these elements seem to be remnants of an old Mannerblll1d with its characteristic
violence aimed at terrorizing women. 27
However, on the night of Saint Theodor, the unmarried girls go to the forest or climb a hill,
and around a kindled fire they dance and sing in chorus: "Theodor, Saint Theodor, make
grow the girls' mane like the mare's tail. I give you bread and salt, you give me lots of hair, I
give you bread and nuts, you bring me sweet lips'" They sing and dance until dawn and then
return to the village gathering on the way all sorts of herbs and flowers. What they have
gathered is boiled in water and with the water they wash their hair. They believe that they will
marry soon .28 Thus the patron saint (or the father) of the horse-like Santoaderi, the terror of
of women and particularly of young girls, is invoked by them to make their hair as beautiful
as the horse's mane and to hasten their marriage.
Saint Theodor is certainly related to the dead; he is supposed to have discovered the
coliva (boiled wheat with honey and nuts), an archaic funeral dish; moreover, the Saturday of
the Dead is called Mo§ii of San Toader, mo~ii (lit. 'old men') being another name for the dead. 29
Twenty-four days after Easter there is the feast of Todorusale, when the Rusalli meet the
Santoaderi and play together, and finally offer each of them a bouquet of the flower called
todoruse (Melites melissopbylum, "mtlisse des bois"). 30 There is a general belief that the
Rusalii and other fairies (Iele) are powerless with those who know when and how to collect
medicinal plants. 31
In sum, there is a curious rapport between the Rusalii and the Santoaderi: both groups
travel by night at a specific date, singing, dancing, and accompanied by fiddlers (with the
difference that one of the most characteristic sounds of the Santoaderi is that of chains and
hoofs, and the Rusalii are afraid of iron); both bring specific diseases, punishing those who
do not respect their holidays; both are mysteriously related to magical and medicinal plants
(in the case of the Rusalii, a few specific herbs keep them afar; and other plants, collected
in the name of Saint Theodor, make the girls' hair grow and hasten their marriage). In spite
of the fact that the Santoaderi incarnate an antagonistic "principle" par excellence (the horse
and the iron), the Rusalii meet and play with them and before separating offer each of them
a bouquet of flowers. The feast of Todorusale empbasizes tbe desire to bring togetber two

27 See the horse-like mask-costume of a Santoader in Vulcanescu, Ma~tile populare, 172.

28 See the literature quoted by Buhociu, Le folklore, 175 .
29 Ibid., 180. In the Danube plains of Valachia, horse racing takes place during the "days of Saint
Theodore"; cf. the literature quoted by Buhociu, ibid., 196.
30 Pamfile, Sarbatorile de vara, 18. In some regions of Valachia, the call1,,mri gather for the first time
in the day of Todorusalii; Buhociu, Le folklore, 234.
31 Buhociu, Le folklore , 233f.
 JANES 5 (1973) Eliade: Notes on the Calusari

122

classes of supernatural beings who represent, for th e human society, different but equally
malicious forces.
The Santoaderi cannot be identified with the calu§ari, but their mythico-ritual scenario
helps us to understand the basic intention of the caluJ. It is doubtful that we will ever be able
to reconstruct the ccdu§,s "original" form. But as far back as we can trace it , the scenario
actualized by the ccdu!jari consistently implies th e merging of the opposite, through comple-
mentary, magico-religious ideas and techniques. It is probably this daring and successful
integration of antagonistic principles which explains the important role played by the calus
in Romanian folk culture. Thus, a para-Miinnerbund association, with specific masculine
initiation rites, is nevertheless under the protection of the Queen of Fairies; its cathartic and
therapeutic techniques are based mainly on a particular choreography, that is, on the ritual
imitation of the mode of being and behavior of the Rusalii. At the same time, the apotropaic
imagery and substances (the horse, the medicinal plants) which protect them against the
Rusalii are used. The calu!j includes a series of elements which are also present in other
mythico-ritual systems, but without developing them in the directions they indicate there.
Thus, we have a scenario comprising quasi-ecstatic episodes (for instance, the "throwing down"
of the dancer), but without attributing to them the central role, that is to say , without trans-
forming the ccliuJ into a parashamanistic dance. On the other hand, the caluJ assimilated
from the winter festivals the parodying masquerade of death and resurrection, but did not
integrate the funerary elements which are present in the scenarios of St. Theodor and the
Santoaderi, in spite of the many resemblances between these two mythico-ritual systems .
The open structure of the calu§ fostered the metamorphosis of the archaic, and probably
fearful, personage of the "Mute" into a comic and licentious character, without losing, however
ever, his mysterious aura. The paradoxical ambivalence of the "original" scenario encouraged
from the beginning a number of innovations and reinterpretations. Most probably, the creativ-
ity of the calu§ has its explanation in the fact that the antagonistic "principles," which are
pacified and brought together-sickness and death, health and fertility-were personified in
one of the most inspiring expressions of the primeval feminine-masculine dyad, the fairies
and the horse-riding cathartic heroes.