dBET ThreePureLandSutras 2003
dBET ThreePureLandSutras 2003
dBET ThreePureLandSutras 2003
by
Edmund Theron G i l d a y
B.A., U n i v e r s i t y o f W i s c o n s i n , 1973
MASTER OF ARTS
in
We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming
to the r e q u i r e d standard
March, 1980
the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study.
written permission.
Department of R e l i g i o u s Studies
ABSTRACT
isolate the religious and doctrinal issues which affected the evolution of
converged during the late Heian and early Kamakura periods, namely the
Pure Land tradition transmitted from India to East Asia and the popular
Land movement of H5nen. This reconciliation was not as much the result of
this study w i l l provide a solid base from which to initiate a new evaluation
Leon Hurvitz
Thesis Supervisor
iii
T a b l e o f Contents
Abstract i i
Introduction 1
P a r t I.
Chapter One 3
Endnotes 20
Chapter Two 25
Endnotes 33
Chapter Three 36
Endnotes 44
Chapter Four 45
Endnotes 54
Part I I .
Introduction 56
Chapter F i v e 60
Endnotes 75
Chapter S i x 78
Endnotes 93
Conclusion 95
Bibliography 97
1
INTRODUCTION
are t h r e e :
Buddhist teachings.
discussed in Part I.
For the introductory section on early Pure Land Buddhism, I have relied
a great deal on FUJITA Kotatsu ($j^tlS $^JL)'s Studies in Early Pure Land
Chapter One
Reformation in India around the f i r s t century B.C. It was then that the
ideal of the Bodhisattva emerged, and from i t the philosophical and soteri-
ological features of Mahayana Buddhism. Over the next few centuries these
emerged. While the distinctions were in fact lost for some centuries after
The germinal forms of Pure Land thought sprang from the earliest
From there the new 'bodhisattva' movement spread west and then north, so
that by the f i r s t century A.D. a large number of Mahayana texts had already
paramita teaching and to clarify its mystical message. Among these texts
were the earliest versions of the Pure Land scriptures, namely the Larger
Sutra (^.T^^SlfEi^} . The orthodox version of the Larger Pure Land Sutra,
in 402 and i s known as the Amida Sutra (ffl$fiftf(!,ff$L- T.366). A second translation
It was written in Central Asia i n the f i f t h century, and the only extant
c.383-442 or 424-442).
tion which i s not only consistent with the main currents of Mahayana thought
Prajnaparamita literature and crystallized in the early Pure Land sutras was
doctrine, and laid the foundation for the Pure Land movement. Their contri-
butions were recognized by later Pure Land apologists who identified Nagarjuna
and Vasubandhu as the f i r s t two patriarchs in the orthodox Pure Land tradi-
15
tion.
The second form was a popular application of the bodhisattva doctrine,
tion for the vows of Dharmakara (j^fk ), and established the legitimacy of
and practical means of salvation for those unable to carry out more rigorous
traditional practices.
the scope of this study. It i s the second form which i s the major theme
of this paper.
was upon these doctrines that the movement was founded, and on these points
that i t s development in China and Japan turned. One hopes that, by examining
Honen's contribution to Pure Land Buddhism was and how his interpretation
-6-
Mahayana Buddhism.
I. The Doctrines
A. Faith
lightened faith. This "Enlightened Faith" was defined as firm and un-
In the Pure Land scriptures, however, the concern was clearly with
identification of the two can be found in the texts. Thus the terms
-7-
Prasada
i t was o r i g i n a l l y r e l a t e d t o m e d i t a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s . ^ This f a i t h i n a l l
o f , o r d i s p e n s i n g w i t h , doubt. I t i s i n e f f e c t abandonment t o t h e
t e a c h i n g o f t h e Buddha; i n t h i s i t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y B u d d h i s t . But
( f o r r e b i r t h ) i s a concept unfound i n e i t h e r p r i m i t i v e o r s e c t a r i a n
Pure Land p r a c t i c e as i t d i d i n I n d i a n r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e a t l a r g e d u r i n g
Land t e x t s themselves. 0
F u j i t a m a i n t a i n s t h a t the r e l i g i o u s concept
"bhakti." 2 9
B. Nembutsu
S u f f i c e i t to say t h a t the t h e o r y of d i f f e r e n t p r a c t i c e s f o r v a r i o u s
30
"Reflection ('.& "nen") on the Buddha ($b "Butsu") ." In Pure Land
Buddha and by e x t e n s i o n c o n t e m p l a t i o n or v i s u a l i z a t i o n o f h i s a t t r i b u t e s .
1) A n u s m r t l ( a l s o t r a n s l a t e d j ^ . ^ = ' j ^ ^ . - ) :
<
>
<
"(unfailing) recollection";
pondering";
32
"being i n a calm .and pure s t a t e of mind."
The earliest s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n of t h i s k i n d of d e v o t i o n a l p r a c t i c e
Buddha as p a r t of h i s d e v o t i o n a l ritual.
35
at the time. While i t i s a l s o c l e a r t h a t nembutsu i s promoted f o r b o t h
s c r i p t u r a l r e f e r e n c e s to e f f e c t i v e i r r v o c a t i o n a l nembutsu became e v i d e n t ,
in the C e n t r a l A s i a n Contemplation S u t r a r e f e r r e d t o e a r l i e r .
39
The second form o f " s e e i n g " the Buddha was the appearance of Amita-
tude, who could theoretically effect their own release, and those of
the theory by expounding the ultimate conclusion that rebirth was a re-
of d o c t r i n e i n h i s Senchaku-shu.
D. Rebirth
only with the appearance of the Pure Land s c r i p t u r e s t h a t the two names
say here that the Amitabha legend sprang from the main currents of
Buddha theory. Unlike the latter, however, this concept was clearly
religious act where belief and devotion were directed primarily toward a
was expanded. The Sthavira sect, under the influence of Jainism and
sanghikas, under whom the Buddha concept became totally objectified and
Kathavatthu and the Milindapanha had stressed the social nature of the
Arhat, and this was a clear precedent for the bodhisattva doctrine as
r a t i o n a l e f o r e x t e r n a l h e l p on the p a t h to s a l v a t i o n .
b i r t h — n o t i n a more f a v o r a b l e s i t u a t i o n i n t h i s w o r l d , but i n a f a n t a s -
52
t i c p u r i f i e d Buddha-realm beyond the h o r i z o n .
Mahasthamaprapta (JlfgS\%}/TN^ ^ 1
)- 53
While on the s u r f a c e t h i s
a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to the p r a c t i c e of m e d i t a t i o n d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r as
Buddha-visualization.
On the other hand, aspirants of the middle and lowest rank, not having
jewelled..tower in the remote corners of the Amitabha realm, and for five
hear his (perfect) teaching expounded. Put simply, this indicates that
the purity of their faith and trust in Amitabha.^ Thus, the desire to
II. Summary/Conclusion
r e c e n s i o n s o f the e a r l y scriptures.
i t were c l e a r l y p l a n t e d i n the e a r l i e s t s t r a t a of I n d i a n b o d h i s a t t v a t e a c h i n g ,
the later evolution of Pure Land doctrine i n both China and Japan.
Having now looked at the textual history of the most important doctrines
and noted their .".evolution within the greater Buddhist tradition, l e t us now
context, which served as the immediate source of the Pure Land tradition in
Japan.
-20-
4. F u j i t a , p. 257.
6. See F u j i t a , p. 74.
15. This recognition was due to two works attributed to them. Nagarjuna
is credited with the writing of the Dasabhumikavibhasa (T. 1521:
- l&fiyft) • In the ninth chapter of this text, we find the f i r s t authori-
tative distinction between the "easy path ( ^ ^-j )" and the
"Difficult path ^-j ^ )." This chapter has been interpreted
as an expression of Nagarjuna's personal beliefs. Be that as i t may,
the promotion of Amitabha devotion by such a revered author and the
description of an easy method of achieving "nonregression" through
faith i n the Buddha was taken by later Pure Land apologists as clear
evidence of the legitimacy of their doctrine.
Vasubandhu, the founder of the Yogacara school, wrote a commen-
tary on the Sukhavati-Vyuha entitled the Sukhavati-Vyuhopadesa (T.
1524: X- tftfj )• Two significant points derive from this text.
First Vasubandhu admitted his own desire for rebirth in the Pure Land,
which added a further element of credibility to the Pure Land move-
ment. Secondly, Vasubandhu presented a five-fold schema of Amitabha
meditation, which became a key part of later Pure Land theory, partic-
ularly as expounded by the Sui-T'ang school, which we w i l l discuss in
the next section.
17. A key text in such a study would no doubt be the Ta-chi-tu-lun (T.
1509: ^ |^) ) • Though not a sutra i t promotes nembutsu-
samadhi, and i t i s considered basically a Prajna text. It i s falsely
attributed to Nagarjuna and i s a compendium of Mahayana teaching, but
emphasizing nembutsu-samadhi. Thanks to Kumarajiva's extraordinary
translation, however, i t more importantly clarified and transmitted
-22-
21. F u j i t a , p. 611.
23. F u j i t a , p. 606.
24. F u j i t a , p. 609.
27. F u j i t a , p. 617.
40. Particularly in the Larger Sutra, in the Eighteenth Vow where the
three are identified as ^.\> , ^| , • /
v
42. The term "original texts" here and elsewhere in this study refers
to the earliest versions of the Sukhavatl-vyuha. Such an ascription
is not without difficulties. See Fujita, pp. 1 6 7 - 1 6 8 .
46. Cf. Edward Conze, Buddhist Texts through the Ages (New York: Harper
and Row, 1 9 6 4 ) , pp. 5 1 - 5 4 .
50. Examples of the expression of this are found in the cave temples
which were built concurrently with the development of^early Prajna-
paramita literature. Sanchi i s a fine example. See Etienne Lamotte,
Histoire du bouddhisme indien (Louvain: Institut Orientaliste, 1 9 5 8 ) .
52. D.T. Suzuki sees the old law of Karma discarded with, the emergence
of the bodhisattva concept and the ideal of Kaxuna. and..lreplaced with
the theory of "Transfer of Merits (Parinamana) . He explains this
11
Chapter Two
devotional.
in China^
(India) (China)
1) Asvaghosa 4) B o d h i r u c i
2) Nagarjuna 5) T'an-luan
3) Vasubandhu 6) Tao-ch'o
7) Shan-tao
(Japan)
H5NEN
I. BACKGROUND
Hua-yen 0 ^ ^ . ) t e x t p r o b a b l y w r i t t e n i n C h i n a , i s a t t r i b u t e d t o him, i t i s
Patriarchs
occurred. Perhaps the most important monk not o n l y f o r the Pure Land tradi-
6
at their disposal*
cal concern, which among his contemporaries i s reflected further in the cave-
8
temples in North. China,- and which contributed to the evolution of both the
Pure Land tradition under Tao-an's disciple, Hui-yuan (J&'Jfj, 334-416), and
:
school of the Sui Period was Hui-yuan?-® Even more than Tao-an, he was
speculation and Dhyana practice. He was noteworthy for this discussion for
ment in Chinese Buddhism which was to affect later institutional and popular
and retired gentlement who were not concerned with popular devotionalism but
practiced by Hui-yuan and his followers served as a model for one of T'ien-
method became the source of nembutsu practice in Japan, but affected Chinese
i t was he who converted T'an-luan to Pure Land devotion by presenting him with
— 19
a copy of the Contemplation Sutra.
T'an-luan (476-542) was born near Mount Wu-t'ai (&*_M!\ ) in North China,
which had been outside the main stream of Buddhist philosophical circles as a
luan was f i r s t exposed not to orthodox Buddhist doctrine but to popular '. '.
for the practice of nembutsu. His major literary achievement was a commentary
effort, which latter had indeed been appropriate during the earlier period.
and this point later caused rather considerable controversy i n Hfmen's move-
for salvation.
based on the commonly accepted p r i n c i p l e s of the Three (or Four) Ages of the
Sutra (T.356: ). l l
22
a form of 'upaya,' t h a t i s , u s i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l t r u t h to l e a d b e l i e v e r s to
23 _
ch'o' s e r u d i t i o n i n t r a d i t i o n a l B u d d h i s t p h i l o s o p h y as w e l l as i n contempo^-
rary explications.
only because of Tao-ch'o d i d the most famous Pure Land master, Shan-tao, even
24
as well.
he c l a s s i f i e d a l l a p p r o p r i a t e nembutsu p r a c t i c e i n t o f i v e t y p e s , i n a c c o r d
1) Veneration
• 2) A d u l a t i o n (Invocation)
3) A s p i r a t i o n
4) Contemplation
5) D e d i c a t i o n
At t h i s time, however, Shan-tao d i d not e x p l i c i t l y i n s i s t on the s u p e r i o r i t y
of h i s p e r s o n a l c o n v i c t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g s a l v a t i o n as he goes beyond b o t h
5. See above, p.5 , and endnoteJ.5 above. Also see L. Hurvitz, "Systema-
tization," pp. 6-7, and endnote 6.
11. This group was unrelated to the twelfth century White Lotus sect.
See Daniel Overmyer, Folk Buddhist Religion, (Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 1976), p. 227, n. 46. The theoretical framework
is based on the Pan-chou san-mei ching jfrjjfB; = 9^L (T. 417, 418).
See Fujita, pp. 222ff; 574ff for further discussion.
12. Mochizuki, Shina, Ch. 6 and Ch. 11, esp. pp. 134ff.
13. Note that the traditional dating for the various "Ages of the Dharma"
differed widely.
19. M o c h i z u k i , Shina,JCh. 6.
Chapter Three
the s u b j e c t of t h i s chapter.
s k i l l i n m a g i c a l p r a c t i c e s , e i t h e r to promote f a v o r from l o c a l or h e r e d i t a r y
early history.
Buddhist e c c l e s i a s t i c orthodoxy.
Gyogi (^T Jj^,: 670-749), who abandoned the Nara s c o l a s t i c c e n t e r s and began a
fore, we find by the end of the Nara period (710-794) a definite movement
Bushi: jl^ff^ ) much earlier. By adopting mystical elements from Taoist and
expiation. Two types of t h i s " H i j i r i " group eventually emerged: the itinerants,
who travelled in the countryside and practiced asceticism in the mountains and
forests, and the sedentary h i j i r i , who lived in villages and practiced exorcism
angry or dangerous ghost to Amida's Pure Land. This was a natural applica-r;
tion, since nembutsu had in China been credited with mystical powers,-* and i n
monks in vying for popular recognition were the Onmyo-do (f^ffy^ ) » a mixture
of native and Taoist (specifically, Yin-Yang divination) magic and art, and
was Saicho ($yrf$^ ' 767-822). Saicho based his teachings on the classifica-
-39-
a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r aptitudes:^
3)"- Those who were " l e a s t g i f t e d , " who had performed social
tain asceticism and esoteric initiations, and by recognizing the claims and
Tendai school became the inspiration and orthodox foundation for the nembutsu/
Pure Land movement which Honen clarified and systematized four centuries
later.
and departed in 804. Upon his return, he established the Shingon (Jl^ & )
a l l of Japanese history.^
The primary achievements of both Saicho and Kukai in the light of our
discussion are twofold. First, they introduced and legitimized the Shugendo
practices which until that time had remained outside of the orthodox tradi-
traditions, they were, each in his own way, able to effect a conciliation
Nara. Their interest in, and successful adaptation of, Shugendo practices
which until they began their careers had been aristocratic and unavailable
Genshin CM% • 942-1017) was a T e n d a i monk who had been exposed t o Pure
f i e s t o h i s c o n v i c t i o n c o n c e r n i n g nembutsu p r a c t i c e w i t h i n a l a r g e r framework
s e c t s of t h e i r own.
t u a l s u c c e s s , s t r e s s i n g i n d i v i d u a l f a i t h and u n c e a s i n g p r a c t i c e o f nembutsu.
of u n i v e r s a l s a l v a t i o n and the i n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n of a l l e x i s t e n c e , w i t h t h e
Buddhist i n s t i t u t i o n i n Japan.
ENDNOTES; CHAPTER' THREE
. Hori, Folk Religion, pp. 111-127; NUMEN, pp. 155-160 and 208-223; and
Wagakuni, p. 304ff.
See above, p. 29, and endnote 13 (Chapter 2). Also see Bloom, p. 54ff.
Clearly these are related to the Larger Pure Land Sutra's classification
of three levels of aptitude, a view common to many other Mahayana texts
as well. For example, cf. Hurvitz, t r . , Lotus, ch. 5.
8. Cf. above, p. 27. Also see Daniel Overmyer, Folk Buddhist Religion
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1976), pp. 85-91.
9. Kitagawa, p. 77.
10. For example, Ivan Morris, The World of the Shining Prince (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1964) and George Sansom, A History of Japan
to 1334 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1958), pp. 212-233.
Chapter Four
I. Immediate H i s t o r i c a l Setting
i t s wealth. •'-
tates and they too began to arm. Meanwhile, the interests of the peasants
popular religious movements which offered them at least some hope for their
2
next lives.
a tremendous cultural flowering. Not only was intercourse with T'ang and
Sung China vigorous, but domestic creativity was being actively encouraged
of doom, reflected i n literature by such key words as "awar e" & t g and
heaven and hell. "Mappo" had indeed infected even the aristocrats.
role i n running the country, and around 1070 finally had the opportunity to
were gradually able to accumulate their own estates, which were granted to
them as retired emperors. They also engaged new advisors from the Fujiwara's
of the various parties with their own vested interests, in the provinces as
tion that Japanese religious institutions were being most sorely tested, and
i t was a time when confident and charismatic leadership was needed to provide
-47-
deep i n Japanese h i s t o r y , had a l r e a d y begun to take shaped The man who rose
II. Biography
p r o v i n c e of Mimasaka
d i e d d u r i n g the r a i d .
Honen's study and religious practice under Eiku undoubtedly guided him
well within the orthodox Buddhist tradition and as such emphasized Tendai
meditation and the study of esoteric texts and the Vinaya Rules, but the
even though he later abandoned the meditative practices which formed the
Pure Land meditations and making pilgrimages. For example in 1156, when he
then went to Nara for interviews with some of the great scholars in the
Capital and to study the philosophy of the Six Schools. Among those he met
and debated with were Zoshun Sozo ) of the Hosso School, Kanga
(%±^$& °f t n e
Sanron, and Keiga of Kegon. It was also during this
trip that Honen f i r s t came into contact with Myoe (^^)» who would later
While at Kurodani, Honen studied not only the Tripitaka, but many other
sought out a l l manner of records which might help him in his religious quest:
how to achieve personal release, as well as relief for a l l the other helpless
and frustrated people he saw in and out of his cloister. He began to feel
the confusion of depending on his own effort :when no one elso seemed able to
provide any better direction. Not only were the monastic rules d i f f i c u l t ,
but meditation and study were nearly impossible with c i v i l war and monastic
-50-
militancy surrounding him. It was during one of his visits to Nara that he
came into contact with the earlier type of Pure Land devotion propagated by
compassion and assistance rather than on one's own effort, which to Honen
It is then not surprising that when, in 1175, Honen was going over
read:
"If one only bears in mind the invocation of the name
of Amida, and without regard for the length of time
.'hejspends. on: i t i n his daily l i f e he does not give up
this continuous practice, this w i l l be called righteous
and determined action. It i s already i n accord with
the vow of the Buddha."
Through this passage, he realized that nembutsu practice itself was the
tion, and the Jodo teachings of the Nara schools passed down at the
Todaiji (^.^^f )• Having found what he felt answered the existential ques-
tions of his age, he immediately abandoned his previous learning and prac-
t h i s encounter was.
simple i n v o c a t i o n a l nembutsu p r a c t i c e .
18
those of h i s contemporaries.
«. 19
p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n ; and second, he r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e p o p u l a r i t y of h i s
i t be used t o j u s t i f y c e n s o r s h i p and r e p r e s s i o n of h i s t e a c h i n g s .
2C
and t h e i r p r a c t i c e s , agreed t o e s t a b l i s h a code o f conduct forhis disciples;
21
1. This was directly contrary to the intent of the Nara and Heian land
reforms. Concerning these, see Sansom, A History, pp. 57-60 and 82-89.
Grove Press, 1955). and Anthology of Japanese Literature from the Earli^-. ;
est Era to the Mid-Nineteenth Century (New York: Grove Press, 1955), esp.
pp. 92-96.
9. See Harper H. Coates and R. Ishizuka, Honen the Buddhist Saint (Kyoto:
Chion-in, 1925), pp. 77-83.
11. TAMURA Encho )V$r{)% Honen y£,f£ [HSnenJ (Tokyo; Yoshikawa Kobunkan,
1964), as reported in Matsunaga, Foundations, p. 58.
12. See Coates and Ishizuka, p. 133, and note 12, p, 138ff.
13. Eiku was a successor of Ryonin, the founder of the Nembutsu branch of
Tendai, which was later tQ become the independent Yuzu-nembutsu sect.
-55-
14. .~^>1g_ . See Qha.shi, p. 18ff for a discussion of the politics of the
PART II
-56-
INTRODUCTION
Honen ten years to complete the project, with the assistance of three of
)> a n d
Anraku-bo Junsai (^"'^/%^-^\&x ) , who
2
transcribed
the final text under his master's direction. Today the original manuscript
remains in the Rosanji (^iK^T) in Kyoto and is known as the "Grass (-hand)
after his death i t was sealed and engraved and then disseminated popularly.
in 1227 but later was frequently reprinted, so that the number of manu-
scripts which survive today is ninety, and there arfe. well over three
3
hundred scholastic commentaries.
The term Senchaku ("choosing; selection")^ which appears in the t i t l e
rejected the Hiei compound and a l l that i t represented to him, and then
well and chose the nembutsu-path. The word thus implies "the willingness
Pure Land movement became qualitatively different from the earlier Pure
Land cults..
-57-
Thus, here and throughout the work Honen i s in fact recording the method
of his own inquiry into religious practice and his search for the right
Path.
Buddhism. The need for such an exegesis was perhaps a personal one,
and possibly i t was conceived simply as a tool for those who had become
-58-
u t i l i z e d an extremely c o n v e n t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e / • D u r i n g the p e r i o d of i t s
l e g i t i m a c y of a p a r t i c u l a r d o c t r i n e by e x p l a i n i n g i t f i r s t i n terms of
a major accomplishment.
Chapter Five
"non-returning (Skt: —
avinivartaniya; avaivartika)"13 state are two.
(.T^jL-r ^
1
) and identifies i t as the easy path (^ ^7 ) ^ Going s t i l l
while the Easy Path relies on the Power of Another, that is, Amida •
Buddha."^
proper.
the Larger Sutra, which reads: "If I become a Buddha, and i f the myriad
,even ten times, relying on the Power of my Vow,.if they are not reborn
resented the Sutra's intent and Honen had misunderstood Shan-tao's appli-
cation of this interpretation, but Honen was convinced that his presenta-
of single-practice nembutsu.
text not only for his educated sponsors and associates but was establish-
the orthodox monastic system, which was based on the Way of the S a i n t s .
to carry out the discipline of a monk, perform good works and keep the
rules of conduct for the laity ("upasaka"). Of the lowest grade are
those who are unable to perform even the things mentioned above, but who
but reaffirms that even i f there remain those of the higher grades, the
f i r s t quotes the Larger Sutra: "If there is anyone who, hearing the
greater than this." Honen then comments, "Would a person who could
very practical case. Not only does i t make good "economic" sense to
practice nembutsu, but i t is really the only effective act which any of us
can achieve rebirth by simply one sincere invocation of Amida, then surely
how much more reasonable to assume that people of higher capacity ( i f any
truly exist in such a degenerate age) can achieve the same result through
Since i t was the age of Mappo, Honen reasoned that to discuss the
ordinary man was helpless, without some outside Power, to carry out even
-65-
the most basic of practices. Again he quotes the Larger Sutra, which
proclaims, "After the beginning of the 10,000 Years of the Latter Days of
1052. Since they were already more than a hundred years into the Degener-
ate Age, there was no reason to assume that anyone capable of understanding
and pervasive grace to those who rely on nembutsu practice. Those deluded
classes of man. Now, in the longest (three Taisho pages) and one of the
Minds (]ELiU N
)" of faith which were f i r s t introduced in the Contemplation
four are;
1) LIFELONG C^ ^f|k
9
): One should not wait u n t i l
mize these s o c i e t i e s ;
Buddha;
necessity of total commitment to the Pure Land Path, and the necessity
Buddhism.
time citing the praises of Amida and his attendants in the Contemplation
Sutra for those who steadfastly adhere to the invocational nembutsu path.
Listening to the scriptures and the other forms of nembutsu are not
elements of that faith and practice are assessed with reference to the
accrue therefrom. Even those who have accumulated lifetimes of foul karma
dispatch (the provisional aspects of) Amida and His attendants Avaloki-
name, and They w i l l praise them, saying, 'Because you have called upon the
(power of the) name of Buddha, a l l your sins have been erased, and we
therefore have come to welcome you (.to. the .Pure Land of Amitabha)'."
and goes on to clarify the relationship between these and the nine levels
is twofold: f i r s t , the Power and scope of the Original Vow, which applies
nembutsu teaching with, the dharani tradition, and ..calls nembutsu invoca-^;'..
captured in the descriptions which. are proyided.at both, the beginning and
place i t within the orthodoxy of the Shan-tao Pure Land tradition. Here,
Honen contrasts them with the nembutsu path.and denies that the benefits
(the Mind), there are thirteen types, but each is based on self-reliance.
Thus, although they have indeed been advocated in the scriptures and
Debts), '' there are nine basic types of beneficial practice, each of
2
therefore inappropriate,
that they were advocated for previous ages, and only nembutsu invocation
was provided by the Buddha for a l l ages and classes of believers. The
Days of the Dharma; and second, only nembutsu i s in accord with Amida's
28
Vow. By virtue of His great compassion, Amida closed the gates of these
miscellaneous practices which had for so long been accessible but which in
the Period of the Degenerate Dharma were impassable, and in their place
He opened through the Power of His Vow the gate of Nembutsu, the only
simply, in the form of two brief quotations, one from the Smaller , -J. • J::,
_ 29
Sukhavati-vyuha, the other from Shan-tao's commentary on the Sutra.
The substance i s the same: those who hear the word of Amida Buddha, be
they men or women, and who devote themselves fervently to the name of
and innumerable saints at the hour of their death and escorted to the
Pure Land. Shan-tao describes this Pure and Perfect World,and the
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Chapter f o u r t e e n i s an a f f i r m a t i o n of the s i n g u l a r e x c e l l e n c e o f
cation. Honen here harks back t o the e a r l i e s t use o f nembutsu among the
30
nation.
In h i s c o n c l u s i o n , Honen f i r s t c a t e g o r i z e s the v a r i o u s k i n d s of
31
a r e shown i n the f o l l o w i n g diagram:
tion." 3 2
By showing t h a t t h i s ' s e l e c t i o n ' was a fundamental and critical
That t h i s i s the c e n t r a l i s s u e o f h i s e n t i r e t h e s i s i s c l e a r .
Furthermore, by b e g i n n i n g h i s summary, w i t h a d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n of h i s
p r e t a t i o n of h i s p l a c e i n the g r e a t e r Mahayana t r a d i t i o n as w e l l as w i t h i n
something s o l i d t o b e l i e v e i n .
-75-
(T. 2608).
4. T. 2608, 19-20.
7. I s h i i , K o g i , p. l O f f .
14. T. 2608, 1.
16. C f . I s h i i , K o g i , p. 117.
29. >^
31. Adapted from Ishii, Kogi, p. 695. Note the inclusion of a fourth Sutra,
the Pratyutpanna-samadhi Sutra (T.417-8). Also notice the indeterminate
nature of selection.
33. Hieiguan ( : Hyegwan) was a seventh century Korean who came to Japan
in 625, and introduced the Sanron teachings ( 5 . ^ ) to the Nara schools.
He lived i n Gangoji (ft-S^'if ) in Nara, which was the f i r s t monastery
built in Japan.
-78-
Chapter S i x
original.
poused t o e s t a b l i s h h i s unprecedented s i n g l e - p r a c t i c e d o c t r i n e o f i n v o c a -
t i o n a l nembutsu.
a l nembutsu. H i s e x p l a n a t i o n i s u n c o m p l i c a t e d , but h i s p o s i t i o n i s r a d i c a l :
which, even h i s master Shan-tao had not espoused, though as we have seen ....
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were l i m i t e d c h i e f l y to d e s c r i p t i o n s of an i n s p i r a t i o n a l character.
was d e f i n e d by t h r e e i n t e r r e l a t e d a s p e c t s of p s y c h o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n ,
Faith.
Zealous
Conviction
F a i t h i n the
Buddha's Vow
other paths are abandoned, that i s , i f the Easy Path of nembutsu practice
We can see in this aspect of Pure Land Faith: the basic elements of
man" to actually realize the second form in the Latter Days of the Dharma,
not treat these things lightly: the internal and external, the clear and
butsu practice, as noted above. In this he goes beyond Shan-tao and other
lished pattern of belief and action," much in the way that "sincerity (i.e.,
Honen admits two aspects. The f i r s t is the utter belief that man i s totally
engulfed in delusion, that from the distant past he has remained ignorant,
and that he w i l l not now be able to escape the evil world nor attain even
the inkling of a notion of release from these woes because of his profound
Man, recognizing his utter helplessness, must then commit himself completely
and solemn Power of His Vow, and accept absolutely that he thereby w i l l be
saved. Honen thus insists that for modern man i t is v i t a l to abjure one's
own ability to effect salvation and to rely entirely on the saving Power of
Amida's Vow. Man's inherrent abilities, not to mention the intricate and
the Degenerate Age that only by throwing oneself at the mercy of Amida's
security i t affords the helpless aspirant. Honen did not, however, dis-
challenged the very heart of orthodox Buddhist practice. He went far beyond
any previous commentator in assigning absolute status to the doctrine of
3
Faith, and the central teaching in his challenge revolved around the
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issue of dependence.
and futile effort, representative of the teachings of the "Way. of the Sages."
decrying the doctrine of Bpdhicitta arousal. He rested his case on the ease
of nembutsu invocation on the one hand and on the superior efficacy of rely-
as his, self-reliance was not only futile, i t was in fact a reflection of the
depth of delusion to which modern man had receded. The complement of this
theory of utter helplessness, however, was that there was indeed an alterna-
meant the desire to be reborn in Amida's Pure Land and the resolve :. even-
this world to save other deluded beings. Honen illustrates the primary as-
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pect by relating a parable known as the "White Path: between Two- Rivers."
Once there was a traveler who had come a very long distance,
following a road leading West. Suddenly, he saw on the road
ahead of him two rivers. On the south was- a river of f i r e ,
on the north a river of water. The two rivers were less
than 100 meters wide/ They were deep, and i t was impossible
to determine how far in either direction each extended.
Running between the two rivers was a white path, about 15
centimeters wide. From the eastern to the western edge:
of the confluence of these rivers, the path ran only 100
meters. The waves of the river of water splashed against
the very edge of the path, dampening i t s surface; the
flames of the other licked the sides of the path, charring
i t so badly that i t could be used only once—there could
be no turning back. The path seemed to melt into the
relentless torrent of billows and blaze.
The man had already traveled a vast distance just to
reach this point and the area was uninhabited save by
brigands and wild beasts. If they spotted him there alone,
they would certainly swoop in and k i l l him. Fearing such
a death, the man straightway began to run toward the West,
but suddenly he again faced the great rivers, and this gave
him pause. He thought to himself, "I cannot even distinguish
the north from the south of these raging torrents. Even as
I watch, the single white path through the middle grows ever
narrower and narrower. Though the opposite side can surely
not be far, how on earth can I get there? Undoubtedly,
today I am doomed to die, yet is i t better to turn back
and thereby eventually f a l l into the clutches of brigands
or ferocious animals, or to flee north or south where fierce
beasts and poisonous insects w i l l face me in swarming packs?
Or should I head West, and seek to follow the path? If I
do this, I might very well be overcome with terror and
f a l l into the flames or the raging waters."
Certainly, the horror of such a predicament i s beyond
the imagination!
At any rate, the traveler continued thinking, "If I turn
back, I w i l l surely die. If I stay here, death i s just as
certain. If I proceed, again, I w i l l die. There:.is no
escaping death of one sort or another. Yet, I'd prefer to
follow this path and go forward. The path i s already there—
surely, there's no reason why I shouldn't be able to make i t
across."
While he was thus pondering his dilemma, he suddenly
heard the voice of someone approaching him from the east,
saying, "Simply retrace your steps and you w i l l certainly
not die'. If you stay there, death i s ineyitable," Then
a person on the west called out, saying, "Make up your
mind, be steadfast, and come straight ahead! I haye the
power to protect you! You need not fear falling into the .::.
fiery maelstrom!"
Now, the traveler had already made up his mind and come
that far, so when he heard the encouragement in these com-
peting voices, he steeled himself, and relying on his pre-
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east of the confluent rivers represents this world, the western area the
Pure Land Paradise of Amida. The torrents of fire and water represent
respectively the passions of rage and avarice which threaten the devotee
from within and without and which impede his progress. The voices calling
him from the east are a l l those forces and influences which distract one
from the goal, including the deluding effects of previous existences and
salvation. The voice from the West, of course, i s that of Amida, offering
reassurance that the White Path w i l l surely lead to His Paradise and that
h i m s e l f up to t h a t p o i n t and t h e r e was s u r e l y no b e t t e r a l t e r n a t i v e , he
had no reason to doubt t h a t the narrow White Path was h i s best chance.
placed this parable in the center of his long and detailed exegesis of
by once again warning that these three are absolutely necessary for rebirth,
and negligence in developing any single facet renders the others invalid.
B. Nembutsu
even the least adept can carry i t out successfully. Nor i s i t preliminary
Mappo era and further classifying Proper Practices, which in general are
2) (Amida) Contemplation ft )
4) (Amida) Invocation
that Honen broke with a l l previous Pure Land patriarchs and established
practical grounds.
tive, why i s i t necessary to repeat the invocation, given that even one
rivers, rolled a stone down the Path because he could neither commit
apparently treacherous route. No one would claim that his fate was more
sive") and to disregard the others. While he was crossing the bridge, he
did not allow his thoughts to stray in the slightest ("constant"); he went
teaching of the Buddha and for the mysterious Power of His Name was pre-
sumably not felt to require any clear analogue in the parable, although
teachings concerning nembutsu are sacred and must not be taken lightly.
C. Rebirth
Amida s Pure Land but also the characteristics of those who have success-
1
fully carried out nembutsu and therefore are welcomed to the Pure Land
Paradise.
Even before death, there are numerous benefits associated with nem-
white lotus blossom, the most excellent of flowers. Even from ancient
times, the lotus has been the symbol of perfection, the celebrated flower
upon which the sacred dragon of legend dances. The man who invokes Amida's
name properly i s thus unique among men, a rare and charming person, the
w i l l watch over him and act as his teachers and confidants, guiding him
forward on the true path. Finally, at the hour of his death, they w i l l
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appear to him i n the company of Amida and innumerable other Buddhas and
s a i n t s to welcome him through the gate to the Pure Land.. A l l of these are
Name of Amida.
while the cultivation of the other virtues outlined in the yow§ of Dharma-
tional Mahayana schools had set as the goal for a l l devout Buddhists.
mitment. Only one sentence describes the result, and that i s a simple
statement that relief was achieved. Such i s the thrust of Honen's message:
Faith and resolute practice, rather than erudition and rigorous discipline,
what would have become of the Buddhist community in general, and of the
Pure Land tradition in particular. Not only did Honen redirect Japanese
Japan,
While Honen's exposition of popular Pure Land doctrine was done with
an eye on the orthodox tradition, we have seen that his efforts were not
the evolution of popular Pure Land teaching, but perhaps because of Honen's
further the work of his master. For i t was immediately after Honen's
-91-
to which Honen himself had tried to respond immediately before his exile.
The second, and to My5e more serious, was Honen's rejection of 'bodhicitta'
theory and Buddhist idealist ethics, in spite of his own erudition and
of the individual accorded by Amida's Other Power is nothing but the great
1 A
the concept of Faith Qfci^y ) and i t s arising, which cemented the doctrine
of Other Power and the absolute efficacy of Amida's vow. Shinran believed,
moreover, that he was simply elucidating Honen's ideas, since he named his
school the True Pure Land school, based on his masters' teaching, to
9. C f . above, pp.14-17 .
The purpose of this study has been to analyze the role of Honen
popular Pure Land school in Japan was the ultimate result of these
gical emphasis of Mahayana Buddhism, the Pure Land school there was unable
This was true in Japan as well, although those who did promote
e f f o r t proved futile.
d e s p e r a t e l y s e a r c h i n g f o r r e l i g i o u s meaning i n an o t h e r w i s e c h a o t i c w o r l d ,
f o u n d i n g of a s c h o o l . I t l i t t l e m a t t e r s , f o r Honen's c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the
Coates, Harper H., and Ishizuka, R., Honen the Buddhist Saint,
Kyoto, Chion-in, 1925.
. Buddhist Texts Through the Ages, New York, Harper & Row,
1964.
Dutt, N., Early History of the Spread of Buddhism and the Buddhist
Schools, London, Luzac & Co., Ltd., 1925.
fcft %
K
I S t u d i e s i n 'NembutsuJ , Kyoto, Iwanami Shoten, 1970.