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Direct Current Indicating Instruments

EE 305 Electrical Measurements

Lecturer Esra Saatçı
Version: 22 July ’09

INTRODUCTION

Direct current measuring instruments can be divided into analogue

instruments and digital instruments. Suspension Galvanometer is used for
early analogue measurements of the direct current. They are the first
moving-coil instruments. With modern refinements, the suspension
galvanometer is still used.

Galvanometer

Galvanometers work with permanent-magnet moving-coil mechanism

(PMMC) (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Permanent-magnet moving-coil (PMMC) mechanism.

The coil is suspended in the permanent magnet so that it can rotate

freely in the magnetic field. When the current flows in the coil, the
developed electromagnetic (EM) torque causes the coil to rotate. The EM
torque is counterbalanced by the mechanical torque of control springs
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attached to the movable coil. The coil is balanced in an angular position

which is indicated by a pointer against a fixed reference, called a scale.

The equation for the developed torque, derived from the basic EM laws:

T = B × A× I × N (3.1)

where T = torque (Nm)

B = flux density in the air gap (tesla)
A = effective coil area (A = bxh) (m2)
I = current in the movable coil (A)
N = turns of wire on the coil

Equation (3.1) shows that the designer may vary only the value of the
control torque and the number of turns on the moving coil to measure a
given full-scale current. The practical coil area generally ranges from
approximately 0.5 to 2.5 cm2. Flux densities for modern instruments
usually range from 1,500 to 5,000 gauss (0.15 to 0.5 Wb/m2).

Dynamic Behaviour of the Galvanometer

When alternating or varying current is applied to a galvanometer, the

response of the galvanometer includes the response characteristics of
the moving element itself. The motion of a moving coil in a magnetic field
is characterized by three quantities:
a) The moment of inertia (J) of the moving coil about its axis of
rotation (Ti)
b) The damping constant (D) (Td)
c) The opposing torque due to control springs (Ts)

Below is the differential equation that relates these three factors yields
three possible solutions, each of which describes the dynamic behaviour
of the coil in terms of its deflection angle Θ:

T = Ti + Td + Ts
d 2θ dθ (3.2)
T=J 2
+D + kθ
dt dt
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According to the above formula we can say that three types of the
behaviour can be explained as shown in Figure 2: overdamped,
underdamped, and critically damped.
Θ (angle) Underdamping

Critical Damping
Overdamping

Θ0

t(s)
Figure 2. Dynamic behaviour of the galvanometer.

Ideally, the galvanometer response should be such that the pointer

travels to its final position without overshoot; hence, the movement
should be critically damped. However in practice the galvanometer is
usually slightly underpamped.

A galvanometer may also be damped by connecting a resistor across the

coil. When the coil rotates in the magnetic field, a voltage is generated in
the coil which circulates a current through the coil and the external
resistor. This produces an opposing, or retarding, torque that damps the
motion of the movement. For any galvanometer, a value for the external
resistor can be found that produces critical damping. This resistance is
called the Critical Damping Resistance External (CDRX); it is an important
galvanometer constant. The dynamic damping torque produced by the
CDRX depends on the total circuit resistance.

One way to determine the CDRX consists of observing the galvanometer

swing when a current is applied or removed from the coil. Beginning with
the oscillating condition, decreasing values of external resistances are
tried until a value is found for which the overshoot just disappears. A
determination like this is not very precise, but it is adequate for most
practical purposes.

D’Arsonval Movement

The basic PMMC movement of Figure 3 is often called the d'Arsonval

movement, after its inventor. This design offers the largest magnet in a
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given space and is used when maximum flux in the air gap is required. It
provided an instrument with very low power consumption and low current
required for full-scale deflection (fsd). Figure 3 shows the d'Arsonval
movement. The entirely moving system is statically balanced for all
deflection positions by three balance weights.

Scale

Pointer
Permanent
Magnent
Spring N S

Moving Coil
I

Figure 3. Moving Coil Analogue Ampermeter (D’Arsonval Movement).

Temperature Compensation

The PMMC basic movement is not inherently insensitive to temperature,

but it may be temperature-compensated by the appropriate use of series-
and shunt-resistors of copper and manganin. Both the magnetic field
strength and spring-tension decrease with an increase in temperature.
The coil resistance increases with an increase in temperature. These
changes tend to make the pointer read low for a given current with
respect to magnetic field strength and coil resistance. The spring change,
conversely, tends to cause the pointer to read high with an increase in
temperature. The effects are not identical, however; hence an
uncompensated meter tends to read low by approximately 0.2 % per 0C
rise in temperature.

Compensation may be accomplished by using swamping resistors in series

with the movable coil. The swamping resistor is made of manganin (which
has a temperature coefficient of practically zero) combined with copper
in the ratio 20/1 to 30/1. The total resistance of coil and swamping
resistor increases slightly with a rise in temperature, but only just
enough to counteract the change of springs and magnet, so that the
overall temperature effect is zero.
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A more complete cancellation of temperature effects is obtained with

the arrangement of series and parallel resistors. Here the total circuit
resistance increases slightly with the rise in temperature, owing to the
presence of the copper coil and the copper shunt resistor. For a fixed
applied voltage, therefore, the total current decreases slightly with a
rise in temperature. The resistance of the copper shunt resistor
increases more than the series combination of coil and manganin resistor;
hence a larger fraction of the total current passes through the coil
circuit. By correct proportioning of the copper and manganin parts in the
circuit, complete cancellation of temperature effects may be
accomplished. One disadvantage of the use of swamping resistors is a
reduction in the full-scale sensitivity of the movement, because a higher
applied voltage is necessary to sustain the full-scale circuit.

Galvanometer Sensitivity

Three sensitivity definitions are generally used in specifying the

sensitivity of a galvanometer: (a) current sensitivity, (b) voltage
sensitivity, (c) megohm sensitivity.

Current sensitivity may be defined as a ratio of the deflection of the

galvanometer to the current producing this deflection:

d
SI = (mm/μ A) (3.3)
I

where d is the deflection of the galvanometer in mm and I is the current

passing through the galvanometer in μA.

Voltage sensitivity may be defined as the ratio of the galvanometer

deflection to the voltage producing this deflection:

d
SV = (mm/mV ) (3.4)
V

where V is the voltage applied to the galvanometer in mV.

Megohm sensitivity may be defined as the number of megohms required in

series with the (CDRX shunted) galvanometer to produce one scale
division deflection when 1 V is applied to the circuit. Since the equivalent
resistance of the shunted galvanometer is negligible compared with the
number of megohms in series with it, the applied current practically
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equals 1/R μA and produces one division deflection. Numerically, the

megohm sensitivity is equal to the current sensitivity and therefore:

d
SR = = S I (mm/μ A) (3.5)
I

DC Ammeters

The basic movement of a dc ammeter is a PMMC galvanometer. Since the

coil winding of a basic movement is small and light, it can carry only very
small currents. When large currents are to be measured, it is necessary
to bypass the major part of the current through a resistance, called a
shunt, as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Basic dc ammeter circuit.

The resistance of the shunt can be calculated by applying conventional

circuit analysis,

Vshunt = Vmovement
I s × Rs = I m × Rm
Is = I − Im (3.6)
I m × Rm
Rs =
I − Im

where Rm : internal resistance of the movement (the coil)

Rs : resistance of the shunt
Im : full-scale deflection current of the movement (Ifsd)
Is : shunt current
I : full-scale current of the ammeter including the shunt.

Example:
A 1 mA meter movement with an internal resistance of 100 Ω is to be
converted into 0-100 mA ammeter. Calculate the value of the shunt
resistance required.
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I m × Rm
Rs =
I − Im
(3.7)
1mA × 100Ω
Rs = = 1.01Ω
100mA − 1mA
Ayrton Shunt

The current range of the ammeter can be selected with range of the
switches and such an ammeter is called a multirange ammeter. Ayrton
shunt eliminates the possibility of having the meter in the circuit without
a shunt (Figure 5).

+
I Im
D’arson
Ra Rb Rc Rd Rm Movement

-
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of a simple multirange ammeter.

Example:
Design an Ayrton shunt for an ammeter with current ranges of 1 A, 5 A,
and 10 A. Internal resistance of the coil is 50 Ω and full scale deflection
current is 1 mA (Figure 6.)
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Figure 6. Schematic diagram of a universal or Ayron shunt.

On the 1 A range:
I m × Rm
Rs =
I − Im
(3.8)
1mA × 50Ω
Ra + Rb + Rc = = 0.05005Ω
1A − 1mA

On the 5 A range:

I m × Rm
Rs =
I − Im
(3.9)
1mA × ( Rc + 50Ω)
Ra + Rb =
5 A − 1mA

On the 10 A range:

I m × Rm
Rs =
I − Im
(3.10)
1mA × ( Rb + Rc + 50Ω)
Ra =
10 A − 1mA

If we solve three equations for three unknown we find:

Ra = 0.005005 Ω, Rb = 0.005005 Ω, Rc = 0.05 Ω.

Precautions when using an ammeter:

a) Never connect an ammeter across a source of Electro Motor Force

(emf). Because of its low resistance it would withdraw damaging
high currents and destroy the delicate movement. Always connect
an ammeter in series with a load capable of limiting the current.
b) Observe the correct polarity. Reverse polarity causes the meter to
deflect against the mechanical stop and this may damage the
pointer.
c) When using multimeter range first use the highest current range.

DC Voltmeters

The addition of a series resistor, or multiplier, converts the basic

d'Arsonval movement into a dc voltmeter, as shown in Figure 7. The
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multiplier limits the current through the movement so as not to exceed

the value of the full-scale deflection current (Ifsd).

Figure 7. Basic dc voltmeter circuits.

The value of a multiplier, required to extend the voltage range, is

calculated from Figure 7:

V = I m ( Rs + Rm )
V (3.11)
Rs = − Rm
Im

where Im : deflection current of the movement (Ifsd)

Rm : internal resistance of the movement
Rs : multiplier resistance
V : full-range voltage of the instrument

Multirange Voltmeter

The addition of a number of multipliers, together with a range switch,

provides the instrument with a workable number of voltage ranges. Figure
8 shows a multirange voltmeter using a four-position switch and four
multipliers.
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R1
V
S
R2

Im
R3
D’arson
Rm
+ Movement
R4
-

Figure 8. Multirange voltmeter.

Example:
A basic D’Arsonval movement with internal resistance of 100 Ω, and full-
scale current of 1 mA is to be converted into a multirange dc voltmeter
with voltage ranges of 0-10 V, 0-50 V, 0-250V, and 0-500 V. What are
the multiplier resistors (Figure 9).

R1 R2 R3 R4

V1 V2 V3 Im
V4 D’arson
Rm
Movement
S

Figure 9. More practical arrangement of multiplier resistors in the multirange voltmeter.

On the 0-10 V range:

V
Rs = − Rm
Im
(3.12)
10V
R4 = − 100Ω = 9,900Ω
1mA
On the 0-50 V range:
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V
Rs = − Rm
Im
(3.13)
50V
R3 = − (9,900 + 100)Ω = 40k Ω
1mA

On the 0-250 V range:

V
Rs = − Rm
Im
(3.14)
250V
R2 = − (40, 000 + 9,900 + 100)Ω = 200k Ω
1mA

On the 0-500 V range:

V
Rs = − Rm
Im
(3.15)
500V
R1 = − (200, 000 + 40, 000 + 9,900 + 100)Ω = 250k Ω
1mA

Voltmeter Sensitivity

Voltmeter sensitivity refers the total internal resistance of the

movement for 1 V reading. Note that the sensitivity or ohms-per-volt
rating is essentially the reciprocal of the full-scale deflection current of
the basic movement.

1
S= ΩV (3.16)
I fsd

Sensitivity Method:
To calculate the multiplier resistors we can use the sensitivity method.

Rs = ( S × Vrange ) − Rm (3.17)

Loading Effect of the Voltmeter

When Voltmeter is connected across two points in highly resistive

circuits, it acts as a shunt for that portion of the circuit and thus
reduces the equivalent resistance. The voltmeter reads the lower voltage
drop and this effect is called the loading effect.
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Example
It is desired to measure the voltage across the 50 kΩ resistor in the
circuit of Figure 10. Two voltmeters are available for this measurement:
voltmeter 1 with a sensitivity of 1,000 Ω/V and voltmeter 2 with a
sensitivity of 20,000 Ω/V. Both meters are used on their 50 V range.
Calculate (a) the reading of each meter; (b) the error in each reading,
expressed as a percentage of the true value.

50 kΩ

Figure 10. Example of voltmeter loading effect.

Theorically voltage drop across the 50 kΩ resistor is:

50k Ω
R= × 150V = 50V (3.18)
100k Ω + 50k Ω

(a) Voltmeter 1: (S1=1,000 Ω/V) on the 0-50 V range

Rs + Rm = S × V
= 1, 000 Ω V × 50V = 50k Ω (3.19)
50k Ω & 50k Ω
V1 = × 150V = 30V
100k Ω + (50k Ω & 50k Ω)

Voltmeter 2: (S2=20,000 Ω/V) on the 0-50 V range

Rs + Rm = S × V
= 20, 000 Ω V × 50V = 1mΩ (3.20)
50k Ω & 1mΩ
V2 = × 150V = 48.36V
100k Ω + (50k Ω & 1mΩ)

(b) The error in the reading of voltmeter 1 is

ΔV 50 − 30
= × 100% = 40% (3.21)
V 50
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The error in the reading of voltmeter 2 is

ΔV 50 − 48.36
= × 100% = 3.28% (3.22)
V 50

Precautions when using a voltmeter:

a) Observe the correct polarity. Wrong polarity causes the meter to

deflect against the mechanical stop and this may damage the
pointer.
b) Place the voltmeter across the circuit component whose voltage is
to be measured.
c) When using a multirange voltmeter, always use the highest voltage
range.
d) Always be aware of the loading effect. The effect can be
minimized by either increasing the range or using sensitive
voltmeter. However as range increases precision decreases.

Voltmeter-Ammeter Method of Measuring Resistance

It is the popular way of measuring the Resistance by Ohm’s law:

V
Rx = (3.23)
I

It Ix It Ix
A A

Supply Voltage
V Load Supply Voltage
V Load
Vx Rx Vx Rx
Vt Vt

(a) (b)
Figure 11. Effect of voltmeter and ammeter positions in voltmeter-ammeter
measurements.

Equation (3-23) implies that the ammeter resistance is zero and the
voltmeter resistance infinite, so that the conditions in the circuit are not
disturbed.

In Figure 11(a) the true current supplied to the load is measured by the
ammeter, but the voltmeter measures the supply voltage rather than the
actual load voltage. To find the true voltage across the load, the voltage
drop across the ammeter must be subtracted from the voltmeter reading.
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If the voltmeter is placed directly across the resistor, as in Figure 11(b),

it measures the true load voltage, but the ammeter is in error by the
amount of current drawn by the voltmeter. The connection of Figure 11(a)
is therefore the best circuit when measuring high-resistance values. The
connection of Figure 11(b) is the best circuit when
measuring low-resistance values.

Series Type Ohmmeter

It R1 A

I2
Im
R2

Rm D’arson

Rx
Movement
E
B

Figure 12. Series-type ohmmeter.

In Figure 12,
R1 : current limiting resistor,
R2 : zero adjust resistor,
Rm : internal resistance of the d'Arsonval movement,
Rx : unknown resistor,
E: internal battery voltage.

When the terminals A and B shorted, the shunt resistor R2 is adjusted

until the movement indicates full-scale current (Ifsd). It is marked "0 Ω"
on the scale. Similarly, when the terminals A and B open, the current in
the circuit drops to zero which is marked "∞" on the scale. The accuracy
of the scale markings depends on the repeating accuracy of the
movement and the tolerances of the calibrating resistors.

E
Rx = 0 and ( Im = Ifsd ) (A and B are shorted); It =
R1 + R2 & Rm
 

Rh

Rx = ∞ (A and B are open); It = 0 (3.24)

E
Rx = Rh and ( Im = 0.5Ifsd ); Ih =
2 × Rh
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where Rh = half scale total resistance,

Ih = half scale total current,

The series-type ohmmeter has certain disadvantages. Important among

these is the internal battery whose voltage decreases gradually with time
and age, so that the full-scale current drops and the meter does not read
"0" when A and B are shorted. The variable shunt resistor R2 in Figure 12
provides an adjustment to counteract the effect of battery change. The
circuit of Figure 12 does not compensate completely for aging of the
battery, but it does a reasonably good job within the expected limits of
accuracy of the instrument.

Examples:
The ohmmeter of Figure 12 uses a 50 Ω basic movement requiring a full-
scale current of 1 mA. The internal battery voltage is 3 V. The desired
scale marking for half scale deflection is 2,000 Ω. Calculate (a) the
values of R1 and R2; (b) the maximum value of R2 to compensate for a 10%
drop in the battery voltage; (c) the scale error at the half scale mark
(2,000 Ω) when R2 is set as in (b).
Rm = 50 Ω,
Ifsd = 1mA,
E = 3 V,
Rh = 2,000 Ω
(a)At full scale:
E 3V
It = = = 1.5mA (3.25)
Rh 2, 000Ω
voltage acrossthe movement


Ifsd × Rm 1mA × 50Ω
R2 = = = 100Ω (3.26)
It − Ifsd 1.5mA − 1mA
 

I2

R1 = Rh − R2 & Rm = 2, 000 − (50 & 100) = 1,966.7 Ω (3.27)

(b)At a 10% drop in battery voltage:

E −10%E
 
E 3V − 0.3V
It = = = 1.35mA (3.28)
Rh 2, 000Ω
voltage acrossthe movement


Ifsd × Rm 1mA × 50Ω
R2 = = = 143Ω (3.29)
It − Ifsd 1.35mA − 1mA
 

I2

(c)
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Rh = R1 + Rm & R2 = 1,966.7 Ω + 50Ω & 143Ω = 2, 003.7 Ω (3.30)

2, 000 − 2, 003.7
%error = × 100% = −0.185% (3.31)
2, 003.7

The negative sign indicates that the meter reading is low.

Shunt Type Ohmmeter

R1 A

Im

E Rm D’arson

Rx
Movement

S B

Figure 13. Shunt-type ohmmeter.

In Figure 13,
R1 : current limiting resistor,
Rm : internal resistance of the d'Arsonval movement,
Rx : unknown resistor,
E: internal battery voltage.

“S” on-off switch is necessary to disconnect the battery from the circuit
when the instrument is not used. When the terminals A and B shorted,
the current in the circuit drops to zero which is marked "0 Ω" on the
scale. Similarly, when the terminals A and B open, the movement indicates
full-scale current (Ifsd). It is marked "∞" on the scale. The accuracy of
the scale markings depends on the repeating accuracy of the movement
and the tolerances of the calibrating resistors.

Rx = 0 (A and B are shorted); Im = 0

E
Rx = ∞ and ( Im = Ifsd ) (A and B are open); Im = (3.32)
R1 + Rm
Rx = Rh and ( Im = 0.5Ifsd ); Rh = ?

where Rh = half scale total resistance.

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⎧ E ⎫ Rx ERx
Im = ⎨ ⎬× = (3.33)
⎩ R1 + Rm & Rx
⎭ Rm + Rx R1Rm + Rx (R1 + Rm )
I Rx
s = m = (3.34)
Ifsd Rx + R1 & Rm
Rh = R1 & Rm (3.35)

The analysis shows that the half-scale resistance is determined by

limiting resistors R1 and the internal resistance of the movement, Rm. The
limiting resistance is in turn determined by the meter resistance and the
full-scale deflection current Ifsd.

The shunt-type ohmmeter is particularly suited to the measurement of

low-value resistors.

Example:
The circuit of Figure 13 uses a 10 mA basic D’arsonval movement with an
internal resistance of 5 Ω. The battery voltage E = 3 V. It is desired to
modify the circuit by adding an appropriate resistor Rsh across the
movement, so that the instrument will indicate 0.5 Ω at the midpoint on
its scale. Calculate (a) the value of the shunt resistor, Rsh; (b) the value
of the current-limiting resistor R1.
Rsh

Rx

Figure 14. Circuit schema for Example.

Ifsd = 10mA,
Rm = 5 Ω,
E = 3 V,
Rh = 0.5 Ω
(a) At half scale:
Im = 0.5Ifsd = 0.5 × 10mA = 5mA (3.36)
Vx =Vm
 
5mA × 5Ω
Ish = I x − Im = − 5mA = 45mA (3.37)
0.5
N Ω
Rh
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Vm 25mV
Rsh = = = 5 9Ω (3.38)
Ish 45mA
(b)
It = Im + Ish + I x = 5mA + 45mA + 50mA = 100mA (3.39)
E −Vm
  
V 3V − 25mV
R1 = 1 = = 29.75Ω (3.40)
It 100mA

Multimeter or VOM

The anmmeter, the voltmeter, and the ohmmeter all use a d'Arsonval
movement. The difference between these instruments is the circuit in
which the basic movement is used. It is therefore obvious that a single
instrument can be designed to perform the three measurement functions.
This instrument, which contains a function of switch to connect the
appropriate circuits to the d'Arsonval movement, is often called a
multimeter or volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM). The circuit diagram of the
representative multimeter is given in Figure 15.

Figure 15. Schematic diagram of the Simpson Model 260 Multimeter.

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Figure 16. DC Voltmeter section of the Simpson Model 260 Multimeter.

Figure 17. DC Ammeter section of the Simpson Model 260 Multimeter.

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Figure 18. Ohmmeter section of the Simpson Model 260 Multimeter.

The basic movement of the multimeter of Figure 15 has a full scale

current of 50 μA and an internal resistance of 2,000 Ω. Figure 16 shows
the dc voltmeter section. DC ammeter section is given at Figure 17 and
ohmmeter section is given at Figure 18.