Basic Refrigeration & Charging Procedure PDF

BASIC
Refrigeration & Charging

Procedures
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John Tomczyk I 4 ;/
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Printed in the United States of America

7654321
HON
Basic
Refrigeration and Charging
Procedures
John Tomczyk
esco press
Mount Prospect, Illinois
Table of Contents
Refrigerant Pressures States and Conditions
Condensing Pressure 1
Evaporating Pressure 1
Refrigerant States and Conditions 3
Vapor Pressures 3
Superheat 4
Subcooling 4
Basic Refrigeration System 4
Compressor 5
Discharge Line 6
Condenser 6
Receiver 8
Liquid Line 8
Metering Device 8
Evaporator 8
Suction Line 10
Application of Pressures, States, and Conditions 11
Compressor Discharge 11
Condenser Inlet 11
100% Saturated Vapor Point 13
100% Saturated Liquid Point 13
Condenser Outlet 13
TXV Inlet 13
Middle of Evaporator 13
Saturated Vapor Point 14

Evaporator Outlet 14
Compressor Inlet 14
Table of Contents
Subcooling and Superheating
Liquid Subcooling 15
Subcooling Categories 15
Condenser Subcooling 15
Total Subcooling 19
Subcooollng Needed to Prevent Liquid Une Flash 21
Pressure Drop 21
Friction Pressure Losses 21
Static Pressure Losses 23
How Much Subcooling Is Needed 24
Liquid Pressure Amplification And Superheat Supresslon 26
Floating Head Pressures and LPA Advantages 30
Superheat Suppression 31
LPA/Superheat Suppression with Subcooling/Reheat Coil 32
Envlroguard TM Refrigerant Control System 32
Principles of Operation 32
Determining the SPR Valve Setting 37
38
Evaporator Superheat 38
Total Superheat 40
Metering Devices
Capillary Tubes 45
Sizing 46
High Heat Loads 49
Low Heat Loads 49
Service 49
Table of Contents
Thermostatic Expansion Valve 52
Remote Bulb Pressure 54
Evaporator Pressure and Spring Pressure 56
Additional Pressure 57
Color Codes 57
Special Application TXVs 57
Externally Equalized Valves 58
Maximum Operating Pressure 58
Balanced Port TXVs 59

Selection Procedures 59
Automatic Expansion Valves (AXVs) 64
System Charge
ChargingIXV/Recefver/SIghtglass Refrigeration Systems 67
Charging Rules 68
Charging Capillary Tube Or Fixed Orifice Refrigeration Systems 70

Charging from a Vacuum 70
Charging Capillary Tube or Fixed Orifice Air Conditioning Systems 73
Measuring Duct Velocity 79
Superheat Charging Curves 80
Superheat Curve Theory 81

Charging Capillary Tube — Cooling Mode Only 82
Superheat Method — Capillary Tube System 85
CHAPTER
ONE
Refrigerant Pressures,
States, and Conditions
The typical vapor compression refrigeration close to the condenser as possible to avoid these
system shown in Figure 1-1 can be divided into pressure drops. This pressure is usually mea¬
two pressures: condensing (high side) and sured on smaller systems near the compressor
evaporating (low side). These pressures arc di¬ valves, Figure 1-2. On small systems, it is not
vided or separated in the system by the com¬ critical where a technician places the pressure
pressor discharge valve and the metering de¬ gauge (as long as it is on the high side of the
vice. Listed below are field service terms often system), because pressure drops are negligible.
used to describe these pressures: The pressure gauge reads the same no matter
where it is on the high side of the system if line
and valve losses arc negligible.
Condensing Evaporating
Pressure Pressure
High side pressure Low side pressure EVAPORATING PRESSURE

Head pressure Suction pressure
Discharge pressure Back pressure
The evaporating pressure is the pressure at
which the refrigerant changes state from a liq¬
uid to a vapor. This phase change is referred to
as evaporation or vaporizing. A pressure gauge
placed anywhere between the metering device
CONDENSING PRESSURE outlet and the compressor (including compres¬
The condensing pressure is the pressure at sor crankcase) will read the evaporating pres¬
which the refrigerant changes state from a va¬ sure. Again, negligible pressure drops arc as¬
por to a liquid. This phase change is referred to sumed. In reality, there will be line and valve
as condensation. This pressure can be read pressure drops as the refrigerant travels through
directly from a pressure gauge connected any¬ the evaporator and suction line. The technician
where between the compressor discharge valve must measure the pressure as close to the evapo¬
and the entrance to the metering device, as¬ rator as possible to get a true evaporating pres¬
suming there is negligible pressure drop. In sure. On small systems where pressure drops
reality, line and valve friction and the weight are negligible, this pressure is usually measured
of the liquid itself cause pressure drops from near the compressor (see Figure 1-2). Gauge
the compressor discharge to the metering de¬ placement on small systems is usually not criti¬
vice. If a true condensing pressure is needed, cal as long as it is placed on the low side of the
the technician must measure the pressure as refrigeration system, because the refrigerant
Refrigerant Pressures. States, and Conditions 1
Mostly liquid
with some liquid
flashing to vapor Metering device
Evaporator 100% liquid
c ✓ )
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Filter drier
Condenser
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Compressor \ /
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Vapor / \
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Liquid
Figure /-/. Typical compression refrigeration sy stem
vapor pressure acts equally in all directions. If valve pressure losses. If the system has signifi¬
line and valve pressure drops become substan¬ cant line and valve pressure losses, the techni¬
tial, gauge placement becomes critical. In larger cian must place the gauge as close as possible
more sophisticated systems, gauge placement to the component that requires a pressure
is more critical because of associated line and reading.
2 Troubleshooting and Servicing Modern Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Systems
saturated vapor, respectively. Saturation occurs
in both the evaporator and condenser. At satu¬
ration, the liquid experiences its maximum tem¬
perature for that pressure, and the vapor expe¬
riences its minimum temperature. However,
both liquid and vapor are at the same tempera¬
ture for a given pressure when saturation oc¬
curs. Saturation temperatures vary with differ¬
ent refrigerants and pressures. All refrigerants
<S> 0 have different vapor pressures. It is vapor pres¬
sure that is measured with a gauge.
Vapor Pressure
Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted on a
saturated liquid. Any time saturated liquid and
'o vapor are together (as in the condenser and
evaporator), vapor pressure is generated. Va¬
por pressure acts equally in all directions and
affects the entire low or high side of a refrig¬
eration system.
] As pressure increases, saturation temperature
increases; as pressure decreases, saturation tem¬
Figure 1-2. Semi-hermetic compressor showing pressure
access valves (Courtesy, Danfoss Automatic Controls,
perature decreases. Only at saturation are there
Division of Danfoss, Inc.) pressure/temperature relationships for refriger¬
ants. Table 1-1 shows the pressure/temperature
relationship at saturation for refrigerant 134a
REFRIGERANT STATES AND CONDITIONS (R-134a). If one attempts to raise the tempera¬
Modem refrigerants exist either in the vapor or ture of a saturated liquid above its saturation
liquid state. Refrigerants have such low freez¬ temperature, vaporization of the liquid will
ing points that they are rarely in the frozen or occur. If one attempts to lower the temperature
solid state. Refrigerants can co-exist as vapor of a saturated vapor below its saturation tem¬
and liquid as long as conditions are right. Both perature, condensation will occur. Both vapor¬
the evaporator and condenser house liquid and ization and condensation occur in the evapora¬
vapor refrigerant simultaneously if the system tor and condenser, respectively.
is operating properly. Refrigerant liquid and
vapor can exist in both the high or low pres¬ The heat energy that causes a liquid refrigerant
sure sides of the refrigeration system. to change to a vapor at a constant saturation
temperature for a given pressure is referred to
Along with refrigerant pressures and states are as latent heat. Latent heat is the heat energy
refrigerant conditions. Refrigerant conditions that causes a substance to change state without
can be saturated, superheated, or subcooled. changing the temperature of the substance.
Vaporization and condensation are examples of
a latent heat process.
Saturation
Saturation is usually defined as a temperature.
The saturation temperature is the temperature
at which a fluid changes from liquid to vapor
or vapor to liquid. At saturation temperature,
liquid and vapor are called saturated liquid and
Refrigerant Pressures, States, and Conditions 3
Temperature Pressure Temperature Pressure words, all of the liquid must be vaporized for
CF) (psig) (*F) (psig) superheating to occur; the vapor must be re¬
-10 1.8 moved from contact with the vaporizing liquid.
-9 2.2 Once all the liquid has been vaporized at its
-8 2.6 30 25.6 saturation temperature, any addition of heat
-7 3.0 31 26.4 causes the 100% saturated vapor to start super¬
-6 3.5 32 27.3 heating. This addition of heat causes the vapor
-5 3.9 33 28.1 to increase in temperature and gain sensible
-4 4.4 34 29.0 heat. Sensible heat is the heat energy that causes
-3 4.8 35 29.9
a change in the temperature of a substance. The
-2 5.3 40 34.5
heat energy that superheats vapor and increases
-1 5.8 45 39.5
its temperature is sensible heat energy. Super¬
0 6.2 50 44.9
55
heating is a sensible heat process. Superheated
_1_ 6.7 50.7
2_ 7.2 60 56.9
vapor occurs in the evaporator, suction line,
and compressor.
A 7.8 65 63.5
4 8.3 70 70.7
A 8.8 75 78.3 Subcooling
A 9.3 80 86.4
Subcooling always refers to a liquid at a tem¬
7 9.9 85 95.0
perature below its saturation temperature for a
A 10.5 90 104.2
11.0 113.9
given pressure. Once all of the vapor changes
A 95
10 11.6 100 124.3 state to 100% saturated liquid, further removal
11 12.2 105 135.2 of heat will cause the 100% liquid to drop in
12 12.8 110 146.8 temperature or lose sensible heat. Subcooled
13 13.4 115 159.0 liquid results. Subcooling can occur in both the
14 14.0 120 171.9 condenser and liquid line and is a sensible heat
15 14.7 125 185.5 process. Another method of subcooling liquid,
16 15.3 130 199.8 called liquid pressure amplification™, is cov¬
17 16.0 135 214.8 ered in Chapter Two. This method increases
18 16.7 the pressure on subcooled liquid, causing it to
19 17.3 be subcooled even more. This creates a liquid
20 18.0 with a temperature below its new saturation
21 18.7
temperature for the new higher pressure.
22 19.4
23 20.2
A thorough understanding of pressures, states,
24 20.9
and conditions of the basic refrigeration sys¬
25 21.7
tem enables the service technician to be a good
26 22.4
27 23.2
systematic troubleshooter. It is not until then
28 24.0
that a service technician should even attempt
29 24.8
systematic troubleshooting.
Table /-/. R-I34a saturated vapor/liquid pressure/

temperature chart
BASIC REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

Superheat Figure 1-3 illustrates a basic refrigeration sys¬
Superheat always refers to a vapor. A super¬ tem. The basic components of this system are
heated vapor is any vapor that is above its the compressor, discharge line, condenser, re¬
saturation temperature for a given pressure. In ceiver, liquid line, metering device, evaporator,
order for vapor to be superheated, it must have and suction line. Mastering the function of each
reached its 100% saturated vapor point. In other individual component can assist the refrigera-
Metering device
Evaporator
© PC
7.
c
✓
A.
X \ /
c \
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>- 1
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X
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(I Receiver
Filter drier
Liquid line
Suction line Discharge line Condenser
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limn 10
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Compressor
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x
3
MINI l o ✓
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r- -i
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Figure 1-3. Basic refrigeration system
tion technician with analytical troubleshooting sor as a refrigerant pump, refrigerant could not
skills, saving time and money for both techni¬ reach other system components to perform its
cian and customer. heat transfer functions. The compressor also
separates the high pressure from the low pres¬
sure side of the refrigeration system. A differ¬
Compressor ence in pressure is mandatory for fluid (gas or
One of the main functions of the compressor is liquid) flow, and there could be no refrigerant
to circulate refrigerant. Without the compres- flow without this pressure separation.
Another function of the compressor is to el¬ reach over 400°F. By desuperheating the re¬
evate or raise the temperature of the refrigerant frigerant, the vapors will be cooled to the satu¬
vapor above the ambient (surrounding) tempera¬ ration temperature of the condenser. Once the
ture. This is accomplished by adding work, or vapors reach the condensing saturation tempera¬
heat of compression, to the refrigerant vapor ture for that pressure, condensation of vapor to
during the compression cycle. The pressure of liquid will take place as more heat is lost.
the refrigerant is raised, as well as its tempera¬
ture. By elevating the refrigerant temperature
above the ambient temperature, heat absorbed Condenser
in the evaporator and suction line, and any heat The first passes of the condenser desuperheat
of compression generated in the compression the discharge line gases. This prepares the high
stroke can be rejected to this lower temperature pressure superheated vapors coming from the
ambient. Most of the heat is rejected in the discharge line for condensation, or the phase
discharge line and the condenser. Remember, change from gas to liquid. Remember, these
heat flows from hot to cold, and there must be superheated gases must lose all of their super¬
a temperature difference for any heat transfer heat before reaching the condensing tempera¬
to take place. The temperature rise of the re¬ ture for a certain condensing pressure. Once
frigerant during the compression stroke is a the initial passes of the condenser have rejected
measure of the increased internal kinetic en¬ enough superheat and the condensing tempera¬
ergy added by the compressor. ture or saturation temperature has been reached,
these gases arc referred to as 100% saturated
The compressor also compresses the refriger¬ vapor. The refrigerant is then said to have
ant vapors, which increases vapor density. This reached the 100% saturated vapor point, Figure
increase in density helps pack the refrigerant 1-4.
gas molecules together, which helps in the con¬
densation or liquidation of the refrigerant gas One of the main functions of the condenser is
molecules in the condenser once the right to condense the refrigerant vapor to liquid.
amount of heat is rejected to the ambient. The Condensing is system dependent and usually
compression of the vapors during the compres¬ takes place in the lower two-thirds of the con¬
sion stroke is actually preparing the vapors for denser. Once the saturation or condensing tem¬
condensation or liquification. perature is reached in the condenser and the
refrigerant gas has reached 100% saturated
vapor, condensation can take place if more heat
Discharge Line is removed. As more heat is taken away from
One function of the discharge line is to carry the 100% saturated vapor, it will force the vapor
the high pressure superheated vapor from the to become a liquid or to condense. When con¬
compressor discharge valve to the entrance of densing, the vapor will gradually phase change
the condenser. The discharge line also acts as to liquid until 100% liquid is all that remains.
a desuperheater, cooling the superheated va¬ This phase change, or change of state, is an
pors that the compressor has compressed and example of a latent heat rejection process, as
giving that heat up to the ambient (surround¬ the heat removed is latent heat not sensible heat.
ings). These compressed vapors contain all of The phase change will happen at one tempera¬
the heat that the evaporator and suction line ture even though heat is being removed. Note:
have absorbed, along with the heat of compres¬ An exception to this is a near-azeotropic blend
sion of the compression stroke. Any generated of refrigerants where there is a temperature
motor winding heat may also be contained in glide or range of temperatures when phase
the discharge line refrigerant, which is why the changing (see Chapter Eight on blend tempera¬
beginning of the discharge line is the hottest ture glide). This one temperature is the satura¬
part of the refrigeration system. On hot days tion temperature corresponding to the satura¬
when the system is under a high load and may tion pressure in the condenser. As mentioned
have a dirty condenser, the discharge line can before, this pressure can be measured anywhere
Evaporator
< > I
Metering device
100% liquid
< ) Mostly liquid
c
,V with some liquid
flashing to vapor
* *V
I Vapor
Liquid
100% saturated liquid point

(start of subcooling)
Condenser
u 0
Mm*®
\ min J o
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100% saturated vapor point

J
saturated liquid + vapor — \
# 1 Desuperheated gas
#2 Condensing begins
#3 Subcooling begins
#4 Subcooled liquid
< ,
4
#5 Superheat begins and the
1 00% saturated vapor point
Figure 1-4. Basic refrigeration system showing 100% saturated vapor and liquid points
on the high side of the refrigeration system as ccivcr and losing its subcooling. A thermostat
long as line and valve pressure drops and losses with a sensing bulb on the condenser outlet
are negligible. controls the bypass solenoid valve by sensing
liquid temperature coming to the receiver, Fig¬
The last function of the condenser is to subcool ure 1-5. If the liquid is subcoolcd to a predeter¬
the liquid refrigerant. Subcooling is defined as mined temperature, it will bypass the receiver
any sensible heat taken away from 100% satu¬ and go to the filter drier.
rated liquid. Technically, subcooling is defined
as the difference between the measured liquid
temperature and the liquid saturation tempera¬ Liquid Line
ture at a given pressure. Once the saturated The liquid line transports high pressure
vapor in the condenser has phase changed to subcooled liquid to the metering device. In
saturated liquid, the 100% saturated liquid point transport, the liquid may either lose or gain
has been reached. If any more heat is removed, subcooling depending on the surrounding tem¬
the liquid will go through a sensible heat rejec¬ perature. Liquid lines may be wrapped around
tion process and lose temperature as it loses suction lines to help them gain more subcooling,
heat. The liquid that is cooler than the saturated Figure 1-6. Liquid/suction line heat exchangers
liquid in the condenser is subcooled liquid. can be purchased and installed in existing sys¬
Subcooling is an important process, because it tems to gain subcooling. The importance of
starts to lower the liquid temperature to the liquid subcooling will be covered more exten¬
evaporator temperature. This will reduce flash sively in Chapter Two.
loss in the evaporator so more of the vaporiza¬
tion of the liquid in the evaporator can be used Metering Device
for useful cooling of the product load (see
Chapter Two on the importance of liquid The metering device meters liquid refrigerant
subcooling). from the liquid line to the evaporator. There
are several different styles and kinds of meter¬
ing devices on the market with different func¬
Receiver tions. Some metering devices control evapora¬
The receiver acts as a surge tank. Once the tor superheat and pressure, and some even have
subcooled liquid exits the condenser, the re¬ pressure limiting devices to protect compres¬
ceiver receives and stores the liquid. The liquid sors at heavy loads.
level in the receiver varies depending on
whether the metering device is throttling opened The metering device is a restriction that sepa¬
or closed. Receivers are usually used on sys¬ rates the high pressure side from the low pres¬
tems in which a thermostatic expansion valve sure side in a refrigeration system. The com¬
(TXV or TEV) is used as the metering device. pressor and the metering device are the two
The subcooled liquid in the receiver may lose components that separate pressures in a refrig¬
or gain subcooling depending on the surround¬ eration system. The restriction in the metering
ing temperature of the receiver. If the subcooled device causes liquid refrigerant to flash to a
liquid is warmer than receiver surroundings, the lower temperature in the evaporator because of
liquid will reject heat to the surroundings and its lower pressure and temperature.
subcool even more. If the subcooled liquid is
cooler than receiver surroundings, heat will be Evaporator
gained by the liquid and subcooling will be
lost. The evaporator, like the condenser, acts as a
heat exchanger. Heat gains from the product
A receiver bypass is often used to bypass liq¬ load and outside ambient travel through the
uid around the receiver and route it directly to sidewalls of the evaporator to vaporize any liq¬
the liquid line and filter drier. This bypass pre¬ uid refrigerant. The pressure drop through the
vents subcooled liquid from sitting in the re- metering device causes vaporization of some
From condenser
Receiver
Filter drier
\r ■&
Inlet pressure regulator o
/
To evaporator
Bypass solenoid valve

r
o
Thermostat
Figure 1-5. Receiver with thermostatically controlled liquid bypass
Figure 1-6. Liquid/suction line heal exchanger (Courtesy. Refrigeration Research, Inc.)
of the refrigerant and causes a lower saturation been vaporized. This protects the compressor
temperature in the evaporator. This tempera¬ from any liquid slopovcr, which may result in
ture difference between the lower pressure re¬ valve damage or diluted oil in the crankcase.
frigerant and the product load is the driving The amount of superheat in the evaporator is
potential for heat transfer to take place. usually controlled by a thermostatic expansion
type of metering device.
The last pass of the evaporator coil acts as a
superheater to ensure all liquid refrigerant has
Suction Line crankcase pressure regulators, p-traps, filters,
The suction line transports low pressure super¬ and screens. Liquid/suction line heat exchang¬
heated vapor from the evaporator to the com¬ ers are often mounted in the suction line to
pressor. There may be other components in the transfer heat away from the liquid line (sub¬
cool) and into the suction line. Figure 1-7.
suction line such as suction accumulators,
Evaporating temperature
Evaporator Metering device
\ /
/
i
\
\ \ /
v (
i
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/
> - «\ \ V
I
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✓ \ /
Subcooled
-jCOD- 7
m liquid
Superheated suction vapor -

Heat exchanger
Subcooled liquid
Suction line
/ FU Condenser
/ \
Compressor
\ /
\ /
/
/
X J
1
\ ✓
Superheated suction vapor - r- -|
/
/
Condensing temperature /
\
\
Figure 1-7. Refrigeration system showing liquid/suetion line heat exchanger
Another function of the suction line is to su¬ • Evaporator outlet temperature = 10°F
perheat the vapor as it approaches the com¬
pressor. Even though suction lines are usually • Compressor inlet temperature = 40°F
insulated, sensible heat stills penetrates the re¬
frigerant vapor and adds more superheat. This See Table 1-1 for pressure/temperature relation¬
additional superheat decreases the density of ships.
the refrigerant vapor to prevent compressor
overload, resulting in lower amp draws. This
Compressor Discharge (Point #1)
additional superheat also helps ensure that the
compressor will see vapor only under low load¬ The refrigeration compressor is a vapor pump,
ing conditions. Many metering devices have a not a liquid pump. The vapor leaving the com¬
tendency to lose control of evaporator super¬ pressor will be high pressure superheated va¬
heat at low loads. It is recommended that sys¬ por. The compressor is one of the two compo¬
tems should have at least 20°F of total super¬ nents in the system that separates the high pres¬
heat at the compressor to prevent liquid slug¬ sure side from the low pressure side. The com¬
ging and/or flooding of the compressor at low pressor discharge is high pressure, and the
loadings. This topic will be covered extensively compressor suction is low pressure. The com¬
in Chapter Two. pressor discharge vapor receives its superheat
from sensible heat coming from the evapora¬
tor, suction line, motor windings, friction, and
internal heat of compression from the compres¬
sion stroke. Since the vapor is superheated, no
APPLICATION OF PRESSURES, STATES, AND pressure/temperature relationship exists. Its tem¬
CONDITIONS perature is well above the saturation tempera¬
Systematic troubleshooting requires mastering ture of 100°F for the given saturation (con¬
the function of all refrigeration system compo¬ densing) pressure of 124 psig.
nents. It is also important to be able to recog¬
nize the pressure, state, and condition of the Condenser Inlet (Point #2)
working fluid (refrigerant) in the refrigeration As high pressure superheated refrigerant leaves
system components. Figure 1-8 illustrates the the compressor, it instantly begins to lose su¬
basic refrigeration system. The legend lists re¬ perheat and cool in temperature. Its heat is
frigerant pressures, conditions, and states for usually given up to the surroundings. As men¬
the points shown in Figure 1-8. An explanation tioned before, this process is called
of the pressure, condition, and state of each desuperheating. Even though this refrigerant
point should clarify any system weaknesses. vapor is going through a desuperheating pro¬
cess, it is still superheated vapor. Pressure acts
Assume the following conditions for Figure equally in all directions, so the vapor will be
1-8: high pressure, or the same pressure as the com¬
pressor discharge, assuming that any line and
• Refrigerant = R-134a valve pressure drops are ignored. Remember,
the refrigerant is superheated and not saturated,
• Discharge (condensing) pressure = 124 so there is no prcssurc/tcmpcraturc relationship.
psig (100°F)
This high pressure superheated vapor is also
• Suction (evaporating) pressure = 6 psig above its saturation temperature of 100°F for
(0°F) the given discharge or condensing pressure of
1 24 psig. This point can be referred to as high
• Discharge temperature = 180°F pressure superheated vapor. This process of
desuperheating will continue until the 100%
• Condenser outlet temperature = 90°F saturated vapor point in the condenser is
reached.
• TXV inlet temperature = 80°F
Evaporator
Metering device
/
/
/ \ 1 00% liquid
\
\
%
„
i
\
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---- i
N
$
6
Mostly liquid
with some liquid
• ••
C
m •» » •
7 \
flashing to vapor
i i ♦
i
i » i
i i %
.•
*
) Vapor
© Liquid
9 100% saturated liquid point

Condenser
10
limn 10
Compressor
h®=®
•s
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INI II I o •• » » • •*
i
*
/
i
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)
Point
#1
Location
Compressor
discharge
Pressure
High
Condition
Superheated
State
Vapor
C *
/
*\
*
N
*
/
*
\
>
/
/
--
V
*
*
*
/
*
&
/ \
#2 Condenser Inlet High Superheated Vapor
/ V
#3 100% saturated High Saturated Vapor

vapor point \ /
#4 100% saturated High Saturated Liquid

liquid point
#5 Condenser outlet High Subcooled Liquid
#6 TXV inlet High Subcooled Liquid

5
#7 Middle of evaporator Low Saturated Vapor
and liquid
#8 100% saturated Low Saturated Vapor

vapor point
#9 Evaporator outlet Low Superheated Vapor
#10 Compressor inlet Low Superheated Vapor
Figure 1-8. Basic refrigeration system showing refrigerant pressures, states, and condition locations
100% Saturated Vapor Point are right. This point is on the high side of the
system and is all subcooled liquid, so it is re¬
(Point #3) ferred to as high pressure subcooled liquid.
Once all the superheat is rejected from the re¬ There is no pressure/temperature relationship
frigerant gas, the saturation temperature of at the subcoolcd condition, only at saturation.
100°F is finally reached for the condensing At a pressure of 124 psig, the corresponding
pressure of 124 psig (see Table 1-1 for pres¬ temperature of the 100% saturated liquid point
sure/temperature relationship). The vapor has in the condenser is 100°F. The difference be¬
now reached the 100% saturated vapor point tween 1 00°F and the condenser outlet tempera¬
and is at the lowest temperature it can be and ture of 90°F is 1 0°F of condenser subcooling.
still remain a vapor. This temperature is re¬ Subcooling calculations will be covered much
ferred to as both its saturation and condensing more extensively in Chapter Two.
temperature, and a pressure/temperature rela¬
tionship exists. Any heat lost past the 100%
saturated vapor point will gradually phase TXV Inlet (Point #6)
change the vapor to liquid (condensing). The The inlet to the TXV is on the high side of the
heat removed from the vapor turning to liquid system and consists of subcooled liquid. This
is referred to as latent heat and happens at a subcooling should continue from the 100%
constant temperature of 100°F. As the vapor saturated liquid point in the condenser. The
condenses to liquid, refrigerant molecules ac¬ tubing from the condenser outlet to the TXV
tually become more dense and get closer to¬ inlet is often referred to as the liquid line. The
gether. This molecular joining is what gives up liquid line may be exposed to very high or low
most of the latent heat energy. This point is on roof temperatures depending on the time of year.
the high side of the refrigeration system and is This will seriously affect whether or not
referred to as high pressure saturated vapor. subcooling takes place and to what magnitude.
If the liquid line is exposed to hot tempera¬
tures, liquid line flashing may occur (covered
100%Saturated Liquid Point in Chapter Two). Since this point is on the high
(Point #4) side of the system and is subcooled liquid, it is
Soon all of the vapor will give up its latent referred to as high pressure subcooled liquid.
heat and turn to saturated liquid at a constant
condensing temperature of 100°F. Any more Middle of Evaporator (Point #7)
heat given up by the refrigerant after this point
will be sensible heat, because the phase change When the subcooled liquid enters the TXV,
from vapor to liquid is complete. This point is flashing of the liquid occurs. Once in the evapo¬
rator, the liquid refrigerant experiences a se¬
still on the high side of the refrigeration system
and can be referred to as high pressure satu¬ vere drop in pressure to the new saturation
rated liquid. The entire condensing process takes (evaporator) pressure of 6 psig. This pressure
place between the 100% saturated vapor point decrease causes some of the liquid to flash to
and the 1 00% saturated liquid point. Any sen¬ vapor in order to reach the new saturation tem¬
sible heat lost past the 100% saturated liquid perature in the evaporator of 0°F. Once this
point is referred to as subcooling. new evaporator temperature is reached, the liq¬
uid/vapor mixture starts absorbing heat from
the product load and continues to change from
Condenser Outlet (Point #5) liquid to vapor. This process happens at the
Once the 100% saturated liquid point is reached new saturation temperature of 0°F, correspond¬
in the condenser, liquid subcooling occurs. ing to the saturation (evaporator) pressure of 6
Remember, any heat lost in the liquid past its psig. This is a classic example of heat absorbed
100% saturated liquid point is subcooling. Liq¬ by the refrigerant without increasing in tem¬
uid subcooling can continue all the way to the perature, which is called the latent heat of va¬
entrance of the metering device if conditions porization. The heat energy absorbed in the
refrigerant breaks the liquid molecules into Compressor Inlet (Point #10)
vapor molecules instead of increasing its tem¬ The compressor inlet consists of low pressure
perature. Since the refrigerant is both saturated superheated vapor. This vapor feeds the com¬
liquid and vapor and is on the low side of the pressor. As the refrigerant travels from the
refrigeration system, it is referred to as a low evaporator outlet down the suction line to the
pressure saturated liquid and vapor. compressor, more superheat is gained. Super¬
heat ensures that no liquid refrigerant enters
100% Saturated Vapor Point the compressor at low evaporator loadings when
TXV valves are known to lose control of su¬
(Point #8) perheat settings. Because this point is super¬
Once all of the liquid changes to vapor in the heated, no refrigerant prcssurc/tcmpcraturc re¬
evaporator, the 100% saturated vapor point is lationship exists.
reached. This point is still at the evaporator
saturation temperature of 0°F. Any more heat
absorbed by the refrigerant vapor will result in
a temperature rise of the refrigerant. This heat
energy goes into increasing the velocity and
spacing of the vapor molecules, because there
is no more liquid to be vaporized. This increase
in molecular velocity can be measured in de¬
grees. Any heat added past this 1 00% saturated
vapor point is superheat. Since this 100% satu¬
rated vapor point is in the low side of the sys¬
tem and is saturated vapor, it is referred to as
low pressure saturated vapor.
Evaporator Outlet (Point #9)

The evaporator outlet temperature is used for
evaporator superheat calculations. This point is
located at the evaporator outlet next to the TXV
remote bulb. Because it is located downstream
of the 1 00% saturated vapor point, it is super¬
heated. This point is in the low side of the
refrigeration system and is referred to as low
pressure superheated vapor. The difference
between the 100% saturated vapor temperature
of 0°F and the evaporator outlet temperature of
10°F is called evaporator superheat. In this
example, there are 10°F of evaporator super¬
heat.
CHAPTER
TWO
SubcoolingandSuperheating
The concepts of subcooling and superheating perature relationship using the condensing pres¬
are probably the two most important principles sure. This means that as soon as all of the satu¬
that the service technician must understand be¬ rated vapor in the condenser changes to satu¬
fore attempting to systematically troubleshoot rated liquid, subcooling will start to occur if
hvac/r systems. This chapter covers not only further heat is removed. This is a temperature
basic principles of subcooling and superheat, change or sensible heat change, so any drop in
but also topics for the more advanced service temperature of the liquid below the saturation
technician. Examples dealing with superheat and temperature for the pressure at that point is con¬
subcooling amounts are also included for any sidered liquid subcooling.
clarifications that may be needed.
SUBCOOLING CATEGORIES
LIQUID SUBCOOLING There are two subcooling categories: condenser
In today’s competitive service market, every subcooling and total subcooling.
conscientious service technician should under¬
stand why a refrigeration or air conditioning
system must have the proper amount of liquid Condenser Subcooling
subcooling. The amount of liquid subcooling Condenser subcooling is the liquid subcooling
affects system capacity, as well as the effec¬ present leaving the condenser. It can be mea¬
sured by subtracting the actual condenser liq¬
_
tiveness and capacity of expansion type meter¬
ing devices. uid out temperature from the saturation tem¬
perature measured at the condenser outlet:
Subcooling is defined as the difference between Condensing
the measured liquid temperature and the liquid temperature Condenser liquid Condenser
saturation temperature at a given pressure. Any (saturated) out temperature " subcooling
sensible heat taken away from the 100% satu¬
rated liquid point in the condenser can be de¬ [Formula 2-1 J
fined as liquid subcooling. Liquid subcooling
may occur from the start of the 1 00% saturated When subcooled, the refrigerant is not generat¬
liquid point in the condenser to the metering ing or losing any vapor pressure, so there is no
device, Figure 2-1. The saturated liquid tem¬ pressure/temperature relationship and a pres¬
perature can be obtained from a pressure/tem- sure/temperature chart cannot be used. The
condenser outlet temperature must be measured
Subcooling and Superheating 15
Evaporator
c >
Metering device (TXV)
c
100% liquid
c * > Mostly liquid

with some liquid
Hashing to vapor
I Ik
Vapor
Liquid
100% saturated liquid point

Condenser
'I
x
c
7
C T?T
* )
c )
Figure 2-1. Start of liquid subcooling
c
with either a thermistor or a thermocouple fas¬ Temperature Pressure
tened to the condenser outlet, Figure 2-2. The (•F) (psig)
saturated temperature may be acquired from the 65 111.23
condensing pressure read from a gauge on the 66 113.22
condenser outlet. This is because a pressure/ 67 115.24
temperature relationship does exist in a satu¬ 68 117.28
rated condition. If pressure drops exist in the 69 119.34
system, the pressure must be measured where 70 121.43
the temperature was taken to obtain an accu¬ 71 123.54
rate liquid subcooling amount. 72 125.67

73 127.83
74 130.01
Example 2-1
75 132.22
What is the condenser subcooling if the head
76 134,45
pressure on an R-22 system is 21 1 psig and a
77 136.71
thermistor at the condenser outlet measures
78 138.99
95°F? (Assume no pressure drops through the 79 141.30
condenser.) Note: Thermistors or thermocouples 80 143.63
must have good thermal contact onto the re¬ 81 145.99
frigerant line. The line must be straight and 82 148.37
lightly sanded to ensure good thermal contact. 83 150.78
Insulation must be placed around the line to 84 153.22
insulate against outside ambient heat losses or 85 155.68
gains. 86 158.17
87 160.69
Solution 2-1 88 163.23
Convert 211 psig for R-22 to a 105°F condens¬ 89 165.80
ing temperature using the pressure/temperature 90 168.40
chart shown in Table 2-1: 91 171.02
92 173.67
105°F
(condensing
saturation
temperature)
95°F
(condenser out
temperature) - 1D°F
(condenser
subcooling)
93
94
95
176.35
179.06
181.80
96 184.56
This means that there are 10°F of liquid 97 187.36
subcooling leaving the condenser to feed the 98 190.18
liquid line or receiver, depending on the type 99 193.03
of system employed. However, if the liquid goes 100 195.91
to a flow-through receiver, subcooling could 101 198.82
102 201.76
be lost.
103 204.72
104 207.72
Example 2-2
105 210.75
This example incorporates pressure drop
106 213.81
through the condenser into the equation for
107 216.90
condenser subcooling. In this case, the pres¬
108 220.02
sure must be measured where the condenser
109 223.17
outlet temperature is taken.
Table 2-1. Pressure/temperature relationship for R-22
What is the condenser subcooling if the head
pressure on an R-22 system is 211 psig, the
thermistor at the condenser outlet measures
95°F, and the pressure reads 205 psig at that
Evaporator
( Metering device (TXV)
I
[ 100% liquid
c * > Mostly liquid

with some liquid
flashing to vapor
) Vapor
Liquid
Thermistor or
Thermocouple
v.
Condenser
'l y
]
J o
)
a
y
(
m
> 95°
<
Figure 2-2. Thermistor or thermocouple at the condenser outlet
point? There is a 6 psi pressure drop through of the metering device from the saturation tem¬
the condenser from line losses. The condenser perature at that point:
outlet pressure can be read at the king valve,
Saturation TXV Inlet Total
receiver charging valve, or simply by installing temperature temperature subcooling
a line tap valve. from pressure at
TXV inlet
Solution 2-2 |Formula 2-2 ]
Convert 205 psig for R-22 to 103°F using Table
2-1: The concept of total subcooling is meaningless
without incorporating pressure drops into the
103°F
(saturation
temperature at
condenser outlet)
95“F
(condenser out
temperature)
- 8°F
(condenser
subcooling)
equation. Example 2-3 is a total subcooling
calculation that does not take pressure drop into
consideration.
Example 2-3
Total Subcooling What is the total subcooling if the head pres¬
Total subcooling encompasses liquid subcooling sure of an R-22 system is 223 psig, and a ther¬
from the 100% saturated liquid point to the mistor on the liquid line at the entrance of the
expansion valve or metering device, Figure 2- metering device reads 90°F (assume no pres¬
3. This means that total subcooling includes sure drop)?
condenser subcooling and any subcooling that
takes place after the condenser. Liquid can lose Solution 2-3
heat and subcool in the receiver, filter drier, Convert 223 psig for R-22 to a 109°F condens¬
and liquid line before it gets to the metering ing temperature using Table 2-1:
device. However, if there is any refrigerant 109°F 90°F 19°F
vapor in the receiver, the subcoolcd liquid will (condensing (liquid at (total
not subcool further. The vapor will re-condense saturation metering device subcooling)
to a liquid in the receiver, and both the liquid temperature) temperature)
and vapor will reach a new saturation tempera¬
ture. As the vapor re-condenses it rejects heat, There are 19°F of total liquid subcooling be¬
which will be absorbed by the subcooled liq¬ fore the liquid enters the metering device. Note:
uid. Subcooling can be lost in this situation if When measuring the liquid line temperature at
the liquid stays in the receiver too long. the entrance of a TXV or AXV metering device,
place the thermistor or thermocouple on the
Subcooling of liquid rarely occurs when a cap¬ liquid line about 3 to 4 inches in front of the
illary tube metering device is used because of expansion valve and insulate it from ambient
the severe pressure drop of the liquid as it trav¬ heat gains. Measurement instruments placed too
els the length of the capillary tube. Due to this close to the metering device will measure colder
reduction in pressure through the capillary tube, temperatures due to heat conduction to the
the liquid may actually be saturated with flash colder expansion device.
gas present. Because of the difficulty measur¬
ing the temperature at the capillary tube outlet Example 2-4
in a service environment, assume that total In this example, pressure drop is incorporated
subcooling ends at the capillary tube entrance. into the system as the liquid travels through the
condenser to the metering device. This is typi¬
Total subcooling can be calculated by subtract¬ cal of most medium and large systems.
ing the liquid line temperature at the entrance
What is the total subcooling if the head pres¬
sure of an R-22 system is 223 psig, a ther¬
mistor on the liquid line at the entrance of the
metering device reads 90°F, and the pressure is
216 psig at that point? There is a 7 psi pressure
Mostly liquid Metering device (TXV)
with some liquid
flashing to vopor End of subcooling
Evaporator
St
C
■s
/ \ /
C V \ /
T
/
liquid
£1
v T
i 90°
/
> - <\ N
\
’• F
I
x
\
V.
/ \
v .
/
)
f Thermistor or
Thermocouple
Filter drier
Liquid line
Condenser
'l >=§
] /
±
S
\
\
/
\
5
) o \ /
D
/ N. *5»
N J
c
I / I
\ ✓
\ / /
'
'
▲
D Vapor / \
i \
Liquid
c ✓
Start of subcooling
Figure 2-3. Thermistor or thermocouple at the TXT inlet
drop before the liquid reaches the metering pressure drops) would try to cool itself down
device. This pressure drop could be static, fric¬ to a lower saturation temperature to match the
tion, or both. The pressure of the liquid is progressively lower pressure in the liquid line.
measured just before the metering device where The only way the saturated liquid could cool
the 90°F temperature is taken, Figure 2-4. Line itself down is for some of its own liquid to
tap valves are often needed for this procedure. flash into vapor. Whenever a liquid flashes into
vapor, heat energy is needed for the vaporiza¬
Solution 2-4 tion process. Almost all of the heat supplied to
Convert 216 psig for R-22 to a 107°F saturated the flashing process is from the heat in the
temperature using Table 2-1: saturated liquid itself. This cools the remaining
liquid down to the new saturation temperature
107’F 90'F 17’F associated with the new lower pressure caused
(saturated (liquid at (total
temperature metering device = subcooling)
from the pressure drop. This type of cooling is
for 216 psig temperature) referred to as adiabatic cooling, because there
at TXV inlet) is no net loss or gain of energy in the liquid.
Whenever saturated liquid experiences liquid
line pressure drop, liquid line flash gas results
SUBCOOLING NEEDED TO PREVENT and is detrimental to system performance.
Metering devices will then experience a mix¬
LIQUID LINE FLASH ture of liquid/vapor instead of a solid column
Condenser subcooling ensures there is a liquid of liquid at their entrances. The liquid/vapor
seal at the condenser bottom so the liquid line mixture decreases the capacity of the valves,
or receiver is not fed with vapor. This condi¬ because TXV capacity tables are based on
tion prevents any refrigerant vapor or vapor-free liquid at their inlets.
noncondensibles (e.g., air) from leaving the con¬
denser. On receiverless systems, condenser The balanced port TXV is designed to handle a
subcooling can be an indicator of how much certain amount of flash gas due to its oversized
refrigerant charge is in a system. See manufac¬ port. It is designed to maintain better control
turer specifications for condenser subcooling under such conditions and at light loads. The
amounts when charging a system using this balanced port TXV can operate with its valve
criteria. pin very close to the scat. This allows a large
port to handle small loads. When liquid flashes
Another important reason why condenser in the liquid line, it also leaves less liquid to
subcooling must be present is to prevent liquid flash in the evaporator. This takes away from
line flash gas (vapor bubbles) from forming in the refrigeration effect and adversely affects
the liquid line. Liquid line flash gas is prima¬ system capacity. Excessive liquid line flash gas
rily caused from a pressure drop in the liquid may even erode the needle and seat areas of
line. Pressure drop in the liquid line can be some TXVs. The erosion of needle valves usu¬
caused by any restrictive device, including fil¬ ally occurs only with ammonia valves.
ter driers, sightglasses, solenoid valves, shutoff
valves, or kinked or undersized liquid lines.
There is also pressure drop associated with the
length of run and the vertical lift of liquid in
refrigerant lines. The longer the run and the PRESSURE DROP
more turns and bends associated with the liq¬ Total pressure losses that take place in the liq¬
uid line, the larger the associated pressure drop. uid line arc the result of either friction pressure
There is also more pressure drop with more losses or static pressure losses.
vertical lift of liquid.
If there were no subcooling, saturated liquid Friction Pressure Losses

from the condenser (while experiencing these Friction pressure losses were discussed earlier.
They are caused from refrigerant flowing
Mostly liquid
with some liquid
216 psig flashing to vapor Metering device (TXV)
100%
Evaporator
5 liquid
9
C
c
c x
/
f
/
*
- N
V
\
i
\
I
> - <\
I
/
T
'
N
>*
\
\
)
©-
90°
Off
\
/ \
s '
/
)
IK
f Thermistor or
Thermocouple
Condenser
1 /
S N
\ :
J o C \
\ /
/
D
/ •S. 'T
N J \_ X
/ I I
C_1 ✓
s / /
3 Vapor
t
/ \
\ )
Liquid
C ✓
Figure 2-4. Thermistor or thermocouple and gauge at TXV inlet
either through tubing, driers, elbows, or even a
sightglass on its way to the metering device. Less weight, so
Some of the fluid energy is used to overcome less pressure at
friction from the side walls of the pipe or from top of tubing
an obstruction such as the filter drier. A veloc¬
ity profile is set up in the pipe with the slowest
moving fluid at the sidewalls and the fastest
moving fluid in the center of the pipe, Figure
2-5. This lost energy in the fluid causes a loss Vertical lift and
in pressure, which is why liquids must be static pressure /
subcooled before experiencing these pressure loss of a
column of V
drops to prevent liquid flashing. Proper line
liquid
sizing, short runs, and unobstructed accesso¬
ries like clean filter driers can prevent exces¬ Liquid line
sive friction pressure drops.
More weight, so
Static Pressure Losses more pressure at
Static pressure losses occur in the liquid line bottom of tubing
whenever liquid has to flow uphill through ver¬
tical lifts. A vertical column of liquid naturally
has more pressure at its bottom than its top due Figure 2-6. Vertical column of liquid showing static-
pressure losses
to the weight of the entire column of liquid at
the bottom, Figure 2-6. Whenever liquid from
VERTICAL LIFT -FEET
a condenser or receiver must be piped uphill, IT 40 80 1 100
REFRIGERANT
there will be static pressure drops as the liquid STATIC PRESSURE LOSS-pti
climbs higher in the piping. This is in addition 12 11 J2 33 44 55
to the friction pressure losses from the pipe 22 10 20 30 39 49
sidewalls as the liquid climbs. See Tabic 2-2 134a 10 20 30 40 50
for static pressure losses corresponding to ver¬ 502 JO. 20. 30 40 i0
717
tical lift for five different refrigerants. Refrig¬ (Ammonia) 5 10 15 20 25
erant line sizing does not reduce or increase
static pressure losses from vertical lift. Table 2-2. Static pressure losses as a function of vertical
lift for five refrigerants (Courtesy. Sporlan Valve
Company)
Copper pipe causing fluid friction

pressure drop at sides
□z Fastest fluid
Slowest fluid
Figure 2-5. Velocity profile
/ a7
How MUCH SUBCOOLING IS NEEDED? Temperature Pressure
Subcooling can be accomplished by numerous CD (psig)
70 70.192
methods. Common methods include liquid/suc¬ 71 71.520
tion line heat exchangers, ambient air, and di¬ 72 72.863
rect expansion mechanical subcooler heat ex¬ 73 74.222
74 75.596
changers. On receiverless systems, simply add¬ 75 76.986
ing a little more refrigerant to the system can 76 78.391
increase subcooling, but this is usually not rec¬ 77 79Jtl3
ommended because of added inefficiencies that 78 81.250
79 82.704
may occur. Increasing the pressure of the liq¬ 80 84.174
uid line is another popular method to subcool 81 85.66
liquid and prevent flash gas. This method will 82 87.16
83 88.68
be covered later in this chapter.
84 90.22
85 91.77
The amount of total subcooling needed is sys¬ 86 93.34
tem dependent. The more pressure drops (fric¬ 87 94.93
tion and static) associated with the lines and 88 96.53
89 98.15
accessories that carry the liquid in the system, 90 99.79
the more need there is for liquid subcooling to 91 101.45
prevent liquid line flash gas. For example, as¬ 92 103.12
93 104,81
sume an R-12 refrigeration system is operating 94 106.52
at a condensing pressure of 127 psig (105°F), 95 108.25
Table 2-3. Also assume that all of the vapor in 96
the condenser has turned to liquid and that it 97
98
iM
113.54
has reached the 100% saturated liquid point at 99 115.34
127 psig (105°F). For this example, assume no
liquid subcooling. Now assume that this same
100
101
gg
102 120.86
saturated liquid experiences total pressure drops 103 122.74
of 10 psig before it reaches the TXV. Because 104 124.63
the liquid is saturated, it must eventually reach 105 126.55
a new saturation pressure of 1 17 psig (127 psig 106 128.48
- 10 psig). There is a saturated temperature 107

IQS
130.43
132.41
associated with all saturated pressures, and for 109 134.40
the saturated pressure of 117 psig, the new 110 136.41
saturated temperature is 100°F (Table 2-3). 111 138.44
112 140.49
However, for liquid to drop in temperature from 113 142.57
105° to 100°F, some heat must be removed 114 144,66
from the liquid, which is where liquid line flash 115 146.77
116 148.91
gas appears. As the liquid gradually travels 117 151.06
through the 1 0 psig pressure drop, a portion of 118 153.24
the liquid will continually flash and cool the 119 155.43
column of liquid immediately behind it to the 120 157.65
121 159.89
new saturation temperature of 100°F. This flash¬ 122 162.15
ing cools the saturated liquid to 100°F, which 123 16443
corresponds to 1 1 7 psig at the entrance of the 124 166.73
metering device. As mentioned earlier, prema¬ 125 169.06
ture liquid flashing that does not take place in Table 2-3. Pressure/temperature relationship for R-12
the evaporator is lost refrigeration effect and
can also derate the tonnage of expansion valves.
The only sure way to safeguard against liquid
line flash gas is to subcool the liquid before it • Design pressure drop for friction losses
experiences any pressure drop. in liquid line is 2 psig for copper pipes
only
Example 2-5
Based on the R-12 example just discussed, fig¬ • Filter drier pressure drop is 1 psig
ure out how much liquid subcooling needs to (friction pressure drop)
be present to prevent liquid line flash gas.
• Vertical lift of liquid is 40 feet (static
Solution 2-5 pressure drop)
Refer to Table 2-3 to find the temperature span
of 5°F that covers the pressure drop of 1 0 psig • Static pressure drop is 20 psig (Table 2-
(127 psig - 1 17 psig). If there is at least 5°F of 2)
subcooling in the system, it acts as a sensible
heat cushion to prevent liquid line flash gas. If • System has a condensing pressure of
the liquid is subcooled 5°F and experiences the 211 psig (105°F)
gradual 10 psig pressure drop, flashing does
not occur, because the liquid is already What is the minimal amount of liquid
subcooled to accommodate the new lower pres¬ subcooling required to prevent liquid line flash
sures. When subcooled, the liquid is already at gas in this R-22 refrigeration system?
or below the saturation temperature for the new
pressures. The minimal amount of subcooling Solution 2-6
required to accommodate the 10 psig pressure The total pressure drop for this system is 23
drop without liquid flashing is 5°F. psig (2 psig + 1 psig + 20 psig). The 23 psig
pressure drop puts the new pressure at 1 88 psig
You can always use a prcssurc/tcmpcrature chart (21 1 psig - 23 psig). According to Table 2-1,
to figure the minimal amount of subcooling for the saturation temperature that corresponds to
any known pressure drop and refrigerant. How¬ 188 psig is about 97°F. Therefore, the liquid
ever, different refrigerants require different must be subcooled to at least 97°F to prevent
amounts of liquid subcooling for the same pres¬ liquid line flash gas. This means the system
sure drops, Table 2-4. If charts such as Table must have at least 8°F (105° 97°F) of
subcooling to prevent flash gas.
-
2-4 do not exist, calculations must be performed
to find the amount of subcooling needed to
handle whatever pressure drops exist. If the
REFRIG¬ PRESSURE LOSS
—
pti
pressure drop is not known, make sure there is
enough subcooling to handle an extreme pres¬
sure drop. Do not overcharge the system by
ERANT
12
22
S
3
2
i
10 | TO
6
4
12
8
30
OOIING
18
11
—
25
15
SO
33
19
adding too much refrigerant on rcccivcrlcss
500 3 5 10 15 21 27
systems. Overcharging increases condenser 502 2 3 7 10 14 18
subcooling, but the head pressure will elevate 717
and give unwanted inefficiencies from higher (Ammonia)
2 4 7 10 14 17
compression ratios. Always consult the system
manufacturer for the proper amount of con¬
denser subcooling if charging to this specifica¬
REFRIG¬
ERANT '5
130' F. Condmilm
PRESSURE 10SS
| 10 | 30 | 30
REQUIRED SUBCOOtIN
——
»1
<0~ | 50
‘f.
tion. 12 3 5 9 14 18 23
22 2 4 6 9 12 14
Example 2-6 500 2 4 8 11 15 19
Apply the principles just learned to an R-22 502 1 3 5 8 11 13
system piping layout, Figure 2-7. Assume the 717
(Ammonia) 2 3 5 7 10 12
following conditions:
Table 2-4. Required subcooled liquid amounts to
compensate for pressure drops (Courtesy \ Sporlan Valve
Company)
Evaporator
/ \ /
/
Filter drier
\ \ I
v (
i
t >- < \ \
i
±
\ \ /
/
40 feet
Water-cooled
condenser
kÿr=-
Figure 2-7. Refrigeration system with a 40-ft vertical rise in the liquid line
LIQUID PRESSURE AMPLIFICATION™ (LPA) terns, or the receiver and the TXV inlet on TXV/
receiver systems. By increasing the pressure of
AND SUPERHEAT SUPPRESSION the liquid refrigerant, the associated saturation
Liquid pressure amplification technology1 has temperature is raised, while the actual liquid
given refrigeration systems capacity boosts temperature remains the same. The liquid be¬
while saving electrical energy. Using this tech¬ comes subcoolcd and will not flash if exposed
nology, liquid refrigerant entering the liquid line to pressure drops in the liquid line. Because
is pressurized by a small centrifugal pump, the liquid centrifugal pump motor is external to
Figure 2-8. The pressurized amount is equiva¬ the refrigeration system and the impeller is
lent to the pressure loss between the condenser driven by a revolving magnetic field, negligible
outlet and the TXV inlet on receiverless sys- energy and heat are added to the system. The
Mgwx?xs'-y : .• ' '•;*ÿ:
%
K .
jfe
*1 : V: V :: : :
:
111 '
I ail ill
■pi 'ÿ'I
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i
;.
1
-
,
'
* ■
1
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'ÿ
mat* ;fj' ' •
> 11
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.
Figure 2-8. Centrifugal pump for liquid pressure amplification m (Courtesy Hy-Save. Inc.)
liquid is pressurized with a negligible addition Since subcooling exists in any liquid below its
of temperature or heat and allows for a com¬ saturation temperature for a given pressure,
pletely sealed system, because there is no drive there are really several ways to subcool liquid.
shaft protruding from the motor to the pump. One way is to sensible cool the liquid in the
The LPA centrifugal pump can increase the bottom of the condenser, giving it a sensible
pressure of the liquid by approximately 8 to 20 heat reduction to prevent flashing from liquid
psi. The liquid pressure amplification system is line pressure drops. However, subcooling this
shown in Figure 2-9 and can be compared to a way will take up valuable condenser volume
more common system shown in Figure 2-10. with subcooled liquid at its bottom, since con¬
densing cannot occur in this area. This will
cause higher head pressures and compression
DESUPERHEAT
DESUPERHEAT
CONDENSING
mm
|MBaMaaa
CONDENSING
SUBCOOLED
LPAN
Wtm
-
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EVAPORATING
Js9
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.. •
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TXV
iI TXV
1
i
Figure 2-9. Normal refrigeration system with centrifugal Figure 2-10. Typical refrigeration system (Courtesy. Hy-
pump for liquid pressure amplification (Courtesy. Hy-Save. Save. Inc.)
Inc.)
ratios, thus lower efficiencies. To only consider a solid column of liquid supplied to the meter¬
the subcooling of the liquid without regard to ing device.
decreasing condenser surface area, there will
be a gain of 1/2% of capacity for every degree Ambient subcooling cannot be maintained at a
of liquid subcooling. Also, 7°F of ambient given level with only air side controls. Con¬
subcooling costs .167 brakehorsepower per ton densing pressures are directly related to the
because of elevated head pressures. However, temperature of the condenser cooling medium
if we consider the reduction of effective con¬ and the useful condensing area in the condenser.
densing surface area due to the condenser flood¬ Useful or effective condensing area is the total
ing necessary to achieve liquid subcooling, there condensing area minus the area used for
is a net loss in capacity due to increased con¬ desuperheating and the area used for subcooling:
densing pressures and temperatures.
Total Condenser area used Useful or
This type of subcooling, often called ambient condenser for desuperheating = effective
area and subcooling condensing
subcooling, has been practiced for years and area
was thought to be a “free” method of
subcooling. This simply is not the case with
receiverless systems having no separate [Formula 2-3|
subcooling coil. Ambient subcooling is usually
As one can see, the more desuperheating and
accomplished at the cost of increased head pres¬
sures. It was used in refrigeration systems sim¬ liquid subcooling that is done by the condenser,
ply as a liquid seal in the condenser bottom the less useful condenser area there is. This
and to prevent liquid line flash gas. This kept will raise condensing pressures and compres-
sion ratios and cause inefficiencies with higher occupy more volume in the liquid line because
power draws. of the higher specific volume of the flashed
vapors. The TXV will begin to hunt, alternately
A more efficient way to subcool liquid usually overfeeding and underfeeding the evaporator.
is to increase the pressure of the liquid without The system capacity will be reduced, and dam¬
raising the temperature. This puts the liquid at age to the compressor may result.
a higher pressure, thus it has a higher associ¬
ated saturation temperature but docs not change For example, consider the curve for a CFC
its actual temperature. As the subcooling defi¬ refrigerant, Figure 2-12. As the pressure in the
nition states, this liquid is subcooled in an liquid line drops, more liquid progressively
amount equal to the difference between the flashes into vapor to cool the remaining liquid
saturation temperature and the actual tempera¬ to the saturation temperature corresponding to
ture, and the liquid is below its saturation tem¬ the progressively lower pressure. With an 8 psig
perature for that new pressure. By increasing pressure drop, the flash gas by weight is 2%
the pressure of the subcooled liquid to over¬ with a 100°F condensing temperature (214
come any pressure losses that occur in the liq¬ psig). The vapor bubbles in the liquid line are
uid line, condensing pressures can be allowed very compressed and occupy only 20% of the
to fall to their lowest pressures attainable with¬ volume in the liquid line. However, reduce the
out flash gas developing in the liquid line. pressure to 97 psig (50°F), and the flashing
vapor will occupy 38% of the liquid line vol¬
Another term for attaining the lowest possible ume. This vapor reduces the flow through the
head pressure is floating the head pressure. expansion valve, has little refrigeration effect,
Condensing temperatures of 20°F are not un¬ and must be recompressed after doing work.
common in low temperature systems incorpo¬ Again, system capacity will suffer, the evapo¬
rating LPA. However, if one tries to float the rator will starve, and the TXV will begin to
head pressure with the ambient, these lower hunt. This is the primary value of the LPA sys¬
head pressures will require more subcooling for tem - to ensure a solid column of liquid to the
the same pressure drops in the liquid line in TXV, so the TXV can supply adequate liquid
order to prevent flashing. This phenomenon hap¬ to the evaporator.
pens because the refrigerant prcssurc/tempcra-
ture graph is non-linear. The pressure/tempera¬
ture graph is much flatter at the lower pres¬
sures, meaning that the same amount of liquid
subcooling is needed to overcome less of a
pressure drop at these lower pressures and tem¬
peratures, Figure 2-11. This is one of the rea¬
sons why LPA is incorporated in the system
. .— .
when the head pressure is floated with the AP-7.1 psi
ambient. It subcools the liquid by increasing
the pressure of the liquid and forces the liquid
2
a
G>
W
:
to have a new higher saturation temperature.
j/j
Thus, flash gas is prevented when head pres¬
sures are allowed to float, because the LPA I L: AP-5.0 psi i
ensures that the liquid line pressure (and satu¬
ration temperature) are always higher than the
actual liquid temperature.
L I
If head pressure is reduced without the LPA Temperature °F
and the liquid experiences the same pressure
drop through the liquid line as it did at the .
Figure 2-11. R-22 pressure/temperature curve (Courtesy
higher condensing pressures, the flash gas will Sporlan Falve Company)
sion ratios and possibly increased subcooling
of liquid negate the higher costs of the larger
Percent by weight condenser.
0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5%
100»i
After much research with metering valve sup¬
90« -- pliers, it was discovered that TXVs would work
with much less pressure drop across them than
80* expected in the past, as long as pure liquid was
I supplied to them. The balanced port TXV de¬
70«. % sign today is noted for its low pressure drop
60«.
performance. With this new knowledge, con¬
densing pressures and temperatures were al¬
50« lowed to “float” downward with the ambient
temperature. In fact, a majority of the outdoor
40®.- \ temperatures in the USA are below 70°F more
than they are above. The compressor capacity
30«. increases about 6% for every 10°F drop in
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%
Percent by volume condensing temperature.
Figure 2-12. Effects of condensing pressure on flash gas Pressure drops of less than 30 psig across the
(Courtesy. Hy-Save, Inc.) expansion valve should be avoided for proper
evaporator feeding of liquid. For an evaporator
to operate at peak efficiency, it must have a
Floating Head Pressures and LPA high percent of liquid to vapor ratio entering
Advantages the evaporator. To accomplish this, the expan¬
sion valve must allow liquid refrigerant to en¬
In the past, designers of air conditioning and ter the evaporator at the same rate that it evapo¬
refrigeration systems picked an outdoor design rates. With an LPA pump, subcooling and pres¬
condition for the system. This outdoor design sure can be maintained at a constant at the
condition typically was a temperature that would metering device. Overfeeding and underfeed¬
not be reached any more than 2% of the time ing by the expansion valve, which dramatically
in the life of the system. This design condition affect the efficiency of the evaporator, will then
would also occur only a couple of hours at a be minimized.
time when reached. The selection of the con¬
denser was then made based on this seldom- Historically, high head pressures and tempera¬
reached condition. tures were artificially maintained in a refrig¬
eration system so it would function well at low
This was acceptable several years ago when outdoor temperatures. These higher pressures
energy was much cheaper, and designers could were considered mandatory in order for the
select condensing temperatures at 20° to 30°F TXV to feed the evaporator adequately. Power
above the ambient. This was done because it costs 50 years ago were not the primary con¬
was thought the higher condensing tempera¬ sideration, so the added cost of lower efficiency
tures and pressures would enhance the flow did not matter. At today’s power costs, ineffi¬
through the metering device to outweigh any ciency is an unacceptable part of a company's
inefficiencies from the high compression ra¬ overhead. LPA allows lowering of the head
tios. This would force condensing temperatures pressure and reduced power consumption along
and pressures higher, causing high compres¬ with higher efficiencies. Here are four advan¬
sion ratios and lower efficiencies. With today’s tages to having an LPA system:
escalating energy costs, designers are specify¬
ing larger condensers with condensing tempera¬ • Eliminates liquid line flashing by over¬
tures 10° to 15°F above the ambient. The sig¬ coming line pressure losses
nificant energy savings from lower comprcs-
• Reduces energy costs because pumping process (sec Figure 2-9). This liquid flashes to
liquid refrigerant is up to 40 times more vapor while cooling the superheated discharge
efficient than using head pressure from gas closer to its condensing temperature. As a
the compressor to do the same work result, less surface area is required for
desuperheating. This leaves a more efficient
• Increases evaporator capacity along with condenser because of the increase in useful con¬
the net refrigeration effect densing surface area, which increases the over¬
all performance of the system. Savings from
• Lowers compression ratios and reduces 6% to 12% can be realized with superheat sup¬
stress on compressors, resulting in pression.
longer compressor life
Superheat suppression processes have been used
The days of the fixed elevated head pressures in large ammonia plants for years. However,
are fading. No longer are consumers willing to the process was not usually feasible on smaller
pay for inefficiencies. Customers are looking systems. This spurred the use of LPA and su¬
at life cycle costs, which are the equipment perheat suppression on the same system. A
costs plus the operational costs for the life of small portion of the pressurized liquid refriger¬
the equipment. ant provided by LPA (centrifugal pump) is
diverted to the compressor discharge line to
SuperheatSuppression cool the superheated vapors coming from the
compressor. Reduced superheat of the gas en¬
Superheat suppression can be used in conjunc¬ tering the condenser results in higher condenser
tion with LPA. The superheat suppression pro¬ efficiency, a lower condensing temperature, and
cess injects liquid refrigerant into the compres¬ greater compressor efficiency. Although some
sor discharge line or inlet of the condenser, efficiency gains are seen at low ambients, the
Figure 2-13. This liquid usually comes from greatest gain with superheat suppression is re¬
the same centrifugal pump used in the LPA alized at the higher ambient temperatures.
Suppression or cooling of superheated vapors

CONDENSING in a refrigeration system has four main advan¬
tages:
2
i • Reduced superheated vapor heat inten¬
e sity (temperature), so the pressure and
£ volume of these superheated vapors will
decrease
LPA' • Faster saturation of superheated vapors,

SUPERHEAT which condense more quickly
■TOMBS
• Condensing of the vapors occurs closer
mamEVAPORATING § □ to the inlet of the condenser, resulting
1 in lower condensing temperatures and
TXV
i
i
possibly more ambient subcooling
• Higher overall condenser heat transfer

because of the increased liquid/vapor
mixture heat transfer and increased
effective condensing area
Figure 2-13. System with LPA and superheat suppression
(Courtesy. Hy-Save, Inc.)
LPA/SuperheatSuppression with • Reduces system refrigerant charge up to
one-third
Subcooling/Reheat Coil
in an air conditioning system, the evaporator • Reduces refrigerant leak liabilities
removes moisture from the air. Therefore, it compared to conventional systems
would seem reasonable that if the efficiency of
the evaporator were increased, more moisture • Provides early warning of dirty con¬
could be removed. Part of dehumidification is denser or failed condenser fans
reheating the air that comes out of the evapo¬
rator to a lower relative humidity and raising • Provides early warning of a system
the temperature to an acceptable delivery level. refrigerant leak
Accomplishing both of these functions greatly
enhances the desired operation. Figure 2-14 • Increases compressor life because of
shows a combination LPA/superheat suppres¬ lowered compression ratio and discharge
sion system incorporating a subcooling/reheat temperatures due to lower condensing
coil at the evaporator air outlet.2 The coil al¬ pressures when operated in cooler
lows subcooled liquid to be further subcooled, ambients
while at the same time providing reheat to the
air leaving the evaporator. The relative humid¬ • Increases volumetric efficiencies due to
ity of the air is thus lowered. Depending on the lowered compression ratios
size of the coil, the liquid should be able to be
subcooled to within 8°F of the air temperature Principles of Operation
leaving the evaporator. With 60°F leaving air,
the liquid should be subcooled to approximately The amount of liquid refrigerant used in the
68°F. Remember, subcooling reduces liquid Enviroguard system is controlled by a system
flash loss in the evaporator creating a greater pressure regulator (SPR), Figure 2-15. The
net refrigeration effect. system refrigerant charge is reduced by taking
the receiver out of the active refrigerant circuit
With the rapid transition to alternative refriger¬ and allowing liquid refrigerant to return directly
ants and escalating energy costs facing the re¬ to the liquid manifold, which feeds the branch
frigeration industry today, more attention is refrigeration circuits. With the receiver out of
being paid to operating costs and system effi¬ the active refrigeration circuit, a minimum re¬
ciencies. Inattention to system pressures and ceiver charge is no longer required as with
liquid subcooling can make systems very inef¬ conventional system design. The receiver is now
ficient. Because of this, it is very important only used as a storage vessel to store the con¬
that every technician understands the principles denser charge variations between summer and
behind subcooling and system pressures. winter operations.
The SPR is controlled by a pilot pressure from

a remote mounted, refrigerant filled, ambient
air sensor connected to the SPR by a pilot line.
ENVIROGUARD™ REFRIGERANT CONTROL The SPR’s remote sensing bulb is charged with
SYSTEM the same refrigerant as the system. The remote
mounted ambient air sensor is located under
Enviroguard is a refrigerant control system that
allows head pressures to float with the ambient the air-cooled condenser to sense the ambient
temperature, while reducing system refrigerant
air temperature entering the condenser, Figure
charge up to one-third when compared to con¬ 2-16. Figure 2-17 illustrates the location of the
remote sensor in the evaporative condenser
ventional systems.* Key features and benefits
of this system include the following: sump if an evaporative condenser is used.
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figure 2-16. Condenser with air sensor for SPR valve (Courtesy, Tyler Refrigeration Corporation)
When the ambient air temperature rises, the 22 low temperature system is the sum of the
pressure inside the sensor and pilot line rises, saturated refrigerant pressure corresponding to
exerting a higher pressure in the pilot line and the actual ambient air temperature plus the
diaphragm of the SPR valve. A spring with an appropriate differential pressure setting of
adjustable resistance (differential) counteracts either 45 or 61 psi.
the SPR’s diaphragm pressure. Diaphragm force
against spring force determines the position of Whenever the ambient air temperature drops,
the SPR valve, and therefore, how much refrig¬ the pressure setting at which the SPR bypasses
erant will be bypassed to the receiver. When liquid refrigerant to the receiver also drops
the ambient air temperature falls, the pressure relative to the ambient air temperature. Any¬
inside the sensor and pilot line also falls, exert¬ time the condensing pressure rises 45 or 61 psi
ing a lower pressure on the pilot and diaphragm above the corresponding ambient air sensor
of the SPR. The SPR setting is adjusted to pressure, the SPR begins to bypass refrigerant
achieve a differential of approximately 45 psi into the receiver. Condensing pressure changes
for R-22 low temperature air-cooled applica¬ occur at the same rate and time relative to
tions and approximately 61 psi for R-22 me¬ changes in the ambient air temperature so liq¬
dium temperature air-cooled applications. Since uid feed is always constant.
the SPR pilot pressure is equivalent to the satu¬
rated refrigerant pressure at the ambient tem¬ If the condenser should become damaged,
perature, the pressure at which the SPR begins fouled internally or externally, or should it lose
to bypass refrigerant into the receiver on an R- a fan motor, an elevated condensing pressure
JJ
r
PILOT LINE
OVERFLOW
STAND PIPE
P REFRIGERANT LEVEL AT
MIDDLE OF SIGHT GLASS
o
EVAP. SUMP
EVAPORATIVE CONDENSER
Figure 2-17. Remote sensor in the evaporative condenser sump (Courtesy. Tyler Refrigeration Corporation)
will occur, resulting in refrigerant being by¬ tern to seek its own level of equilibrium rela¬
passed into the receiver by the SPR valve. This tive to the ambient temperature. Because of this
will prevent high compression ratios and high bleed circuit, certain conditions may allow the
discharge temperatures with lower volumetric receiver to be void of refrigerant and at suction
efficiencies. These occurrences often go unno¬ pressure.
ticed for long periods of time and stress com¬
pressor systems. Eventually, branch circuit As refrigerant bleeds from the receiver to the
evaporator temperatures will rise, because re¬ suction manifold, a capillary restrictor tube and
frigerant is being bypassed out of the working discharge line heat exchanger vaporize any liq¬
part of the system into the receiver, simulating uid (see Figure 2-15). This prevents liquid from
a refrigerant starved system. Rising evaporator entering the suction manifold. This same re¬
and product temperatures will be noticed sooner, frigerant is also strained and filtered before
and the problem can be remedied. If a refriger¬ entering the suction manifold. For example, on
ant leak should occur in the system, it will also most systems, when the ambient air tempera¬
be noticed earlier because of higher evaporator ture is below 70°F, the receiver is empty be¬
temperatures. Overall, less refrigerant is lost to cause refrigerant is flooding the condenser. This
the atmosphere than with conventional system is because less condenser surface is required
design, because system problems are noticed during winter operation due to lower ambient
much faster. air temperatures. During typical system opera¬
tion when the ambient air temperature is above
Whenever any or all of the compressors are 70°F, part of the refrigerant charge normally
running, there is a bleed circuit that is opened flooding the condenser is stored in the receiver
to the suction manifold, which bleeds from the since more condenser surface is required to
receiver back to the system for use. This al¬ reject the total heat of rejection at the higher
lows the refrigerant working charge in the sys- ambient temperatures.
Determiningthe SPR Valve Setting
For a forced air condenser, the proper steps to
be taken in determining the proper SPR valve
setting for a low temperature R-22 system ap¬
plication are as follows:
1. Choose a design ambient air temperature for the
geographical region 95°F
2. Choose the condenser temperature difference (TD) 10°F
3. Design in a TD safety factor 5°F
4. Add the first three together to obtain the adjusted
condensing temperature 110°F
5. Corresponding saturated refrigerant pressure equal
to the adjusted condensing temperature (110°F) 227 psig
to design ambient air temperature of 95°F (SPR bulb
and pilot line pressure at design ambient) 182 psig
7. Subtract No. 6 from No. 5 for target SPR differential pressure 45 psig
8. Actual ambient air temperature at time of system start-up 60°F
to actual ambient air temperature of 60°F 102 psig
10. Target SPR differential pressure 45 psig
11. Add No. 9 and No. 10 for the target SPR bypass pressure 147 psig
The actual pressure at which the SPR valve

will be set to bypass refrigerant to the receiver
for this low temperature R-22 example will be
147 psig with the ambient air temperature
measured at 60°F.
For an evaporative condenser, the proper steps

to be taken in determining the proper SPR valve
setting for a low temperature R-22 system ap¬
plication are as follows:4
1. Determine the area design ambient wet

bulb temperature.
2. Determine the design wet bulb tempera¬

ture to refrigerant condensing tempera¬
ture differences. Typical condensing
temperatures for low temperature sys¬
tems arc 90° to 95°F with a 20°F
TD. The design condensing temperature
for medium temperature applications is
from 95° to 100°F with a 25°F TD. A Schrader tee can be used to obtain evapora¬
Always refer to manufacturer guidelines. tor outlet pressure. Simply install the Schrader
a) Design wet bulb tee into the external equalizer access fitting on
temperature for the the side of the TXV once the system is pumped
geographical area 75°F down, Figure 2-19. Once the pressure gauge
and external equalizer line are reconnected to
b) TD wet bulb to the TXV, the technician should wait from 10 to
refrigerant 20°F 15 minutes to let the system reach a running
equilibrium again. The evaporator outlet pres¬
c) Add a) and b) for sure can then be read.
saturated condensing
temperature 95°F To determine evaporator superheat, consider an
R-134a refrigeration system. In this system, the
d) Corresponding low side gauge reading at the evaporator outlet
saturation pressure is 20 psig, or 23°F (see Table 1-1), and the
at condensing evaporator outlet temperature (thermistor read¬
temperature (95°F)
e) Corresponding
saturation pressure
at design wet bulb
182 psig
tion is as follows:
30°F
(evaporator
outlet
temperature)
23°F
(saturation
temperature at
evaporator
_
ing) is 30°F. The evaporator superheat calcula¬
“
7*F
(evaporator
superheat)
(75°F) 132 psig outlet)
0 Subtract e) from d) If a technician were to measure the pressure at

to obtain SPR setting the compressor instead of the evaporator out¬
required 50 psig let, a higher, fictitious superheat value would
be read. As the refrigerant travels the length of
the suction line, there is associated pressure
drop from friction and/or restrictions. This
causes the pressure at the compressor to be
SUPERHEAT lower than the pressure at the evaporator out¬
Superheat is any heat added to completely satu¬ let. This higher, fictitious superheat reading may
rated vapor that results in a rise in temperature lead the technician to open the TXV more to
(sensible heat change) of the gas. Superheat is compensate for the fictitious reading. This could
measured as the difference between the actual cause compressor damage from liquid flooding
temperature of refrigerant vapor and the satu¬ or slugging from a superheat setting that is too
ration temperature of the refrigerant at that same low.
point. Superheat on the system’s low side can
be divided into two types: evaporator super¬ To illustrate this point, consider the same R-
heat and total (compressor) superheat. 134a refrigeration system just discussed with a
5 psi pressure drop from the evaporator outlet
to the compressor. In this system, the low side
EvaporatorSuperheat gauge reading at the compressor inlet is 15 psig
Evaporator superheat starts at the 100% satu¬ or 15°F, and the evaporator outlet temperature
rated vapor point in the evaporator and ends at (thermistor reading) is 30°F. The evaporator
the outlet of the evaporator, Figure 2-18. Tech¬
nicians usually put a thermistor or thermocouple
at the evaporator outlet to obtain the evapora¬
tor outlet temperature. A pressure gauge at the
superheat calculation is as follows:
30"F
(evaporator outlet
temperature)
_ 1ST
(saturation
temperature at
_ 1ST
(superheat)
same point as the temperature reading will give compressor inlet)

the technician the saturated vapor temperature.
Evaporator
c I
100% liquid
Mostly liquid
with some liquid
■i flashing to vapor
C
I End of evaporator
A
1 00% saturated Desuperheated gas
vapor point Condenser
'l !=© ■
J o :
Vapor C2 \
D
<
Liquid Saturated
liquid & vapor
Subcooled liquid
Figure 2-18. 100% saturated vapor point in evaporator and start of superheat
ployed on these systems for added protection.
This helps ensure that all of the refrigerant
entering the compressor is liquid free. This also
helps keep a fully active evaporator. Lower
temperature applications generally utilize lower
evaporator superheat. Consult the case manu¬
facturer if in doubt. In the absence of manufac¬
turer data, Table 2-5 illustrates guidelines for
superheat settings.
i
Total Superheat
There will always be times when the evapora¬
tor has a light load and the TXV may lose
control of its evaporator superheat due to limi¬
tations of the valve and system instability. This
is when total superheat comes into play. Total
Figure 2-19. Externally equalized TXV with Schrader tee superheat, also called compressor superheat, is
(Photo by Bill Bitzinger,Office of University
Communication Services. Ferris State University)
all the superheat in the low side of the refrig¬
eration system. It starts at the 100% saturated
vapor point in the evaporator and ends at the
The superheat changed from 7° to 15°F simply compressor inlet, Figure 2-20. Total superheat
by reading the pressure at the compressor inlet consists of evaporator superheat and suction line
instead of the evaporator outlet. The correct superheat. Total superheat can be measured by
evaporator superheat is 7°F. It is best to mea¬ a technician by placing a thermistor or thermo¬
sure the pressure at the same location as the couple at the compressor inlet and taking the
temperature to exclude any system pressure temperature. A pressure reading will also be
drops. As an alternate, read the pressure at the needed at this same location.
compressor inlet and add estimated losses in
the suction line to arrive at the approximate For example, consider an R-134a system with
pressure at the evaporator outlet. (This alter¬ a low side pressure at the compressor of 20
nate method is to be used on air conditioning psig or 23°F and a compressor inlet tempera¬
systems only.) ture of 50°F. The total superheat calculation is
as follows:
The amount of evaporator superheat that is
required for certain applications varies. Com¬
mercial ice makers call for 5° to 6°F of evapo¬
rator superheat to fill out their ice sheets; how¬
50°F
(compressor inlet
temperature)
-
23°F
(saturation
temperature)
- 27°F
(total superheat)
ever, suction line accumulators are often em-
Applications Air Conditioning Commercial Low Temperature

and Heat Pump Refrigeration Refrigeration
Evaporator 40° to 50° F 0° to 40 “F -40° to 0°F

temperature
Suggested 8° to 12°F 6° to 8°F 4° to 6°F

superheat setting
Table 2-5. Evaporator superheat guidelines
Mostly liquid
with some liquid
flashing to vapor
Evaporator
External equalizer line
C
< > I 100% liquid
,V
) 100%
€ * *
l
saturated
vapor point
#
Vapor
Liquid
Condenser
'I c©
J O
5
2
C *
Compressor inlet
)
Subcooled liquid
< >
Figure 2-20. Refrigeration system showing total superheat
<
In this example, the total superheat is 27°F. It point on the suction line. Freezing of this con¬
is possible to have a TXV that is adjusted to densation may also occur if suction line tem¬
control superheat at the coil (evaporator super¬ peratures are below 32°F. If at all possible, do
heat) and still return liquid refrigerant to the not sacrifice (raise) evaporator superheat to
compressor at certain low load conditions. If obtain the amount of total superheat needed.
so, the conditions causing the floodback should This will not maintain an active evaporator and
be found and corrected. It is recommended that system capacity will suffer.
all TXV controlled refrigeration systems have
at least 20°F of compressor superheat to ensure Low evaporator loads can be caused by many
that the compressor does not see liquid refrig¬ different situations, including the following:
erant (flood or slug) at low evaporator loads.
Total superheats from 20° to 30°F are recom¬ • Evaporator fan motor not operating
mended to ensure adequate compressor cooling
and preventive liquid control to the compres¬ • Iced up or dirty coil
sor. The TXV, however, should be set to main¬
tain proper superheat for the evaporator. * Defrost circuit malfunction causing coil
icing
Air-cooled compressors are more vulnerable to
slugging and valve damage, because the suc¬ • End of the refrigeration cycle
tion gases are not heated by the motor wind¬
ings. The gases enter the sidewall of the com¬ • Low air flow across evaporator coil
pressor and go directly to the valves. The 20°F
of compressor superheat is a buffer in case the • Low refrigerant charge
TXV loses control of superheat at these low Any time the evaporator coil sees a reduced
loads. However, the evaporator superheat must heat load, a TXV can lose control and hunt.
still be maintained by the guidelines in Table
Hunting is when the valve overfeeds then un¬
2-5. A buffer of 20° to 30°F of compressor derfeeds while trying to find a controlling point.
superheat makes sure that the refrigerant vapor Hunting occurs during periods of system un¬
entering the compressor is not too dense. Den¬ balance (e.g., low loads) when temperatures and
sity of vapors that are too high entering the pressures become unstable. The TXV tends to
compressor will cause the compressor to have overfeed and underfeed in response to these
a higher than normal amp draw. This will over¬ rapidly changing values until the system condi¬
load the compressor motor in many instances tions settle out and the TXV can stabilize. It is
and open thermal overloads. On the other hand,
this overfeeding condition that may damage
excess compressor or total superheat and/or long compressors. Evaporator superheat settings that
periods of low mass flow rate (e.g., an unloaded are too low may also cause the TXV to hunt.
compressor) can result in insufficient cooling
Remember, a total superheat setting of at least
of the stator and opening of the internal protec¬
20°F can prevent the compressor from seeing
tors. any liquid refrigerant at most conditions.
Remember, the TXV controls evaporator su¬
perheat. To obtain more total superheat, add a
liquid/suction heat exchanger or even run a bit
longer suction line to allow heat gains from the
surrounding temperature to heat the suction line.
Taking the insulation off the suction line to
increase total superheat is not recommended,
because this will cause the suction line to sweat
from water vapor in the air reaching its dew
NOTES
i
Liquid Pressure Amplification™ is a trademark of
Hy-Savc, Inc. of Portland. Oregon.
2
This type of subcooling/reheating has been patented
by Hy-Save, Inc. of Portland. Oregon.
' Enviroguard™ is a trademark of Tyler Refrigeration

Corporation, which holds the patent for this technol¬
ogy-
* This system was originally designed by Ron Wells

and Dave Goodson, who were employees of Refrig¬
eration Engineering Inc. (REI) of Grand Rapids, Michi¬
gan, and developed with the approval of the owner
Bob Howieson. A patent was obtained and the rights
sold to Tyler Refrigeration of Niles, Michigan.
CHAPTER THREE
MeteringDevices
Metering devices separate the high and low side better system performance. To prevent liquid
pressures of a refrigeration and/or air condi¬ flashing, capillary tubes arc usually twisted
tioning system by adding restriction to the sys¬ around, placed inside, or soldered to suction
tem. Metering devices meter liquid refrigerant lines, Figure 4-2. Because the capillary tube
from the liquid line to the evaporator, and some restricts and meters the flow of liquid to the
metering devices control evaporator superheat, evaporator, it helps maintain the needed pres¬
and/or pressures, and even prevent evaporator sure difference for proper system operation.
pressures from exceding maximum set pressures.
The most common types of metering devices Manufacturers use capillary tubes as metering
are capillary tubes, thermostatic expansion devices because of their simplicity and low cost.
valves, and automatic expansion valves. Systems employing capillary tubes as metering
devices also do not require receivers, which is
another cost savings. Capillary tube systems
are found mainly in domestic and small com¬
mercial applications in which hermetic com¬
CAPILLARY TUBES pressors arc employed, and somewhat constant
A capillary tube is a long fixed-length tube with loads and small refrigerant flow rates are ex¬
a very small diameter, which varies from .025" perienced.
to .060". The capillary tube is installed between
the condenser and the evaporator. Figure 4-1, The capillary tube has no moving parts and
and meters the refrigerant from the condenser does not control evaporator superheat at all
to the evaporator. Because of its long length loading conditions, Figure 4-3. Even with no
and small diameter, there is an associated large moving parts, the capillary tube varies the flow
friction loss as refrigerant flows through the rate as system pressures change in the evapo¬
tube. As subcooled liquid travels through the rator and condenser, or both. In fact, it can
capillary tube, it may flash because pressure only reach its best efficiency at one set of high
drops may bring it lower than the saturation and low side pressures. This is because the
pressure for its temperature. This flashing is capillary tube works off of the pressure differ¬
caused by the expansion of the liquid as it ence between the high and low sides of the
experiences pressure drop. Liquid flashing refrigeration system. As the pressure difference
amounts, if any, depend on the amounts of liq¬ between the high and low side of the system
uid subcooling coming from the condenser and becomes greater, the flow rate of refrigerant
in the capillary tube itself. If liquid flashing increases. The capillary tube operates satisfac¬
does occur, it is desirable to keep the flashing torily over quite a large range of pressure dif¬
as close to the evaporator as possible to ensure ferences but not very efficiently.
Metering Devices 45
Evaporator
/ \
/
/
T
)
V l /
"V (
Capillary tube bonded to
suction line for heat exchange
>-
; i \
\
✓ /
)
o
Accumulator
NS
Capillary tube
Condenser
/
\ i \
i
l v
Compressor
A,
- <
T
I
I I \
\ / /
Strainer
or filter drier
Figure 4-1. Capillary lube location in refrigeration system
Sizing length and diameter of the capillary tube at

Since the capillary tube, evaporator, compres¬ designed vaporizing and condensing pressures
sor, and condenser are in series, the flow rate is critical and must be equal to the compressor
of the capillary tube must be equal to the com¬ pumping capacity at these same design condi¬
pressor pumping rate. This is why the designed tions. Too many turns in the capillary tube will
affect resistance of flow and system balance.
Mostly liquid
n
with some liquid
flashing to vapor
Evaporator
C / ) Filter drier
c
/
T
\ /
/
v
i
T
' 5
C t
\
/
> - <i
i
\
\
Capillary tube
c Heat exchanger
2
Condenser
f'l
f
J O \ J
\
Vapor < N
/
/
\
N
)
Liquid
c ✓
Figure 4-2. Capillary> tube/suction line heat exchanger
If the resistance of the capillary tube is too At the same time, subcooled liquid will back
great because it is too long, a partial restriction up in the condenser, causing higher head pres¬
exists, the diameter is too small, or there are sure, because there is no receiver in the system
too many turns as it is coiled, the capacity of to hold the refrigerant. With the higher head
the tube will be less than that of the compres¬ pressure and lower evaporator pressure, the re¬
sor. The evaporator will then be starved, caus¬ frigerant flow rate will be increased because of
ing low suction pressure and high superheats. a greater pressure difference across the capil-
Meterlng Devices 47
causing high head pressures. This is because
there is no receiver in the system. The pressure
difference between the low and high side of
the system will also increase, causing an in¬
creased flow rate to the evaporator and over¬
feeding of the evaporator, which may result in
© low superheats, flooding, or slugging of the

compressor. This is another reason why a cap¬
illary tube system must be critically charged
with a specified amount of refrigerant.
Figure 4-3. Capillary lube with huill-in strainer (Courtesy. Capillary tube systems do not stop the flow of
Refrigeration Research) refrigerant after the compressor shuts off. Re¬
frigerant will continue to flow from the con¬
denser to the evaporator until high and low
lary tube. At the same time, the compressor pressures equalize. In fact, most of the
capacity will decrease because of higher com¬ subcooled liquid in the condenser will flow
pression ratios and lower volumetric efficien¬ through the capillary tube to the evaporator
cies. This will cause the system to establish a during the off cycle, which is why the capillary
balance but at higher head pressures and lower tube system must be critically charged with re¬
evaporating pressures, causing unwanted inef¬ frigerant. Too much liquid in the evaporator
ficiencies. during the off cycle can cause compressor dam¬
age at start-ups. The refrigerant charge should
If the resistance of the capillary tube is less satisfy the requirements of the evaporator and
than called for because it is too short or its maintain a subcooled liquid seal at the con¬
diameter is too large, refrigerant flow will be denser bottom and capillary tube entrance. If
greater than the pumping capacity of the com¬
any excess refrigerant is added past the critical
pressors. This will cause high evaporator pres¬ charge, subcooled liquid will back up in the
sures, low superheats, and possible flooding of condenser, causing high head pressures and
the compressor due to overfeeding of the evapo¬ unwanted inefficiencies. Because of the pres¬
rator. In addition, subcooling will drop in the
condenser, causing low head pressures and even
sure equalization during off cycles, capillary
tube systems can employ low starting torque
a loss of liquid seal at the condenser bottom. motors. These motors usually use current start¬
This low head pressure and higher than normal ing relays sometimes without starting capaci¬
evaporator pressures will decrease the compres¬
tors. The critical charge is usually stamped on
sion ratio of the compressor, causing high volu¬ the manufacturer nameplate. Figure 4-4.
metric efficiencies. This will increase the pump¬
ing rate of the compressor, and a balance may
be reached if the compressor can keep up with
the high refrigerant flow in the evaporator. Model# ?A+/4123+005
Usually flooding occurs and the compressor Serial # J+0.7/A
fails to keep up. It is for these reasons that the
capillary tube should be sized properly by call¬ Volts 115 FX ; 4.
ing the manufacturer. It is also necessary that Volts 100 FX ; 3.
capillary tube systems have an exact (critical)
charge of refrigerant in their systems. Too much PHI JP? 00,.
K_bc gl SQ?
or too little refrigerant will cause a severe im¬
balance to occur and seriously damage com¬
pressors from slugging or flooding. Refrigerant /0
Charge 6,4 mx
If a capillary tube system is overcharged, it
will back up the excess liquid in the condenser, Figure 4-4. System nameplate showing critical charge
amounts
It is important that larger commercial capillary check the superheat reading at the low evapo¬
tube systems have accumulators at their evapo¬ rator load and see if it is normal. If unsure,
rator outlets to catch any liquid that may es¬ recover the refrigerant, evacuate the system, and
cape vaporization in the evaporator during start¬ add the specified nameplate critical charge of
ups. Liquid coming from the evaporator enters refrigerant.
the bottom of the accumulator, and the vapors
are drawn from the top into the compressor.
Low Heat Loads
Once the high heat load on the evaporator drops
High Heat Loads off and the system is under a low load, the
Under high loads, capillary tube systems will 100% saturated vapor point in the evaporator
often cause high superheat in the evaporator of will climb down the last passes of the evapo¬
40° or 50°F. This is because the refrigerant in rator. This is caused by the decreased rate of
the evaporator will vaporize rapidly and drive vaporization of refrigerant in the evaporator
the 100% saturated vapor point back up in the from the low heat load. The system will then
evaporator to give the system a high superheat have a normal evaporator superheat of about
reading, Figure 4-5. The capillary tube does 10° to 12°F, Figure 4-6. These normal evapo¬
not have a feedback mechanism to tell it there rator superheat readings only occur with low
is high superheat, which makes the system run heat loads on the evaporator.
inefficiently at higher loads. This is one of the
main disadvantages of a capillary tube system.
Many technicians have the urge to add more Service
refrigerant to the system at these high loads One of the major problems with capillary tube
because of the high superheat readings. Adding systems is that they can become restricted or
refrigerant at this point in time will only over¬ completely blocked due to foreign materials,
charge the system. Before adding refrigerant, freeze-up if water exists in the system, or kink-
Mostly liquid
with some liquid
flashing to vapor
•••. . ••i.v-iiia
•(
Liquid up to
this point
Figure 4-5. Capillary tubefeeding evaporator under a high heat load
Metering Devices 49
Mostly liquid
with some liquid
floshing to vapor
c >
)
(
> Liquid up to
this point
Figure 4-6. Capillary tube feeding evaporator with proper amount of superheat for low heat load
ing. Dirt, sandpaper grit, steel wool, and sand from the partial restriction. If the moisture prob¬
can all restrict or completely block capillary lem is severe, this frozen layer will soon cause
tubes. an entire restriction and shut down the com¬
pressor by thermal overload. Once the system
It is extremely important to install a filter drier is off, the frozen layers will melt and system
before the capillary tube to catch any foreign pressures will equalize and wait for the thermal
objects. Filter driers also help catch moisture overload to reset. The system will have to be
so freeze-up will not occur at the evaporator dehydrated and recharged.
entrance. High head pressure from backed-up
subcooled liquid in the condenser, which will There are hydraulic capillary tube cleaners on
starve the evaporator and cause low pressures the market that can be very successful in re¬
in the low side of the system, is one symptom moving foreign objects from capillary tubes if
of a partially blocked capillary tube. The symp¬ used properly, Figure 4-7a. Hydraulic pressure
toms will vary depending on how severe the is applied to one end of the capillary tube while
capillary tube is restricted. A completely the other end of the tube is removed from the
plugged capillary tube system will have dan¬ system. Some capillary tubes may require a
gerously high head pressures with evaporator small piece of wire to be hydraulically blown
pressures in the deep vacuum range. through them in order to clean foreign objects
and sludge from their internal diameter. There
Moisture in the system will pass through the is a kit available that comes with coils of small
condenser and the capillary tube. Once the wire pistons to clear capillary tubes. This kit
moisture experiences the sudden pressure drop also includes a hydraulic cleaner, a file, and a
of the evaporator, it will gradually freeze. This capillary tube diameter gauge, Figure 4-7b. The
gradual freezing around the inside diameter of wire is just undersized enough to act as a pis¬
the capillary tube will cause a slight restriction ton to clear the capillary tube when used with
and hinder system performance. Head pressures the hydraulic cleaner.
will elevate and evaporator pressures will drop
Some technicians may replace a plugged or side of the capillary tube with an appropriate
restricted capillary tube with a new one. The file and bending the tube back and forth where
replacement capillary tube must have the same the V-notch is cut will make for a nice clean
diameter, length, and number of coils or turns break. Burrs at the ends of capillary tubes will
as the old one. There arc capillary tube gauges hinder refrigerant flow and cause inefficient
on the market for measuring the right diameter system performance.
of capillary tube, Figure 4-8. When cutting a
capillary tube, filing a small V-notch in the
a)
lb b)
-
'
Figure 4-7. a) Hydraulic capillary tube cleaner; b) accessories included in capillary lube cleaner kit (Courtesy. Thermal
Engineering Company)
O* w
«A
.
Figure 4-8. Capillary tube feeler gauges (Courtesy Thermal Engineering Company)
Metering Devices 51
Soldering the capillary tube in place requires The TXV is a metering device located between
certain skills. The capillary tube must be in¬ the liquid line and the evaporator, Figure 4-12.
serted about one or two inches past where the The TXV is a dynamic valve that constantly
solder joint is to be made, Figure 4-9. This modulates and meters just enough refrigerant
ensures solder will not creep up or down by into the evaporator to satisfy all heat loads on
capillary action and block the inlet or outlet of the evaporator. The basic TXV controls a set
the capillary tube. A little bit of refrigeration amount of evaporator superheat under varying
oil smeared on the end of the capillary tube heat loads. The three main functions of a TXV
may help stop solder from bonding to the cap¬ include:
illary tube end. When crimping the line where
the capillary tube is inserted, care must be taken • providing a constant amount of evapora¬
not to crimp or harm the capillary tube itself. tor superheat under varying load condi¬
tions, provided the range and capacity
of the valve are not exceeded.
• keeping the entire evaporator full of

THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVE refrigerant under all heat load condi¬
The thermostatic expansion valve (TXV or tions.
TEV), is probably the most popular and widely
used valve in the hvac/r industry today. Figure • preventing floodback of refrigerant to
4-10. Chapters of material could be written the compressor under varying evaporator
about TXV applications, types, and functions, heat loads.
but this section will cover TXV basics. Figure
4-11 shows an exploded view of a TXV.
Figure 4-9, Capillary lube inserted two to three inches past solder joint to prevent solder from plugging capillary tube
(Photo by Bill Bitzinger,Office of University Communication Services, Ferris Slate University)
b)
V
If <
<L
m I
o
05k
c)
V
(/•«
I,
a)
V/ *r“~V
IN
d)
<£ /'
Tl
I
rA
1)
B
S>
t)
Figure 4-10. Examples

5
of different TXVs (Courtesy. Sporlan Valve Company)
Metering Devices 53
The TXV docs not control evaporator pres¬
sure, cycle the compressor, control running time,
or control box temperature. The main function
THERMOSTATIC of the TXV is to meter the right amount of
ELEMENT refrigerant into the evaporator coil under all load
conditions. By doing this, the valve controls a
set amount of evaporator superheat to maintain
PUSH RODS active evaporators and keep refrigeration and
air conditioning systems running safely and
efficiently.
One of the main differences between a TXV

EXTERNAL system and a capillary tube system is the TXV
EQUALIZER
CONNECTION. has the ability to control the right amount of
evaporator superheat under varying evaporator
heat loads. A capillary tube cannot do this and
3D will run very high evaporator superheat at a
>z high evaporator load situation. The TXV will
fill the evaporator coil with refrigerant at all
loads but will not cause overflow into the suc¬
BODY tion line if adjusted properly. The action of this
SEAT
U
R
dynamic valve is from the interaction of three
separate pressures acting on the valve: remote
bulb pressure (opening force), spring pressure
(closing force), and evaporator pressure (clos¬
ing force), Figure 4-13.
PIN CARRIER
ft RemoteBulbPressure
In Figure 4-13, notice that the pressure (P,)
from the volatile fluid in the remote bulb acts
on the top side of the flexible bellows through
SPRING the connecting capillary tube, causing the valve
to open as pressure increases. This changing
pressure in the remote bulb is caused by the
evaporator outlet temperature becoming hotter
SPRING GUIDE or colder from varying heat loads on the evapo¬
rator, which momentarily affect evaporator
superheat. Higher superheat causes more fluid
BOTTOM CAP I to vaporize in the remote bulb, producing higher
pressures. Less superheat causes more vapor to
condense in the remote bulb, decreasing its
ADJUSTING pressure and closing the valve. As soon as the
STEM □ TXV realizes that the evaporator superheat is
changing it either opens or closes, putting more
SEAL CAP
Figure 4-11. Exploded diagram

Sporlan Valve Company)
©of a TXV (Courtesy.
or less refrigerant into the evaporator from
changing remote bulb pressures. This maintains
a set amount of evaporator superheat.
The remote bulb is clamped firmly to the suc¬

tion line for good thermal contact. The remote
Mostly liquid
with some liquid Liquid line
flashing to vapor
TXV
Evaporator
\
Oj
C X
)
✓ /
r
\
c
\
T
\ I /
J
X
y 100%
»
-
T
I
5 liquid
LJ
/
> <l X
\
I
\
x / N /
) Receiver
Condenser
'I ■=§
J
✓ X
/ \
\ /
\ ✓
J O
/
✓
N
X
✓
J
I
X
f n
✓
I
X
D
/
Vapor
/
/ \
\ )
Liquid
c X ✓
Figure 4-12. TXV location
bulb is the TXV’s feedback mechanism that mation. Figure 4-14 illustrates the do’s and
gives the valve an indication of current evapo¬ don’ts for mounting a remote bulb onto the
rator superheat. Remote bulbs come in a vari¬ evaporator outlet.
ety of charges for special applications. Consult
with the TXV manufacturer for specific infor¬
Metering Devices 55
P, = P, + P3 Notice in Figure 4-13 that evaporator pressures
act on the underside of the flexible bellows,
causing the valve to close as the evaporator
pressure increases. Through a drilled passage¬
way called the internal equalizer, evaporator
Oeiuib pressure from the coil entrance acts on the
Pressure underside of the bellows. In Figure 4-13, evapo¬
rator pressure is designated as P,. This evapo¬
rator pressure opposes the remote bulb pres¬
Q Evaporator sure.
D . lj Pressure
The spring pressure acts in the same direction
©Spring Pressure on the bellows as the evaporator pressure. It is
a closing force and is designated as P, in Fig¬
.
Figure 4-13. Forces acting on a TXV (Courtesy Sporlan ure 4-13. When the spring pressure (P3) and the
Valve Company)
evaporator pressure (P,) equal the remote bulb
pressure (P,), or P, = P2 + P3, the valve is said
to be in dynamic balance and will neither open
Evaporator Pressure and nor close until the evaporator heat load changes.
Spring Pressure If the suction pressure rises or falls, the valve
As heat loads on the evaporator change, the tends to open or close. If the remote bulb pres¬
rate of vaporization of the refrigerant in the sures change from changing superheat, the valve
evaporator also changes. Higher heat loads will also open or close.
cause higher rates of vaporization of the refrig¬
erant in the evaporator, which increases evapo¬ Spring pressure in most valves is set for a pre¬
rator pressure. Lower heat loads on the evapo¬ determined amount of evaporator superheat
rator decrease the rate of vaporization of the (usually between 7° and 10°F) by the manufac¬
refrigerant and decrease evaporator pressure. turer. This spring is often referred to as the
Bulb installation
A B C
ti
h
n
{&£.(§?
A. Recommended
B. Applicable but not recommended
C. Not applicable
(charge will drop from Inside bulb)
Figure 4-14. Do 's and don 'is for connecting remote bulbs to evaporator outlet pipes (Courtesy. Dan/oss Automatic
Controls. Division of Danfoss. Inc.)
superheat spring, since it is the only way a Additional Pressure
technician can change the amount of superheat An additional pressure affecting TXV perfor¬
in a TXV system. Increasing the spring tension mance arises from the actual pressure drop
by turning the spring adjustment clockwise across the valve. This pressure is a product of
tightens the spring. This, in turn, gives the TXV the pressure drop across the valve and the ratio
more closing force and causes the superheat of the port area to the effective area of the
setting to increase, giving the system more diaphragm:
operating evaporator superheat. There are some
TXVs on the market that come with a set
amount of superheat that cannot be changed by
Pressure - (Pressure drop) (Port area/effective
diaphragm area)
a technician. These TXVs are usually used in
applications in which superheat settings are
critical for proper performance, such as in some This pressure is an opening force, and the liq¬
ice makers. uid flow through the valve tends to move the
TXV in an opening direction. It is sometimes
Consider a TXV whose superheat spring is set referred to as liquid pressure, but this nomen¬
to control 10°F of evaporator superheat for a clature is often misleading. This pressure only
walk-in cooler. The valve is in a static equilib¬ becomes significant when the pressure drop
rium with forces (P, = P2 + P}). As long as across the valve becomes large and/or the ratio
there is no change in the evaporator load, mean¬ of port area to effective diaphragm area be¬
ing no change in evaporator superheat, the valve comes large. Because of this pressure, the bal¬
will remain static with a constant refrigerant anced port TXV was introduced, which will be
flow rate controlling 10°F of evaporator super¬ discussed later in this chapter.
heat. The degree of evaporator superheat will
be 10°F, which is exactly needed to offset the
pressure exerted by the superheat spring. The
Color Codes
evaporator pressure will also remain constant. Many times manufacturers of TXVs will color
code the top of the valve. This helps the ser¬
Now assume that someone opens the door to vice technician quickly distinguish what refrig¬
load the cooler. The added heat load on the erant is in the system. The type of refrigerant
evaporator will instantaneously cause the 100% is often stamped on the valve top along with a
saturated vapor point in the evaporator to climb. color-coding decal. Figure 4-15 is an example
This happens because of the added rate of va¬ of one manufacturer’s color-coding system.
porization of the refrigerant, which causes the
evaporator superheat to rise over the set 10°F. R-11 -Blue R-114 —Blue
The remote bulb will then experience a higher
evaporator superheat and temperature, and the Color Code
R-12 —Yellow
R-13 —Blue
—
R-134a Blue
R-500 —Orange
-
pressure in the remote bulb will exceed the
combined evaporator and spring pressure. This
Used on
decals R-22
—
R-13B1 Blue
Green
R-113 —Blue
R-502 —Purple
R-503 —Blue
R-717 —White
will cause the valve to open and let more re¬
frigerant into the evaporator, which will have a Figure 4-15. Color-coding churl for TXVs (Courtesy.
tendency to reduce the amount of superheat until Sporlan Valve Company)
the required 10°F is again established. The
evaporator will try to fill with refrigerant to
gain maximum efficiency and capacity. The
valve will again be in a state of static equilib¬ Special Application TXVs
rium controlling 10°F of evaporator superheat There arc special application TXVs available
but at a higher evaporator pressure. that should be considered when selecting the
correct valve for an application. These special
application TXVs include the externally equal¬
ized valve, the maximum operating pressure
valve, and the balanced port valve.
Metering Devices 57
Externally Equalized Valves An externally equalized TXV is used under the
The externally equalized valve senses evapora¬ following conditions:
tor pressure at the evaporator outlet, not the
evaporator inlet, Figure 4-16. This compensates • When evaporator pressure drops cause a
for any friction pressure drops throughout the 2°F drop in temperature in the evapora¬
tor. This is for evaporator temperature
length of the evaporator. By sensing evapora¬
tor outlet pressure, there is less pressure on the applications above 0°F.
bottom of the TXV bellows than if evaporator • When evaporator pressure drops cause a
inlet pressure were sensed. This lower pressure 1°F drop in temperature in the evapora¬
causes a smaller closing force, so the valve tor. This is for evaporator temperature
remains more open and fills out more of the applications below 0°F.
evaporator by compensating for the pressure
drop through the evaporator. Evaporator outlet • Anytime distributors feed an evaporator.
pressure is sensed through a small tube at the
tailpipe of the evaporator leading underneath
the TXV bellows, Figure 4-17. Externally equal¬ Maximum Operating Pressure
ized TXVs were shown in Figure 4-10 (b), (c), (MOP) Valves
and (d).
MOP valves limit evaporator pressure to a
maximum but not a minimum. MOP valves
Valve With INTERNAL Equalizer Valve With EXTERNAL Equalizer prevent high amp draws and overloads of com¬
pressors on high heat loads or pulldowns. They
also prevent overfeeding at start-ups. This type
“P £3S
r
of TXV has a limited amount of liquid in its
Pu»*,
R<xH 1 t :
remote bulb and will run out of liquid after
reaching a certain temperature or maximum
operating pressure, Figure 4-18. This prevents
LU_ZU SSi reSrs: the further opening of the TXV and protects
the compressor from high evaporator pressures
Figure 4-16. Cutaway view of an externally equalized TXV during high loads or pulldowns, because the
(Courtesy. Sporlan Valve Company/
n External
§ equalizer
connection
§
: 5, 3
Figure 4-17. External equalizer connection for a TXV (Courtesy. Sporlan Valve Company)
58
Bulb pressure
suppose: (32.41 psi, 35°F)
1 . Gas cha rges TXV
2. MOP :25 psig
=
3. Superheat set for 10°F
4. Valve in equilibrium
TXVs diaphragm
/ V
Spring pre tura

■■ Evaporator p ressure
(7.41 psi) (25 psi, 25°F)
The bulb charge will become 100%

saturated vapor when bulb temperature
reaches the saturation temperature
corresponding to 32.41 psi.
Figure 4-18. Forces on a maximum operating pressure (MOP) TXV
evaporator pressure will never exceed the MOP The balanced port valve operates with the valve
setting of the valve. In some valves, turning pin controlling very close to its seat. This pro¬
the superheat spring will set a new MOP set vides a very stable control of superheat at mini¬
point. The MOP TXV may have a mechanical mum valve stroke movements, which allows a
means of preventing a maximum pressure from large port to handle both large and small loads.
occurring. The MOP of the valve is usually This type of design helps refrigeration equip¬
stamped on the valve in an obvious location. ment pull down faster. The larger port size can
handle some liquid line flash gas if it exists.
Balanced Port TXVs Balanced port TXVs should be used if any of
Balanced port TXVs have balanced pressures the following conditions exist:
across the valve to negate the effects of vary¬
ing head pressures or pressure drops across the • Liquid line flash gas
valves. The liquid pressure is actually canceled
out because it acts on equal areas but in oppo¬ • Large varying head pressures
site directions. The design uses a double seat¬
ing piston operated by a single pushrod. The • Large varying pressure drops across the
two port construction divides the refrigerant TXV affecting capacity of the valve
flow into opposite directions, providing a bal¬
anced pressure differential across the piston, • Widely varying evaporator loads
Figure 4-19. Balanced port TXVs have a large
port compared to conventional TXVs, and liq¬ • Very low liquid line temperatures
uid pressure can affect a large ported valve if
not balanced. This pressure only becomes sig¬ Selection Procedures
nificant when the pressure drop across the valve
becomes large and/or the ratio of port area to When selecting a TXV, always follow the
manufacturer’s selection procedures and nomen¬
effective diaphragm area becomes large. Be¬
clature. The procedures used in selecting a TXV
cause of the balanced port design, the valve
can operate satisfactorily down to approximately in this section are provided by Sporlan Valve
25% of its rated capacity.
Metering Devices 59
p"
/
f\\sl
w y,
/
$55
- 1.94
3.76
2.43
— .31
Inlet
Strainer
\ -37 4'
i
P/N 877-003 2.02

(Not Shown)
ill
w t
2.50 — 2.50
Figure 4-19. Cutaway of balanced port TXV (Courtesy. Sporlan Valve Company)
Company. Similar procedures are used when force for the refrigerant to flow across
selecting TXVs from other manufacturers: the valve. Without a pressure drop,
there will not be any flow. As the
1. Determine the pressure drop across the pressure drop increases, more refrigerant
valve by subtracting the evaporating will flow across the valve. Consider all
pressure from the condensing pressure. sources of pressure drop, including:
The condensing pressure should be the
minimum operating condensing pressure a. friction losses through refrigeration
of the system, which usually occurs at lines including the evaporator,
lower loads and lower ambients. From suction line, and condenser.
this value, subtract all other pressure
losses to obtain the net pressure drop b. pressure drop across liquid line and
across the valve. Pressure drop across suction line accessories such as
the valve is an important measurement, solenoid valves, strainers, filters,
because that pressure is the driving and filter driers (sec manufacturer
catalogs).
60
c. static pressure losses or gains due valve from Table 4-1. If possible, the
to the vertical lift or drop of the valve capacity should equal or slightly
liquid line. Figure 4-20. exceed the design rating of the system,
Figure 4-21. Be sure to multiply the
d. pressure drop across a refrigerant appropriate liquid temperature correction
distributor (if used). factor to the valve capacity rating
shown in the tables. Once the desired
■EFR1C-
VERTtCAl LIFT - FEET |~IQ0~ valve capacity is located, determine the
20 | 40 1 M 1 »0 nominal capacity of the valve from the
ERANT
Static Prenure LOM
33
— p»i
55 second column of the tables. On mul¬
12 11 22 44
tiple evaporator systems, select each
22 10 20 30 40 50
valve on the basis of individual evapo¬
500 10 19 29 39 49
rator capacity.
502 10 21 31 41 52
717 5 10 15 20 25
(Ammonia)
a Design
evaporating
Figure 4-20. Static pressure losses vs vertical lift for temperature
different refrigerants (Courtesy, Sporlan Valve Company)
b Available pressure
drop
2. Determine the liquid temperature of the v''
refrigerant entering the valve. The closer
the liquid temperature is to the evapo¬ \A
r**'
rating temperature, the less flash gas
that will occur at the entrance of the The valve capacity should <
equal or slightly exceed
valve. The less flash gas, the more net the tonnage rating of the
refrigeration effect. The TXV capacity system.
table in Table 4-1 is based on a liquid
temperature of 100°F for R-22. If the
liquid temperature is higher or lower Figure 4-21. Valve capacity should equal or slightly
than 100°F, correction factors must be exceed design rating (Courtesy. Sporlan Valve Company)
applied, which are also listed at the
bottom of Table 4-1. Correction factors
must be multiplied by the appropriate In Table 4-1, notice that for a constant pressure
capacity in the selection table to either drop across the valve, as the evaporator tem¬
increase or decrease capacity (see ex¬ perature increases, the capacity of the TXV
ample in bottom right hand comer of increases. This is caused by a lower compres¬
Table 4-1). Notice that if the liquid sion ratio from a higher evaporator tempera¬
temperature falls below 100°F, a higher ture and pressure, which causes a higher volu¬
correction factor is applied. Higher metric efficiency. In turn, the mass flow rate of
correction factors increase the capacity refrigerant increases through the entire system
of the TXV, because the liquid is colder including the TXV. Less flash gas is also expe¬
and closer to the evaporating tempera¬ rienced at the evaporator entrance, because the
ture, which causes less flash gas at the liquid in the liquid line is closer to the higher
evaporator entrance and more net refrig¬ evaporator temperature. This causes a higher
eration effect. capacity and more net refrigeration effect.
3. Select the valve from the capacity table. 4. Determine if an external equalizer is
Select a valve based on the design required. The amount of pressure drop
evaporating temperature and the between the valve outlet and remote
available pressure drop across the bulb location (evaporator pressure drop)
Metering Devices 61
THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVE
R-22 CAPACITIES for REFRIGERANT-22

TONS OF REFRIGERATION
AIR CONDITIONING. HEAT PUMP and COMMERCIAL REFRIGERATION APPLICATIONS

VGA, VCP100 AND VC THERMOSTATIC CHARGES _
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ojo- 2 8
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r ~ .? 2 £& -SgÿSS Sr 3 ■O gssss a|s?SS I | ir
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Table 4-1. R-22 TXV capacity with liquid subcooled correction factors (Courtesy. Sporlan Valve Company)
62
will determine if an external equalizer is • Refrigerant liquid correction factor = 1 .06
required (see section on externally (90°F liquid at TXV)
equalized TXVs earlier in this chapter).
Solution 4-1
5. Select the body type according to the It is important to note that since there is a dis¬
style connections desired. These include tributor used on the evaporator, an external
flare, solder, and flange connections. equalizer valve must be used due to the large
Brass, bronze, and gray cast iron arc pressure drop created by the distributor.
some other options. Different connection
angles are also available (see Figure 4- First determine the available pressure drop across
10). the TXV, which is the condensing pressure
minus the evaporating pressure:
6. Select the selective thermostatic charge
according to the design evaporating 211 psig - 69 pslg - 142 psig
temperature from Table 4-2.
From that total, subtract the liquid line, suction
Example 4-1 line, and accessory losses and the distributor
Select a TXV for an R-22 air conditioning sys¬ and tube losses:
tem with the following criteria:
-
142 psig - 7 psi - 35 psi 100 psi
(100 psi is the actual pressure drop across the TXV)
• Design evaporator temperature = 40°F
• Design condensing temperature = 105°F Using Figure 4-22, the valve capacity is as fol¬
lows:
• Refrigerant liquid temperature = 90°F
At a 100 psi pressure drop across the valve and
• Design system capacity = 2 tons a 40°F design evaporating temperature, the rated
capacity of 2 tons exactly meets the design
• Condensing pressure = 211 psig system capacity of 2 tons. However, we must
take into consideration the 90°F liquid correc¬
• Evaporating pressure = 69 psig tion factor, which will increase the capacity
rating of the 2 ton rated TXV to 2.12 tons (sec
• Liquid line, suction line, and accessory below).
losses = 7 psi
• Distributor and tube losses = 35 psi (2.00 rated tons)(1.06 liquid correction factor) - 2.12
tons
AIR CONDITIONING COMMERCIAL LOW TEMPERATURE EXTREME LOW

REFRIGERANT OR REFRIGERANT REFRIGERANT TEMPERATURE
REFRIGERANT
HEAT PUMP + 50*?H-irr
to 0*F to -40? -40*F lo -100f
12 FCP60 FC rz
FZP
22 VCP>100 VC vz vx
J VGA VZP40
134a JCP60 JC
502 RCP115 RC RZ RX
RZP
717 REFER TO THE SECTION ON AMMONIA REFRIGERATION IN BULLETIN 10-9
Table 4-2. Selective charges (Courtesy. Sporlan Valve Company)
Metering Devices 63
1/2" 5/8" 1/4"
S V E 2 - GA ODF
Solder
x ODF
Solder
x ODF
Solder
x 5
Refrigerant
Designation E lament Label -E-
Color Code specifies
ht lor 11 Win- eiternal External
equalizer Inlet Outlet Equalizer
F lor 12 Yellow
Nominal Connec Connec Capillary
E lor 13 Blue Omission ol Thermo¬ Connac¬
letter "E" Capacity bon tion Tubing
Bra T lor 13B1 Blue static tion
Indicates in Size Size Length
Type V lor 22 Green Charge Size (Feet)
valve with Tons and and and
B lor 114 Blue Style Style
J lor 134a Blue internal Style
Orange equalizer
D lor 500
R lor 502 Purple 80
W for 503 Win- SV-2-C
A lor 717 While
Figure 4-22. TXV selection (Courtesy. Sporlan Valve Company)
Remember, we want to select a valve with a The AXV is made of a valve casing, pressure
rated valve capacity that equals or slightly ex¬ bellows or diaphragm, needle and seat, spring,
ceeds the design tonnage rating of the system, adjustment stem or screw, and a liquid inlet
which is 2 tons. strainer. The two forces that throttle the AXV
open and closed arc the spring and the evapo¬
The valve that is rated for 2.12 tons, after fig¬ rator pressure, Figure 4-23. Constant evapora¬
uring in the liquid correction factor, does slightly tor pressure is maintained by the interaction of
exceed the design tonnage of 2.0 tons. The the spring and evaporator pressures. The evapo¬
choice would then be a 2. 1 2 ton rated capacity rator pressure is a closing force, and the spring
valve, which would be a 2.00 ton nominal ca¬ pressure is an opening force. During the com¬
pacity valve in Table 4-1. pressor on cycle, the valve will hold the evapo¬
rator pressure in equilibrium with the spring
All that is left to do is to specify a body type; pressure. The valve stem or adjustment screw
type of refrigerant; external or internal equal¬ should be adjusted for the desired evaporator
izer; thermostatic element charge type; inlet, pressure. As the compressor cycles off, the valve
outlet, and external equalizer connection sizes; will close due to increasing evaporator pres¬
and capillary tube length for the thermostatic sure from residual refrigerant in the evaporator
remote bulb (see Figure 4-20). boiling off, and refrigerant flow to the evapo¬
rator will cease.
AXV efficiency is considered poor when com¬

pared to other metering devices. This is be¬
AUTOMATIC EXPANSION VALVES (AXVS) cause in order to keep a constant pressure in
The AXV is located between the liquid line the evaporator, the rate of vaporization in the
and the evaporator. Its main function is to evaporator must be kept constant under all
maintain a constant pressure in the evaporator evaporator loads. At heavy evaporator loads,
under all evaporator loading conditions with¬ the refrigerant delivered to the evaporator must
out regard to evaporator superheat; in fact, there be throttled back because of the increased rate
is no remote bulb or feedback mechanism to of refrigerant vaporization in the evaporator,
measure evaporator superheat. The AXV either momentarily causing a higher evaporator pres¬
starves or fills out the evaporator coil with sure. This throttling effect causes an inactive
refrigerant in response to different heat loads evaporator with an abundance of superheat,
on the evaporator. Because of the AXV’s con¬ Figure 4-24; however, a constant evaporator
stant pressure characteristic, it cannot be used pressure is still maintained.
with a low pressure motor control.
64
Adjustment screw
rm
Adjustment spring
Valve casing
Pressure bellows/
diaphragm
Outlet
Needle and seat
j Inlet
Strainer
Figure 4-23. Spring and evaporator pressure on an A XV
Automatic
expansion Mostly liquid
valve with some liquid
floshing to vapor
Liquid from
receiver
Liquid up to
this point
Vapor to
compressor
]
Figure 4-24. Inactive evaporator with an abundance of superheat
Metering Devices 65
At low loads, the evaporator pressure momen¬ AXVs are usually found on smaller equipment
tarily decreases, causing the spring force to with constant evaporator loads, including ice
throttle the valve more open. This maintains the cream freezers and makers and drinking foun¬
valve’s constant pressure characteristics. At a tains. AXVs are often used to prevent products
low evaporator load, more of the evaporator or water from freezing.
surface must be wetted with refrigerant in or¬
der to maintain a constant rate of vaporization,
Figure 4-25. This lowers the evaporator super¬
heat. If the load is permitted to be lowered too
far without shutting the compressor off, the
valve could open too far and flood the com¬
pressor in order to try and maintain a constant
evaporator pressure. The thermostat should be
adjusted to shut the compressor off before flood¬
ing of the entire evaporator occurs. The AXV
should be adjusted to maintain an evaporator
pressure that corresponds to the lowest evapo¬
rator temperature desired through the entire
running cycle of the compressor.
Automatic
expansion Mostly liquid
with some liquid
valve flashing to vapor
Liquid from
_.. >
receiver
C )
c > Liquid up to
this point
)
Vapor to
(C compressor
Figure 4-25. AXV maintaining constant rale of vaporization
66
CHAPTER FOUR
SystemCharge
One of the most puzzling questions a technician ant. High loads ensure that the TXV metering
will ask is how much refrigerant should be put device is fully open and delivering the maxi¬
in a refrigeration system when charging. There mum amount of refrigerant to the evaporator.
is really no straightforward answer, because all At these higher loads, the receiver will be at its
refrigeration systems differ in the amount of lowest level. High loads can be achieved by
charge they hold. However, there are guide¬ placing a false heat load on the evaporator.
lines, charts, and techniques all technicians
should follow when charging a system. The At higher loads, a sightglass located in the liq¬
techniques discussed in this chapter do not apply uid line will bubble if undercharged. The
to automotive or any transportation air condi¬ sightglass in the liquid line may not bubble
tioning system charging. when a system is undercharged if the TXV is
throttled partly closed, the receiver has some
liquid, and the system is at a lower heat load.
Unless severely undercharged, a sightglass will
only bubble under higher loads. The service
CHARGING TXV/RECEIVER/SIGHTGLASS technician must make sure the sightglass does
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS not bubble under high and low loads in order
Most large commercial refrigeration systems for the system to be properly charged.
employ TXVs as metering devices. Because of
the throttling action of the TXV metering de¬ Service technicians often confuse a bubbling
vice to satisfy refrigeration loads, a liquid re¬ sightglass with a low flow rate sightglass. If
ceiver must be employed to act as a liquid undercharged and at a high load, the receiver
refrigerant reservoir. Liquid receivers also act will be at its lowest level and the sightglass
as storage vessels to store the condenser charge will have entrained refrigerant gas bubbles in
variations between summer and winter opera¬ it, Figure 5-1. If the system is charged cor¬
tions. When the TXV is throttled down at lower rectly but experiences a very low heat load on
loads, the receiver will contain more liquid. The the evaporator, a low flow rate sightglass, not
TXV throttles open more at higher heat loads a bubbling sightglass, may be seen. Low flow
and draws liquid refrigerant from the receiver. rate sightglasses do not have refrigerant gas
The remote bulb sends more of an opening bubbles entrained in the flowing liquid. A low
pressure to the TXV diaphragm, which opens flow rate sightglass only partially fills the vol¬
the valve more. This is why it is of utmost ume of the sightglass and does not indicate an
importance to put the refrigeration equipment undercharge, Figure 5-2. The low flow rate of
under a high load when charging with refriger- refrigerant through the system is caused from
System Charge 67
the lower loads on the evaporator. Lower loads extensively in automotive and commercial/resi¬
mean higher compression ratios and lower volu¬ dential air conditioning system charging.
metric efficiencies. The density of the return
gas to the compressor is also decreased at lower
loads and lower suction pressures, causing low Charging Rules
mass flow rates of refrigerant. Horizontal liq¬ The following rules should be used when charg¬
uid lines with sightglasses encounter this phe¬ ing TXV/receiver/sightglass systems:
nomenon much more often than vertical liquid
lines with sightglasses. Gravity will force the l. Always charge a TXV/receiver/sightglass
liquid in the liquid line to settle at the lowest system under a high load. Remember,
point, and this can entirely fill a sightglass systems with 50 lb or more of refriger¬
volume even at low flow rates. ant that leak significantly must be leak
checked and repaired (see Chapter Ten).
m
Once the leak is found, the system
refrigerant recovered, and the leak
repaired, the system is ready to be
evacuated. If the vacuum is pulled on a
refrigeration system with a deep vacuum
pump, once the desired vacuum is
reached and the pump is isolated from
Figure 5-1, Bubbling sightglass (Courtesy, Todd Rose, the system, charge liquid refrigerant into
Ferris State University) the high side of the system until high
and low side pressures equalize and
(H i_i
Figure 5-2. Low flow rate sightglass (Courtesy. Todd
Rose, Ferris Stale University)
refrigerant stops flowing. It is preferable
to charge refrigerant into the receiver if
valving allows. Putting liquid refrigerant
into the low side of the system can
damage the compressor at start-up and
In these cases, the technician must make sure

the liquid line is full of liquid before and after
the sightglass. This can be done with an elec¬
tronic sightglass, Figure 5-3. An electronic
sightglass determines whether there is vapor
entrained in the liquid. This assists the techni¬
cian in charging the system and ensures 100%
liquid at the metering device. Electronic
sightglasses are especially helpful when the re¬
frigeration system has no sightglass. The elec¬
tronic sightglass works when its sensors arc
clamped about 1-1/2" apart on the liquid line.
The technician then waits for beeping sounds
or flashing lights to indicate the presence of
vapor and liquid in the liquid line. Electronic -v\
sightglasses can also be used on the evaporator
outlet or start of the suction line to let the tech¬
nician know if there is liquid entrained with
the vapors. Electronic sightglasses are also used Figure 5-3. Electronic sightglass (Courtesy, TIF
Instruments, Inc.)
68
dilute the oil in the crankcase with
refrigerant, causing oil flash and scored
bearings.
2. Once liquid has been charged into the

high side of the system and system
pressures have equalized, let the system I
set idle for about 10 minutes. This helps
N !r
vaporize any liquid the TXV has re¬
leased into the evaporator while charg¬
ing. After a 10 minute wait, start the
system and monitor the amp draw. Keep
ill > SL
the doors open and the system under a
high load to allow the TXV to throttle
*
open fully. This will draw a maximum
amount of liquid from the receiver. Let
the system run for a while at this high
heat load to reach an equilibrium. If the
sightglass bubbles, charge refrigerant
vapor into the low side of the system
until the sightglass stops bubbling. i
Refrigerant vapor can be charged into
the low side of any running system as
long as the technician knows that the Figure 5-4. Charging device that allows visibility of both
undercharge is not caused by a leak. liquid and vapor while charging (Courtesy. Thermal
Remember, all leaks should be fixed, Engineering Company)
and systems with 50 lb and more of
refrigerant cannot be left to leak or
severe fines will be paid (see Chapter superheat spring. Always give the TXV
Ten). Note: If the refrigerant is a newer enough time to react to the change
refrigerant that has a temperature glide before taking the next reading.
associated with it, liquid refrigerant Make sure condenser subcooling is at
must he throttled through the low side
least 6°F. This is just a starting figure,
to avoid fractionation. The proper
because actual subcooling amounts will
technique is to employ a sightglass and vary depending on the type of refriger¬
valve, which allow liquid to be removed
ant used and how much pressure drop
from the cylinder while manually adjust¬ the subcooled liquid will see from the
ing the valve, causing enough restriction
condenser outlet to the inlet of the
to "flash ” the liquid before it enters the
TXV. This ensures that the condenser is
suction valve. This flashing will be
producing enough liquid to deliver a
visible through the sightglass. Figure solid column of 100% liquid to the
5-4. When properly charged, the TXV.
sightglass should not bubble under high
or low loads. Compressor superheats should always be
between 20° and 30°F. This ensures that
3. Take evaporator superheat, compressor the compressor will not see any liquid
superheat, and condenser subcooling
refrigerant at lower loads. This super¬
readings. Evaporator superheat reading heat range will also prevent compressor
guidelines are listed in Table 5-1. If overheating and high amp draws.
evaporator superheat settings are not
within the guidelines, adjust the TXV
System Charge 69
Application Air Conditioning Commercial Low Temperature
and Heat Pump Refrigeration Refrigeration
Evaporator temperature 40° to 50*F 0* to 40°F -40° to 0°F
Suggested superheat setting 8 to 12 0 F

0
6* to8°F 4°to6'F
Table 5-1. Guidelines for evaporator superheat settings
4. Under high heat load, take evaporator Critically charged systems are systems that
superheat, compressor superheat, and specify an exact amount of refrigerant charge.
condenser subcooling readings and These charges are usually specified to the quar¬
compare them to the suggested guide¬ ter ounce. The manufacturer nameplate, usu¬
lines. Record both the condensing and ally located on the condensing unit, evaporator
evaporating pressure. Monitor the amp faceplate, or unit frame, will specify the criti¬
draw of the compressor with an amme¬ cal charge. Manufacturers critically charge cap¬
ter. Take a voltage reading at the com¬ illary tube systems in order to achieve peak
pressor terminals. Check it with the system efficiency and performance. Capillary
manufacturer amp curve for the pressure tube systems are also critically charged to pre¬
readings and voltage taken (see previous vent floodback of liquid refrigerant under low
section on performance curves), and heat loads or high ambients exposed to the
make sure it is within the range (±5%) condenser.
for the pressures and voltage recorded.
If the system has been running for some time
5. Record the condensing and evaporating and an undercharge is suddenly suspected, a
pressure of the system. Compare the leak probably exists. It is recommended proce¬
amp reading of the compressor to the dure to leak check the system. For systems that
manufacturer amp curves for the pres¬ have over 50 lb of refrigerant for commercial
sures recorded. Make sure the amp draw and industrial refrigeration, leakage rates of
is within range (±5%) on the curves for more than 35% annually are considered sub¬
the two pressures and voltage recorded. stantial leaks and must be repaired. If the equip¬
ment is a chiller or comfort cooling air condi¬
After applying these basic rules, a TXV/re- tioner containing over 50 lb of refrigerant, a
ceiver/sightglass refrigeration system can be 15% annual leakage rate is considered substan¬
charged with the proper amount of refrigerant. tial and must be repaired. Once the refrigerant
is recovered and the leak is repaired, a deep
vacuum must be pulled on the system. After
successful evacuation, the nameplate charge
must be measured and charged into the system.
CHARGING CAPILLARY TUBE OR FIXED Most capillary tube systems are small systems,
ORIFICE REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS and it is good practice to recover, leak check,
Capillary tube systems vary somewhat from evacuate, and then critically charge the system.
TXV systems in their charging procedures. Most These procedures take very little time if sys¬
capillary tube systems do not have sightglasses tems are small. This eliminates guesswork as to
in their liquid lines. Capillary tube systems have whether the system has the right amount of
fixed orifices and do not throttle open and charge.
closed like TXV or AXV metering devices, so
a receiver is usually not needed to hold any
liquid coming from the condenser. This is one Charging from a Vacuum
reason why a capillary tube system is a critically Once the desired vacuum is reached and the
charged system. vacuum pump is isolated from the system, add
70
the specified nameplate amount of liquid refrig¬
erant to the high side of the refrigeration sys¬
tem through a gauge manifold. Adding this re¬
frigerant can be done with a programmable
electronic charging device, Figure 5-5, or a
critical charging cylinder, Figure 5-6, designed
for capillary tube systems. Often, a combina¬ e
tion critical charging cylinder, vacuum pump,
and manifold set can be purchased, Figure 5-7.
Once the critical amount of liquid refrigerant is
charged into the system, let the liquid charge
bleed from the high side of the system through K
the capillary tube. This will cause a good por¬ £
tion of the liquid to vaporize and end up in the m
evaporator as a vapor. Evidence of this can be t
seen by letting the system idle for about 10 1
minutes after liquid charging to the high side. K
Within a minute, the low side pressure will t
gradually rise, demonstrating that the capillary I:
tube is not plugged and that refrigerant is trav¬
eling through it. Figure 5-8 shows how to charge
kWh
a system with an electronic, programmable
charging device.
*
r —1
Figure 5-6. Critical charging cylinder (Courtesy. Thermal
Once the low side pressure rises to equal the

high side pressure, the system can be started. It
is important to allow the high and low side
pressures to equalize, because this allows the
compressor motor to start more easily, Figure
5-9. Capillary tube systems are often not
equipped with start capacitors (hard start kits),
and system pressures must equalize before at¬
tempting to start the compressor. This will pre¬
vent locked rotor situations and often tripped
compressor overloads.
Vi
To illustrate the need for a critically charged
system, consider a 3-ton system that calls for 5
lb of refrigerant to be critically charged. A 10%
(ÿVHr
undercharge is only 8 oz of refrigerant, but this
undercharge will reduce system efficiency by
20%. A 23% undercharge will reduce system
efficiency by 50%. The correct charge is criti¬
cal, so do not to use cheap scales, long charg¬
ing hoses, or equipment that has not been kept
up. Note: It is of utmost importance to weigh in
Figure 5-5. Programmable electronic charging device the exact charge into a capillary> tube or fixed
(Courtesy. TIF Instruments. Inc.) orifice system.
System Charge 71
protection device. The overload protector will
continue to open and reset until the pressures
are just about equal, then the low starting torque
motor will start.
Once the system starts, take a compressor amp

reading and measure voltage at the compressor
A terminals. Make sure the amp reading is the
L “ compressor only and not the total amps of the
system. Compare the amp reading to the manu¬
..\r '1 facturer compressor curve or system curves to
make sure the system is charged and running
as efficiently as possible (see Chapter Three).
V System performance curves are preferred in this
case, because compressor curves reveal only
:1 compressor performance, not system perfor¬
mance. If the system is operating correctly or
:
I: potentially correctly, then compressor curves
can be used.
Always remember to correct for voltage when
using compressor curves. If undercharged, add
i : refrigerant vapor to the low side of the refrig¬
eration system while it is running. Note: If the
refrigerant is a newer refrigerant with a tem¬
1 perature glide, liquid must be throttled in the
low side of the system with the compressor
running to avoidfractionation. The proper tech¬
nique is to employ a sightglass or a charging
device, which allows liquid to be removedfrom
the system while manually adjusting a valve.
i4' This causes enough restriction to "flash" the
liquid before it enters the suction valve.
An overcharge of refrigerant will cause elevated

head and suction pressures. The amp draw will
also be much higher than the curves indicate it
should be. An undercharge of refrigerant will
cause the head pressure and suction pressure to
go down. The amp draw will also be much lower
than the curves indicate if undercharged. A fil¬
Figure 5-7. Portable combination charging cylinder. ter drier change is always recommended before
vacuum pump, and manifold gauge net (Courtesy, Thermal
recharging a system. Often, the replacement filter
drier will be larger than the original drier. The
larger drier will hold more liquid refrigerant,
Compressor motors employing capillary tube and the system may be a bit undercharged even
systems are usually low starting torque motors if the nameplate charge is used. This is why it
that cannot start with large pressure differences is important to use performance curves after
between high and low side pressures. Not wait¬ charging.
ing for the system to equalize will cause the
compressor to lock rotor and open its overload
72
ra
E ;#!:i
i 4*4ÿ- L
-
EBil
\ / f
rr
f
\
i
%% mE'.
A ?
'
rj
Figure 5-8. Charging a system using a programmable charging scale manufactured by TIF Instruments. Inc. (Photo by Bill
Bitzinger, Office of University Communication Services. Ferris State University)
CHARGING CAPILLARY TUBE OR FIXED heat and moisture from the air. Because of this,
both wet bulb (wb) and dry bulb (db) tempera¬
ORIFICE AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS tures, along with air flows (cfm) and compres¬
Charging an air conditioning comfort system is sor superheats arc needed to charge these sys¬
much different than charging a refrigeration sys¬ tems.
tem. Air conditioning systems rely on certain
volumetric amounts of air flow referred to as The most accurate method of charging a capil¬
cubic feet per minute (cfm) across their evapo¬ lary or fixed orifice system is to weigh the
rator coils. Air conditioning processes are both charge into an empty system; however, time
sensible and latent processes, which take both does not always allow recovering and evacuat-
System Charge 73
iwiitiiiwttiik
T t
tmm r
I
I
5 I t
-ÿ
K J
Figure 5-9. Waiting for system pressures to equalize (Photo by Bill Bitzinger. Office of University Communication Sen’ices.
Ferris State University)
ing before charging. The next most efficient and safely and efficiently at all conditions as long as
accurate way of charging a capillary tube sys¬ the ambient is over 60°F at the condenser.
tem is to use a superheat charging table or curve,
Figure 5-10. Charging by the compressor su¬ To use the superheat charging method perform
perheat method best balances the system’s abil¬ the following steps:
ity to absorb heat with the available heat load
on the evaporator. Superheat charging can be 1. Make sure the evaporator has the rated
used on capillary or fixed orifice metering de¬ cfm of air flow across its coil (400 cfm/
vices when charging in ambients above 60°F. ton ±10% is a good rule). Vclomctcrs
Compressor superheat in these types of sys¬ and/or manometers with proper equa¬
tems will vary depending on the air conditions tions will assist in calculating system
flowing over the condenser and evaporator coils. cfm. Check to see if blower assemblies
The amount of superheat at the compressor must and coils are free of dirt and that the
be adjusted to meet these varying conditions. duct system is sized properly. Remem¬
The superheat charging method shows compres¬ ber, the unit manufacturer controls
sor superheat for various entering air condi¬ condenser air volume by design, and the
tions at the evaporator and condenser. Remem¬ installer and designer control evaporator
ber that compressor superheat will vary as con¬ air volume. Fan speed must be adjusted
ditions vary, and no one superheat value can be to overcome design and installation
used for all conditions. If this charging method variables to obtain 400 cfm/ton ±10%.
is performed correctly, the system will work
74
CONDENSER EVAPORATOR AIR INLET TEMP.-°F-W.B.
AIR INLET
TEMP.-°F-D.B. 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76
60 13 17 18 20 24 26 28 30
65 11 13 17 17 18 22 25 28 30
70 8 11 12 14 16 18 22 25 28 30
75 7 10 12 14 16 18 23 26 28 30
80 6 8 12 14 16 18 23 27 28 30
85 6 8 12 14 17 20 25 27 28
90 6 9 12 15 18 22 25 28
95 7 11 13 16 20 23 27
100 8 11 14 18 20 25
105 6 8 12 15 19 24
110 7 11 14 18 23
115 8 13 16 21
Figure 5-10. Superheat charging table (Courtesy. Addison Products Company)
To measure cfm across the evaporator Note: When measuring the average
coil, use the following equation (TD is current, it must include the current of
the temperature difference across the the heating element and fan motor. This
unit coil or heat exchanger): is because the fan motor 's heat also
enters the air stream. In addition,
cfm
- Btu
(1.08XTD)
temperature sensors must be placed out
of the direct sight line of the heating
elements so as not to include any radi¬
ant heating effects. This is usually done
For fossil fuel furnaces in the heating
mode, the formula becomes:
after the first elbow in the ductwork.
If a technician measures the wattage
(Btuh input)(Combu5tion efficiency) input to an electric heater coil or gas
cfm = (1.08MTD) flow to a gas-fired furnace in the
ductwork, the cfm can be calculated
using the above formulas.
For single-phase electric heating ele¬
ments, the formula becomes: Subtract the static pressure (Sp) from
((Average volts)(Average amps)M3.414 Btu/watt)
the total pressure (Tp) in the ductwork,
cfm
(1.08)(TD)
Figure 5-11, with an inexpensive U-tube
water manometer to obtain air velocity
pressure (Vp). The actual air velocity in
If the heating clement is three phase, feet per minute (fpm) can then be
the formula becomes: calculated using the following equation:
Velocity (fpm) -( Vp)(4005)
cfm - ((Average volts)(Average amps))(3.414 Btu/wattX1.73)
(1_08)(TD)
System Charge 75
1*1 1*1
r\
Static Total
u
pressure pressure
and static pressures at the same time

and are connected to a delicate meter in
t
/////////////////////////. ,
Figure 5-11. Measuring sialic amI total pressure
Some instruments measure both total

- ,
Pitot tube reading
.04
(u Calculation
4005 .04
FVmln
800
such a way that the subtraction is done
.05 4005 .05 895
automatically, and the actual velocity of
the air is read out in feet per minute .06 4005 .06 980
(fpm), Figures 5-12 and 5-13. These
instruments usually require the operator .07 4005 .07 1060
to traverse the duct with a long pitot
tube at certain traverse points, Figure .05 4005 .05 895
5-14. An average velocity is then calcu¬
.06 4005 .06 980
lated.
_
5610
Because the velocity pressure is a square The average is as follows;
root function, they cannot be first aver¬
aged together and then converted to 5610 fpm 935 fpm
velocity. This is because it is not math¬ 6
ematically possible to average a square
root; a reading must be converted to Once the air velocity in fpm is known,
velocity in feet per minute (fpm), then use the following equation to obtain unit
averaged together. The following table cfm (area is the cross-sectional area of
shows how to determine an average the air duct in square feet):
(Courtesy, Refrigeration Service Engi¬
neers Society): cfm = (Velocity in fpm) (Area in square feet)
Area for rectangular or square ducts

(length) (width)
-
where r
-
Area for round or circular ducts
circular duct
= (3.14)ÿ,
the radius of the round or
76
(E)
PITOT
PROBE
(D)
RANGE
SELECTOR
(Da)
SWITCH
BUTTON (Db) LO-FLOW
SWITCH PROBE
PLATE
H
(C)
HOSES'
—I (B) SENSING
PORTS '
CfTTT3
pTTIJ
(A) METER
Figure 5-12. Air velocity reading instruments (Courtesy. Alnor Instrument Company)
System Charge 77
FAN • Condenser air inlet = 85°F
DISCHARGE
• Evaporator air inlet (wb temperature) =
66°F and 400 cfm/ton (±10%) flow rate
) • Suction pressure measured at compres¬

sor = 60 psig (34°F), Figure 5-17
♦
• Compressor inlet temperature = 56°F
N+,
Solution 5-1
From the information given, it is possible to
determine that the compressor superheat is 22°F
Figure 5-13. Air velocity reading instrument in discharge -
(56° 34°F). Looking at Figure 5-10, the cor¬
duct (Courtesy. A!nor Instrument Company) rect superheat at the intersection of the con¬
denser air inlet (85°F) and the evaporator air
inlet (66°F) is 14°F. This system is running a
Static pressures (Sp) may also be mea¬ compressor superheat of 22°F. The superheat
sured across a working air conditioning is too high, so the system is undercharged.
coil (wet coil), and cfm may be obtained Refrigerant vapor must be added to the low
directly from manufacturer tables based side of the system while it is running. After
on cfm for coil air-side pressure drops, charging is finished, let the system run for at
Figure 5-15. Always refer to manufac¬ least 15 minutes and check the compressor
turer literature for specific cfm based on superheat again. Note: If the refrigerant is a
static pressure drops across coils. newer refrigerant that has a temperature glide
associated with it, liquid refrigerant must be
2. Measure the compressor superheat at the throttled through the low side to avoid frac¬
compressor, Figure 5-16. tionation. The proper technique is to employ a
sightglass and valve, which allow liquid to be
3. With the unit running and stabilized, removed from the cylinder while manually ad¬
measure condenser inlet air dry bulb justing the valve, causing enough restriction to
(db) temperature and evaporator inlet air
wet bulb (wb) temperature.
“flash " the liquid before it enters the suction
valve. This flashing will be visible through the
sightglass. Figure 5-4. When properly charged,
4. Using Figure 5-10, find the proper the sightglass should not bubble under high or
compressor superheat at the intersection low loads.
of db and wb temperatures.
As the technician adds refrigerant, the suction
5. If the compressor superheat measured in pressure should increase and the compressor
Step #2 is too high, refrigerant must be inlet temperature should decrease or become
added. If the compressor superheat is colder because of less superheat. These two
too low, refrigerant must be recovered temperatures will come closer together as re¬
from the system. Caution: Wait at least frigerant is added. Caution: If, during charg¬
15 minutes after adding or removing ing, the indoor wet bulb (evaporator air inlet)
refrigerant from the system before temperature changes more than 2°F or the out¬
attempting to re-measure compressor door ambient temperature changes more than
superheat. 5°F, check the superheat table for a new su¬
perheat and charge to this new superheat.
Example 5-1
Determine if the charge is correct for an R-22
capillary tube or fixed orifice system with the
following information:
78
Measuring Duct Velocity
The velocity of an air stream in a duct is not unifom throughout the cross-
section; air near the walls moves more slowly due to friction. Elbows, transi¬
tions and obstructions also cause variations in the velocity at any one cross-
section.
To obtain the average velocity in ducts of 4 " diameter or larger, drill a '/i '
diameter or larger hole in the duct and take a series of duct velocity readings
(commonly referred to as a traverse), with the Pitot Probe, at points of equal
area across the duct. A formal pattern of sensing points is recommended and
these points are referred to as traverse point readings. Shown are recom¬
mended velocity reading point locations for traversing round and square (or
rectangular) ducts.
o o o o o
o
o o o o o
R
o o o ■o o op
o o o o
6
CENTERS OF
EQUAL CONCENTRICJL-"
-- //// o o o
AREAS " o /
/
0.316R CENTERS OF
0.548R EQUAL AREAS
0.707R NOTE: PITOT PROBE STATIONS
0.837R INDICATED BY o
0.949R
SQUARE AND RECTANGULAR DUCT

ROUND DUCT TRAVERSE POINTS TRAVERSE POINTS
In round ducts, take velocity readings at the center of equal concentric areas;
take at least 20 readings along two diameters. In square or rectangular ducts,
take a minimum of 16 and a maximum of 64 readings at centers of equal areas.
Calculate the average of all readings.
For maximum accuracy, observe the following precautions:
I. Perform the traverse in a section of the duct where the air stream is as
uniform as practical. This is generally a location of eight or more duct
diameters of straight duct upstream from the traverse location.
2. Do not take the traverse near a duct elbow, transition or obstruction.
3. Make a complete, careful and accurate traverse and record the results on
a worksheet.
Figure 5-14. Method for measuring air velocity in an air duct using a pitot lube traverse (Courtesy. Alnor Instrument
Company)
System Charge 79
Rated Cooling
3. Measure suction pressure at the com¬
air flow capacity pressor, and convert to a temperature
Btu/hr using a pressure/temperature chart.
CFM H20*
4. Measure compressor temperature on
820 .15 24,400 suction line near compressor.
800 .15 24,600 5. Calculate the amount of compressor
superheat.
1050 .20 30,000
6. Find the intersection where the outdoor
800 .10 28,200
temperature and indoor temperature
meet and read compressor superheat.
1050 .21 30,800
1200 .30 36,000

If the compressor superheat of the system is
more than 5°F above what the chart reads, add
1200 .25 38,000 refrigerant vapor into the low side of the oper¬
ating system until the superheat is within 5°F
1200 .20 35,800 of the chart. If the compressor superheat of the
system is more than 5°F below what the chart
1325 .20 42,000 reads, recover refrigerant until the superheat is
within 5°F of the chart. Note: Always let the
1230 .15 40,000 system run at least 15 minutes after adding or
recovering refrigerant from the system before
* Static pressure loss for add-on coils (wet coil) and recalculating compressor superheat. If using a
available static pressure for duct system on blower
coils. newer alternate refrigerant that has a tempera¬
ture glide, liquid refrigerant must be throttled
Figure 5-15. Static pressure drop v.v cfm for evaporator into the low side of the system while the system
coil
is running to avoid fractionation.
Example 5-2
Superheat Charging Curves Determine if the charge is correct for an R-22
Manufacturers may vary the style of superheat capillary tube or fixed orifice system with the
charging curves they offer; however, the same following information:
underlying principle holds for all tables and
curves. Figure 5-18 is an example of a super¬ • Indoor dry bulb temperature = 80°F
heat charging curve instead of a table. The curve
is based on 400 cfm/ton air flow at 50% rela¬ • Outdoor dry bulb temperature = 90°F
tive humidity across the evaporator coil. The
steps to charge a system according to this curve • Suction pressure at compressor = 60
are as follows: psig (34°F)
1. Measure indoor db temperature. This is • Compressor inlet temperature on suction

the return air at the air handler. Note: line = 54°F
Use wb temperature if the relative
humidity is above 70% or below 20%. Solution 5-2
From the information given, it is possible to
2. Measure outdoor db temperature at determine that the compressor superheat is 20°F
outdoor unit. This is air temperature at (54° - 34°F). Looking at Figure 5-18, the cor¬
the condenser. rect superheat at the intersection of 90°F out¬
door temperature with 80°F indoor tempera¬
ture is about 17°F. This system is running a
80
The diagram below illustrates the proper Manifold Gauge and Temperature
Analyzer connections for charging a split cooling system.
Split Cooling System

*\ T»mp*r»tur«
Analyze!
Gauges
Suction
9 Head
Pressura Pressure
\ S'
Manifold
IBI
I
|
1 Rffr igerant
■22
Liquid Line
Suction Line
Figure 5-16. Measuring superheat at the compressor (Courtesy. Trane Company)
compressor superheat of 20°F. This is within

5°F of the superheat chart, meaning the system
is fully charged and no refrigerant needs to be SUCTION SATURATED
added to the system. PRESSURE SUCTION
PSIG TEMP. °F.
54.9 30
Superheat Curve Theory 57.5 32
The theory behind superheat tables and curves 60.1 34
is simple. Notice in Figure 5-18 that when 62.8 36
moving to the right on the bottom axis, the 65.6 38
68.5 40
outdoor temperature rises. For a constant in¬ 71.5 42
door db or wb temperature (lines that slant 74.5 44
downward from left to right), as outdoor ambi¬ 77.6 46
ent increases the operating compressor, super¬ 80.8 48
heat decreases. The reason for this is that there 84.0 50
is more head pressure pushing the subcooled 87.4 52
liquid out of the condenser bottom through the 90.8 54
liquid line and the capillary tube. This forces 94.3 56
more refrigerant into the evaporator and gives 97.9 58
less superheat, which is why some systems flood 101.6 60
and slug liquid at hot outdoor ambients when
Figure 5-17. Pressure/temperature chart for R-22
System Charge 81
Charging Capillary Tube — Cooling Mode Only
Current Superheat Method
1. Measure indoor dry bulb temperature. (Return air at air handler).

2. Measure outdoor dry bulb temperature. (Measure at outdoor unit).
3. Measure suction pressure at pressure tap on outdoor unit.
4. Measure suction temperature near pressure tap on outdoor unit.
5. Determine degrees superheat from temperature pressure chart or low side
manifold gage.
6. *Find the intersection where the outdoor temperature and indoor temper¬
ature meet and read degrees superheat. If unit superheat is more than
5° above chart value, add R-22 until within 5°. If unit superheat is more than
5° below chart value, remove R-22 until within 5°.
7. If superheat is below the 59 limit line, DO NOT ADD R-22.
Chart based on 400 CFM/Ton indoor air flow and 50% relative humidity.
INDOOR DRY BULB TEMPERATURE — 2ND VALUE IS WET BULB*
50
95/79
.
45 90/75
85/71 B4
•5
80/67
5 -•
75/63
30
LL 7058
-
<
X
CE
UJ
3
w
20
15
xi
V
-
x.
25
t
to
:
:DO NOT ADD CHARGE IF LIMIT LINE

-I POINT FALLS BELOW THIS LINE I 1 I I I I I t
|
55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115
OUTDOOR TEMPERATURE °F
.
Figure 5-18. Superheat charging curve (Courtesy Trane Company)
82
they are overcharged. The superheat curve pre¬ perience. The main advantage of fixed orifice
vents this from occurring if followed properly. metering devices is their inexpensive cost. If
this system had a TXV as a metering device, it
Referring to Figure 5-18, consider a constant would control a constant superheat and keep
indoor db temperature across the evaporator the evaporator active at high or low heat loads.
coil of 75°F. If outdoor db temperature is in¬
creased from 70° to 105°F, the operating com¬ Technicians are often hesitant to measure and
pressor superheat will fall from 23° to 0°F. This use wb temperatures when working on air con¬
is caused by hotter outdoor ambients, resulting ditioning systems. However, it is very impor¬
in higher head pressures pushing more liquid tant to get these measurements when in the field.
through the capillary tube and into the evapo¬ Wet bulb temperature gives an indication of both
rator. It is normal for the system to run 23°F of the latent (moisture) and sensible heat loads on
compressor superheat when the outdoor ambi¬ the coil. A simple thermocouple with some moist
ent is 70°F. Adding additional refrigerant to this cotton wrapped around it placed in a hole drilled
system would not be wise, because if the out¬ in the air duct will suffice. There are more so¬
door ambient climbs to 95°F later in the day, phisticated devices on the market for measur¬
the system compressor will slug or flood. Note: ing wb temperatures. A psychrometer is prob¬
If the relative humidity is above 70% or below ably one of the most popular devices used. It
20%, use wb temperatures instead of db tem¬ consists of a sock wrapped around an ordinary
peratures across the evaporator coilfor Figure db thermometer. Psychrometers that are slung
5-18 to compensatefor the varying latent (mois¬ around a swivel connection are referred to as
ture) loads. sling psychrometers, Figure 5-19. The techni¬
cian simply wets the sock with distilled water
If the outdoor temperature stays constant and and places it in the air stream until a tempera¬
the indoor db or wb temperature increases, the ture stabilizes. With both a db and wb tempera¬
operating superheat will increase. This loading ture, the technician may obtain the relative hu¬
of the indoor coil with sensible heat, latent heat, midity (rh) of the air by referring to charts or
or both, will cause a more rapid vaporization graphs, such as that found in Table 5-2.
of refrigerant in the evaporator, causing high
compressor superheats. This is a normal occur¬ When charging capillary tube and fixed orifice
rence. Many technicians will add refrigerant in air conditioning systems, consult with the manu¬
this case and overcharge the system. It is com¬ facturer of the air conditioning system and use
pletely normal for a capillary or fixed orifice their exact method of charging. Some manu¬
metering device system to run high superheat at facturers use different curves and tables for
high evaporator loads. different models of their equipment, Figure 5-
20. Other manufacturers have eliminated the
Again referring to Figure 5-18, consider if the need for a wb temperature because of custom-
outdoor ambient stays constant at 95°F. In this made charging curves that represent their labo¬
case, as the indoor db temperature across the ratory tests on the equipment. Some manufac¬
evaporator coil rises from 75° to 95°F, the turers use a slide-rule superheating charging
operating compressor superheat will rise from calculator, Figure 5-21. In general, the charging
6° to 33°F. At a 95°F indoor air db temperature table in Figure 5-10 can be used with all cap¬
and a 95°F outdoor air db temperature, the illary tube and fixed orifice air conditioning
superheat should normally be 33°F according systems if wb and db temperatures are used,
to the chart. This seems like an inefficient sys¬ and the 400 cfm/ton (±10%) of evaporator air
tem with an inactive evaporator, which is the is established.
greatest disadvantage of a fixed orifice meter¬
ing device. However, this is the only way a
fixed orifice system can prevent slugging and
flooding of refrigerant with varying indoor and
outdoor loads that air conditioning systems ex-
System Charge 83
Swivel connection
8 T 00 aaas5a
8 o * r- o o x oo
ft X « ffi «
U) N ffl
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HxxcM*r'-XH
£ HdWNINWNn
8 HHNwnoinn
s XOmX0iH(*)X
rtNPiNrtnnm
«Nin#HP>i/»N
8 v-tfNCNrenronm
<5 Hinaoniflsat
nnNnnnnn
W«f bulb thermometer CM *r*-o<ninr-0>«4

NNrtnnnntf
Dry bulb thermometer £ ««inhonu)h-oHn

uittftnnnnnintfTe
NNNiflfflNIfiBONtlfl
8
Wetted wiclt
(OHlfl0tNlO«ONÿI0N
8 v x rtpt(NN(ni*intrÿtr>iÿ
1a s
•J O «? X CM X X H n ifl t» ®
? O X ft M rt w n n n
*a
a
1
CM X <*> X CM X X ft M in N ffi
IfiftHNNCtMO ss
Z2 ONNNHUHOftniDOOONI'M
r)HrtotN(n(*)«’t*t*t*tinininin
$*
Figure 5-19. Sling psychrometer X iflHhftinaitNÿhoiftnÿmh

XvCCMCNWWWnÿÿ-tXXXXX
a u.agasssssaasssaas
a NSlIflrllflJIMUtOftninhlOOlrtN
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a
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XH<MO<n***xxxxxxxrwxxx
o «rr)v«x*-txcT'rNinrwonÿm*Tinh-cocT'0
•r e-fCMroXÿÿÿXXXXXXXXXXXrw
(nnHNN#onifiotr(nÿ»NOiOfHP(N
9> »tcMc*ic»>'rÿxxxxxxxxxxr'-rwf>-r'.
X asaaassssssssssacaas
ftoiiiHfijjHniflNijiootn'tinfflhhB
r- XMÿxxu>xxxxxr*»r-rÿrwrwrwr*.rwrw
X JSSHJSSISSNPPNNI'NNSMBS
x 8$xxxx£™fÿrÿ**rÿxxxxxxx
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xxxxoH(N'»xxxr«rwxxotxooo
m xrwrÿr-xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
XCM'tXrwXXXOOHeHeHrefMMmmXX
CM NKSOXXXXXO<9t9i9itrOtOtOiOtOlOt9
oÿcMcomÿTtTtxxxxxxxxxxrÿrÿ
a TH PO'XPXff'O'PXG'XU'CTtPC'C'ff'fftXX
2 a
is v ssssasssssasssssssss
Note: Wet bulb depression is the difference between the dry bulb
and wet bulb temperatures.
Table 5-2. Psychrometric table: Percent relative humidity

from dry’ bulb temperature and wet bulb depression
(Fahrenheit temperature scale)
84
SUPERHEAT METHOD - CAPILLARY TUBE SYSTEM
Tho method of dwgmg a effective Q£jy when the indoor condWons ere within 2F of desired indoor comfort end the suction line pressure end temperature are
CAUTION: USE LIQUID LINE HEAD PRESSURE METHOD IF INDOOR CONDITIONS ARE ABOVE NORMAL TEMPERATURE AND HUMIOITY.
1. Read and record outdoor ambient air dry bulb (D6) temperature entering condenser unit.
2. Read and record suction line pressure and temperature at the service valve or service port at compressor
3. Enter proper table below as determined bv the model number at the Intersection of suckon pressure and outdoor ambient temperature Suction line temperature
shcaid coincide with the table reading.
4. If suction tne temperature is not the same, adjust refrigerant charge
Adding R-22 w# raise suction pressure and lower suction line temperature
Removing R-22 will lower suction pressure and raise suction ine temperature
CAUTION - If adding R-22 raises both suction pressure and temperature, the unit is overcharged
5. Fifteen to thirty minutes after adjusting the charge. Steps t through 3 are to be repeated after suction trie pressure and lemperatura have slabbed
6. Should the intersection of the suction pressure and outdoor ambient temperature tel in the open areas of the tables, the Mowing ere likely causes
Left ot Numbers Rloht of Numbera
A Low indoor airflow A Gross overcharge
B. Restricted refrigerant Ime B Defective compressor
C. Low charge C. Indoor conditions above desired comfort
MODEL SERIES 1-iACC-. 1-iACW-

STANDkRD EFFICIENCY
| OUTDOOR
SUCTION PRESSURE AT COMPRESSOR - PSIG
AMBIENT ST | sa i se ! sa *~io 62 | N , M 1 TO | n « | 7« | 76 ! 7» 60 [ 62 64
•F SUCTION LINE TEMPERATURE AT COMPRESSOR - *F
ABOVE
100 ■ I ; O
' aa '1
as ae rf
«A «9 so S2 S3
_
■ |
’00 * aj it 47 aa SO i Si ST Sa S5
»5 as : 47 a« I SO i 51 ' ST Sa ! SS se ST se
»o SO 1
ST S3 | SS 56 1 57 ■
SO 50 61 63
65
r j S3 ! sa ' s« | ; ss~ eo |
ST '
ei 63 ' sa"
BO » , It 59 61 ] 6T~ :
6a tV~' 66 ■ M 1
t
*
MM' 6t
I
.
75
’0 i 61 ;
St'
63
] 60
ea ~
6T
St
»3
67 i
65
69 ' 70 * 72 ' 73 ' ’ TO
MODEL SERIES (-(AFC-, (-IAFW-

HIGH EFFICIENCY
OUTDOOR
SUCTION PRESSURE AT COMPRESSOR - PS'G
AMBIENT ST S< l 56 ! 56 l 63 | 6T ! 6a j 66 | 66 TO l 7T | 7* | 76 j~76 60 | 6T T »4
•F SUCTION LINE TEMPERATURE AT COMPRESSOR - *F
: ABOVE
: aT as ae
100
100 as
■
[ 47
43
46
44
SO 51
46
ST 54 - 49
SS
SO
56
ST
56
S3
59
95 SO ST S3 55 56 57 59 . 60 61 63
iv-
65 - sa
SS
60
57
61
56
63
60
64
61
66
61
67
64
66
65 ! M
70
60 ; 63 65 M | 67 68 70 71 7T
'
75 66 66 69 71 I 72 74 75
70 71 73 ! 74 1 76 I
MODEL SERIES HAGD-, (-AMD-

SUPER HIGH EFFICIENCY
OUTDOOR
SUCTION PRESSURE AT COMPRESSOR PSIG -
AMBIENT ST 1 sa I 56 I 56 I 60 I 6T 1 64 I 66 I
7T 66 i
74 I 76 70 I I 1 76 I 60 1 6T 64
•F SUCTION LINE TEMPERATURE AT COMPRESSOR *F -
ABOVE
1 1
100 «2 43 aa as ae 46 49 SO ST S3 sa
1
100 43 45 46 46 : 49 I SO ST S3 54 56 56
95 SO ST S3 “ M S7 59 i 60 61 63 64
90 56 37 59 60 6T 63 64 66 67 66
es 63 64 66 67 69 70 7T 7a
60 66 70 71 73 74 76 77 78
75 70 7T 74 75 77 79
70 7T 74 76 77 76
(R£F 9T 2047764011
92-20551-05-01
Figure 5-20. Superheat method for capillary tube system <Courtesy, Rheem Air Conditioning Division)
System Charge 85
pt AIR CONDITIONING N
TRANE CHARGING CALCULATOR
Tf* rn nru (Cooling. Capillary Tube ONLY)
■•»v*ucTio*n
I Ut %• Mw
A N|n|«o|.»l«>lwj Mu* t «1 “A . C
2 M r •«*•««• w Out— M w
I
••*4
|w|»l|»7|>l|»|>«l JJ§. l A
-
ntim I*
1 flMI »UCtM* fmtitf* |IU(I >««»w| [92 91 >0
99 at tram *rm-r. '0*4 M>«* lM*

M N »•»
Dl’OOO*
19 M
70
n It
tO t
XOTl W(M« l-»*
toOTHM
««M Ul«K
▼
« D*rm *****
.ÿ**• I
****** tf0w»«<0
W»1N»»
:s
$it
II
•
"ssr
•f TO
•fOWtOfD
wn«**(AT If NOT
I UC r«wrf« 1« bn* W«*
• » *7
M 14
«9
. r. } »W—t| (N>|* I* M*MM h*t
109 __ o
*«!-*•««•n
*•<*
4 f
::c 20% *M
S'**»I**0 4.
0*0 No 22 0069
r TRANE
Doo/or Product* Group
rx# Compeer
Tr*uO *»»$ ■> **
Tvfr. r* ffftt
AIR CONDITIONING
CHARGING CALCULATOR
(Cooling, Capillary Tube ONLY)
"\
A'
INOOOO TTI
19
- *f
■211 M.I
omr
9o|ta|ty|yH T9|TO #v»L*‘ EXAMPLE

99 «1 IF INDOOR TEMPERATURE (A) IS 85’
to M
sfr AND OUTDOOR TEMPERATURE IS.... 95°

79tO /
ouroooo REQUIRED SUPERHEAT (B) IS 20°
m J? !? /
■AT
*fMPt»**U*l •COU'RCO
109 19
III : :
119 10
NO ;;aofs
— Dmmler Product a Group AIR CONDITIONING

| TRANE CHARGING CALCULATOR
nr j*5 ••• (Cooling, Capillary Tube ONLY)
c
I Prx*#»cssvn
M
EXAMPLE
P»
IF SUCTION PRESSURE (C) IS 71 PSIG
REQUIRED SUPERHEAT FROM (B) IS 20°
SUCTION LINE TEMPERATURE (D) *f? RfO
tun •*(**
II«*M ■ ■
CJj wmonm
SHOULD BE 62°
*■ *"*
O* 3*M 20% M*0
d«1 N
*«*
• 70%
■* No 27 *0t 9
Figure 5-21. Slide- rule calculator (Courtesy. Trane Company)
86

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BASIC

Refrigeration & Charging

All rights reserved. Except as permitted under

Cover photo supplied by Honeywell International.

Printed in the United States of America

100% Saturated Liquid Point 13

Saturated Vapor Point 14

Balanced Port TXVs 59

Automatic Expansion Valves (AXVs) 64

Charging Capillary Tube Or Fixed Orifice Refrigeration Systems 70

Superheat Curve Theory 81

High side pressure Low side pressure EVAPORATING PRESSURE

Refrigerant Pressures. States, and Conditions 1

Figure /-/. Typical compression refrigeration sy stem

2 Troubleshooting and Servicing Modern Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Systems

Refrigerant Pressures, States, and Conditions 3

Table /-/. R-I34a saturated vapor/liquid pressure/

BASIC REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

4 Troubleshooting and Servicing Modern Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Systems

Suction line Discharge line Condenser

Figure 1-3. Basic refrigeration system

Refrigerant Pressures, States, and Conditions 5

6 Troubleshooting and Servicing Modern Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Systems

< ) Mostly liquid

100% saturated liquid point

100% saturated vapor point

Refrigerant Pressures, States, and Conditions 7

8 Troubleshooting and Servicing Modern Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Systems

Bypass solenoid valve

Refrigerant Pressures, States, and Conditions 9

Evaporator Metering device

Superheated suction vapor -

Figure 1-7. Refrigeration system showing liquid/suetion line heat exchanger

10 Troubleshooting and Servicing Modern Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Systems

Refrigerant Pressures, States, and Conditions 11

9 100% saturated liquid point

#3 100% saturated High Saturated Vapor

#4 100% saturated High Saturated Liquid

#5 Condenser outlet High Subcooled Liquid

#6 TXV inlet High Subcooled Liquid

#8 100% saturated Low Saturated Vapor

#9 Evaporator outlet Low Superheated Vapor

#10 Compressor inlet Low Superheated Vapor

12 Troubleshooting and Servicing Modern Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Systems

Refrigerant Pressures, States, and Conditions 13

Evaporator Outlet (Point #9)

14 Troubleshooting and Servicing Modern Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Systems

Subcooling and Superheating 15

c * > Mostly liquid

100% saturated liquid point

rate liquid subcooling amount. 72 125.67

Subcooling and Superheating 17

( Metering device (TXV)

c * > Mostly liquid

18 Troubleshooting and Servicing Modern Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Systems

Subcooling and Superheating 19

20 Troubleshooting and Servicing Modern Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Systems

If there were no subcooling, saturated liquid Friction Pressure Losses

Subcooling and Superheating 21