Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (Bloom's Modern Critical Interpretations)

Bloom’s Modern Critical Interpretations
Alice’s Adventures in The General Prologue The Old Man and the
Wonderland to the Canterbury Sea
The Adventures of Tales On the Road
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the Scrivener, and Invisible Man as a Young Man
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Lewis Carroll’s
ALICE’S ADVENTURES
IN WONDERLAND
Edited and with an introduction by

Harold Bloom
Sterling Professor of the Humanities
Yale University
Bloom’s Modern Critical Interpretations: Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland
©2006 Infobase Publishing
Introduction © 2006 by Harold Bloom
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s adventures in wonderland / Harold Bloom, editor.
p. cm. — (Bloom’s modern critical interpretations)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7910-8586-4
1. Carroll, Lewis, 1832-1898. Alice’s adventures in Wonderland. 2. Fantasy fiction,
English—History and criticism. 3. Children’s stories, English—History and criticism.
4. Alice (Fictitious character : Carroll) I. Bloom, Harold. II. Title: Alice’s adventures in
wonderland. III. Series.
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Contents
Editor’s Note vii
Introduction 1
Harold Bloom
A Note on Humpty Dumpty 13

J.B. Priestley
Escape into the Garden 19

Florence Becker Lennon
Alice in Wonderland: The Child as Swain 39

William Empson
The Balance of Brillig 69

Elizabeth Sewell
Through the Looking-glass 81

Alexander L. Taylor
From “The Character of Dodgson

as Revealed in the Writings of Carroll” 105
Phyllis Greenacre
Poetry 123
Richard Kelly
Love and Death in Carroll’s Alices 135

Donald Rackin
vi Contents
Toward a Definition of Alice’s Genre:

The Folktale and Fairy-Tale Connections 155
Nina Demurova
The Unreal Alice 171

Karoline Leach
Alice’s Identity 193

Hugh Haughton
Introducing Alice 205

Will Brooker
Afterthought 219
Harold Bloom
Chronology 221
Contributors 225
Bibliography 229
Acknowledgments 235
Index 237
Editor’s Note
My Introduction meditates upon Lewis Carroll’s enigmatic allegory, with its

implicit principle that Wonderland is the realm in which time has been slain.
The English novelist J.B. Priestley finds in Humpty Dumpty “the air
of a solemn literary man” or would-be literary critic, while Florence Becker
Lennon interprets Wonderland as Carroll’s refuge from academic and
clerical inanities.
William Empson, one of the best modern critics, shrewdly analyzes
Carroll’s Alice as the “swain” of pastoral tradition, after which Elizabeth
Sewell examines Nonsense as Carroll’s literary mode, in which there is no
emotion.
Carroll’s Looking Glass world is judged by Alexander L. Taylor to be a
new realm of morality, while Phyllis Greenacre delves into the mask of
Carroll to uncover hidden aspects of Dodgson’s personality.
Wonderland’s remarkable poetry is characterized by Richard Kelly as
parodistic sublimity, after which Donald Rackin quests for the dark linkage
between love and death in both chronicles of Alice.
Carroll’s genre evades every definition, though Nina Demurova
gallantly brings together Shakespearean dialogue and folk literature in an
illuminating way.
In an original venture, Karoline Leach suggests that Carroll (Dodgson)
never proposed to Alice Liddell, but actually was deeply attracted to the girl’s
mother. In any case, I agree with Hugh Haughton’s contention that that the
identity of Carroll’s Alice transcends any idea of order available in Dodgson’s
social world.
vii
viii Editor’s Note
In this volume’s final essay, Will Brooker emphasizes the elegiac aspect
of Carroll’s Alice, which certainly is a crucial element in the tonality of
Carroll’s art.
My Afterthought itself is a brief elegy for Carroll’s popularity, which
currently is fading among the children of the world, who pass from J.K.
Rowling to Stephen King, in our Age of Information and the Screens:
television, cinema, and computer.
HAROLD BLOOM
Introduction
“And yet what a dear little puppy it was!” said Alice, as she leant
against a buttercup to rest herself, and fanned herself with one of
the leaves. “I should have liked teaching it tricks very much, if—
if I’d only been the right size to do it! Oh dear! I’d nearly
forgotten that I’ve got to grow up again!”
Whatever the process is of renewing one’s experience of Alice’s Adventures in

Wonderland, Through the Looking-Glass, and The Hunting of the Snark, the
sensation is neither that of rereading nor of reading as though for the first
time. Lewis Carroll is Shakespearean to the degree that his writing has
become a kind of Scripture for us. Take, quite at random, the sublimely
outrageous chapter 6, “Pig and Pepper,” of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland.
Alice enters a large, smoky kitchen and discovers an atmosphere permeated
with pepper, a sneezing duchess, and a howling and sneezing baby, as well as
a cook stirring a cauldron of soup, and a large, grinning Cheshire Cat.
Carroll’s prevalent phantasmagoria heightens (if that is possible) as the cook
commences to throw everything within her reach (fire-irons, saucepans,
dishes) at the Duchess and her howling imp, while the Duchess cries out,
“Chop off her head!” and sings a sort of lullaby to her baby, thoughtfully
shaking it (violently) at the end of each line:
1
2 Harold Bloom
“Speak roughly to your little boy,

And beat him when he sneezes:
He only does it to annoy,
Because he knows it teases.”
CHORUS
(in which the cook and the baby joined):—
“Wow! wow! wow!”
While the Duchess sang the second verse of the song, she kept tossing
the baby violently up and down, and the poor little thing howled so,
that Alice could hardly hear the words:—
“I speak severely to my boy,

And beat him when he sneezes:
For he can thoroughly enjoy
The pepper when he pleases!”
CHORUS
“Wow! wow! wow!”
“Here! You may nurse it a bit, if you like!” the Duchess said to
Alice, flinging the baby at her as she spoke. “I must go and get
ready to play croquet with the Queen,” and she hurried out of the
room. The cook threw a frying-pan after her as she went, but it
just missed her.
Carroll stated the parodist’s principle as choosing the best poems for
model, but here the paradigm is a ghastly children’s poem of the mid-
nineteenth century:
Speak gently to the little child!

Its love be sure to gain;
Teach it in accents soft and mild;
It may not long remain.
That is ghastly enough to be its own parody, but Carroll wants it for his
own dark purposes. The pepper is peculiarly analogous to a sexual stimulant, and
the baby boy turns out to be a pig (presumably because little boys were not the
objects of Carroll’s affections). Alice, like Carroll, has no use for them:
Introduction 3
So she set the little creature down, and felt quite relieved to see
it trot away quietly into the wood. “If it had grown up,” she said
to herself, “it would have made a dreadfully ugly child: but it
makes rather a handsome pig, I think.” And she began thinking
over other children she knew, who might do very well as pigs, and
was just saying to herself, “if one only knew the right way to
change them—” when she was a little startled by seeing the
Cheshire Cat sitting on a bough of a tree a few yards off.
The Cheshire Cat is an ironic enigma, typical of many such in Carroll’s

enigmatic or riddling allegory. He is thoroughly unpleasant, but so,
generally, are many of the inhabitants of Wonderland. It is a truism of
criticism to remark that the child Alice is considerably more mature than any
of the inhabitants of Wonderland, but what the Cheshire Cat remarks is true
also:
The Cat only grinned when it saw Alice. It looked good-natured,

she thought: still it had very long claws and a great many teeth, so
she felt that it ought to be treated with respect.
“Cheshire Puss,” she began, rather timidly, as she did not at all
know whether it would like the name: however, it only grinned a
little wider. “Come, it’s pleased so far,” thought Alice, and she
went on. “Would you tell me, please, which way I ought to go
from here?”
“That depends a good deal on where you want to get to,” said
the Cat.
“I don’t much care where—” said Alice.
“Then it doesn’t matter which way you go,” said the Cat.
“—so long as I get somewhere,” Alice added as an explanation.
“Oh, you’re sure to do that,” said the Cat, “if you only walk long
enough.”
Alice felt that this could not be denied, so she tried another
question. “What sort of people live about here?”
“In that direction,” the Cat said, waving its right paw round,
“lives a Hatter: and in that direction,” waving the other paw,
“lives a March Hare. Visit either you like: they’re both mad.”
“But I don’t want to go among mad people,” Alice remarked.
“Oh, you can’t help that,” said the Cat: “we’re all mad here.
I’m mad. You’re mad.”
“How do you know I’m mad?” said Alice.
4 Harold Bloom
“You must be,” said the Cat, “or you wouldn’t have come here.”
Alice didn’t think that proved it at all: however, she went on:
“And how do you know that you’re mad?”
“To begin with,” said the Cat, “a dog’s not mad. You grant
that?”
“I suppose so,” said Alice.
“Well, then,” the Cat went on, “you see a dog growls when it’s
angry, and wags its tail when it’s pleased. Now I growl when I’m
pleased, and wag my tail when I’m angry. Therefore I’m mad.”
“I call it purring, not growling,” said Alice.
Is Alice mad, because she has come to Wonderland? When the Cheshire Cat
reappears, it stages a famously slow vanishing, ending with its grin, which
stays on for some time after the rest of it is gone. That ontological grin is the
emblem of the Cheshire Cat’s madness, and is the prelude to the Mad Tea
Party of the next chapter, which in turn is emblematical of the Alice books,
since they can be described, quite accurately, as a mad tea party, rather than
a nonsensical tea party. Lionel Trilling spoke of “the world of nonsense, that
curious invention of the English of the nineteenth century, of Lewis Carroll
and Edward Lear,” and confessed that, critically, nonsense seemed to him
inexplicable: “One of the mysteries of art, perhaps as impenetrable as why
tragedy gives pleasure, is why nonsense commands so fascinated an attention,
and why, when it succeeds, it makes more than sense.”
A critic as distinguished as Trilling, William Empson, sought to solve
the mystery by finding a defense against madness in Alice’s characteristic
stance:
Much of the technique of the rudeness of the Mad Hatter has

been learned from Hamlet. It is the ground-bass of this kinship
with insanity, I think, that makes it so clear that the books are not
trifling, and the cool courage with which Alice accepts madmen
that gives them their strength.
(“The Child as Swain,” Some Versions of Pastoral)
It does not seem to me either that Carroll makes nonsense into “more
than sense” or that Alice’s undoubted courage is particularly cool. Unlike the
sublime Edward Leaf, Carroll does not read to me as a nonsense writer.
Riddle is not nonsense, and enigmatic allegory does not exalt courage as the
major virtue. Carroll is a Victorian Romantic just as were his exact
contemporaries, the Pre-Raphaelite poets, but his phantasmagoria, utterly
unlike theirs, is a wholly successful defense against, or revision of, High
Introduction 5
Romantic Quest. Christina Rossetti’s Goblin Market has more in common

with Edward Lear than Carroll does, and Swinburne is an even defter
parodist than Carroll.
Carroll’s parodies, sometimes brilliant though they are, do not
transcend their echoes, do not reverse Carroll’s own burden of literary
belatedness. But the Alice books and The Hunting of the Snark do achieve
convincing originality, while the Pre-Raphaelites sometimes are merely
involuntary parodies of Keats, Shelley, Tennyson, and Browning. Romantic
erotic quest, which ends in the Inferno of Shelley’s The Triumph of Life, is
displaced into the purgatorial sadomasochism of the Pre-Raphaelite poets.
Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Swinburne, and their critical follower, Pater,
substitute or trope the body for time, and accept the violence of the will’s
revenge against time upon their own bodies.
Carroll evades both sadomasochism and the Romantic erotic quest by
identifying himself with the seven-year-old Alice. Wonderland has only one
reality principle, which is that time has been murdered. Nothing need be
substituted for time, even though only madness can murder time. Alice is
only as mad as she needs to be, which may be her actual legacy from Hamlet.
She will not grow up, or sexually mature, so long as she can get back into
Wonderland, and she can get back out of Wonderland whenever she needs
to. The Pre-Raphaelites and Pater are immersed in the world of the reality
principle, the world of Schopenhauer and Freud. Psychoanalytic
interpretations of Carroll’s works always fail, because they are necessarily
easy and vulgar, and therefore disgusting. Alice does not deign to be told
what she is evading, and Carroll’s books are not exercises in sublimation.
What is repressed in them is his discomfort with culture, including
Wordsworth, the largest precursor of his vision.
II
“Hold your tongue!” said the Queen, turning purple.

“I won’t!” said Alice.
“Off with her head!” the Queen shouted at the top of her
voice. Nobody moved.
“Who cares for you?” said Alice (she had grown to her full size
by this time). “You’re nothing but a pack of cards!”
This is the crisis of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, it asserts Alice’s

freedom from her own phantasmagoria, after which she returns to our order
of reality. The parallel moment in Through the Looking-Glass is a weak
repetition of this splendor:
6 Harold Bloom
There was not a moment to be lost. Already several of the guests

were lying down in the dishes, and the soup-ladle was walking up
the table towards Alice’s chair, and beckoning to her impatiently
to get out of its way.
“I can’t stand this any longer!” she cried, as she jumped up and
seized the tablecloth with both hands: one good pull, and plates,
dishes, guests, and candles came crashing down together in a
heap on the floor.
The movement from “You’re nothing but a pack of cards!” to “I can’t

stand this any longer!” is a fair representation of the relative aesthetic decline
the reader experiences as she goes from Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland to
Through the Looking-Glass. Had the first book never existed, our regard for
the second would be unique and immense, which is only another way of
admiring how the first Alice narrative is able to avoid any human affect as
mundane as bitterness. The White Rabbit is an extraordinary parody of
Carroll’s own sense of literary and even erotic belatedness, yet the quality he
conveys is an exuberant vivacity. We are, all of us, now perpetually late for a
very important date, but that apprehension of being late, late is for many
among us an anxious expectation. For Carroll, in his first vision as Alice,
everything is again early, which gives the book its pure and radiant
atmosphere of a triumphant firstness.
Bitterness keeps breaking in as we read Through the Looking-Glass,
which may explain how weirdly and perpetually contemporary this second
and somewhat lesser work now seems. Its epitome is that grand poem, “The
Walrus and the Carpenter”:
“‘But wait a bit,’ the Oysters cried,

‘Before we have our chat;
For some of us are out of breath,
And all of us are fat!’
‘No hurry!’ said the Carpenter.
They thanked him much for that.
‘A loaf of bread,’ the Walrus said,

‘Is what we chiefly need:
Pepper and vinegar besides
Are very good indeed—
Now, if you’re ready, Oysters dear,
We can begin to feed.’
Introduction 7
‘But not on us!’ the Oysters cried,

Turning a little blue.
‘After such kindness, that would be
A dismal thing to do!’
‘The night is fine,’ the Walrus said.
‘Do you admire the view?
‘It was so kind of you to come!

And you are very nice!’
The Carpenter said nothing but
‘Cut us another slice.
I wish you were not quite so deaf—
I’ve had to ask you twice!’
‘It seems a shame,’ the Walrus said,

‘To play them such a trick.
After we’ve brought them out so far,
And made them trot so quick!’
The Carpenter said nothing but
‘The butter’s spread too thick!’
‘I weep for you,’ the Walrus said:

‘I deeply sympathize.’
With sobs and tears he sorted out
Those of the largest size,
Holding his pocket-handkerchief
Before his streaming eyes.
‘O Oysters,’ said the Carpenter,

‘You’ve had a pleasant run!
Shall we be trotting home again?’
But answer came there none
And this was scarcely odd, because
They’d eaten every one.”
In an additional stanza, written for a theatrical presentation of the Alice

narratives, but fortunately not part of our received text, Carroll accuses the
Walrus and the Carpenter of “craft and cruelty,” a judgment in which Alice
joins him when she remarks that “They were both very unpleasant
characters—.” But so are the Sheep, and that pompous egg-head Humpty
8 Harold Bloom
Dumpty, though we do not receive them as quite the weird representations

that actually they indeed constitute. Carroll’s art renders each of them as
totally idiosyncratic, it being Carroll’s largest enigma that only Alice, in
either book, lacks personality or pathos. In “The Walrus and the Carpenter,”
those two voracious deceivers are neatly distinguished from one another.
They are both weepers, high Victorian sentimentalists, living in a contra-
natural midnight world where the sun outshines the sulky moon, presumably
an indication that this world oddly is natural—all-too-natural—which is to
say: hungry.
The Walrus and the Carpenter weep to increase their appetites, as it
were, but the Walrus, being the orator of the two, is finally so moved by his
own eloquence that he weeps on, even when he is happily satiated. Though
he is more cunning than the Carpenter, he is also less sadistic; we wince a
bit at the Carpenter’s “Shall we be trotting home again?” but we ought to
wince more when the Walrus sobbingly says: “I weep for you. I deeply
sympathize.”
Humpty Dumpty may well be Carroll’s most famous enigma, and his
most Shakespearean. He is also a prophecy of many of our contemporary
literary theorists: “I can explain all the poems that ever were invented—and
a good many that haven’t been invented just yet.” “You’re so exactly like
other people,” Humpty Dumpty rather nastily says to Alice, but he receives
his comeuppance just as she pronounces her accurate normative judgment
that he is truly “unsatisfactory.”
The White Knight, at once the most satisfactory and charmingly
pleasant of Carroll’s enigmas, is the figure in Through the Looking-Glass who
returns us vividly to the gentler spirit of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland.
There is a critical tradition that the White Knight is a self-portrait of Charles
Lutwidge Dodgson, the other self of Lewis Carroll in the world of the reality
principle. There may be something to this, but more palpably the White
Knight is a version of the kindly, heroic, and benignly mad Don Quixote.
The White Knight’s madness is like Alice’s own malady, if the Cheshire Cat
was right about Alice. It is the madness of play, Carroll’s sweet madness, a
defense against darker madness.
Carroll’s best poem is “The White Knight’s Ballad,” which is a superb
and loving parody of Wordsworth’s great crisis-poem “Resolution and
Independence.” Wordsworth’s near-solipsism, his inability to listen to what
the old Leech-gatherer is saying in answer to the poet’s anguished question
(“How is it that you live, and what is it you do?”) was mocked rather
mercilessly in Carroll’s original version of his poem, published in 1856,
fifteen years before Through the Looking-Glass. In the 1856 poem, “Upon the
Lonely Moor,” the poet is outrageously rough and even brutal to the aged
Introduction 9
man, who is not just unheard but is kicked, punched, boxed on the ear, and
has his hair tweaked. All this happily is softened in the beautiful revision that
is the song sung by the White Knight:
“It’s long,” said the Knight, “but it’s very, very beautiful.
Everybody that hears me sing it—either it brings the tears into
their eyes, or else—”
“Or else what?” said Alice, for the Knight had made a sudden
pause.
“Or else it doesn’t, you know. The name of the song is called
‘Haddocks’ Eyes.’”
“Oh, that’s the name of the song, is it?” Alice said, trying to
feel interested.
“No, you don’t understand,” the Knight said, looking a little
vexed. “That’s what the name is called. The name really is ‘The
Aged Aged Man.’”
“Then I ought to have said ‘That’s what the song is called’?”
Alice corrected herself.
“No, you oughtn’t: that’s quite another thing! The song is
called ‘Ways And Means’: but that’s only what it’s called, you
know!”
“Well, what is the song, then?” said Alice, who was by this time
completely bewildered.
“I was coming to that,” the Knight said. “The song really is ‘A-
sitting On A Gate’: and the tune’s my own invention.”
So saying, he stopped his horse and let the reins fall on its
neck: then, slowly beating time with one hand, and with a faint
smile lighting up his gentle foolish face, as if he enjoyed the music
of his song, he began.
Of all the strange things that Alice saw in her journey
Through The Looking-Glass, this was the one that she always
remembered most clearly. Years afterwards she could bring the
whole scene back again, as if it had been only yesterday—the mild
blue eyes and kindly smile of the Knight—the setting sun
gleaming through his hair, and shining on his armour in a blaze
of light that quite dazzled her—the horse quietly moving about,
with the reins hanging loose on his neck, cropping the grass at
her feet—and the black shadows of the forest behind—all this she
took in like a picture, as, with one hand shading her eyes, she
leant against a tree, watching the strange pair, and listening, in a
half-dream, to the melancholy music of the song.
10 Harold Bloom
“But the tune isn’t his own invention,” she said to herself: “it’s
‘I give thee all, I can no more.’” She stood and listened very
attentively, but no tears came into her eyes.
“I’ll tell thee everything I can:

There’s little to relate.
I saw an aged aged man,
A-sitting on a gate.
‘Who are you, aged man?’ I said.
‘And how is it you live?’
And his answer trickled through my head,
Like water through a sieve.
He said ‘I look for butterflies

That sleep among the wheat:
I make them into mutton-pies,
And sell them in the street.
I sell them unto men,’ he said,
‘Who sail on stormy seas;
And that’s the way I get my bread—
A trifle, if you please.’
But I was thinking of a plan

To dye one’s whiskers green,
And always use so large a fan
That they could not be seen.
So, having no reply to give
To what the old man said,
I cried ‘Come, tell me how you live!’
And thumped him on the head.
His accents mild took up the tale:

He said ‘I go my ways,
And when I find a mountain-rill,
I set it in a blaze;
And thence they make a stuff they call
Rowland’s Macassar-Oil—
Yet twopence-halfpenny is all
They give me for my toil.’
Introduction 11
But I was thinking of a way

To feed oneself on batter,
And so go on from day to day
Getting a little fatter.
I shook him well from side to side,
Until his face was blue:
‘Come, tell me how you live,’ I cried,
‘And what it is you do!’
He said ‘I hunt for haddocks’ eyes

Among the heather bright,
And work them into waistcoat-buttons
In the silent night.
And these I do not sell for gold
Or coin of silvery shine,
But for a copper halfpenny,
And that will purchase nine.’”
Thumped and shaken blue, but otherwise undamaged, the aged hunter
for haddocks’ eyes is a belated but less fearful representative of the reality
principle than Wordsworth’s Leech-gatherer. As much as the Leech-
gatherer, the White Knight’s decrepit survivor is “like a man from some far
region sent, / To give me human strength, by apt admonishment.” The
alternative for Carroll, as for Wordsworth, would be despondency and
madness, the waning of the poet’s youthful joy into a death-in-life. But
Carroll, fiercely defending against his own Wordsworthianism, triumphantly
makes it new in a final vision of the aged man that is anything but
Wordsworthian, because it is pure Wonderland:
“And now, if e’er by chance I put

My fingers into glue,
Or madly squeeze a right-hand foot
Into a left-hand shoe,
Or if I drop upon my toe
A very heavy weight,
I weep, for it reminds me so
Of that old man I used to know—
Whose look was mild, whose speech
was slow,
12 Harold Bloom
Whose hair was whiter than the snow,

Whose face was very like a crow,
With eyes, like cinders, all aglow,
Who seemed distracted with his woe,
Who rocked his body to and fro,
And muttered mumblingly and low,
As if his mouth were full of dough,
Who snorted like a buffalo—
That summer evening long ago,
A-sitting on a gate.”
J.B. PRIESTLEY
A Note on Humpty Dumpty
A lice in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass are, I understand, to be

published for the first time in German. When I first learned this important
fact, it surprised me for a moment, for I had thought that both these classics
had by this time passed into all civilized tongues; but after some little
reflection, I soon realized that if they had been popular in Germany, we
should have known about it. It is not difficult to imagine what will happen
when the Alice books are well known there, for we know what happened to
Shakespeare. A cloud of commentators will gather, and a thousand solemn
Teutons will sit down to write huge volumes of comment and criticism; they
will contrast and compare the characters (there will even be a short chapter
on Bill the Lizard), and will offer numerous conflicting interpretations of the
jokes. After that, Freud and Jung and their followers will inevitably arrive
upon the scene, and they will give us appalling volumes on Sexualtheorie of
Alice in Wonderland, on the Assoziationsfähigkeit und Assoziationsstudien of
Jabberwocky, on the inner meaning of the conflict between Tweedledum and
Tweedledee from the psychoanalytische und psychopathologische points of view.
We shall understand, for the first time, the peculiarly revolting symbolism of
the Mad Hatter’s Tea-Party, and my old friend, the Mad Hatter himself, will
be shown to be a mere bundle of neuroses. And as for Alice—but no, Alice
shall be spared; I, for one, am not going to be the first to disillusion the
From Aspects of Alice: Lewis Carroll’s Dreamchild as Seen Through the Critics’ Looking-Glasses,
Robert Phillips, ed. © 1971 by The Vanguard Press. Originally published in I For One By J.B.
Priestley.
13
14 J.B. Priestley
wistful shade of Lewis Carroll; may he remain in ignorance a little longer as

to what there really was in Alice’s mind, the Wonderland (save the mark!) in
Alice.
How will Humpty Dumpty fare among the German critics and
commentators? I shall be interested to learn, for there has always seemed to
me about Humpty Dumpty the air of a solemn literary man, and I was driven
to thinking about him only a few days ago, when I had been reading the work
of a rather pontifical and humorless young critic whose name I would not
divulge for the world. There is quite a little school of youngish critics in this
country and America whose work, at once pretentious and barren, has always
seemed to me to have a certain “note” in it that was vaguely familiar; but it
was not until the other day that I realized where it was I had caught that
manner, heard those accents, before. It was in Through the Looking-Glass.
Humpty Dumpty has not had justice done to him; he is a prophetic figure,
and Lewis Carroll, in drawing him, was satirizing a race of critics that did not
then exist. Now that they do exist and put their insufferable writings before
us at every turn, it is high time we learned to appreciate Carroll’s character
sketch for what it is—a master stroke of satire in anticipation. I do not say for
one moment that such an explanation will exhaust the significance of
Humpty Dumpty, for I should not be surprised if there are not other, deeper
and more esoteric, interpretations of this character waiting to be discovered
by members of the Theosophical Society and others; but it is Humpty
Dumpty as a literary character that interests me, and so I shall confine myself
to this one aspect. Let us approach the text while it is still unencumbered
with German professors.
Alice, you will remember, discovers Humpty Dumpty (who has just
been an egg in a shop) sitting on the top of a high and extremely narrow wall,
and she takes him for a stuffed figure. This is, you will observe, our
introduction to him: notice the high wall, so narrow that Alice “wondered
how he could keep his balance” (the italics are mine) and the stuffed figure.
Remember these things, and think of that darling of the tiny coteries, Mr.
Blank, that owlish young critic: I say no more. It is characteristic of all such
critics that they very quickly show a contempt for their audience; they are all
for the select few, who can appreciate Flaubert and Stendhal and Chekhov
and no one else. Humpty Dumpty strikes this note very early: “Some
people,” he remarks, at the very beginning of the talk, “have no more sense
than a baby!” Immediately afterwards, he asks Alice what her name means
and is annoyed because she does not know, a significant procedure that needs
no comment from me. Then Alice, who represents the normal person, asks
a question of the utmost importance—
“Don’t you think you’d be safer down on the ground?” Alice went on,
not with any idea of making another riddle, but simply in her good-
natured anxiety for the queer creature. “That wall is so very narrow!”
Indeed, the whole passage is significant. Notice that Humpty Dumpty

thinks that every simple question is a riddle, something for him to solve
triumphantly, and he cannot understand that Alice, standing firmly on the
ground, may be wiser than he and may be really giving advice and not
seeking the answers to trifling conundrums. He, of course, prefers to be in
the air, and the very narrowness of his wall appeals to him. Again, on the very
same page, we discover him breaking into a sudden passion because Alice
interrupts with “To send all his horses and all his men.” What he thought a
grand secret is in reality a mere commonplace, known to Alice and everybody
else, and only his blind conceit has prevented him from discovering this fact
before: there is no necessity to labor the point or to indicate the analogy.
Very typical too is the pedantry he displays, shortly afterwards, in the
discussion about Alice’s age—
“I thought you meant ‘How old are you?’” Alice exclaimed. “If I’d
meant that, I’d have said it,” said Humpty Dumpty.
And the next moment, he shows his hand again by remarking: “Now if you’d
asked my advice, I’d have said, ‘Leave off at seven’—but it’s too late now.”
Here is that characteristic reluctance to come to terms with reality, that love
of fixed standards, rigidity, arrested development, that hatred of change and
evolution, which always mark this type of mind.
It would not be difficult to follow the conversation step by step and find
something typical of the fourth-rate critic in every remark that Humpty
Dumpty makes; but we must pass on to the latter part of the chapter, in
which the conversation turns upon literary themes. Here the clues to
Carroll’s real intention in writing the chapter are plain for everyone to see.
After the talk about un-birthday presents, Humpty Dumpty, it will be
remembered, exclaims: “There’s glory for you!” Alice, of course, does not
understand what he means by “glory,” and says so, upon which he smiles
contemptuously and cries: “Of course you don’t—till I tell you.” At every
step now the satire becomes more and more direct, until, we reach the very
climax in Humpty Dumpty’s cry of “Impenetrability! That’s what I say!”
Who does not know those superior beings who, when they write what they
allege to be literary criticism, talk of “planes” and “dimensions,” of “static”
and “dynamic,” of “objective correlative,” and jargon only knows what else!
16 J.B. Priestley
And here is Humpty Dumpty, swaying on his high and narrow wall and
crying, in a kind of ecstasy, “Impenetrability!”—Humpty Dumpty, the very
type and symbol of all such jargoneers. Alice, as usual, speaks for the sane
mass of mankind when she remarks so thoughtfully, “That’s a great deal to
make one word mean.” Of course it is a great deal, but then Humpty
Dumpty and his kind pester us with their uncouth and inappropriate terms
so that they may be spared the labor of thought and yet may convey the
impression of great profundity. There is a certain periodical written for the
benefit of superior persons in America, a periodical in which every article
bristles with terrifying names and pretentious technical terms that really
mean little or nothing, and if I had my way there would be scored across
every page of that periodical, in the largest and blackest of letters, the blessed
word “Impenetrability.” But hardly less significant is Humpty Dumpty’s
reply to Alice’s request that he should explain to her the meaning of the poem
“Jabberwocky.” For once he is eager, alert, on his mettle: “Let’s hear it,” he
cries. “I can explain all the poems that ever were invented—and a good many
that haven’t been invented just yet.” Of course he can, and so can all his tribe;
they are forever explaining poems, forever mauling and manhandling their
betters, the poets. But what, it may be asked, is meant by that reference to a
good many poems “that haven’t been invented yet”? For my part, I hold that
it refers to the sketchy verses written by his friends, members of his little
coterie, for such verses can hardly be said to have been invented, and it is
only when they are explained by the friendly critic that they really come into
existence as inventions at all. Finally, it is inevitable that we should discover
that Humpty Dumpty, too, writes verse. This fact alone proves conclusively
that Lewis Carroll, having had a sudden and disturbing vision of what was to
come, meant this Humpty Dumpty episode to be a satire. True, the verses
themselves are better, at least technically, than those we are treated to by the
young critics who are aimed at, but it is extremely likely that our author, even
in parody, felt that he ought not to fall below a certain standard. But the
poem, if it can be called a poem, that Humpty Dumpty recites has certain
characteristics that are by this time only too familiar to readers of verse: it
has that abrupt manner, that sense of incompleteness, that suggestion of
vague symbolism, which we know only too well. Such verses as—
The little fishes’ answer was

“We cannot do it, Sir, because—”
and
And when I found the door was shut,
I tried to turn the handle, but—
leave us in doubt as to who are the posthumous victims of this satirical

genius. And we have only to think of what we have suffered from such
persons, and in particular (not to mince matters) Mr. Blank and Mr. Dash, to
agree that once again Alice is made to speak for all of us when she exclaims,
as she walks away from the absurd figure perched on the high and narrow
wall, “Of all the unsatisfactory people I ever met....” There is clearly no more
to be said; the episode is at an end; Humpty Dumpty and all his later
followers are annihilated.
FLORENCE BECKER LENNON
Escape into the Garden
Poor Alice! It was as much as she could do, lying on one side, to look through
into the garden with one eye; but to get through was more hopeless than ever:
she sat down and began to cry again.
W hen Charles Dodgson became sub-librarian of Christ Church in 1855,

he was privileged to use the little room off the upper library, overlooking the
deanery garden. On the smooth grass, under the majestic old trees, first
Lorina and Alice, then baby Edith, and gradually more and more children,
chuckled and tumbled and learned not to make too much noise. The lonely
young man upstairs, looking out of the window, must have remembered his
childhood days in the garden at Croft, with many little sisters and brothers—
especially sisters; and gradually the light of the Never-Never land
illuminated the Oxford garden and the Dean’s daughters. And the more Mr.
Dodgson was captured by Dr. Pusey, the more ravishing the garden and the
little girls must have looked.
A few months after his installation in the library, Dodgson took his new
camera to the Deanery, and a new phase of his life began. The entry for April
25, 1856, reads: “Went over with Southey in the afternoon to the Deanery,
to try and take a photograph of the Cathedral: both attempts proved failures.
The three little girls were in the garden most of the time, and we became,
From Victoria Through the Looking Glass: The Life of Lewis Carroll. © 1947 by Collier Boooks.
19
20 Florence Becker Lennon
excellent friends: we tried to group them in the foreground of the picture,

but they were not patient sitters. I mark this day with a white stone.”
That was Dodgson’s symbol for a memorable day. Green thinks this
was his first meeting with Alice, then about four years old, though he had
made friends with her older brother Harry and sister Lorina.
On June 3 he says, “Spent the morning at the Deanery, photographing
the children.” Green says this was the first record of his photographing
children, and quotes Gernsheim’s claim that he was “the best photographer
of children in the nineteenth century.”
When the three eldest girls were ten, eight, and six years old
respectively, the story sessions started. Lorina Charlotte had brown hair and
clean-cut features; Alice’s hair was cut across her forehead in a fringe—
“bangs,” we say in America—that emphasized her wistful eyes and dainty
three-cornered face; Edith had fluffy bright auburn hair. They commonly
wore white cotton frocks, white open-work stockings, and black strap
slippers, all alike. The girls would cross Tom Quad with Miss Prickett, the
less-than-omniscient governess whose boners are represented in Alice in
Wonderland. In Mr. Dodgson’s rooms, they would pull him down on his large
sofa and beg for stories. Seizing the nearest piece of paper, he would start,
illustrating as he went along. If one of the girls asked a good question, the
story, not perhaps a new one at first, would branch off into some new
direction.1
Unlike the later child-friends, the Liddell sisters never took tea at his
lodgings. In fact, tea for children was still an innovation and a special treat,
but on the river trips they took along a big basket with cakes and a teakettle
to boil beside a haymow. Four or five times in each summer he took the three
on a picnic for either a whole or a half day. Miss Prickett was left behind, but
chaperonage was supplied by Canon Robinson Duckworth or one of the
brothers Dodgson (for Skeffington and Wilfred had matriculated in 1855),
and, on one occasion, by two Dodgson sisters. This was the least successful
picnic, for the young ladies, still in their twenties, seemed old and gloomy to
the children. (To Ethel Arnold, as a child, they seemed “austere and
evangelical.”) Songs and stories were omitted; the visitors were plump, and
lowered the boat alarmingly. Finally it rained; the boat was abandoned and
the return trip made by carriage, with time out in a farm house to dry the
bedraggled hoop skirts.2
The path to the Isis from Tom Quad passed the smelly Trill Mill
stream. Dean Liddell had a new and more appetizing path dug; meanwhile,
stepping gingerly, the girls in their big shade hats clung to the hands of the
two young men who were simultaneously juggling the luncheon basket.
Arrived at the river, young Mr. Dodgson would select the safest, roomiest,
and most comfortable boat, stock it with cushions, and bestow his guests and
the luncheon baskets with accurate balance. He rowed stroke and Mr.
Duckworth rowed bow; an extra pair of oars was added for the girls’ rowing
lessons. One of them might hold the tiller rope, and if the boat wove a
crooked course, it was all in the name of education.
Dodgson celebrated by doffing his new clericals, and appearing in
white flannel trousers and a hard straw hat, with black shoes, of course, since
tennis shoes had not been invented. These were the most festive times of his
life—he was only thirty on July 4, 1862, when all the rays converge. His life
was before him and his powers were at their height. Drifting on the slow Isis
that becomes the Thames, in his pleasant, slow voice with its “curious
stutter,” he wove a dream story for three lovely young ladies and a don.
Duckworth asked if it was purely extemporaneous, and he truthfully
answered. “Yes.”3 Germination acts that way—one moment there is a brown
bud; next moment it is cracked, and a green shoot pushes out. The
preparation has been going on in the dark.
They rowed up to Godstow, had tea beside a haymow, and rowed back
again, returning by about eight-thirty. Stories had been told and songs had
been sung, and at the Deanery door ten-year-old Alice said, “Oh, Mr.
Dodgson, I wish you would write out Alice’s adventures for me.” If she had
not sensed something special in that story, perhaps he might not have
thought to write it down. Years later he attributed his beginning as a writer
to her “infant patronage.” How and when he wrote out the story has been
told variously by Duckworth and by Alice, in her old age, to her son. But now
that we have Dodgson’s diaries there is no need to speculate. On the day
when he finished the drawings for the manuscript, September 13, 1864, he
wrote the data in the diary under July 4, 1862. On a blank page in Volume 9
of the Diaries he wrote the following:
“It was first told July 4 (F.) 1862.

Headings written out (on my way to London) July 5, 1862.
M. S. copy begun Nov. 13 (Th.) 1862.
Text (of Alice’s Adventures Underground) finished before Feb.
10, 1863.
Pictures in M. S. finished Sept. 13 (Tu.), 1864. M. S. finally
sent to Alice, Nov. 26, 1864.”
On July 5 he met the Liddells at the station. They were all on their
way to London by the same train. It seems likely he did not sit with them,
because he noted writing out the “heads” of the story on the train. It was
nearly two and a half years before Alice received the weirdly illustrated little
green book, with the story beautifully written out in Dodgson’s best library
script.
The Liddell children read and reread it, and kept it on the deanery
table for their guests to enjoy. When Mrs. MacDonald read it aloud to her
children, Greville, then aged six, said, “There ought to be sixty thousand
volumes of it.”4 And Henry Kingsley wrote the author that it should be
published.
Dodgson hesitated to risk a loss on the hunch of a child and the praise
of one fellow-writer. Duckworth suggested that the book would surely
succeed if Tenniel would illustrate it. Eventually the actor Tom Taylor
introduced the two men, and on April 5, 1864, arrangements were completed
with Macmillan and with Tenniel.
The arrangements with Macmillan are the first of Dodgson’s peculiar
special methods of doing business. His books, says Charles Morgan, “were,
by his own wish, published ‘on commission’—that is to say at his own and
not the publisher’s risk.... What Lewis Carroll understood ... is that in
persuading a great house to publish for him on commission he was rarely
fortunate.5
Tenniel, who had started as a child prodigy, nearly ended as one. When
a boy, fencing with his father, he lost the sight of one eye. But the remaining
eye saw more than most. At sixteen he exhibited—and sold—an oil painting;
not caring for art school, he studied by himself and at he British Museum,
with the help of the trustees and free access to all collections. He spent a
good deal of time on the Elgin marbles, also known as the Parthenon frieze
and pediments, and on the collections of armor and costume. He also liked
to visit the Zoological Gardens, but without a sketch book. His memory was
phenomenal, and the only model he used was an occasional photograph—
with one exception, to be noted later.
His first book illustrations were for a volume of Aesop, published in
1848. When the second cartoonist of Punch resigned over a religious
difference, Mark Lemon remembered the illustrator of Aesop and engaged
him. At first the new man had little chance to show what he could do, apart
from title page, decorated initial, and so on, for the first cartoonist was John
Leech. Tenniel’s earliest cartoons appeared in 1851, without especial success,
but by the following year they had improved. He made his name with the
drawing for the death of Wellington and the creation of the British Lion. By
1862 he was doing at least one cartoon a week, and, when Leech died in
1864, Tenniel became cartoonist for Punch, where he remained for fifty years,
retiring at eighty, and living to within three days of his ninety-fourth
birthday.
Tenniel was a mild and gentle man who knew his own mind. In
illustrating, he put himself in the author’s place and used all his imagination
and artistry to recreate the latter’s ideas. He was, like Dodgson himself,
incorruptible and original. These two incompatibles in double harness won
the race—and cut the traces. “With Through the Looking-Glass,” said Tenniel
tactfully, “the faculty of making book-illustrations departed from me.”
By 1864 he was in a position to ask £148 for illustrating Alice. Dodgson
paid this himself, as well as the Dalziel brothers’ engraving bill, which for
both books came to £203/16. Further, he paid for the plates of the 1865
edition, the rare true first edition, which he called in because the
reproduction of the plates left Tenniel dissatisfied. Before photoengraving,
the artist drew directly on the wood block—then responsibility passed to the
engravers. Fortunately, the Dalziels were at the top of their profession,
though Dante Gabriel Rossetti blessed them with: “These engravers! What
ministers of wrath! Your drawing comes to them, like Agag, delicately, and is
hewn in pieces before the Lord Harry.... As yet, I fare best with W. J. Linton.
He keeps stomach-aches for you, but Dalziel deals in fevers and agues.”6
Tenniel, however, worked well with the Dalziels, and also with Joseph Swain,
who handled Dodgson’s later illustrators’ work. The subtleties that this
method of engraving could produce required full understanding between
engraver and illustrator, and plenty of time and patience—perhaps Rossetti’s
short suit. Dodgson was never too busy for a conference, never hurried his
coworkers, and expected—perfection.
He would have liked illustrating the books himself, till he found that a
special technique was required. He is said never to have been satisfied with
Tenniel, though everybody else was. Dodgson and Tenniel, like Gilbert and
Sullivan, complemented each other artistically, but not without friction.
Perhaps Dodgson was a little jealous, and his exacting methods may have
gotten on Tenniel’s nerves. He proposed a model—Tenniel said he no more
needed one than Dodgson needed the multiplication table!
Dodgson’s own drawings always expressed two principal aspects of his
nature—the humorously horrible and the sweet. The latter gradually
encroached on the former, but without quite replacing it. Tenniel’s work, of
course, was infinitely more vigorous, without much of either the sweet or the
horrible, so that Carroll told Harry Furniss he had not liked any of Tenniel’s
drawings except Humpty Dumpty! But by that time Tenniel was telling
Furniss, “Dodgson is impossible! You will never put up with that conceited
old Don for more than a week!”7 How far Harry Furniss’ own jealousy
colored—or invented—this gossip no one knows. He too drew for Punch, but
he had to sit in the gallery of Parliament, catching expressions red hot, while
Tenniel, working at home, immortalized his subjects often without having

seen more than a photograph.
Mr. Madan asks, “Where did Quentyn Matsys, or Leonardo, see the
Ugly Duchess who lived 150 years before their time?”8 And where did
Tenniel see their portraits of poor Margarethe Maultasch? The drawing,
attributed—rather doubtfully—to Leonardo, is in the Windsor Castle
Library, where Tenniel may have seen it. Once would be enough for that
elephantine memory. But it is more likely that he saw the Matsys portrait, for
he uses the detail of costume in that painting, which in 1856 belonged to
Alfred Seymour.8
Mr. Madan himself solved the question of Tenniel’s Alice. Dodgson’s
drawings of her are sweet and gentle, but not otherwise good likenesses of
Alice Liddell. Tenniel’s Alice, however, is distinctly someone else, and that
someone else was Miss Mary Hilton Badcock, later Mrs. Probert. For once
in his life, Tenniel was persuaded to use a model.9
First he and Dodgson held numerous conferences to determine
whether Alice should have a fringe, or “bangs,” like Alice Liddell. Since
Dodgson deleted the lovely photograph of Alice from the facsimile of the
manuscript published in 1886, it was doubtless his idea to have the
illustrations in no way resemble her. When he saw a photograph of Mary at
a Mr. Gray’s, of Sharon, everything was solved. He had only to obtain Canon
Badcock’s permission for his daughter to sit, and Tenniel’s consent to break
the habits of a lifetime. Nevertheless Dodgson prevailed, and the artist made
several trips to Ripon to sketch the Canon’s daughter, who had bright gold
hair and was quite a different type from the dark, dreamy Alice Liddell.
Dodgson profited by his new friendship to photograph, not only Mary, but
also Lucy, Clara, and Emily, her sisters.
Tenniel got a bit of his own back when he was illustrating Through the
Looking-Glass. There were thirteen chapters, of which Dodgson decided to
delete one. The artist suggested sacrificing the one that required him to draw
a wasp in a wig. He wrote: “Don’t think me brutal, but the wasp chapter
doesn’t interest me in the least.”5 Whatever Dodgson thought of the
brutality, he took the advice.
Canon Duckworth was rewarded for his share in the book. Whenever
a batch of Tenniel’s engravings arrived, the Canon was invited to dinner, and
spent an exciting evening with Dodgson over the pictures, in spite of Harry
Furniss’ rather spiteful gossip about author and artist.
For the Alice books this collaboration was ideal. In their first form, the
books are as finished as the Parthenon was before the Turks thought of
storing gunpowder in it. The futile attempts to make new illustrations to the
Alice books resemble the further finishing of the Parthenon when the
gunpowder exploded. An explosion that harmed neither Dodgson nor

Tenniel, however, is Marguerite Mespoulet’s book, Creators of Wonderland.
With text and illustration she shows that Tenniel, at least, and Dodgson very
probably, was influenced by the work of J. J. Grandville. In the picture of the
two footmen in Wonderland Tenniel definitely used a frog footman of
Grandville’s. The Paris Charivari, founded in 1832, that used Grandville’s
pictures, circulated quite freely in England. Punch, of course, is the London
Charivari, and Thackeray, one of its founders, shuttled back and forth
between Paris and London, and knew Grandville’s work well, as indeed many
art lovers in England did.
Miss Mespoulet nowhere claims that Dodgson was necessarily
influenced by Grandville, though it seems quite likely he had absorbed
Grandville’s work, as he had certainly absorbed Lear’s Nonsense Book, which
appeared when he was fourteen. She prefers to call Tenniel the link
between the two. Grandville’s autre monde has much in common with
Wonderland, but whatever Dodgson took, and wherever he found it, he
made it his own.
Angus Davidson finds no mention of Lewis Carroll in Lear’s diaries or
letters,10 and Mr. Madan found “no trace of Lear”8 in Dodgson’s library at
Oxford, yet the two moved in some of the same circles and could hardly have
avoided meeting. But, as John Livingston Lowes says in The Road to Xanadu:
“origins prove nothing.... William James bluntly declared ... All they do is to
afford a welcome answer to the question: What has creative Genius framed
from its inert stuff?”11
This holds for Tenniel too, who simply lifted his Frog Footman and
Fish Footman from Grandville. And yet—simply? He split up Grandville’s
Frog Footman into two persons, giving the Fish costume to the Frog. And
besides, as Alice said, “She was she, and I was I, and oh dear—” Tenniel too
made his own whatever he touched. His personal style, unmodified by
Grandville, would have been too harsh and uncompromising for the dream
books. His taste told him what to use, as in the case of the Ugly Duchess,
whom he handled much more mercifully than her original Creator did.
Strained relations or no, Dodgson was not one to forget a collaborator.
In 1886 he gave Tenniel an autographed copy of The Hunting of the Snark,
and in the same year Canon Duckworth received a copy of the facsimile of
Alice Underground, inscribed: “The Duck from the Dodo, June, 1886.”
Canon Duckworth, to be sure, was the Duck in the Caucus-race, and
Dodgson was the Dodo. It is hard to see any reason other than a linguistic
one for the Dodgson–Dodo constellation. Since 1507, when Portuguese
navigators discovered the island later called Mauritius, the dodo (from doúdo,
Portuguese for simpleton) was known to Europeans by hearsay. Dutch sailors
called them Walckvogel, or Walgvögel—disgusting birds—because, after

knocking the poor simpletons down with clubs, they found the meat almost
inedible. Conservationists don’t know whether the sailors then stopped
knocking them dead....
Between 1610 and 1620 several live specimens were brought to
Europe, where they lived a short time. One of the last skeletons to be set
up was in the Ashmolean Museum in the seventeenth century. About
eighty years later nothing remained but the skull and right foot, which
were still there recently. There was also a large painting of the bird, which
Dodgson and Tenniel may have seen. The last records of a living dodo
date from 1681, so the expression “dead as a dodo” was no doubt current
in the last century. The name, Didus ineptus, connotes stupidity. Today—
though not in 1862—Dodo and Dodgson are juxtaposed in the
Encyclopaedia Britannica. Why, except for phonetic reasons, should
Dodgson have associated himself with this unfortunate bird, lacking wits
enough to hide its single egg or to run from its enemies? Can we
reconstruct our Dodo from a single boner?
Dodgson’s recent biographers, starting with Green, who claims to have
been a stammerer himself, feel that “Dodo” may also have referred to
Dodgson’s way of saying his own name: “Do-Do-Dodgson.” It may indeed,
though the only documentation we have so far (in a letter from Mrs. Skene)
refers to his stammering on the “P” sound.
As to Canon Duckworth—in the manuscript the Duck has a speech
later transferred to the Eaglet (Edith). After the Dodo has said:
“In that case, I move that the meeting adjourn, for the immediate
adoption of more energetic remedies—” in the manuscript it is the Duck and
not the Eaglet who answers: “‘Speak English! I don’t know the meaning of
all those long words, and what’s more, I don’t believe you do either!’ And the
Duck quacked a comfortable laugh to itself. Some of the other animals
tittered audibly.”
Dodgson made a practice of weaving members of the party and topical
events into his story. Dinah, for instance, was a real cat. The Liddell children
had two tabby kittens, which they named “Villikens and his Dinah,” after a
popular song.1 Villikens was short-lived, but Dinah lived to be chased out of
Christ Church library many times, and to be consoled and bathed and loved
by Alice, though technically she belonged to Lorina.
Topical allusions appear in the Dormouse’s story too. The three sisters
in that tale were Elsie, Lacie, and Tillie—L. C. for Lorina Charlotte; Lacie,
an anagram for Alice; and Tillie, for Matilda—the sisters’ pet name for
Edith.1 Elsewhere the play on names produces variants—Lory for Lorina,
and Eaglet for Edith. The first version, reminiscent of the day when the
Misses Dodgson were caught in the rain, takes the party into a little cottage
to dry their clothing. Some of the stories told on earlier river excursions
extended Alice’s Adventures Underground into Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland,
but the manuscript corresponded to the story told on July fourth.
There is no Caucus-race in the manuscript, but there is a picture by
Grandville, showing the animals seated in a circle, much like Tenniel’s. In the
manuscript, this takes the place of the caucus:
“‘I only meant to say,’ said the Duck in a rather offended tone, ‘that I
knew of a house near here, where we could get the young lady and the rest
of the party dried, and then we could listen comfortably to the story which I
think you were good enough to promise to tell us,’ bowing gravely to the
mouse.
“The mouse made no objection to this, and the whole party moved
along the river bank (for the pool had by this time begun to flow out of the
hall, and the edge of it was fringed with rushes and forget-me-nots) in a slow
procession, the Dodo leading the way. After a time the Dodo became
impatient, and, leaving the Duck to bring up the rest of the party, moved on
at a quicker pace with Alice, the Lory, and the Eaglet, and soon brought
them to a little cottage, and there they sat snugly by the fire, wrapped up in
blankets, until the rest of the party had arrived, and they were all dry again.”
Then after the mouse’s tale, and its departure in a huff, “she sat for a
while sorrowful and silent, but it was not long before she recovered her
spirits, and began talking to herself, as usual: ‘I do wish some of them had
stayed a little longer, I was getting to be such friends with them—really the
Lory and I were almost like sisters! And so was that dear little Eaglet! And
then the Duck and the Dodo! How nicely the Duck sang to us as we came
along through the water: and if the Dodo hadn’t known the way to that nice
little cottage, I don’t know when we should have got dry again—’ and there
is no knowing how long she might have prattled on in this way, if she had not
suddenly caught the sound of pattering feet.” Well enough for a manuscript
destined for an intimate circle, but he had enough of a public mind to realize
that these paragraphs did not belong in a printed book.
His public mind and his private one were now on their way to taking
up separate residence. For he decided to sign Alice by the pseudonym he had
been trying out in The Train, Edmund Yates’s paper. Collingwood tells how
Dodgson submitted several names for the five poems and one story that
appeared in The Train in 1856–7, but he gives the wrong name and date for
the first poem, which was actually “Solitude,” in March, 1856. Yates rejected
“Dares,” from Daresbury, and two anagrams, “Edgar Cuthwellis” and
“Edgar U. C. Westhall,” as well as “Louis Carroll,” in favor of the now
famous version. Dodgson evolved it by the simple process of latinizing,
reversing, and reanglicizing his given names: Carolus Ludovicus, Ludovicus

Carolus, Lewis Carroll.5
A pseudonym, once started for whatever reason, may activate a split,
but of course in this case the split had already begun. There is, however, a
tendency to assign certain moods or behavior to the pseudonym, which
gradually acquires autonomy as a snowball acquires snow.
From Wonderland to Looking-Glass the man, and therefore his work,
changed in other ways. The refinement, sharpening, and concentration of
the next seven years produce a different emotional tone: the creatures in
Through the Looking-Glass are less sad, and more pedantic and querulous; for
instance, compare the weeping Mock Turtle with the belligerent, snivelling,
contrary twins, the Tweedles. His weeping self was less sad and more
complaining by that time. In a sense Carroll distinctly slid downhill from
Wonderland. Through the Looking-Glass is more mature, and Sylvie and Bruno
more elfin—too elfin—as well as more bothered with ethical and other
problems arising from the anomaly of a benevolent deity who is also
omnipotent.... Carroll’s power of pure play was duller at sixty than at thirty,
and his power of thought was scarcely sharpened.
In Wonderland he transports the dream characters to a dream country,
where the traveler is sane and the natives mad—like an Englishman abroad.
In A Tangled Tale, however, Mad Mathesis runs wild in the heart of London,
making the citizens stare. It is almost trite to say that Carroll remained a
child to whom the world looked even madder than it does to most of us. He
was too polite, or too cautious, to say so, and perfected a technique for
getting around freely without any worse tag than “eccentric,” but one of his
logical dilemmas was “They are sane. I am not like them. I am insane.” Or
vice versa. Do cats eat bats? Or do bats eat cats?
The appearing and disappearing Cheshire Cat is a sort of guardian imp
and liaison officer between the two worlds; an undercurrent of Wonderland is
Alice’s longing for Dinah, so perhaps the cat with the disappearing head (the
Cheshire Cat, from Charles’s birthplace) is Dinah’s dream-self, who, by the
laws of dreamland, instead of frightening the creatures away, only keeps them
pleasantly on edge. It is significant that the Cheshire Cat remarks, “We’re all
mad here.” Dinah is the one link to the daily world, the one person (?) Alice
misses; she says, “They will put their heads down and say ‘Come up again,
dear!’”—is the Cheshire Cat Dinah’s head recalling her to the world across
the border?
Dinah is not the only double exposure. There are: the Rabbit and the
March Hare; the furious little Mouse in the pool and the Dormouse; and
finally, the Queen of Hearts and the Duchess, who in the manuscript were
one person—Queen of Hearts and Marchioness (not Duchess) of Mock
Turtle. The whole Mad Tea Party sounds like four aspects of Mr. Dodgson
sitting about a table, calling one another names, like those arrangements of
mirrors in “amusement” parks where you can photograph yourself from
several angles at once. Or perhaps Alice stood for Mr. Dodgson, who was so
easily offended, and who walked out of Common Room at the drop of a bad
word: The peculiar creatures who spoke something that was “certainly
English,” yet made no sense, may have been the other members of Common
Room. Speculation about the Hatter makes him an Oxford character—Mr.
Collingwood thinks a classmate of his uncle’s; Mr. Madan suggests
Theophilus Carter, a furniture dealer of the High Street.
“It is really dreadful the way the creatures order one about here.” Is
that Oxford, the British Empire, or the whole world? In his childhood home
“’twas Love that made the world go round.” The King and Queen of hearts
had ten children, which might mean the ten numbered cards in a suit, or the
ten Dodgson children besides Charles—making him the Knave! “She’s all my
fancy painted him” was his first form of the White Rabbit’s testimony against
the Knave. To the Duchess’ remark about Love making the world go round,
Alice replied, “Somebody said that it’s done by everybody minding their own
business!” At sixty-one Alice’s creator sank into the morass, gurgling
For I think it is Love,

For I feel it is Love,
For I’m sure it is nothing but Love!
“‘Once,’ said the Mock Turtle at last, with a deep sigh, ‘I was a real
Turtle.’” “Once,” said Charles Dodgson, “I was a real boy.” Until he was
five, perhaps—for Bruno, his only endurable boy character, is five years old.
Alice, in Wonderland, is seven; in Through the Looking-Glass, “seven and a half
exactually.” The face of the Mock Turtle, both in Carroll’s drawings and in
Tenniel’s, has the sad, yearning expression of Charles himself in all his
pictures, yearning, perhaps, for his crucified manhood and liberty of
thought.... No wonder, after another seven years of a don’s life, the Mock
Turtle’s sadness became the valetudinarianism of the Tweedle brothers.
Brother against brother. Instead of the mildly antagonistic Gryphon versus
the lachrymose Mock Turtle, we have the furious identical twins. As if, after
parting one’s hair on the side, one had decided to part it in the middle and
get two even but less symmetrical divisions, the not-so-heavenly twins.
The mathematical mind of the author gave pungency to his dream-
books, though as a mathematician per se he never rose above mediocrity. He
enjoyed logical exercises, and pure thinking, and he especially enjoyed
mystifying people by keeping his Alice-self sacred and secret—a
ventriloquist’s dummy in a cupboard. It may be this desire to protect his

excursions into a four-dimensional world, rather than his so-called
“modesty,” that explains his dislike of being known at Oxford or in
unselected adult society as the author of the Alice books. He even hated to sit
for his photograph, much as he liked to photograph others, and while,
unsolicited, he autographed his books for all his friends, he dreaded
autograph hunters to the point of tricking them with a typewriter, or having
a friend forge his name to letters.5 Caricatures went only one way, too. Once,
when she was small, Isa Bowman drew a caricature of him. He went flaming
red, snatched it away, and burned it. Then when she apologized, he
embraced and forgave her.12 It is doubtful that he could have seen Harry
Furniss’ caricatures of him and forgiven them. However he looked to others,
he was the White Rabbit to himself, though he would have preferred to be
the worse-tempered but more dignified March Hare.
Taylor found some ingenious mathematical cryptograms in Alice. Of
the procedure where she starts counting, “Four times five is twelve,” and so
forth, concluding, “I’ll never get to twenty at that rate,” he says it could bring
her only to 19, never to twenty, because it is based on scales of notation.13
He also asks why the Mad Hatter’s watch is two days wrong. “What
time is it at the center of the earth, at no longitude? By the sun it is all times
or no time. It tells the day of the month. Hatter’s watch goes by the moon.”
It is the fourth, two days wrong—there are two days between the lunar and
the calendar month. And the fourth is Alice’s birthday.
Another gem comes from Robert Graves’s article in the Atlantic
Monthly for August, 1957, “Mushrooms, Food of the Gods”: “... the scarlet-
capped fly amanite, which ... mycophobes regard as the most poisonous of
all, though no one is ever recorded to have died from eating it! Oddly
enough, its earliest appearance in English Literature is a charming one:
Lewis Carroll’s account of how Alice ate the mushroom on which the
Caterpillar sat smoking his hookah, and could thus become shorter or taller
at will. (‘Curioser and curioser,’ said Alice.) This hallucination, produced by
the fly amanite, was described in a text-book, M. C. Cooke’s Plain and Easy
Account of British Fungi, published on October 4, 1862, just before Alice in
Wonderland was put on paper.”
There is little material on the Pig-and-Pepper episode. The famous
lullaby is a triple satire on parental feelings, on Carroll’s ideas about boy-
nature, and on a bad poem, “Speak softly to a little child.” The cook’s silence
is sinister. She speaks three words. The King says, “Give your evidence.” She
answers, “Shan’t.” He asks, “What are tarts made of?”; she says, “Pepper,
mostly,” and vanishes. She is a grotesque yet sibylline figure, naming the
condiment Charles felt himself lacking in.
Lastly, Alice tries to carry the baby who becomes a pig. This is how a
bachelor holds a baby, finally tying it into a knot and holding one leg and one
ear, gazing at it in dismay until it becomes a pig and “trots off quietly into
the wood.” But what about Uggug, in Sylvie and Bruno—the horrid boy
produced by straining off all the pleasant qualities of boy-nature for Bruno?
Uggug turns into a porcupine, or prickly pig, because he is “loveless,
loveless.” Is the pig that runs away the boy-self that left a purified Alice? She
feels relieved, because “it would have made a dreadfully ugly child [to one
who did not like little boys]: but it makes rather a handsome pig, I think.”
The card game is as basic to Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland as chess is
to Looking-Glass. An interesting attempt to explain the card game is made by
Muriel Bruce Hasbrouck in her Pursuit of Destiny. She claims the Tarot cards
are a device of learned Muslims to keep the ancient learning alive against the
Christian relegation of the arts and sciences to the devil. She finds a
rationalized astrology, based not on “influences” of planetary conjunctions,
but on early knowledge of regular fluctuations in solar energy and the earth’s
field.
“Call the celestial sphere the field ... maybe the four-dimensional
space–time continuum. The formula is based on a mathematical relationship
between the four major divisions of the ancient universe ... called elements,
and a series of 36 ten-degree cycles of the year....” She quotes Pythagoras and
Dr. Jung as dividing humanity into four types—the four basic blood types—
and so forth, leading up to Alice’s cry, “You’re nothing but a pack of cards!”
No matter how many editions of this book may be called for, it is safe
to guess that each one will have to list new interpretations of the Alice books,
which is as it should be. It is the first dream book, made up of simple
everyday materials freshly seen, and a classic plot.
Many persons who have read Wonderland at least once a year since they
could read, fail to notice the plot. The story revolves about the golden key to
the enchanted garden and Alice’s endless frustrations and wanderings in
bypaths until she enters at last, to find the flowers really beautiful, though
some of them need painting but—the place is populated by disagreeable
persons attempting to play croquet under trying circumstances. Then comes
a Last Judgment with the entire cast—and an anti-climax.
The garden is an equally rich symbol if we call it adult life viewed by a
child, or vice versa. The protean Alice with her formulas for growing and
shrinking and cutting back and forth across the borders of childhood and
maturity, yet remaining always a wise child, is of course Dodgson himself—
or herself. It is hard, studying some of his portraits and reading some of his
works, to realize that he was a man indeed. It is still harder to find any
evidence that he himself realized it. He seems increasingly like a maiden aunt
with the heart of a girl, even with all the satires on his fellow dons and the
refined cruelties of his verse. All these traits are present in a maiden aunt, of
the type that in the United States writes faintly sardonic articles for the
highbrow magazines and finds an outlet for affectionate impulses in her
nieces and nephews.
Dodgson was a lonely soul—no matter how much love and admiration
he evoked, his reticences and rigidities and shyness kept him from reaching
out to adults. For the really free interchange of gaiety and comradeship he
was limited to children—and to girl children at that. Later he could not
mention that afternoon on the river without an access of lyricism:
“I distinctly remember ... how in a desperate attempt to strike out some
new line of fairy-lore, I had sent my heroine straight down a rabbit hole, to
begin with, without the least idea what was to happen afterwards.
“Stand forth, then, Alice, the child of my dreams.... What wert thou,
dream-Alice, in thy foster-father’s eyes? How shall he picture thee? Loving,
first, loving and gentle: loving as a dog (forgive the prosaic simile, but I know
no earthly love so pure and perfect), and gentle as a fawn: then courteous—
courteous to all, high or low, grand or grotesque, King or Caterpillar, even
as though she were herself a King’s daughter, and her clothing of wrought
gold; then trustful, ready to accept the wildest possibilities with all that utter
trust that only dreamers know; and, lastly, curious—wildly curious, and with
the eager enjoyment of Life that comes only in the happy hours of
childhood, when all is new and fair, and when sin and sorrow are but
names—empty words signifying nothing!
“And the White Rabbit, what of him? ... For her ‘youth,’ ‘audacity,’
‘vigour,’ ‘swift directness of purpose,’ read ‘elderly,’ ‘timid,’ ‘feeble,’ and
‘nervously shilly-shallying,’ and you will get something of what I meant him
to be....
“Let me cull from the two books a Royal Trio—the Queen of Hearts,
the Red Queen, and the White Queen.... Each had to preserve, through all
her eccentricities, a certain queenly dignity.... I pictured to myself the Queen
of Hearts as a sort of embodiment of ungovernable passion, a blind and
aimless Fury. The Red Queen I pictured as a Fury, but of another type; her
passion must be cold and calm; she must be formal and strict, yet not
unkindly; pedantic to the tenth degree, the concentrated essence of all
governesses! Lastly, the White Queen seemed, to my dreaming fancy, gentle,
stupid, fat, and pale; helpless as an infant ... just suggesting imbecility but
never quite passing into it.... There is a character strangely like her in Wilkie
Collins’ novel, No Name: by two converging paths we have somehow reached
the same ideal, and Mrs. Wragge and the White Queen might have been
twin sisters.”3
Such a richly variegated personality need not go outside himself for

portraits. If Alice is his seeking self, his best-beloved ego to which he assigns
all the desirable traits, then the White Rabbit is his timid, donnish self,
struck inarticulate for half-an-hour when a brother don catches him walking
with a little girl; the man with the little black bag, the gloves (my paws and
whiskers, the gloves!), the pocketbook with the many compartments—the
man with the peculiar gait, the stammer, the inability to carve a joint, who
softly and suddenly vanished away if anyone mentioned his books.
The penultimate paragraphs of Alice’s Adventures Underground follow:
“But her sister sat there some while longer, watching the setting sun,
and thinking of little Alice and her adventures, till she too began dreaming
after a fashion, and this was her dream.
“She saw an ancient city, and a quiet river widening near it along the
plain, and up the stream went slowly gliding a boat with a merry party of
children on board—she could hear the voices and laughter like music over
the water—and among them was another little Alice, who sat listening with
bright eager eyes, to a tale that was being told, and she listened for the words
of the tale, and lo, it was the dream of her own little sister. So the boat wound
slowly along, beneath the bright summer-day, with its merry crew and its
voices of music and laughter, till it passed round one of the many turnings of
the stream, and she saw it no more.”
To so accomplished an acrobat, a dream within a dream is a small
matter. It is indeed the blend of logical with dream material that gives
Carroll’s works their distinct and inimitable flavor. The fall down the Rabbit
hole, for instance, is a birth dream indeed—and what a symbol—the Rabbit
for fertility! The motif is always cropping out; when Alice is in the long hall,
later the Hall of Tears, she finds the key to the little door, that “led into a
small passage, not much larger than a rat-hole: she knelt down and looked
along the passage ... but she could not even get her head through the
doorway.” Later she slips into the pool of tears and swims about easily. Then,
in the Rabbit’s house, she starts to grow uncomfortably large and threatens
to burst the house. When Bill the Lizard comes down the chimney after her,
she makes a final effort and succeeds in retracting one leg far enough to kick
him back up.
Birth dreams are universal, but since we are born without language, they
use visual and muscular imagery; whatever reminds us of birth retains a
mysterious fascination, unaccountable till this great discovery of Dr. Rank’s.
Wonderland contains all the elements—the comfortable swimming about in
the water, the doubt of being able to get her head through the narrow passage,
the constriction of the small room, increasing threateningly as she grows; the
attempt to kick out in a narrow space. To name and classify a dream element
is merely to recognize the unconscious. But these birth images must have had
a meaning to their inventor; a spiritual rebirth, perhaps—for Dodgson was
just over the hill from one of his major crises. He had looked down into the
Deanery garden from the library window for years, he was thirty years old,
and he had taken holy orders six months before. And perhaps that was it.
Acceptance of ordination after so many doubts and such a long
postponement—he had been eligible for six years—must have required a new
synthesis. The scene in the Hall of Tears, where Alice gives herself good
advice, the one where “Once she remembered trying to box her own ears for
having cheated herself in a game of croquet, for this curious child was very
fond of pretending to be two people,” and other hints, suggest Dodgson may
have had fleeting doubts of his own identity, no doubt intensified since his
ordination. For it was not Alice Liddell who pretended to be two people, or
who needed rebirth.
As Lowes says again: “Great art is more often than not the product of
tendencies which are art’s undoing when uncontrolled ... there enter into
imaginative creation three factors which reciprocally interplay: the Well, and
the Vision, and the Will ... the long, slow storing of the Well ... the flash of
amazing vision through a fortuitous suggestion ... the exciting task of
translating the vision into reality.”11 All these factors were present, and he
resigned himself—on the surface—to being the Reverend Charles Dodgson;
but, as the outer bonds gripped tighter, the inner self soared more and more.
For such a nature, actually, stone walls do not a prison make, since the space
inside a spirit of genius is infinite.
The Alice books are frankly dream stories; both have an elaborate and
rather orgiastic nightmarish awakening, though only in the first one does the
dreamer direct the dream. Both use the materials of the universal dream or
folk tale; their prime value lies in this articulation of the inarticulate
impressions of childhood and in their multiple use on several planes
simultaneously, which make them interesting to all ages and cultural levels.
Here may be, for instance, a memory of school, of Oxford, of the
ordination. It takes place in the Rabbit’s house, after Alice has grown too
large for comfort: “‘It was much pleasanter at home,’ thought poor Alice,
‘when one wasn’t always growing larger and smaller, and being ordered
about by mice and rabbits. I almost wish I hadn’t come down that rabbit-
hole—and yet—and yet—it’s rather curious, you know, this sort of life!’”
There is the humorous resignation of a young man who finds himself, against
his wishes, growing up and forced to take on the attributes of Father
William. That poem is not the expression of secure manhood, and Carroll’s
own illustrations show the youth’s surprise, intensified almost to agony, at his
father’s smug competence. In one picture the youth is distinctly what Gilbert
took the liberty of calling a je ne sais quoi young man.
The next challenge Alice meets is even more serious. “‘Who are you?’
said the Caterpillar.” When Alice courteously tries to answer him, he makes
himself more disagreeable.
“‘I—I hardly know, Sir, just at present—at least I know who I was when
I got up this morning, but I think I must have been changed several times
since then.’
“‘What do you mean by that?’ said the Caterpillar, sternly. ‘Explain
yourself!’
“‘I can’t explain myself, I’m afraid, Sir,’ said Alice, ‘because I’m not
myself, you see.’
“‘I don’t see,’ said the Caterpillar.
“‘I’m afraid I can’t put it more clearly,’ Alice replied very politely, ‘for
I can’t understand it myself, to begin with; and being so many different sizes
in a day is very confusing.’
“‘It isn’t,’ said the Caterpillar.”
Another distressing scene, when Alice’s neck has grown so long it winds
over the tree-tops, and a Pigeon challenges her:
“‘But I’m not a serpent, I tell you!’ said Alice. ‘I’m a—I’m a—’
“‘Well! What are you?’ said the Pigeon. ‘I can see you’re trying to
invent something.’
“‘I—I’m a little girl,’ said Alice, rather doubtfully, as she remembered
the number of changes she had gone through, that day.
“‘A likely story indeed!’ said the Pigeon, in a tone of the deepest
contempt. ‘I’ve seen a good many little girls in my time, but never one with
such a neck as that! No, no! You’re a serpent; and there’s no use denying it.’”
Some biographers thought Dodgson lived a calm and placid life under
the spreading oaks of Oxford. But is the following, for instance, pure fun?
“‘In that direction,’ the Cat said, waving its right paw round, ‘lives a
Hatter: and in that direction,’ waving the other paw, ‘lives a March Hare.
Visit either you like: they’re both mad.’
“‘But I don’t want to go among mad people,’ Alice remarked.
“‘Oh, you can’t help that,’ said the Cat: ‘we’re all mad here. I’m mad.
You’re mad.’
“‘How do you know I’m mad?’ said Alice.
“‘You must be,’ said the Cat, ‘or you wouldn’t have come here.’”
This gives some idea of what Charles felt about the world around him
and his part in it. But in some way the very sacrifice it cost him to take orders
seems to have fired him to the highest point of his career. Alice in Wonderland
is the choice flower of his genius. Through the Looking-Glass is witty,
inventive, quaint, what you will; but the shadow of the Red Queen of Logic
and the mysterious threat of the Red King hang over it; the dreamer who
may own not only the dream but even the characters in it, keeps it from being
an unclouded childish story. The little girl who said she liked both stories,
but thought Through the Looking-Glass was “stupider” than Wonderland,
conveys the same idea. Nothing in Wonderland parallels the complete
severance of the Reds and Whites in Through the Looking-Glass. In Sylvie and
Bruno, author and story have begun to disintegrate. The archness and
sweetness of parts, the utter cruelty and loathsomeness of others, predict
literal decomposition into his elements.
Wonderland has none of that. In it Carroll wields a nimble shuttle,
weaving disparate threads into a unified and perfect textile, of the pattern of
the search for the golden fleece, or the golden apples, or the fountain of
youth, or the pot of gold at the rainbow’s end; the search for the universal
treasure, that mankind recognizes with a joyful stirring. It is the plot of our
life here on earth, and any honest story that conforms to it, adds to it, finds
new forms and characters for it, even for the thousandth telling, will move
us. It is not even a special result of civilization that finding the treasure does
not bring happiness—what of the fisherman whose wife would be pope, or
the one whose wife won three wishes and had to use the third to get the
sausage off her husband’s nose? The wish can be fulfilled only in a dream,
and the happy ending is—to awaken and find one is still oneself, and can
trace some of the dream elements, as Alice did, to familiar sights and sounds.
As Carroll’s fellow-mathematician and Yankee contemporary, Willard Gibbs,
remarked, “The whole is simpler than its parts.”14
Here sits Mr. Dodgson, then, in the tightest kind of box—Christ
Church Don by his own exertions, Student by the grace of Dr. Pusey,
Deacon of the Church of England by the hand of Bishop Wilberforce; with
his thoughts and actions prescribed by medieval tradition, by the prejudices
of Prince Albert, by the Dean of Christ Church, by his father the
Archdeacon and his old schoolmaster the Archbishop of Canterbury, by the
whole hierarchy through Oliver Cromwell clear up to God, not to mention
the Reverend Charles Dodgson himself, one of the strictest of the lot.
Tighter and tighter, oh Lord! The only escape is down the rabbit hole and
into the beautiful garden.
And like Carl Sandburg’s Gimme the Ax, “when he gets to the moon he
will find everything the same as it always was.”
NOTES
1. The Cornhill Magazine, July, 1932, “Alice’s Recollections of Carrollian Days,” by

Captain Caryl Hargreaves.
2. The New York Times, May 1, 1932, “Lewis Carroll As Recalled by Alice,” by
Captain Caryl Hargreaves.
3. The Lewis Carroll Picture Book; by Stuart Dodgson Collingwood.
4. George Macdonald and His Wife, by Greville Macdonald.
5. The House of Macmillan, 1843–1943, by Charles Morgan.
6. The Rossettis, by Elisabeth Luther Cary.
7. Pearson’s Magazine, Dec., 1930, “Lewis Carroll Letters to his Illustrator,” by
Dorothy Furniss.
8. Private letter from Mr. Falconer Madan.
9. Burlington Magazine, April, 1921, “A Portrait of the Ugliest Princess in History,”
by W. A. Baillie-Grohman.
10. Edward Lear, by Angus Davidson.
11. The Road to Xanadu, by John Livingston Lowes.
12. The Story of Lewis Carroll, by Isa Bowman.
13. The White Knight—A Study of C. L. Dodgson, by Alexander L. Taylor.
14. Willard Gibbs, by Muriel Rukeyser.
WILLIAM EMPSON
Alice in Wonderland:
The Child as Swain
I t must seem a curious thing that there has been so little serious criticism
of the Alices, and that so many critics, with so militant and eager an air of
good taste, have explained that they would not think of attempting it. Even
Mr. de la Mare’s book, which made many good points, is queerly evasive in
tone. There seems to be a feeling that real criticism would involve
psychoanalysis, and that the results would be so improper as to destroy the
atmosphere of the books altogether. Dodgson was too conscious a writer to
be caught out so easily. For instance, it is an obvious bit of interpretation to
say that the Queen of Hearts is a symbol of “uncontrolled animal passion”
seen through the clear but blank eyes of sexlessness; obvious, and the sort of
thing critics are now so sure would be in bad taste; Dodgson said it himself,
to the actress who took the part when the thing was acted. The books are so
frankly about growing up that there is no great discovery in translating them
into Freudian terms; it seems only the proper exegesis of a classic even where
it would be a shock to the author. On the whole, the results of the analysis,
when put into drawing-room language, are his conscious opinions; and if
there was no other satisfactory outlet for his feelings but the special one fixed
in his books, the same is true in a degree of any original artist. I shall use
psychoanalysis where it seems relevant, and feel I had better begin by saying
what use it is supposed to be. Its business here is not to discover a neurosis
Robert Phillips, ed. © 1971 by The Vanguard Press. Originally published in Some Versions of
Pastoral.
39
40 William Empson
peculiar to Dodgson. The essential idea behind the books is a shift onto the
child, which Dodgson did not invent, of the obscure tradition of pastoral.
The formula is now “child-become-judge,” and if Dodgson identifies himself
with the child, so does the writer of the primary sort of pastoral with his
magnified version of the swain. (Dodgson took an excellent photograph,
much admired by Tennyson, of Alice Liddell as a ragged beggar girl, which
seems a sort of example of the connection.) I should say indeed that this
version was more open to neurosis than the older ones; it is less hopeful and
more a return into oneself. The analysis should show how this works in
general. But there are other things to be said about such a version of pastoral;
its use of the device prior to irony lets it make covert judgments about any
matter the author was interested in.
There is a tantalizing one about Darwinism. The first Neanderthal
skull was found in 1856. The Origin of Species (1859) came out six years before
Wonderland, three before its conception, and was very much in the air, a
pervading bad smell. It is hard to say how far Dodgson, under cover of
nonsense, was using ideas of which his set disapproved; he wrote some
hysterical passages against vivisection and has a curious remark to the effect
that chemistry professors had better not have laboratories, but was open to
new ideas and doubted the eternity of hell. The 1860 meeting of the British
Association, at which Huxley started his career as publicist and gave that
resounding snub to Bishop Wilberforce, was held at Oxford, where Dodgson
was already in residence. He had met Tennyson in ’56, and we hear of
Tennyson lecturing him later on the likeness of monkeys’ and men’s skulls.
The only passage that I feel sure involves evolution comes at the
beginning of Wonderland (the most spontaneous and “subconscious” part of
the books), when Alice gets out of the bath of tears that has magically
released her from the underground chamber; it is made clear (for instance
about watering-places) that the salt water is the sea from which life arose;
as a bodily product it is also the amniotic fluid (there are other forces at
work here); ontogeny then repeats phylogeny, and a whole Noah’s Ark gets
out of the sea with her. In Dodgson’s own illustration as well as Tenniel’s
there is the disturbing head of a monkey and in the text there is an extinct
bird. Our minds having thus been forced back onto the history of species,
there is a reading of history from the period when the Mouse “came over”
with the Conqueror; questions of race turn into the questions of breeding
in which Dodgson was more frankly interested, and there are obscure
snubs for people who boast about their ancestors. We then have the
Caucus-Race (the word had associations for Dodgson with local politics; he
says somewhere, “I never go to a Caucus without reluctance”), in which
you begin running when you like and leave off when you like, and all win.
The subtlety of this is that it supports Natural Selection (in the offensive
way the nineteenth century did) to show the absurdity of democracy, and
supports democracy (or at any rate liberty) to show the absurdity of
Natural Selection. The race is not to the swift, because idealism will not let
it be to the swift, and because life, as we are told in the final poem, is at
random and a dream. But there is no weakening of human values in this
generosity; all the animals win, and Alice, because she is Man, has therefore
to give them comfits, but though they demand this they do not fail to
recognize that she is superior. They give her her own elegant thimble, the
symbol of her labor, because she too has won, and because the highest
among you shall be the servant of all. This is a solid piece of symbolism;
the politically minded scientists preaching progress through “selection”
and laissez-faire are confronted with the full anarchy of Christ. And the
pretense of infantilism allows it a certain grim honesty; Alice is a little
ridiculous and discomfited, under cover of charm, and would prefer a more
aristocratic system.
In the Looking-Glass too there are ideas about progress at an early stage
of the journey of growing up. Alice goes quickly through the First Square by
railway, in a carriage full of animals in a state of excitement about the
progress of business and machinery; the only man is Disraeli, dressed in
newspapers—the new man who gets on by self-advertisement, the
newspaper-fed man who believes in progress, possibly even the rational dress
of the future.
... to her great surprise they all thought in chorus (I hope you
understand what thinking in chorus means—for I must confess that I
don’t), “Better say nothing at all. Language is worth a thousand pounds
a word!”
“I shall dream about a thousand pounds tonight, I know I shall,”
thought Alice.
All this time the Guard was looking at her, first through a telescope,
then through a microscope, and then through an opera-glass. At last he
said, “You’re traveling the wrong way,” and shut up the window and
went away.
This seems to be a prophecy; Huxley in the Romanes lecture of 1893, and

less clearly beforehand, said that the human sense of right must judge and
often be opposed to the progress imposed by Nature, but at this time he was
still looking through the glasses.
42 William Empson
But the gentleman dressed in white paper leaned forwards and

whispered in her ear, “Never mind what they all say, my dear, but take
a return-ticket every time the train stops.”
In 1861 “many Tory members considered that the prime minister was a
better representative of conservative opinions than the leader of the
opposition.” This seems to be the double outlook of Disraeli’s conservatism,
too subtle to inspire action. I think he turns up again as the Unicorn when
the Lion and the Unicorn are fighting for the Crown; they make a great dust
and nuisance, treat the commonsense Alice as entirely mythical, and are very
frightening to the poor King to whom the Crown really belongs.
“Indeed I shan’t,” Alice said rather impatiently. “I don’t belong to

this railway journey at all—I was in a wood just now—and I wish I
could get back there!”
When she gets back to the wood it is different; it is Nature in the raw, with
no names, and she is afraid of it. She still thinks the animals are right to stay
there; even when they know their names “they wouldn’t answer at all, if they
were wise.” (They might do well to write nonsense books under an assumed
name, and refuse to answer even to that.) All this is a very Kafka piece of
symbolism, less at ease than the preceding one; Wonderland is a dream, but
the Looking-Glass is self-consciousness. But both are topical; whether you call
the result allegory or “pure nonsense” depends on ideas about progress and
industrialization, and there is room for exegesis on the matter.
The beginning of modern child-sentiment may be placed at the
obscure edition of Mother Goose’s Melodies (John Newbury, 1760), with
“maxims” very probably by Goldsmith. The important thing is not the
rhymes (Boston boasts an edition of 1719. My impression is that they
improved as time went on) but the appended maxims, which take a
sophisticated pleasure in them. Most are sensible proverbs which the their
charm (mainly for the adult) of the story you must take if they are child had
better know anyway; comes from the unexpected view not to be irrelevant.
AMPHION’S SONG OF EURYDICE.
I won’t be my Father’s Jack,

I won’t be my Father’s Jill,
I won’t be the Fiddler’s Wife,
And I will have music when I will.
T’other little Tune,

T’other little Tune,
Prithee Love play me
T’other little Tune.
MAXIM.—Those Arts are the most valuable which are of the
greatest Use.
It seems to be the fiddler whose art has been useful in controlling her,
but then again she may have discovered the art of wheedling the fiddler. The
pomp of the maxim and the childishness of the rhyme make a mock-pastoral
compound. The pleasure in children here is obviously a derivative of the
pleasure in Macheath; the children are “little rogues.”
Bow wow wow

Whose dog art Thou?
Little Tom Tinker’s Dog.
Bow wow wow.
Tom Tinker’s Dog is a very good Dog; and an honester Dog

than his Master.
Honest (“free from hypocrisy” or the patronizing tone to a social inferior) and
dog (“you young dog”) have their Beggar’s Opera feelings here; it is not even
clear whether Tom is a young vagabond or a child.
This is a pleasant example because one can trace the question back.
Pope engraved a couplet “on the collar of a dog which I gave to His Royal
Highness”—a friendly act as from one gentleman to another resident in the
neighborhood.
I am his Highness’ dog at Kew.

Pray tell me, sir, whose dog are you?
Presumably Frederick himself would be the first to read it. The joke carries
a certain praise for the underdog; the point is not that men are slaves but that
they find it suits them and remain good-humored. The dog is proud of being
the prince’s dog and expects no one to take offense at the question. There is
also a hearty independence in its lack of respect for the inquirer. Pope took
this from Sir William Temple, where it is said by a fool: “I am the Lord
Chamberlain’s fool. And whose are you?” was his answer to the nobleman. It
is a neat case of the slow shift of this sentiment from fool to rogue to child.
44 William Empson
Alice, I think, is more of a “little rogue” than it is usual to say, or than

Dodgson himself thought in later years:
loving as a dog ... and gentle as a fawn; then courteous,—courteous to

all, high or low, grand or grotesque, King or Caterpillar ... trustful,
with an absolute trust....
and so on. It depends what you expect of a child of seven.
... she had quite a long argument with the Lory, who at last turned
sulky, and would only say, “I’m older than you, and must know better.”
And this Alice would not allow, without knowing how old it was, and as
the Lory positively refused to tell its age, there was no more to be said.
Alice had to be made to speak up to bring out the point—here the point is a
sense of the fundamental oddity of life given by the fact that different animals
become grown-up at different ages; but still, if you accept the Lory as a
grownup, this is rather a pert child. She is often the underdog speaking up
for itself.
A quite separate feeling about children, which is yet at the back of the
pertness here and in the Goldsmith, since it is needed if the pertness is to be
charming, may be seen in its clearest form in Wordsworth and Coleridge; it
is the whole point of the “Ode to Intimations” and even of “We are Seven.”
The child has not yet been put wrong by civilization, and all grownups have
been. It may well be true that Dodgson envied the child because it was
sexless, and Wordsworth because he knew that he was destroying his native
poetry by the smugness of his life, but neither theory explains why this
feeling about children arose when it did and became so general. There is
much of it in Vaughan after the Civil War, but as a general tendency it
appeared when the eighteenth-century settlement had come to seem narrow
and inescapable; one might connect it with the end of dueling; also when the
scientific sort of truth had been generally accepted as the main and real one.
It strengthened as the aristocracy became more puritan. It depends on a
feeling, whatever may have caused that in its turn, that no way of building up
character, no intellectual system, can bring out all that is inherent in the
human spirit, and therefore that there is more in the child than any man has
been able to keep. (The child is a microcosm, like Donne’s world, and Alice
too is a stoic.) This runs through all Victorian and Romantic literature; the
world of the adult made it hard to be an artist, and they kept a sort of taproot
going down to their experience as children. Artists like Wordsworth and
Coleridge, who accepted this fact and used it, naturally come to seem the
most interesting and in a way the most sincere writers of the period. Their
idea of the child, that it is in the right relation to Nature, not dividing what
should be unified, that its intuitive judgment contains what poetry and
philosophy must spend their time laboring to recover, was accepted by
Dodgson and a main part of his feeling. He quotes Wordsworth on this point
in the “Easter Greeting”—the child feels its life in every limb; Dodgson
advises it, with an infelicitous memory of the original poem, to give its
attention to death from time to time. That the dream books are
Like Pilgrim’s withered wreaths of flowers

Plucked in a far-off land
is a fine expression of Wordsworth’s sense both of the poetry of childhood

and of his advancing sterility. And the moment when Alice finds herself
dancing with Tweedledum and Tweedledee, so that it is difficult to introduce
herself afterwards, is a successful interruption of Wordsworthian sentiment
into his normal style.
... she took hold of both hands at once: the next moment they were
dancing round in a ring. This seemed quite natural (she remembered
afterwards), and she was not even surprised to hear music playing: it
seemed to come from the tree under which they were dancing, and it was
done (as well as she could make it out) by the branches rubbing one across
another, like fiddles and fiddle-sticks.... “I don’t know when I began it,
but somehow I felt as if I’d been singing it a long long time!”
This is presented as like the odd behavior of comic objects such as soup
tureens, but it is a directer version of the idea of the child’s unity with nature.
She has been singing a long long time because she sang with no temporal
limits in that imperial palace whence she came. Yet it is the frank selfishness
of the brothers, who, being little boys, the horrid, are made into a satire on
war, and will only give her the hands free from hugging each other, that
forces her into the ring with them that produces eternity. Even here this puts
a subtle doubt into the eternities open to the child.
For Dodgson will only go halfway with the sentiment of the child’s
unity with nature, and has another purpose for his heroine; she is the free and
independent mind. Not that this is contradictory; because she is right about
life, she is independent from all the other characters who are wrong. But it
is important to him because it enables him to clash the Wordsworth
sentiments with the other main tradition about children derived from rogue-
sentiment. (For both, no doubt, he had to go some way back; the intervening
46 William Empson
sentiment about children is that the great thing is to repress their Original
Sin, and I suppose, though he would not have liked it, he was among the
obscure influences that led to the cult of games in the public schools.)
One might say that the Alices differ from other versions of pastoral in
lacking the sense of glory. Normally the idea of including all sorts of men in
yourself brings in an idea of reconciling yourself with nature and therefore
gaining power over it. The Alices are more self-protective; the dream cuts out
the real world and the delicacy of the mood is felt to cut out the lower classes.
This is true enough, but when Humpty Dumpty says that glory means a nice
knock-down argument, he is not far from the central feeling of the book.
There is a real feeling of isolation and yet just that is taken as the source of
power.
The obvious parody of Wordsworth is the poem of the White Knight,
an important figure for whom Dodgson is willing to break the language of
humor into the language of sentiment. It takes off “Resolution and
Independence,” a genuine pastoral poem if ever there was one; the
endurance of the leech-gatherer gives Wordsworth strength to face the pain
of the world. Dodgson was fond of saying that one parodied the best poems,
or anyway that parody showed no lack of imagination, but a certain
bitterness is inherent in parody; if the meaning is not “This poem is absurd”
it must be “In my present mood of emotional sterility the poem will not
work, or I am afraid to let it work, on me.” The parody here will have no
truck with the dignity of the leech-gatherer, but the point of that is to make
the unworldly dreaminess of the Knight more absurd; there may even be a
reproach for Wordsworth in the lack of consideration that makes him go on
asking the same question. One feels that the Knight has probably imagined
most of the old man’s answers, or anyway that the old man was playing up to
the fool who questioned him. At any rate, there is a complete shift of interest
from the virtues of the leech-gatherer onto the childish but profound virtues
of his questioner.
The main basis of the joke is the idea of absurd inventions of new
foods. Dodgson was well-informed about food, kept his old menus, and
was wine-taster to the College; but ate very little, suspected the High
Table of overeating, and would see no reason to deny that he connected
overeating with other forms of sensuality. One reason for the importance
of rich food here is that it is the child’s symbol for all luxuries reserved for
grownups. I take it that the fascination of soup and of the Mock Turtle
who sings about it was that soup is mainly eaten at dinner, the excitingly
grown-up meal eaten after the child has gone to bed. When Alice talks
about her dinner she presumably means lunch, and it is rather a boast
when she says she has already met whiting. In the White Knight’s song
and conversation these little jokes based on fear of sensuality are put to a
further use; he becomes the scientist, the inventor, whose mind is nobly
but absurdly detached from interest in the pleasures of the senses and even
from “good sense.”
“How can you go on talking so quietly, head downwards?” Alice

asked, as she dragged him out by the feet, and laid him in a heap on the
bank.
The Knight looked surprised at the question. “What does it matter
where my body happens to be?” he said. “My mind goes on working all
the same. In fact, the more head downwards I am, the more I keep
inventing new things.
“Now the cleverest thing that I ever did,” he went on after a pause,
“was inventing a new pudding during the meat-course.”
This required extreme detachment; the word “clever” has become a signal
that the mind is being admired for such a reason. The more absurd the
assumptions of the thinking, for instance those of scientific materialism, the
more vigorous the thought based upon it. “Life is so strange that his results
have the more chance of being valuable because his assumptions are absurd,
but we must not forget that they are so.” This indeed is as near the truth as
one need get about scientific determinism.
One reason for the moral grandeur of the Knight, then, is that he
stands for the Victorian scientist, who was felt to have invented a new kind
of Roman virtue; earnestly; patiently, carefully (it annoyed Samuel Butler to
have these words used so continually about scientists), without sensuality,
without self-seeking, without claiming any but a fragment of knowledge, he
goes on laboring at his absurd but fruitful conceptions. But the parody makes
him stand also for the poet, and Wordsworth would have been pleased by
this; he considered that the poet was essentially one who revived our sense of
the original facts of nature, and should use scientific ideas where he could;
poetry was the impassioned expression of the face of all science; Wordsworth
was as successful in putting life into the abstract words of science as into “the
plain language of men,” and many of the Lyrical Ballads are best understood
as psychological notes written in a form that saves one from forgetting their
actuality. The Knight has the same readiness to accept new ideas and ways of
life, such as the sciences were imposing, without ceasing to be good and, in
his way, sensible, as Alice herself shows for instance when, in falling down the
rabbit-hole, she plans a polite entry into the Antipodes and is careful not to
drop the marmalade onto the inhabitants. It is the childishness of the Knight
that lets him combine the virtues of the poet and the scientist, and one must
48 William Empson
expect a creature so finely suited to life to be absurd because life itself is

absurd.
The talking-animal convention and the changes of relative size appear
in so different a children’s book as Gulliver; they evidently make some direct
appeal to the child, whatever more sophisticated ideas are piled onto them.
Children feel at home with animals conceived as human; the animal can be
made affectionate without its making serious emotional demands on them,
does not want to educate them, is at least unconventional in the sense that it
does not impose its conventions, and does not make a secret of the processes
of nature. So the talking animals here are a child-world; the rule about them
is that they are always friendly though childishly frank to Alice while she is
small, and when she is big (suggesting grown up) always opposed to her, or
by her, or both. But talking animals in children’s books had been turned to
didactic purposes ever since Aesop; the schoolmastering tone in which the
animals talk nonsense to Alice is partly a parody of this—they are really
childish but try not to look it. On the other hand, this tone is so supported
by the way they can order her about, the firm and surprising way their minds
work, the abstract topics they work on, the useless rules they accept with so
much conviction, that we take them as real grownups contrasted with
unsophisticated childhood. “The grown-up world is as odd as the child-
world, and both are a dream.” This ambivalence seems to correspond to
Dodgson’s own attitude to children; he, like Alice, wanted to get the
advantages of being childish and grown up at once. In real life this seems to
have at least occasional disadvantages both ways; one remembers the little
girl who screamed and demanded to be taken from the lunch table because
she knew she couldn’t solve his puzzles (not, apparently, a usual, but one
would think a natural reaction to his mode of approach)—she clearly thought
him too grown-up; whereas in the scenes of jealousy with his little girls’
parents, the grown-ups must have thought him quite enough of a child. He
made a success of the process, and it seems clear that it did none of the little
girls any harm, but one cannot help cocking one’s eye at it as a way of life.
The changes of size are more complex. In Gulliver they are the
impersonal eye; to change size and nothing else makes you feel “this makes
one see things as they are in themselves.” It excites wonder, but of a scientific
sort. Swift used it for satire on science or from a horrified interest in it, and
to give a sort of scientific authority to his deductions, that men, seen as small,
are spiritually petty and, seen as large, physically loathsome. And it is the
small observer, like the child, who does least to alter what he sees and
therefore sees most truly. (The definition of potential, in all but the most rigid
textbooks of electricity, contents itself with talking about the force on a small
charge which doesn’t alter the field much. The objection that the small
alteration in the field might be proportional to the small force does not occur
easily to the reader.) To mix this with a pious child’s type of wonder made
science seem less irreligious and gave you a feeling that you were being good
because educating a child; Faraday’s talks for children on the chemical history
of a candle came out in 1861, so the method was in the air. But these are
special uses of a material rich in itself. Children like to think of being so small
that they could hide from grownups and so big that they could control them,
and to do this dramatizes the great topic of growing up, which both Alices
keep to consistently. In the same way the charm of “Jabberwocky” is that it is
a code language, the language with which grownups hide things from children
or children from grownups. Also, the words are such good tongue-gestures,
in Sir Richard Paget’s phrase, that they seem to carry their own meaning; this
carries a hint of the paradox that the conventions are natural.
Both books also keep to the topic of death—the first two jokes about
death in Wonderland come on pages 3 and 4—and for the child this may be a
natural connection; I remember believing I should have to die in order to
grow up, and thinking the prospect very disagreeable. There seems to be a
connection in Dodgson’s mind between the death of childhood and the
development of sex, which might be pursued into many of the details of the
books. Alice will die if the Red King wakes up, partly because she is a dream-
product of the author and partly because the Pawn is put back in its box at
the end of the game. He is the absent husband of the Red Queen who is a
governess, and the end of the book comes when Alice defeats the Red Queen
and “mates” the King. Everything seems to break up because she arrives at a
piece of knowledge, that all the poems are about fish. I should say the idea was
somehow at work at the end of Wonderland too. The trial is meant to be a
mystery; Alice is told to leave the court, as if a child ought not to hear the
evidence, and yet they expect her to give evidence herself.
“What do you know about this business?” the King said to Alice.
“Nothing,” said Alice.
“Nothing whatever?” persisted the King.
“Nothing whatever,” said Alice.
“That’s very important,” the King said, turning to the jury. They
were just beginning to write this down on their slates, when the White
Rabbit interrupted: “Unimportant, your Majesty means of course,” he
said, in a very respectful tone; but frowning and making faces as he
spoke.
“Unimportant, of course, I meant,” the King hastily said, and went on
to himself in an undertone, “important—unimportant—unimportant—
important—” as if he were trying which word sounded best.
50 William Empson
There is no such stress in the passage as would make one feel there must be
something behind it, and certainly it is funny enough as it stands. But I think
Dodgson felt it was important that Alice should be innocent of all knowledge
of what the Knave of Hearts (a flashy-looking lady’s man in the picture) is
likely to have been doing, and also important that she should not be told she
is innocent. That is why the King, always a well-intentioned man, is
embarrassed. At the same time Dodgson feels that Alice is right in thinking
“it doesn’t matter a bit” which word the jury write down; she is too stable in
her detachment to be embarrassed, these things will not interest her, and in
a way she includes them all in herself. And it is the refusal to let her stay that
makes her revolt and break the dream. It is tempting to read an example of
this idea into the poem that introduces the Looking-Glass.
Come, harken then, ere voice of dread,

With bitter summons laden,
Shall summon to unwelcome bed
A melancholy maiden!1
After all, the marriage bed was more likely to be the end of the maiden than
the grave, and the metaphor firmly implied treats them as identical.
The last example is obviously more a joke against Dodgson than
anything else, and though the connection between death and the
development of sex is, I think, at work, it is not the main point of the conflict
about growing up. Alice is given a magical control over her growth by the
traditionally symbolic Caterpillar, a creature which has to go through a sort
of death to become grown up, and then seems a more spiritual creature. It
refuses to agree with Alice that this process is at all peculiar, and clearly her
own life will be somehow like it, but the main idea is not its development of
sex. The butterfly implied may be the girl when she is “out” or her soul when
in heaven, to which she is now nearer than she will be when she is “out”; she
must walk to it by walking away from it. Alice knows several reasons why she
should object to growing up, and does not at all like being an obvious angel,
a head out of contact with its body that has to come down from the sky and
gets mistaken for the Paradisal serpent of the knowledge of good and evil,
and by the pigeon of the Annunciation, too. But she only makes herself
smaller for reasons of tact or proportion; the triumphant close of Wonderland
is that she has outgrown her fancies and can afford to wake and despise them.
The Looking-Glass is less of a dream-product, less concentrated on the child’s
situation, and (once started) less full of changes of size; but it has the same
end; the governess shrinks to a kitten when Alice has grown from a Pawn to
a Queen and can shake her. Both these clearly stand for becoming grown up
and yet in part are a revolt against grown-up behavior; there is the same
ambivalence as about the talking animals. Whether children often find this
symbolism as interesting as Carroll did is another thing; there are recorded
cases of tears at such a betrayal of the reality of the story. I remember feeling
that the ends of the books were a sort of necessary assertion that the grown-
up world was after all the proper one; one did not object to that in principle,
but would no more turn to those parts from preference than to the “Easter
Greeting to Every Child that Loves Alice” (Gothic type).
To make the dream-story from which Wonderland was elaborated seem

Freudian one has only to tell it. A fall through a deep bole into the secrets of
Mother Earth produces a new enclosed soul wondering who it is, what will
be its position in the world, and how it can get out. It is a long low hall, part
of the palace of the Queen of Hearts (a neat touch), from which it can only
get out to the fresh air and the fountains through a hole frighteningly too
small. Strange changes, caused by the way it is nourished there, happen to it
in this place, but always when it is big it cannot get out and when it is small
it is not allowed to; for one thing, being a little girl, it has no key. The
nightmare theme of the birth-trauma, that she grows too big for the room
and is almost crushed by it, is not only used here but repeated more painfully
after she seems to have got out; the Rabbit sends her sternly into its house
and some food there makes her grow again. In Dodgson’s own drawing of
Alice when cramped into the room with one foot up the chimney, kicking out
the hateful thing that tries to come down (she takes away its pencil when it
is a juror), she is much more obviously in the fetus position than in Tenniel’s.
The White Rabbit is Mr. Spooner, to whom the spoonerisms happened, an
undergraduate in 1862, but its business here is as a pet for children which
they may be allowed to breed. Not that the clearness of the framework makes
the interpretation simple; Alice peering through the hole into the garden
may be wanting a return to the womb as well as an escape from it; she is fond,
we are told, of taking both sides of an argument when talking to herself, and
the whole book balances between the luscious nonsense-world of fantasy and
the ironic nonsense-world of fact.
I said that the sea of tears she swims in was the amniotic fluid, which
is much too simple. You may take it as Lethe in which the souls were bathed
before rebirth (and it is their own tears; they forget, as we forget our
childhood, through the repression of pain) or as the “solution” of an
intellectual contradiction through Intuition and a return to the
Unconscious. Anyway, it is a sordid image made pretty; one need not read
Dodgson’s satirical verses against babies to see how much he would dislike
a child wallowing in its tears in real life. The fondness of small girls for
52 William Empson
doing this has to be faced early in attempting to prefer them, possibly to

small boys, certainly to grownups; to a man idealizing children as free from
the falsity of a rich emotional life, their displays of emotion must be
particularly disconcerting. The celibate may be forced to observe them, on
the floor of a railway carriage for example, after a storm of fury, dabbling in
their ooze; covertly snuggling against mamma while each still pretends to
ignore the other. The symbolic pleasure of dabbling seems based on an idea
that the liquid itself is the bad temper which they have got rid of by the
storm and yet are still hugging, or that they are not quite impotent, since
they have at least “done” this much about the situation. The acid quality of
the style shows that Dodgson does not entirely like having to love creatures
whose narcissism takes this form, but he does not want simply to forget it as
he too would like a relief from “ill-temper”; he sterilizes it from the start by
giving it a charming myth. The love for narcissists itself seems mainly based
on a desire to keep oneself safely detached, which is the essential notion
here.
The symbolic completeness of Alice’s experience is, I think, important.
She runs the whole gamut; she is a father in getting down the hole, a fetus at
the bottom, and can only be born by becoming a mother and producing her
own amniotic fluid. Whether Carroll’s mind played the trick of putting this
into the story or not, he has the feelings that would correspond to it. A desire
to include all sexuality in the girl-child, the least obviously sexed of human
creatures, the one that keeps its sex in the safest place, was an important part
of their fascination for him. He is partly imagining himself as the girl-child
(with these comforting characteristics), partly as its father (these together
make it a father), partly as its lover—so it might be a mother—but then, of
course, it is clever and detached enough to do everything for itself. He told
one of his little girls a story about cats wearing gloves over their claws: “For
you see, ‘gloves’ have got ‘love’ inside them—there’s none outside, you
know.” So far from its dependence, the child’s independence is the important
thing, and the theme behind that is the self-centered emotional life imposed
by the detached intelligence.
The famous Cat is a very direct symbol of this ideal of intellectual
detachment; all cats are detached, and since this one grins, it is the amused
observer. It can disappear because it can abstract itself from its
surroundings into a more interesting inner world; it appears only as a head
because it is almost a disembodied intelligence, and only as a grin because
it can impose an atmosphere without being present. In frightening the
King by the allowable act of looking at him, it displays the soul-force of Mr.
Gandhi; it is unbeheadable because its soul cannot be killed; and its
influence brings about a short amnesty in the divided nature of the Queen
and Duchess. Its cleverness makes it formidable—it has very long claws and
a great many teeth—but Alice is particularly at home with it; she is the
same sort of thing.
The Gnat gives a more touching picture of Dodgson; he treats
nowhere more directly of his actual relations with the child. He feels he is
liable to nag at it, as a gnat would, and the Gnat turns out, as it is, to be
alarmingly big as a friend for the child, but at first it sounds tiny because it
means so little to her. It tries to amuse her by rather frightening accounts of
other dangerous insects, other grownups. It is reduced to tears by the
melancholy of its own jokes, which it usually can’t bear to finish; only if Alice
had made them, as it keeps egging her on to do, would they be at all
interesting. That at least would show the child had paid some sort of
attention, and it could go away and repeat them to other people. The desire
to have jokes made all the time, it feels, is a painful and obvious confession
of spiritual discomfort, and the freedom of Alice from such a feeling makes
her unapproachable.
“Don’t tease so,” said Alice, looking about in vain to see where the
voice came from. “If you’re so anxious to have a joke made, why don’t
you make one yourself?”
The little voice sighed deeply: it was very unhappy, evidently, and
Alice would have said something pitying to comfort it, “if it would only
sigh like other people!” she thought. But this was such a wonderfully
small sigh, that she wouldn’t have heard it at all, if it hadn’t come quite
close to her ear. The consequence of this was that it tickled her ear very
much, and quite took off her thoughts from the unhappiness of the poor
little creature.
“I know you are a friend,” the little voice went on; “a dear friend, and
an old friend. And you won’t hurt me, though I am an insect.”
“What kind of insect?” Alice inquired, a little anxiously. What she
really wanted to know was, whether it could sting or not, but she
thought this wouldn’t be quite a civil question to ask.
“What, then you don’t—” the little voice began....
“Don’t know who I am! Does anybody not know who I am?” He is afraid that
even so innocent a love as his, like all love, may be cruel, and yet it is she who
is able to hurt him, if only through his vanity. The implications of these few
pages are so painful that the ironical calm of the close, when she kills it,
seems delightfully gay and strong. The Gnat is suggesting to her that she
would like to remain purely a creature of nature and stay in the wood where
there are no names.
54 William Empson
“... That’s a joke. I wish you had made it.”

“Why do you wish I had made it?” Alice asked. “It’s a very bad one.”
But the Gnat only sighed deeply, while two large tears came rolling
down its cheeks.
“You shouldn’t make jokes,” Alice said, “if it makes you so unhappy.”
Then came another of those melancholy little sighs, and this time the
poor Gnat really seemed to have sighed itself away, for, when Alice
looked up, there was nothing whatever to be seen on the twig, and, as
she was getting quite chilly with, sitting so long, she got up and walked
on.
The overpunctuation and the flat assonance of “long—on” add to the effect.
There is something charmingly prim and well-meaning about the way she
sweeps aside the feelings that she can’t deal with. One need not suppose that
Dodgson ever performed this scene, which he can imagine so clearly, but
there is too much self-knowledge here to make the game of psychoanalysis
seem merely good fun.
The scene in which the Duchess has become friendly to Alice at the
garden-party shows Alice no longer separate from her creator; it is clear that
Dodgson would be as irritated as she is by the incident, and is putting himself
in her place. The obvious way to read it is as the middle-aged woman trying
to flirt with the chaste young man.
“The game’s going on rather better now,” she said....

“’Tis so,” said the Duchess: “and the moral of that is—‘Oh, ‘tis love,
‘tis love, that makes the world go round!’”
“Somebody said,” Alice whispered, “that it’s done by everybody
minding their own business!”
“Ah, well! It means much the same thing,” said the Duchess, digging
her sharp little chin into Alice’s shoulder as she added, “and the moral
of that is—‘Take care of the sense, and the sounds will take care of
themselves.’”
“How fond she is of finding morals in things!” Alice thought to herself.
Both are true because the generous and the selfish kinds of love have the
same name; the Duchess seems to take the view of the political economists,
that the greatest public good is produced by the greatest private selfishness.
All this talk about “morals” makes Alice suspicious; also, she is carrying a
flamingo, a pink bird with a long neck. “The chief difficulty Alice found at
first was in managing her flamingo ... it would twist itself round and look up
in her face.”
“I dare say you’re wondering why I don’t put my arm round your
waist,” the Duchess said, after a pause: “the reason is, that I’m doubtful
about the temper of your flamingo. Shall I try the experiment?”
“He might bite,” Alice cautiously replied, not feeling at all anxious
to have the experiment tried.
“Very true,” said the Duchess: “flamingoes and mustard both bite.
And the moral of that is—‘Birds of a feather flock together.’”
Mustard may be classed with the pepper that made her “ill-tempered” when
she had so much of it in the soup, so that flamingos and mustard become the
desires of the two sexes. No doubt Dodgson would be indignant at having
this meaning read into his symbols, but the meaning itself, if he had been
intending to talk about the matter, is just what he would have wished to say.
The Duchess then jumps away to another aspect of the selfishness of
our nature.
“It’s a mineral, I think,” said Alice.

“Of course it is,” said the Duchess, who seemed ready to agree to
everything that Alice said: “there’s a large mustard-mine near here.
And the moral of that is—‘The more. there is of mine, the less there is
of yours.’”
One could put the same meanings in again, but a new one has come forward:
“Industrialism is merely as greedy as sex; all we get from it is a sharper
distinction between rich and poor.” They go off into riddles about sincerity
and how one can grow into what one would seem to be.
This sort of “analysis” is a peep at machinery; the question for criticism
is what is done with the machine. The purpose of a dream on the Freudian
theory is simply to keep you in an undisturbed state so that you can go on
sleeping; in the course of this practical work you may produce something of
more general value, but not only of one sort. Alice has, I understand, become
a patron saint of the Surrealists, but they do not go in for Comic Primness,
a sort of reserve of force, which is her chief charm. Wyndham Lewis avoided
putting her beside Proust and Lorelei, to be danced on as a debilitating
child-cult (though she is a bit of a pragmatist too); the present-day reader is
more likely to complain of her complacence. In this sort of child-cult the
child, though a means of imaginative escape, becomes the critic; Alice is the
most reasonable and responsible person in the book. This is meant as
charmingly pathetic about her as well as satire about her elders, and there is
some implication that the sane man can take no other view of the world, even
for controlling it, than the child does; but this is kept a good distance from
56 William Empson
sentimental infantilism. There is always some doubt about the meaning of a

man who says he wants to be like a child, because he may want to be like it
in having fresh and vivid feelings and senses; in not knowing, expecting, or
desiring evil; in not having an analytical mind; in having no sexual desires
recognizable as such, or out of a desire to be mothered and evade
responsibility. He is usually mixing them up—Christ’s praise of children,
given perhaps for reasons I have failed to list, has made it a respected thing
to say, and it has been said often and loosely—but a man can make his own
mixture; Carroll’s invective hardly shows which he is attacking. The praise of
the child in the Alices mainly depends on a distaste not only for sexuality but
for all the distortions of vision that go with a rich emotional life; the opposite
idea needs to be set against this: that you can only understand people or even
things by having such a life in yourself to be their mirror; but the idea itself
is very respectable. So far as it is typical of the scientist, the books are an
expression of the scientific attitude (e.g. the Bread-and-butter-fly) or a sort
of satire on it that treats it as inevitable.
The most obvious aspect of the complacence is the snobbery. It is
clear that Alice is not only a very well-brought-up but a very well-to-do
little girl; if she has grown into Mabel, so that she will have to go and live
in that poky little house and have next to no toys to play with, she will
refuse to come out of her rabbit-hole at all. One is only surprised that she
is allowed to meet Mabel. All through the books odd objects of luxury are
viewed rather as Wordsworth viewed mountains: meaningless, but grand
and irremovable; objects of myth. The whiting, the talking leg of mutton,
the soup-tureen, the tea-tray in the sky, are obvious examples. The shift
from the idea of the child’s unity with nature is amusingly complete; a
mere change in the objects viewed makes it at one with the conventions.
But this is still not far from Wordsworth, who made his mountains into
symbols of the stable and moral society living among them. In part, the
joke of this stands for the sincerity of the child that criticizes the folly of
convention, but Alice is very respectful to conventions and interested to
learn new ones; indeed, the discussions about the rules of the game of
conversation, those stern comments on the isolation of humanity, put the
tone so strongly in favor of the conventions that one feels there is nothing
else in the world. There is a strange clash on this topic about the three
little sisters who lived on treacle, discussed at the Mad Tea-Party. “They
couldn’t have done that, you know,” Alice gently remarked, “they’d have
been ill.” “So they were,” said Dormouse, “very ill.” The creatures are
always self-centered and argumentative, to stand for the detachment of the
intellect from emotion, which is necessary to it and yet makes it childish.
Then the remark stands both for the danger of taking as one’s guide the
natural desires (“this is the sort of thing little girls would do if they were
left alone”) and for a pathetic example of a martyrdom to the conventions;
the little girls did not mind how ill they were made by living on treacle,
because it was their rule, and they knew it was expected of them. (That
they are refined girls is clear from the fact that they do allegorical
sketches.) There is an obscure connection here with the belief of the
period that a really nice girl is “delicate” (the profound sentences implied
by the combination of meanings in this word are [a] “you cannot get a
woman to be refined unless you make her ill” and, more darkly, [b] “she is
desirable because corpse-like”); Dodgson was always shocked to find that
his little girls had appetites, because it made them seem less pure. The
passage about the Bread-and-butter-fly brings this out more frankly, with
something of the willful grimness of Webster. It was a creature of such
high refinement that it could only live on weak tea with cream in it (tea
being the caller’s meal, sacred to the fair, with nothing gross about it). A
new difficulty came into Alice’s head.
“Supposing it couldn’t find any?” she suggested. “Then it would die,

of course.”
“But that must happen very often,” Alice remarked thoughtfully.
“It always happens,” said the Gnat.
After this, Alice was silent for a minute or two, pondering.
There need be no gloating over the child’s innocence here, as in Barrie;

anybody might ponder. Alice has just suggested that flies burn themselves to
death in candles out of a martyr’s ambition to become Snap-dragon-flies.
The talk goes on to losing one’s name, which is the next stage on her journey,
and brings freedom but is like death; the girl may lose her personality by
growing up into the life of convention, and her virginity (like her surname)
by marriage; or she may lose her “good name” when she loses the
conventions “in the woods”—the animals, etc., there have no names because
they are out of reach of the controlling reason; or, when she develops sex, she
must neither understand nor name her feelings. The Gnat is weeping and
Alice is afraid of the wood but determined to go on. “It always dies of thirst”
or “it always dies in the end, as do we all”; “the life of highest refinement is
the most deathly, yet what else is one to aim at when life is so brief, and when
there is so little in it of any value.” A certain ghoulishness in the atmosphere
of this, of which the tight-lacing may have been a product or partial cause,2
comes out very strongly in Henry James; the decadents pounced on it for
their own purposes but could not put more death wishes into it than these
respectables had done already.
58 William Empson
The blend of child-cult and snobbery that Alice shares with Oscar
Wilde is indeed much more bouncing and cheerful; the theme here is that it
is proper for the well-meaning and innocent girl to be worldly, because she,
like the world, should know the value of her condition. “When we were girls
we were brought up to know nothing, and very interesting it was”; “Mamma,
whose ideas on education are remarkably strict, has brought me up to be
extremely short-sighted; so do you mind my looking at you through my
glasses?” This joke seems to have come in after the Restoration dramatists as
innocence recovered its social value; there are touches in Farquhar and it is
strong in the Beggar’s Opera. Sheridan has full control of it for Mrs.
Malaprop.
I don’t think so much learning becomes a young woman.... But,

Sir Anthony, I would send her, at nine years old, to a boarding
school, in order to learn a little ingenuity and artifice. Then, sir,
she should have a supercilious knowledge in accounts; and as she
grew up, I would have her instructed in geometry, that she might
learn something of the contagious countries; but, above all, Sir
Anthony, she should be mistress of orthodoxy, that she might not
misspell, and mispronounce words so shamefully as girls usually
do; and likewise that she might reprehend the true meaning of
what she is saying.
Dodgson has an imitation of this which may show, what many of his
appreciators seem anxious to deny, that even Wonderland contains straight
satire. The Mock Turtle was taught at school
Reeling and Writhing, of course, to begin with ... and then the
different branches of Arithmetic—Ambition, Distraction, Uglification
and Derision ... Mystery, ancient and modern, with Seaography; then
Drawling—the Drawling-master ... used to come once a week; he
taught us Drawling, Stretching, and Fainting in Coils.
Children are to enjoy the jokes as against education, grownups as against a

smart and too expensive education. Alice was not one of the climbers taught
like this, and firmly remarks elsewhere that manners are not learned from
lessons. But she willingly receives social advice like “curtsey while you’re
thinking what to say; it saves time,” and the doctrine that you must walk away
from a queen if you really want to meet her has more point when said of the
greed of the climber than of the unself-seeking curiosity of the small girl. Or
it applies to both, and allows the climber a sense of purity and simplicity; I
think this was a source of charm, whether Dodgson meant it or not. Alice’s
own social assumptions are more subtle and all-pervading; she always seems
to raise the tone of the company she enters, and to find this all the easier
because the creatures are so rude to her. A central idea here is that the perfect
lady can gain all the advantages of contempt without soiling herself by
expressing or even feeling it.
This time there could be no mistake about it: it was neither more nor
less than a pig, and she felt that it would be quite absurd for her to carry
it any further.
So she set the little creature down, and felt quite relieved to see it trot
away quietly into the wood. “If it had grown up,” she said to herself, “it
would have made a dreadfully ugly child; but it makes rather a
handsome pig, I think.” And she began thinking over other children she
knew, who might do very well as pigs, and was just saying to herself, “if
only one knew the right way to change them—” when she was a little
startled by seeing the Cheshire Cat sitting on the bough of a tree a few
yards off.
The Cat only grinned when it saw Alice. It looked good-natured, she
thought: still it had very long claws and a great many teeth, so she felt
that it ought to be treated with respect.
The effect of cuddling these mellow evasive phrases—“a good deal”—

“do very well as”—whose vagueness can convey so rich an irony and so
complete a detachment while making so firm a claim to show charming good
will, is very close to that of Wilde’s comedy. So is the hint of a delicious
slavishness behind the primness, and contrasting with the irony, of the last
phrase. (But then, Dodgson feels the Cat deserves respect as the detached
intelligence—he is enjoying the idea that Alice and other social figures have
got to respect Dodgson.) I think there is a feeling that the aristocrat is
essentially like the child because it is his business to make claims in advance
of his immediate personal merits; the child is not strong yet, and the
aristocrat only as part of a system; the best he can do, if actually asked for his
credentials, since it would be indecent to produce his pedigree, is to display
charm and hope it will appear unconscious, like the good young girl. Wilde’s
version of this leaves rather a bad taste in the mouth because it is slavish; it
has something of the naive snobbery of the high-class servant. Whistler
meant this by the most crashing of his insults—“Oscar now stands forth
unveiled as his own ‘gentleman’”—when Wilde took shelter from a charge
of plagiarism behind the claim that a gentleman does not attend to coarse
abuse.
60 William Empson
Slavish, for one thing, because they were always juggling between what
they themselves thought wicked and what the society they addressed thought
wicked, talking about sin when they meant scandal. The thrill of Pen, Pencil
and Poison is in the covert comparison between Wilde himself and the
poisoner, and Wilde certainly did not think his sexual habits as wicked as
killing a friend to annoy an insurance company. By their very hints that they
deserved notice as sinners they pretended to accept all the moral ideas of
society, because they wanted to succeed in it, and yet society only took them
seriously because they were connected with an intellectual movement which
refused to accept some of those ideas. The Byronic theme of the man unable
to accept the moral ideas of his society and yet torn by his feelings about
them is real and permanent; but to base it on intellectual dishonesty is to
short-circuit it, and leads to a claim that the life of highest refinement must
be allowed a certain avid infantile petulance.
Alice is not a slave like this; she is almost too sure that she is good and
right. The grownup is egged on to imitate her not as a privileged decadent but
as a privileged eccentric, a Victorian figure that we must be sorry to lose. The
eccentric, though kind and noble, would be alarming from the strength of his
virtues if he were less funny; Dodgson saw to it that this underlying feeling
about his monsters was brought out firmly by Tenniel, who had been trained
on drawing very serious things like the British Lion weeping over Gordon, for
Punch. Their massive and romantic nobility is, I think, an important element
in the effect; Dodgson did not get it in his own drawings (nor, by the way, did
he give all the young men eunuchoid legs) but no doubt he would have done
so if he had been able. I should connect this weighty background with the
tone of worldly goodness, of universal but not stupid charity, in Alice’s
remarks about the pig: “I shall do my best even for you; of course one will
suffer, because you are not worth the efforts spent on you; but I have no
temptation to be uncharitable to you because I am too far above you to need
to put you in your place”—this is what her tone would develop into; a genuine
readiness for self-sacrifice and a more genuine sense of power.
The qualities held in so subtle a suspension in Alice are shown in full
blast in the two Queens. It is clear that this sort of moral superiority involves
a painful isolation, similar to those involved in the intellectual way of life and
the life of chastity, which are here associated with it. The reference to Maud
(1855) brings this out. It was a shocking book; mockery was deserved; and its
improper freedom was parodied by the flowers at the beginning of the
Looking-Glass. A taint of fussiness hangs over this sort of essay, but the
parodies were assumed to be obvious (children who aren’t forced to learn Dr.
Watts can’t get the same thrill from parodies of him as the original children
did) and even this parody is not as obvious as it was. There is no doubt that
the flowers are much funnier if you compare them with their indestructible
originals.
... whenever a March-wind sighs

He sets the jewel-print of your feet
In violets blue as your eyes ...
... the pimpernel dozed on the lea;

But the rose was awake all night for your sake,
Knowing your promise to me;
The lilies and roses were all awake ...
Queen rose of the rosebud garden of girls....
There has fallen a splendid tear

From the passion-flower at the gate.
She is coming, my dove, my dear;
She is coming, my life, my fate;
The red rose cries, “She is near, she is near;
And the white rose weeps, “She is late;”
The larkspur listens, “I hear, I hear;”
And the lily whispers, “I wait.”
“It isn’t manners for us to begin, you know,” said the Rose, “and I
really was wondering when you’d speak.” ...
“How is it you all talk so nicely?” Alice said, hoping to get it into a
better temper by a compliment....
“In most gardens,” the Tiger-lily said, “they make the beds too soft,
so that the flowers are always asleep.”
This sounded a very good reason, and Alice was quite pleased to know
it. “I never thought of that before!” she said.
“It’s my opinion that you never think at all,” the Rose said, in a
rather severe tone.
“I never saw anybody that looked stupider,” a Violet said, so suddenly,
that Alice quite jumped; for it hadn’t spoken before....
“She’s coming!” cried the Larkspur. “I hear her footstep, thump,
thump, along the gravel-walk!”
Alice looked round eagerly and found that it was the Red Queen—
the concentrated essence, Dodgson was to explain, of all governesses. The

Tiger-lily was originally a passionflower, but it was explained to Dodgson in
62 William Empson
time that the passion meant was not that of sexual desire (which he relates to
ill-temper) but of Christ; a brilliant recovery was made after the shock of this,
for Tiger-lily includes both the alarming fierceness of ideal passion (chaste
till now) and the ill-temper of the life of virtue and self-sacrifice typified by
the governess (chaste always). So that in effect he includes all the flowers
Tennyson named. The willow-tree that said Bough-wough doesn’t come in
the poem, but it is a symbol of hopeless love anyway. The pink daisies turn
white out of fear, as the white ones turn pink in the poem out of admiration.
I don’t know how far we ought to notice the remark about beds, which
implies that they should be hard because even passion demands the virtues of
asceticism (they are also the earthy beds of the grave); it fits in very well with
the ideas at work, but does not seem a thing Dodgson would have said in
clearer language.
But though he shied from the Christian association in the complex idea
wanted from “Passion-Flower,” the flowers make another one very firmly.
“But that’s not your fault,” the Rose added kindly. “You’re
beginning to fade, you know—and then one can’t help one’s petals
getting a little untidy.”
Alice didn’t like this idea at all: so, to change the subject, she asked
“Does she ever come out here?”
“I daresay you’ll see her soon,” said the Rose. “She’s one of the thorny
kind.”3
“Where does she wear the thorns?” Alice asked with some curiosity.
“Why, all round her head, of course,” the Rose replied. “I was
wondering you hadn’t got some too. I thought it was the regular rule.”
Death is never far out of sight in the books. The Rose cannot help
standing for desire, but its thorns here stand for the ill-temper not so much
of passion as of chastity, that of the governess or that involved in ideal love.
Then the thorns round the Queen’s head, the “regular rule” for suffering
humanity, not yet assumed by the child, stand for the Passion, the self-
sacrifice of the most ideal and most generous love, which produces ugliness
and ill-temper.
The joke of making romantic love ridiculous by applying it to
undesired middle-aged women is less to be respected than the joke of the
hopelessness of idealism. W. S. Gilbert uses it for the same timid
facetiousness but more offensively. This perhaps specially nineteenth-
century trick is played about all the women in the Alices—the Ugly Duchess
who had the aphrodisiac in the soup (pepper, as Alice pointed out, produces
“ill-temper”) was the same person as the Queen in the first draft (“Queen of
Hearts and Marchioness of Mock Turtles”) so that the Queen’s sentence of

her is the suicide of disruptive passion. The Mock Turtle, who is half beef in
the picture, with a cloven hoof, suffers from the calf-love of a turtledove; he
went to a bad school and is excited about dancing. (He is also weeping for his
lost childhood, which Dodgson sympathized with while blaming its
exaggeration, and Alice thought very queer; this keeps it from being direct
satire.) So love is also ridiculous in young men; it is felt that these two cover
the whole field (Dodgson was about thirty at the time) so that, granted these
points, the world is safe for chastity. The danger was from middle-aged
women because young women could be treated as pure, like Alice. Nor
indeed is this mere convention; Gilbert was relying on one of the more
permanent jokes played by nature on civilization, that unless somewhat
primitive methods are employed, the specific desires of refined women may
appear too late. So far as the chaste man uses this fact, and the fact that men
are hurt by permanent chastity less than women in order to insult women, no
fuss that he may make about baby women will make him dignified. Dodgson
keeps the theme fairly agreeable by connecting it with the more general one
of self-sacrifice—which may be useless or harmful, even when spontaneous
or part of a reasonable convention, which then makes the sacrificer ridiculous
and crippled, but which even then makes him deserve respect and may give
him unexpected sources of power. The man playing at child-cult arrives at
Sex War here (as usual since, but the comic Lear didn’t), but not to the death
or with all weapons.
The same ideas are behind the White Queen, the emotional as against
the practical idealist. It seems clear that the Apologia (1864) is in sight when
she believes the impossible for half an hour before breakfast, to keep in
practice; I should interpret the two examples she gives as immortality and
putting back the clock of history; also, Mass occurs before breakfast. All
through the Wool and Water chapter (milk and water but not nourishing,
and gritty to the teeth) she is Oxford, the life of learning rather than of
dogmatic religion. Everyone recognizes the local shop, the sham fights, the
rowing, the academic old Sheep, and the way it laughs scornfully when Alice
doesn’t know the technical slang of rowing; and there are some general
reflections on education. The teacher willfully puts the egg a long way off,
so that you have to walk after it yourself, and meanwhile it turns into
something else; and when you have “paid for” the education, its effects, then
first known, must be accepted as part of you whether they are good or bad.
Oxford as dreamy may be half satire, half acceptance of Arnold’s “adorable
dreamer” purple patch (1865).
Once at least in each book a cry of loneliness goes up from Alice at the
oddity beyond sympathy or communication of the world she has entered—
64 William Empson
whether that in which the child is shut by weakness, or the adult by the
renunciations necessary both for the ideal and the worldly way of life (the
strength of the snobbery is to imply that these are the same). It seems
strangely terrible that the answers of the White Queen, on the second of
these occasions, should be so unanswerable.
By this time it was getting light. “The crow must have flown away,
I think,” said Alice: “I’m so glad it’s gone. I thought it was the night
coming on.”
Even in the rhyme the crow may be fear of death. The rhymes, like those
other main structural materials, chess and cards, are useful because, being
fixed, trivial, odd, and stirring to the imagination, they affect one as
conventions of the dream-world, and this sets the tone about
conventions.
“I wish I could manage to be glad!” the Queen said. “Only I never

can remember the rule. You must be very happy, living in this wood,
and being glad whenever you like.”
So another wood has turned out to be nature. This use of “that’s a rule” is
Sheridan’s in The Critic; the pathos of its futility is that it is an attempt of
reason to do the work of emotion and escape the dangers of the emotional
approach to life. There may be a glance at the Oxford Movement and
dogma. Perhaps chiefly a satire on the complacence of the fashion of
slumming, the remark seems to spread out into the whole beauty and pathos
of the ideas of pastoral; by its very universality her vague sympathy becomes
an obscure self-indulgence.
“Only it is so very lonely here!” Alice said in a melancholy voice; and,

at the thought of her loneliness, two large tears came rolling down her
cheeks.
“Oh, don’t go on like that,” cried the poor Queen, wringing her
hands in despair. “Consider what a great girl you are. Consider what a
long way you’ve come to-day. Consider what o’clock it is. Consider
anything, only don’t cry!”
Alice could not help laughing at this, even in the midst of her tears.
“Can you keep from crying by considering things?” she asked.
“That’s the way it’s done,” the Queen said with great decision:
“nobody can do two things at once, you know. Let’s consider your age to
begin with—how old are you?”
We are back at once to the crucial topic of age and the fear of death,
and pass to the effectiveness of practice in helping one to believe the
impossible; for example, that the aging Queen is so old that she would be
dead. The helplessness of the intellect, which claims to rule so much, is
granted under cover of the counterclaim that since it makes you impersonal,
you can forget pain with it; we do not believe this about the Queen chiefly
because she has not enough understanding of other people. The jerk of the
return to age, and the assumption that this is a field for polite lying, make the
work of the intellect only the game of conversation. Humpty Dumpty has
the same embarrassing trick for arguing away a suggestion of loneliness.
Indeed, about all the rationalism of Alice and her acquaintances there hangs
a suggestion that there are, after all questions of pure thought, academic
thought, whose altruism is recognized and paid for, though meant only for
the upper classes to whom the conventions are in any case natural habit; like
that suggestion that the scientist is sure to be a gentleman and has plenty of
space, which is the fascination of Kew Gardens.
The Queen is a very inclusive figure. “Looking before and after” with
the plaintive tone of universal altruism, she lives chiefly backwards, in
history; the necessary darkness of growth, the mysteries of self knowledge,
the self-contradictions of the will, the antinomies of philosophy, the very
Looking-Glass itself, impose this; nor is it mere weakness to attempt to
resolve them only in the direct impulse of the child. Gathering the more
dream-rushes, her love for man becomes the more universal, herself the
more like a porcupine. Knitting with more and more needles, she tries to
control life by a more and more complex intellectual apparatus—the
“progress” of Herbert Spencer; any one shelf of the shop is empty, but there
is always something very interesting—the “atmosphere” of the place is so
interesting—which moves up as you look at it from shelf to shelf; there is jam
only in the future and our traditional past, and the test made by Alice, who
sent value through the ceiling as if it were quite used to it, shows that
progress can never reach value, because its habitation and name is heaven.
The Queen’s scheme of social reform, which is to punish those who are not
respectable before their crimes are committed, seems to be another of these
jokes about progress:
“But if you hadn’t done them,” the Queen said, “that would have
been better still; better, and better, and better!” Her voice went higher
with each “better,” till it got quite to a squeak at last.
There is a similar attack in the Walrus and the Carpenter, who are depressed
by the spectacle of unimproved nature and engage in charitable work among
66 William Empson
oysters. The Carpenter is a Castle and the Walrus, who could eat so many
more because he was crying behind his handkerchief, was a Bishop, in the
scheme at the beginning of the book. But in saying so one must be struck by
the depth at which the satire is hidden; the queerness of the incident and the
characters takes on a Wordsworthian grandeur and aridity, and the landscape
defined by the tricks of facetiousness takes on the remote and staring beauty
of the ideas of the insane. It is odd to find that Tenniel went on to illustrate
Poe in the same manner; Dodgson is often doing what Poe wanted to do, and
can do it the more easily because he can safely introduce the absurd. The
Idiot Boy of Wordsworth is too milky a moonlit creature to be at home with
Nature as she was deplored by the Carpenter, and much of the technique of
the rudeness of the Mad Hatter has been learned from Hamlet. It is the
ground-bass of this kinship with insanity, I think, that makes it so clear that
the books are not trifling, and the cool courage with which Alice accepts
madmen that gives them their strength.
This talk about the snobbery of the Alices may seem a mere attack, but
a little acid may help to remove the slime with which they have been
encrusted. The two main ideas behind the snobbery, that virtue and
intelligence are alike lonely, and that good manners are therefore important
though an absurd confession of human limitations, do not depend on a local
class system; they would be recognized in a degree by any tolerable society.
And if in a degree their opposites must also be recognized, so they are here;
there are solid enough statements of the shams of altruism and convention
and their horrors when genuine; it is the forces of this conflict that make a
clash violent enough to end both the dreams. In Wonderland this is
mysteriously mixed up with the trial of the Knave of Hearts, the thief of love,
but at the end of the second book the symbolism is franker and more simple.
She is a grown Queen and has acquired the conventional dignities of her
insane world; suddenly she admits their insanity, refuses to be a grown
Queen, and destroys them.
“I can’t stand this any longer!” she cried, as she seized the tablecloth
in both hands: one good pull, and plates, dishes, guests, and candles came
crashing down together in a heap on the floor.
The guests are inanimate and the crawling self-stultifying machinery of

luxury has taken on a hideous life of its own. It is the High Table of Christ
Church that we must think of here. The gentleman is not the slave of his
conventions because at need he could destroy them; and yet, even if he did
this, and all the more because he does not, he must adopt while despising it
the attitude to them of the child.
NOTES
1. The second line of this poem is quoted by Martin Gardner as reading “with bitter
tidings,” not “summons.” [Ed.]
2. It was getting worse when the Alices were written. In what Hugh Kingsmill calls
“the fatal fifties” skirts were so big that the small waist was not much needed for contrast,
so it can’t be blamed for the literary works of that decade.
3. Empson here quotes from the early text of the second chapter of Looking-Glass,
perhaps Dent’s Everyman’s Library. The later text, as reprinted in The Modern Library
edition and elsewhere, has the Rose reply, “She’s one of the kind that has nine spikes, you
know.” Just as Carroll changed his Passionflower to a Tiger-lily when it was pointed out
to him that the name was an allusion to Christ, so too must he have come to see the crown
of thorns as a Christly reference and changed it in later versions [Ed.].
ELIZABETH SEWELL
The Balance of Brillig1
I t is important to take a fairly wide field, because the authoritarian Humpty

Dumpty, backed up later by Carroll himself, has suggested an over-simple
explanation. Humpty Dumpty undertakes to interpret the hard words, says
that brillig is four o’clock in the afternoon, when you start broiling things for
dinner, and then goes on to slithy which he maintains is a combination of
lithe and slimy: ‘You see—it’s like a portmanteau—there are two meanings
packed up into one word.’ To this Carroll adds in the Snark Preface:
‘Humpty Dumpty’s theory, of two meanings packed into one word like a
portmanteau, seems to me the right explanation of all.’ As Mr. Partridge2
points out, this is no explanation of genuine inventions such as the Jubjub, or
Lear’s Moppsikon-Floppsikon. Alice herself seems reassuringly sceptical, for to
Humpty’s suggestion about brillig she replies, ‘Yes, that will do very well,’
which implies a good deal of reserve or at least the understanding that a
number of other interpretations would do equally well. There is a more
interesting remark earlier in the conversation, and it may be as well to start
here rather than with the portmanteau theory. Alice and Humpty have been
having a difference of opinion about the noun ‘glory’, to which Humpty
attributes an entirely personal meaning. When Alice complains, Humpty
says that he intends to be master of his own house, and continues with the
remark that adjectives are pliable and verbs tough. ‘They’ve a temper, some
From Alice in Wonderland, Donald J. Gray, ed. © 1989 W.W. Norton. Originally published in
The Field of Nonsense.
69
70 Elizabeth Sewell
of them—particularly verbs: they’re the proudest—adjectives you can do

anything with, but not verbs.’ It is certain that in Nonsense vocabulary nouns
and adjectives play by far the biggest part. Mr. Partridge in his classification
of the vocabulary of Jabberwocky gives four new verbs, gimble, outgrabe,
galumphing and chortled, to ten new adjectives and eight new nouns. In the list
of Lear’s neologisms the proportions are even more marked, with over two
pages of new nouns and a page of adjectives to six verbs and one adverb.
It is worth noticing at the beginning that it is possible to classify
Nonsense words into the normal grammatical categories. This is something
we take very much for granted with Lear and Carroll, but it need not
necessarily be so. For example, no classification is possible in this bit of Lear
gibberish:—
There was an old man of Spithead,

Who opened the window, and said—
‘Fil-jomble, fil-jumble, Fil-rumble-come-tumble!’
That doubtful old man of Spithead.
any more than in the ballad refrain ‘Hi diddle inkum feedle!’ Nonsense
inventions which are to serve as nouns and which might be hard to identify
in isolation, dong for instance, or rath, are given their context carefully, either
by a definite or indefinite article, or by means of adjectives or other
attributes: ‘the dong with a luminous nose’, or ‘the mome raths’. Very often,
too, they are given capital letters. The adjectives are nearly always
recognizable by a typical adjectival suffix: tulgey, uffish, manxome, or Lear’s
scroobious and borascible. The verbs follow the same lines, and where form
alone would be insufficient indication, syntax makes the word’s function
clear.
We can assume that the writers wanted their sentences containing
Nonsense words to look like genuine sentences bearing reference, and that
they found nouns and adjectives better for their purpose than verbs. If
Nonsense words are to appear to be one of a class, it must be in order that
they should carry conviction as words rather than gibberish. Brillig, Cloxam,
Willeby-Wat have no more reference than Hey nonny no or Hi diddle diddle, but
they seem to have, because they are presented to us as nouns or adjectives,
and remind us of other words which have reference. As regards the
preference for nouns and adjectives over verbs, it is interesting that
Mallarmé, that most logical of poets, should have shared it to a marked
degree. (Vide Jacques Scherer, L’Expression Littéraire dans l’Oeuvre de
Mallarmé, Droz, Paris, 1947, pp. 87–113). In logic, a verb expresses a
relation, and this suggests two reasons for the few invented verbs in
Nonsense. The first is the impossibility of inventing new relations in logic.

The second is that a verb is an expressed relation, and relations in logic have
to be simple and exact. If a Nonsense verb is invented, the mind can only deal
with it as it deals with Nonsense words in general: it will produce from its
memory all the other words the neologism resembles, and this will multiply
relationships and associations in a manner quite alien to the operation of
logic. The latter is concerned with implied relations between certain data,
and it is well, therefore, to keep the expressed relations as simple as possible,
since they are the groundwork. The verbs have to be simple because they are
important. The terms and the nature of them, i.e. in this case nouns and
adjectives, are, as we have seen, much less important to the working of the
system, and so they can be played with to a much greater degree. An example
from Carroll’s Symbolic Logic will illustrate the point:—
(1) No kitten, that loves fish, is unteachable;

(2) No kitten without a tail will play with a gorilla;
(3) Kittens with whiskers always love fish;
(4) No teachable kitten has green eyes;
(5) No kittens have tails unless they have whiskers.
We can move on now to an example of Nonsense wording; a very short

one will do to start with:—
... and shun

The frumious Bandersnatch.
The verb is simple and familiar; we are left with a noun and an adjective.
Humpty Dumpty’s commentary on the poem does not go beyond the first
verse, but the similar phrase, ‘the slithy toves’ is dealt with as follows: ‘Well,
“slithy” means “lithe and slimy” ... “toves” are something like badgers—
they’re something like lizards—and they’re something like corkscrews.’ The
noun is treated as if it were a technical term, a label and no more, and is
invested at once with Nonsense properties of the kind we have observed in
the last few chapters. The adjective is an example of Humpty Dumpty’s
portmanteau, and frumious is of the same type. Carroll says of it in the Snark
Preface that it is a combination of ‘fuming’ and ‘furious’. To take the
adjectives first, slithy and frumious, it seems curious that Humpty Dumpty
should have got by so easily on his portmanteau theory, for when one looks
at it, it becomes very unsatisfactory. It would fit a pun well enough, in which
there are precisely that—two meanings (or more than two) packed up in one
word. But frumious, for instance, is not a word, and does not have two
72 Elizabeth Sewell
meanings packed up in it; it is a group of letters without any meaning at all.

What Humpty Dumpty may have meant, but fails to say, is that it looks like
two words, ‘furious’ and ‘fuming’, reminding us of both simultaneously. It is
not a word, but it looks like other words, and almost certainly more than two.
In the examples given below one can see the sort of thing that happens, for
each mind will vary in the particular words recalled by these Nonsense
formations. I give Mr. Partridge’s, from Here, There and Everywhere, and my
own.
FRUMIOUS:
Carroll: furious, fuming.
Partridge: frumpish, gloomy.
Myself: fume, with a connection with French brume and
English brumous, frumenty, rheumy.
BANDERSNATCH:
Partridge: bandog, (?) Bandar, from Hindustani, snatching
proclivities.
Myself: Banshee and bandbox.
BORASCIBLE:
Partridge: irascible, boring.
Myself: Boreas, boracic, connection with Eastern Europe,
through, I think, the prefix ‘Bor’, as in General Bor-
Komorowski.
STAR-BESPRINGLED:
Partridge: bespangled and besprinkled.
Myself: connection with ‘tingled’, through the Tennysonian line:
‘A cry that shivered to the tingling stars’; the name ‘Pringle’,
connecting with dress-making (? through a story), also perhaps
‘pin-prick’.
MOPPSIKON-FLOPPSIKON BEAR:
Partridge: ‘with a great plop of hair and a floppy gait?’
Myself: Connection with Russia, through the ‘ikon’ ending. (Cf.
Partridge’s comment on ‘Soffsky-Poffsky trees’: ‘of Siberian
habitat?’)
These are not intended as interpretations. They merely show that these
words, though possessing no meaning themselves, remind the reader of
many words which have reference. Nonsense words which do not act in this
way, Jubjub, for instance, must have their function as technical terms made
clear at once, and this in fact is what happens:
Beware the Jubjub bird ...
Should we meet with a Jubjub, that desperate bird,

We shall need all our strength for the job!
On the whole, however, the first of these two forms is the commoner, a
Nonsense word reminding the mind of other words which it resembles. It is
important, for if a word does not look like a word, so to speak, the mind will
not play with it. Carroll coins examples of this sort, Mhruxian and
grurmstipths from Tangled Tales or the ‘occasional exclamation’ of the
Gryphon, Hjckrrh from The Mock Turtle’s Story. Words such as these do not
interest the mind; but dongs and toves look strangely familiar, and the mind
can enjoy itself with them. Mr. Partridge has some delightful examples,
making Lear’s Gramblamble into Grand Lama? grand brambles? or Carroll’s
Ipwergis pudding from Sylvie and Bruno into Walpurgis and haggis. We are left
with a half-conscious perception of verbal likenesses, and, in consequence,
the evocation of a series of words.
It looks as if Nonsense were running on to dangerous ground here, for
two of its rules are (a) no likenesses are to be observed, and (b) no trains of
association are to be set up. At this point we shall have to go back to the
Snark Preface for a moment, for, although we have rejected Carroll’s
suggestion that Humpty Dumpty’s theory will cover all the Nonsense words,
making the portmanteau into an umbrella, there is an interesting remark a
little later on. Discussing the alternative of saying ‘fuming-furious’ or
‘furious-fuming’, Carroll says, ‘but, if you have that rarest of gifts, a perfectly
balanced mind, you will say “frumious”.’ It is a hint that here as elsewhere
Nonsense is maintaining some kind of balance in its language.3 After all,
Humpty Dumpty who is the chief language expert in the Alices is himself in
such a state; Carroll could have made any of his characters discourse upon
words, and it is interesting that the one who in fact does so was ‘sitting, with
his legs crossed like a Turk, on the top of a high wall—such a narrow one that
Alice quite wondered how he could keep his balance’. What is the nature of
this balance where Nonsense words are concerned, and why is it precarious?
One might suppose the danger to be that these Nonsense words break
two important rules of the Nonsense game. In fact, however, this
infringement is only apparent. We have seen already that although Nonsense
plays on the side of order, its aim and method is to defeat disorder with
74 Elizabeth Sewell
disorder’s own weapons. It allows disorder in the mind a certain amount of

selected material apparently suitable for dream purposes (images and so on),
and in this way draws the disordering faculty into play, but manages never to
let it gain control. Exactly the same thing is happening here. The mind is
encouraged by means of these Nonsense words to notice likenesses; but the
likenesses are to other words. It is the purely verbal memory and associative
faculty which is called into play. The danger for Nonsense is that likenesses
perceived between images may run together into a poetic and dreaming
unity; this almost happens with Lear’s ‘star-bespringled’ for instance, but
Nonsense words must in general avoid anything of this kind. To take another
example, Lear’s Pobble suggests to Mr. Partridge poodle and wabble, to
myself bobble and pebble. Each of us has two good words plus the Nonsense
original, but with the references one can do nothing. They will not fuse; and
from this it may be seen that we have not really shifted one foot off our safe
Nonsense ground of one and one and one. Pebbles, poodles, bobbles and
wabbles are as good a Nonsense series as any another, and quite as intractable
to the fusing powers of the dream. Provided that enough words are called up
by a Nonsense neologism and provided that the references are sufficiently
incompatible, Nonsense is as safe in this part of the game as in any other.
In the same way it is interesting to note that what I have called the
technical terms, where no immediate chorus of connected words springs
to the mind, are frequently doubled on themselves, as if to make up for
their absence of evocation by creating inside themselves a tiny alliterative,
rhyming or repetitive series of their own. Jabberwocky produces the Jubjub,
‘Callooh! Callay!’, snicker-snack; Lear has Soffsky-Poffsky, Clangle-Wangle,
Boss-Woss. They go as the vorpal sword went, one two, one two, and we are
still safe inside the world of numbers and series. The same principle holds
good in the Nonsense manoeuvre of transplanting words from their
normal context. There is only one example of this in Carroll, in the
Snark:—
As the man they called ‘Ho!’ told his story of woe

In an antediluvian tone.
but Lear has a number, ‘You luminous person of Barnes’, ‘That incipient old
man at a casement’, ‘That intrinsic old man of Peru’, and many more both in
his Nonsense and his letters. The words have meanings but the mind is
unable to fit the meanings, as assembled, together, and the effect once again
is that of one and one and one.
That effect, however, is extremely important; it is vital that the effect
should be one and one, and not nothing. So far we have been looking only at
one side of the question, one half of the balancing process. We have seen how
the Nonsense words, by the usual Nonsense methods, play against the mind’s
tendency to oneness, the tendency towards poetry and dream; but they have
equally to make sure that the Nonsense words do not create a nothingness in
the mind. Either form of infinity is dangerous to Nonsense, and it is between
the two, between 0 and 1 as it were, that Nonsense language has to maintain
its balance.
Nonsense has a fear of nothingness quite as great as its fear of
everythingness. Mr. Empson says in Some Versions of the Pastoral that the fear
of death is one of the crucial topics of the Alices, but it will be simpler for us
at present to think of it as a fear of nothingness.
... ‘for it might end, you know,’ said Alice to herself, ‘in my
going out altogether, like a candle. I wonder what I should be like
then?’
‘You know very well you’re not real.’
‘I am real!’ said Alice, and began to cry.
The Snark breaks the rules here, for in Fit the Seventh someone has ‘softly
and suddenly vanished away’, that is, has become nothingness. Nonsense
does not deal in any kind of physical or metaphysical nothingness, one needs
to remember. It deals in words. Where these are normal and are acting
normally, there cannot be a nothingness in so far as they are concerned, for
words have reference to experience. ‘Word implies relation to creatures’
[Aquinas], Summa [Theologica], Pt. I, Q. 34, Art. 4). The only way in which
nothingness could set in might be by some sort of separation between words
and things, by things having no words attached to them or by words without
reference to things. It comes down to a question of names.
Names come in for a good deal of attention in the Alices. ‘What’s your
name, child?’ is the first remark of the Queen of Hearts to Alice. Humpty
Dumpty also enquires what her name is, but makes the rather interesting
remark that it is unsatisfactory because it does not mean anything. Alice
questions the need for names to mean anything, but Humpty insists on the
point, as if he were trying to set up a closer connection between the name
and the thing, in the case of proper nouns. Generally, we use proper nouns
as pointers and nothing more. Poetry makes much use of this, using them
where possible as series of lovely sounds but not entirely devoid of reference
or at least of connections, since they have associational power if not much in
the way of content. The content is not enough to distract the mind from the
succession of sounds, but the associations will prevent the complaint that the
poet is talking gibberish:—
76 Elizabeth Sewell
And all who since, baptized or infidel,

Jousted in Aspramont or Montalban,
Damasco, or Marocco or Trebisond,
Or whom Biserta sent from Afric shore
When Charlemain and all his peerage fell
At Fontarabia....
MILTON
None the less it is noticeable that when poetry does this, it very often
intersperses the proper nouns with names of things, as if to feed the mind
adequately with creatures, lest it be lulled by music, a way of working which
is only partially appropriate to poetry.
Sail of Claustra, Aelis, Azalais,

Raimona, Tibors, Berangerë,
‘Neath the dark gleam of the sky;
Under night, the peacock-throated,
Bring the saffron-coloured shell....
Mirals, Cembelins, Audiarda,
Remember this fire.
Elain, Tireis, Alcmena,
‘Mid the silver rustling of wheat....
(EZRA POUND)
The men of Arvid with thine army were upon thy walls round
about, and the Gammadims were in thy towers ... Syria ...
occupied in thy fairs with emeralds, purple, and broidered work,
and fine linen, with coral, and agate. Judah, and the land of Israel
... traded in thy market wheat of Minnith, and Pannag, and
honey, and oil, and balm.
Damascus was thy merchant ... for the multitude of all riches;
in the wine of Helbon, and white wool. Dan also and Javan going
to and fro occupied in thy fairs: bright iron, cassia, and calamus
were in thy market....
(From Ezekiel xxvii)
Nonsense, as we have seen, eschews beauty, but its proper nouns work
in the same way as these, though the associations are verbal, the isles of
Boshen recalling the Biblical land of Goshen, Chankly Bore seeming a
metamorphosis of Branksome Chine, Tinniskoop of Tinnevelly and so on.
The names in Nonsense are not nothingnesses; they work by association, as
the names in poetry do, but their associations are with words. Here, too, in
its own way, Nonsense preserves the connection between these names and
things, and we are given details:—
Landing at eve near the Zemmery Fidd

Where the Oblong Oysters grow.
(Lear, The Dong with a Luminous Nose)
... the Soffsky-Poffsky trees,—which were ... covered with blue

leaves ...
(Lear, The Seven Families)
Of the Jubjub:—
Its flavour when cooked is more exquisite far

Than mutton, or oysters, or eggs:
(Some think it keeps best in an ivory jar,
And some, in mahogany kegs).
Nothingness in all these cases is successfully defeated by the number of

the verbal reminiscences called up by the Nonsense words, by their close
association with things, and by illustrations. The Jabberwock is pictured
for us, and so are the Pobble and the Dong and the Jumblies and nearly all
of Lear’s inventions. The Nonsense words are sufficiently protected from
nothingness; but what happens if the reverse process takes place, and
things are separated from, words in some way, becoming nameless?
It is interesting that such a case is dealt with explicitly in Through the
Looking-Glass, in Alice’s entry into the wood where things have no name.
This is at the end of Chapter III, Looking-Glass Insects, a very significant
chapter despite its rather limited title, for it is all about words and names.
It starts with Alice trying to make a survey of the country and attempting
to name, as one might do in geography, the mountains and rivers and
towns. Then comes the scene in the railway carriage * * * with [its] remark,
‘Language is worth a thousand pounds a word!’ Soon after this, two
remarks are made to Alice about knowing her own name and knowing the
alphabet, and then begins a series of puns, made by the Gnat. It is as if,
having got words and references put together at this point (as they were not
at the beginning of the chapter, where Alice says, ‘Principal mountains—
I’m on the only one, but I don’t think it’s got any name’) and having
realized the value of it—worth a thousand pounds a word—one can start
playing with it. Puns, as we have seen, are a safe enough game for
78 Elizabeth Sewell
Nonsense, because they are real portmanteaux, where the two meanings
are distinct but are incongruously connected by an accident of language
formation. After the puns, Alice and the Gnat discuss the purpose of
names, and whether they have any use. Then follows another game with
words: Alice’s horse-fly becomes a rocking-horse-fly, the butterfly a bread-
and-butter-fly. A piece of each word is allowed to develop, rather as Lear’s
people develop enormous noses, all out of proportion. Images in Nonsense
are not allowed to develop, to turn into or mingle with other images as
happens in dreams and poetry; but words may do so, provided they merely
develop into another word, and by their development accentuate an
incongruity. Here again, circumstantial details are given at once: ‘Its wings
are thin slices of bread-and-butter, its body is a crust, and its head is a lump
of sugar.’ Looking-Glass Insects, in fact, are not insects at all but
compounds of words to which are added lists of properties in the best
Nonsense manner.
The next stage is a further discussion on names. ‘I suppose you don’t
want to lose your name? .. only think how convenient it would be if you
could manage to go home without it!’ Alice is a little nervous about such an
idea, and the Wood where things have no names, to which she proceeds
immediately after this conversation, is frighteningly dark. Once in it, she
cannot remember her own name or give a name to any of the objects round
her. This is a terrifying situation, but Carroll preserves the readers from it by
subjecting Alice alone to the experiment; the passage in the book makes no
attempt to forgo the use of names. It is at this point that Alice meets the
Fawn, a pretty creature ‘with its large gentle eyes ... Such a sweet soft voice
it had!’ It asks her name, and she makes a similar enquiry, but neither can
remember, and they proceed lovingly—the word is Carroll’s own—till they
emerge from (the wood. There each remembers its name and identity, and in
a flash they are parted.
This passage is one of the most interesting in the Alices. There is a
suggestion here that to lose your name is to gain freedom in some way, since
the nameless one would no longer be under control: ‘There wouldn’t be any
name for her to call, and of course you wouldn’t have to go, you know.’ It also
suggests that the loss of language brings with it an increase in loving unity
with living things. It is words that separate the fawn and the child, just as they
separate the Yonghy-Bonghy-Bò and his love in that wood of Bongtrees
where we began:—
‘Though you’re such a Hoddy Doddy,

‘Yet I wish that I could modi-
‘fy the words I needs must say!
‘Will you please to go away?’
Nonsense is a game with words. Its own inventions wander safely between
the respective pitfalls of 0 and 1, nothingness and everythingness; but where
words without things are safe enough, things without words are far more
dangerous. To have no name is to be a kind of nothing:—
‘What do you call yourself?’ the Fawn said ...

She answered rather sadly, ‘Nothing just now.’
But it is also to have unexpected opportunities for unity and that is a step
towards everythingness. We are safe with brillig and the Jabberwock because
that is a fight, a dialectic and an equilibrium; but despite the Yonghy-
Bonghy-Bò and the Bong-trees—words which as we have seen play the
Nonsense game in the usual way—and despite the early pumpkins and the
jug without a handle, something has crept in here which words cannot cover,
cannot split up and control. There is a nostalgia in each of these scenes:—
Alice stood looking after it, almost ready to cry with vexation
at having lost her dear little fellow-traveller so suddenly.
On that coast of Coromandel,

In his jug without a handle
Still she weeps, and daily moans;
On that little heap of stones
To her Dorking hens she moans ...
But Nonsense can admit of no emotion—that gate to everythingness and

nothingness where ultimately words fail completely. It is a game to which
emotion is alien, and it will allow none to its playthings, which are words and
those wielders of words, human beings. Its humans, like its words and things
and Nonsense vocabulary, have to be one, and one, and one. There is
nothing more inexorable than a game.
NOTES
1. From Elizabeth Sewell, The Field of Nonsense (London: Chatto and Windus Ltd.,
1952), pp. 116–29. Reprinted by permission of Chatto and Windus Ltd, and Christy &
Moore Ltd.
In her study of the nonsense of Lewis Carroll and Edward Lear, Miss Sewell describes
the practices and purposes of nonsense as those of a game. A game she defines as “the
active manipulation, serving no useful purpose, of a certain object or class of objects,
80 Elizabeth Sewell
concrete or mental, within a limited field of space and time and according to fixed rules,
with the aim of producing a given result despite the opposition of chance and/or
opponents” (p. 27). The objects manipulated in the game of nonsense are words, and in
nonsense the mind uses words so that “its tendency towards order [will] engage its
contrary tendency towards disorder, keeping the latter perpetually in play and so in check”
(p. 48). In the section of her book reprinted here, Miss Sewell considers how nonsense uses
language so that words and syntax maintain a balance between a disorder of discrete
objects entirely without relation to one another, and the coherence and similitudes of
dream or poetry.
2. Eric Partridge, “The Nonsense Words of Edward Lear and Lewis Carroll,” in
Here, There and Everywhere (London, 1950), pp. 162-88 [Editor].
3. Belle Moses in Lewis Carroll in Wonderland, and at Home quotes him as saying of
his Nonsense language, ‘A perfectly balanced mind could understand it.’ (Ch. I, p. 6).
A L E X A N D E R L . TAY L O R
Through the Looking-glass
T he first chapter of Through the Looking-glass was sent to the press ‘a few
days after the publication of Phantasmagoria’ which appeared in January,
1869.1 Dodgson must therefore have been writing, as opposed to jotting
down ideas, at least since his removal to Tom Quad. On 19 April, 1870, he
wrote to Miss Mary Marshal, ‘I don’t know when it will be finished’.2 It was
published in December, 1871. Fortunately Tenniel had relented and did
supply the illustrations.
In Alice’s Adventures Dodgson had ingeniously concealed certain
amusing little problems and ‘leg-pulls’. He deliberately cast Through the
Looking-glass in the form of an enigma, a form which appealed to his love of
innocent deception and which Kingsley had suggested in The Water Babies:
Come read me a riddle

Each good little man:
If you cannot read it
No grown-up folks can.
And if you will read this story nine times over, and then think for
yourself, you will find out why. It is not good for little boys to be
told everything, and never to be forced to use their wits.
From The White Knight: A Study of C.L. Dodgson. © 1952 Oliver & Boyd.
81
82 Alexander L. Taylor
Compare with this the old sheep’s remark: ‘I never put thing into people’s
hands; that would never do. They must get then for themselves.’
In 1888 he wrote to Nellie Knight from Eastbourne: ‘I’m rather
puzzled which book to send to Sydney. He looks so young for Through the
Looking-glass. However, he found out one puzzle ... that I don’t remember
anyone of his age ever guessing before, so I think it won’t be too old a book
for him.’ What Sydney made of it as a puzzle is not recorded. No doubt he
enjoyed it as a story.
It is not my intention to go through the book squeezing the last drop
of meaning from every word. That would take a very long time—supposing
it to be possible, which is by no means certain. As Dodgson said in a letter to
a friend in America, words mean more than we mean to express when we use
them; so a whole book ought to mean a great deal more than the writer
means.3 Let us, however, examine some of the ideas on which the book is
based.
In the first place he used the time-honoured dream-machinery, that
mediaeval framework for allegory and satire, but he used it with a difference.
How long does a dream last? By the clock, Alice’s dream lasts hardly any time
at all. When it begins Dinah is washing her white kitten and she is still
washing it when Alice awakes—if she has ever been asleep. She has been in
some kind of trance, like ‘the vision of the prophet Mahommed, in which he
saw the whole wonders of heaven and hell, though the jar of water which fell
when his ecstasy commenced had not spilled its contents when he returned
to ordinary existence’.
In Bruno’s Revenge (1867) Dodgson had explained what he meant by the
‘eerie’ state. Twenty-six years later, in the Preface to Sylvie and Bruno
Concluded, he elaborated his views:
It may interest some of my Readers to know the theory on

which this story is constructed. It is an attempt to show what
might possibly happen, supposing that Fairies really existed; and
that they were sometimes visible to us and we to them; and
supposing also, that human beings might sometimes become
conscious of what goes on in the Fairy-world—by actual
transference of their immaterial essence, such as we meet with in
‘Esoteric Buddhism’.
I have supposed a Human Being to be capable of various
psychic states, with varying degrees of consciousness, as follows
(a) The ordinary state, with no consciousness of the presence
of Fairies;
(b) The ‘eerie’ state, in which, while conscious of actual
surroundings, he is also conscious of the presence of

Fairies;
(c) A form of trance, in which, while unconscious of actual
surroundings and apparently asleep, he (i.e. his
immaterial essence) migrates to other scenes, in the actual
world, or in Fairyland, and is conscious of the presence of
Fairies.
I have also supposed a Fairy to be capable of migrating from
Fairyland into: the actual world, and of assuming at pleasure a
Human form; and also to be capable of various psychical states, viz.
(a) The ordinary state, with no consciousness of the presence
of Human Beings.
(b) A sort of ‘eerie’ state, in which he is conscious, if in the
actual world, of the presence of actual Human Beings, if
in Fairyland, of the presence of the immaterial essences of
Human Beings.
I will here tabulate the passages in both Volumes, where
abnormal states occur.
And he does.
In Through the Looking-glass Alice is in the normal state at the
beginning and the end of the story. She is ‘eerie’ in Looking-glass House and
when she has ‘entered the palace’, just before she awakes. In the garden and
on the chess-board she is in the trance state.
The chess-pieces, too, have their various states. In Looking-glass House
they are unconscious of Alice’s presence; that is, they are in ‘the ordinary state,
with no consciousness of the presence of Human Beings’. But in the game they
are conscious of the presence of Alice’s immaterial essence. Near the end of the
game the Queens fall asleep and dream of Alice’s world. They are presumably
in the trance state then. The Red King is in the trance state throughout and the
White Knight might be said to be permanently ‘eerie’.
The rather irritating question ‘Which dreamed it?’ with its Kantian or
Berkeleyan overtones derives from Dodgson’s original ending to Alice’s
Adventures Under Ground:
But her sister sat there some while longer, watching the setting
sun, and thinking of little Alice and her adventures, till she, too,
began dreaming after a fashion, and this was her dream.
She saw an ancient city, and a quiet river winding near it along
the plain, and up the stream went slowly gliding a boat with a
merry party of children on board—she could hear the voices and
laughter like music over the water—and among them was

another little Alice, who sat listening with bright, eager eyes, to a
tale that was being told, and she listened for the words of the tale,
and lo, it was the dream of her own little sister.
Less original was the looking-glass idea. It cannot be a coincidence that

within a year of each other appeared Through the Looking-glass (1872) and
Erewhon (1871), both about worlds where everything is the mirror-image of
what we regard as normal. Yet it is as certain as anything can be that the
books were written independently. Kingsley had used a similar idea in The
Water Babies, where Tom found the Other-End-of Nowhere much more like
This-End-of-Somewhere than he had been in the habit of expecting. And
before that there was the Taylor sisters’ Signor Topsy Turvey’s Wonderful Magic
Lantern; or The World Turned Upside Down (1810). Yet Dodgson’s use of the
looking-glass idea was all his own.
The difference between Erewhon and Through the Looking-glass is
profound. Butler begins realistically, as Swift did in Gulliver’s Travels, but
soon throws aside all pretence and reveals his purpose as satirical. Dodgson
pretends throughout to be writing ‘nonsense’. He acknowledges no
obligation to stick to one subject but slides from topic to topic by subtle
associations of ideas. Nevertheless, meaning is always there, flowing along
like a deep, dark river, with the puns and patter as the play of light on the
surface.
Again, Butler used his reversals to cast doubts on the moral and ethical
standards of Victorian England. His looking-glass was the circle of stone
figures at the head of the pass, six or seven times larger than life, of great
antiquity and ten in number, our tribal taboos, the Ten Commandments.
Dodgson’s satire was directed, as on previous occasions, against controversy
in religious matters, while his explorations were mainly in that no-man’s-land
between mathematics and theology into which he had already made some
short expeditions.
Another basic idea was that of sending his heroine into a game of chess,
and for this he had made, as we have seen, some preliminary sketches from
life. Drawing from life was a matter of principle with him and he
recommended it in the most explicit manner to all his illustrators, even over-
ruling Tenniel, who said he no more needed a model in front of him than
Dodgson needed a multiplication table.
Chess to Dodgson was something far more than a game. As a
mathematician he saw the board like a sheet of graph-paper on which it is
possible to represent almost anything, and as a theologian he saw in the two
sides a far more powerful means of expressing the opposing factions in

Church and University than any he had previously hit upon.
Let us begin by examining the most striking and original episode in
the whole book, the Red Queen running. Alice, it will be remembered,
had met her—by walking away from her—in the garden of live flowers.
With her she went to the top of the Principal Mountain and saw all the
world she was to enter spread out beneath her in the form of a large
chess-board.
‘It’s a great game of chess that’s being played—all over the

world—if this is the world at all you know.’
Alice longed to join in and would have preferred to be a Queen, but at

first she could only be the White Queen’s Pawn, though the post held good
prospects of eventual Queendom.
Just at this moment, somehow or other they began to run.

Alice never could quite make out, in thinking it over
afterwards, how it was that they began: all she remembers is, that
they were running hand in hand, and the Queen went so fast that
it was all she could do to keep up with her: and still the Queen
kept crying ‘Faster!’
Stranger still was the fact that ‘the trees and the other things round them
never changed their places at all: however fast they went, they never seemed
to pass anything’.
No doubt many of the clever and profound things said of this running
are perfectly true. It may anticipate Einstein. It may be a spiritual journey
which leaves her where she started. But the basis of the running is a
mathematical trick. In our world speed is the ratio of distance to time: s =
d÷t. For a high speed, the distance is great and the time small; so many miles
per hour. Through the Looking-glass, however, speed is the ratio of time, to
distance: s = t÷d. For a high speed the time is great and the distance small.
The higher the speed, the smaller the distance covered. The faster Alice
went in time, the more she stayed where she was in space.
‘Now here, you see, it takes all the running you can do to keep
in the same place.’
This is Fechner’s variable ‘t’ which became the fourth co-ordinate of space.
‘Are we nearly there?’

‘Nearly there?’ the Queen repeated. ‘Why, we passed it ten
minutes ago! Faster!’
They had left our space behind and were running in time.
The Queen propped her against a tree, and said kindly, ‘You
may rest a little now.’
Alice looked round her in great surprise. ‘Why I do believe
we’ve been under this tree all the time! Everything’s just as it
was.’
Note ‘all the time’. No wonder the clock on the chimney-piece had the face
of a little old man and grinned at her!
The White Queen, too, was at home in this unfamiliar element, as her
‘living backwards’ shows. In this, Dodgson was using an idea developed by
Plato in the Statesman and by Fechner in his ‘Space Has Four Dimensions’.
Plato’s reversal of time involves an earth-shaking convulsion, after which the
dead rise from the earth and ‘live in the opposite order’. This, he says, was
the fabled golden age. Fechner’s is set in the future but is upon the same
cosmic scale. ‘Growing old will cease,’ he says, ‘but all life will consist of
rejuvenation.’ He goes further than Plato and returns us all to our grand
ancestor Adam in the Garden of Eden, and Adam, with the whole earth and
sea and the sun and the stars, into the Oneness of God.
Dodgson’s treatment of the idea is quite different, but certainly not less
effective. In the simplest possible terms, he states and then illustrates the
principle:
‘It’s a poor sort of memory that only works backwards,’ the

Queen remarked.
‘What sort of things do you remember best?’ Alice ventured to
ask.
‘Oh, things that happened the week after next,’ the Queen
replied in a careless tone.
This, of course, follows from the game of chess, as well as the looking-glass
oppositeness. If the length of the board is time, then one direction must be
forwards and the other backwards. The King’s Messenger, for instance,
Hatta (the Mad Hatter) is ‘in prison now, being punished: and the trial
doesn’t even begin till next Wednesday: and of course the crime comes last
of all’.
All through this particular reductio ad absurdum the White Queen is

plastering her finger. Then she screams that it is bleeding, though she has
not pricked it yet. She will—and does—when she fastens her shawl again.
‘That accounts for the bleeding, you see,’ she said to Alice with
a smile. ‘Now you understand the way things happen here.’
‘But why don’t you scream now?’ Alice asked, holding her
hands ready to put over her ears again.
‘Why, I’ve done all the screaming already,’ said the Queen.
‘What would be the good of having it all over again?’
Alice was a pawn. ‘Let’s pretend we’re kings and queens,’ she had said
to her sister, but a pawn she had to be. In time, we human beings are the
merest pawns. We move in one direction, forward from one moment to the
next, as a pawn moves forward from one square to the next. A pawn’s world
is Fechner’s world of one dimension, pure progress, or Hamilton’s abstract,
ideal or pure time, like that space which is the object of geometry.
Nevertheless, the pawn’s world is not a knife edge, a time-line. Alice does not
appear to be able to see even the whole of one square all at once, yet she has
some knowledge of the square on either side of her. Dodgson is no doubt
conventionalizing the taking move, which does affect the square on either
side one ahead. Alice is not interested in ‘taking’ anything, unless we count
‘taking notice’. Or he may be thinking of the fact that pieces are not always
set exactly in the centre of the square they occupy, but jostle each other a
little and overlap into adjoining squares. ‘J’adoube.’
At all events, Alice when she is a pawn is continually meeting chess-
men, red and white, and according to the key, they are always on the square
next to her on one side or the other. To the right, she meets the Red Queen,
the Red King, the Red Knight, the White Knight and, at the end of the
board, the Red Queen again. To the left, she meets the White Queen, the
White King and, at the end of the board, the White Queen again. Of what
is happening in the other parts of the board she has no knowledge. She
sweeps a narrow track, and events more than one square distant to either
side, or behind, or ahead of her, are out of her world. A certain lack of
coherence in her picture of the game is understandable, particularly as it is
in an advanced stage when she begins to move.
In the Lewis Carroll Handbook, Falconer Madan regrets that ‘the chess
framework is full of absurdities and impossibilities’ and considers it a pity
that Dodgson did not bring the game, as a game, up to chess standard, as,
says Mr Madan, he could easily have done. He points out that among other
absurdities the white side is allowed to make nine consecutive moves, the
White King to be checked unnoticed; Queens castle, and the White Queen
flies from the Red Knight when she could take it. ‘Hardly a move,’ he says,
‘has a sane purpose, from the point of view of chess.’4 There is also a mate
for White at the fourth move (Dodgson’s reckoning): W.Q. to K.’s 3rd
instead of Q.B.’s 4th. Alice and the Red Queen are both out of the way and
the Red King could not move out of check.
Dodgson’s own words, in a preface written in 1887, in reply to criticism
of this kind, are as follows:
As the chess problem given on a previous page has puzzled

some of my readers, it may be well to explain that it is correctly
worked out so far as the moves are concerned. The alternation of
Red and White is perhaps not so strictly observed as it might be,
and the ‘castling’ of the three Queens is merely a way of saying
that they entered the palace; but the ‘check’ of the White King at
move 6, the capture of the Red Knight at move 7, and the final
‘checkmate’ of the Red King, will be found, by any one who will
take the trouble to set the pieces and play the moves as directed,
to be strictly in accordance with the laws of the game.
He was not interested in the game as a game, but in the implications of

the moves. Dodgson could easily have ‘worked out a problem’. He spent a
considerable part of his life doing that kind of thing. But in Through the
Looking-glass he was otherwise engaged. In the first place it would be illogical
to expect logic in a game of chess dreamed by a child. It would be still more
illogical to expect a pawn which can see only a small patch of board to
understand the meaning of its experiences. And there is a moral in that. This
is a pawn’s impression of chess, which is like a human being’s impression of life.
Alice never grasps the purpose of the game at all and when she reaches
the Eighth Square tries to find out from the two Queens if it is over. None
of the pieces has the least idea what it is all about. The Red King is asleep.
The White King has long ago abandoned any attempt to intervene. ‘You
might as well try to catch a Bandersnatch.’ The Red Knight is quite justified
in his battle-cry of ‘Ahoy ! Ahoy! Check!’ but the White Knight, too, leaps
out of the wood, shouting ‘Ahoy! Ahoy! Check!’ and he is not giving check
at all but capturing the Red Knight. Neither of them has any control over the
square on which Alice is situated, yet the Red Knight thinks he has captured
her and the White Knight that he has rescued her. Alice cannot argue with
either of them but is simply relieved to have the matter settled in a manner
favourable to herself.
As for the Queens, they ‘see’ so much of the board that they might be
expected to know what is happening fairly well. But, as will appear, their
manner of ‘seeing’ is so peculiar that they know less about it than anybody.
To understand one’s part in a game of chess, one would have to be aware of
the room and the unseen intelligence which is combining the pieces.
Deprived of any such knowledge, the chess-men have to explain things as
best they can. Nor is this a game between two players. To have made it that
would have been tantamount to a confession that he believed in two separate
and opposite Powers above us. Dodgson deliberately avoided any such
implication.
He based his story, not on a game of chess, but on a chess lesson or
demonstration of the moves such as he gave to Alice Liddell, a carefully
worked-out sequence of moves designed to illustrate the queening of a pawn,
the relative powers of the pieces—the feeble king, the eccentric knight and
the formidable queen whose powers include those of rook and bishop—and
finally a checkmate. That is to say, he abstracted from the game exactly what
he wanted for his design, and expressed that as a game between a child of
seven-and-a-half who was to ‘be’ a White Pawn and an older player (himself)
who was to manipulate the other pieces.
Only the other day, it will be remembered, Alice had had a long
argument with her sister about playing kings and queens. Alice had been
reduced at last to saying, ‘Well, you can be one of them, then, and I’ll be all the
rest.’ Through the Looking-glass she was ‘one of them’ and the Other Player
‘all the rest’. Perhaps that is how things are. Dodgson certainly hoped so.
Observe the Red Queen about to do her disappearing-trick:
‘At the end of two yards,’ she said, putting in a peg to mark the
distance, ‘I shall give you your directions—have another biscuit?’
The biscuit is deliberately used to distract our attention from the fact that
these pegs mark out the stages of Alice’s pawn-life.
‘At the end of three yards I shall repeat them—for fear of your
forgetting them. At the end of four, I shall say good-bye. And at
the end of five, I shall go!’
She had got all the pegs put in by this time, and Alice looked
on with great interest as she returned to the tree, and then began
slowly walking down the row.
At the two-yard peg she faced round, and said, ‘A pawn goes
two squares in its first move.’
To demonstrate that, she had walked two yards. As a pawn starts from the
second square, that takes us to the fourth square on the board. The third
peg marks the fifth square, the fourth the sixth and the fifth the seventh.
There is still another square, the eighth, but on that Alice will no longer
be a pawn. “‘In the Eighth Square we shall be Queens together, and it’s all
feasting and fun!’”
The Red Queen had begun ‘slowly walking down the row’. At the
two-yard peg she paused to give Alice her instructions. Alice got up and
curtseyed, and sat down again. At the next peg the Queen jerked out
some staccato remarks. She did not wait for Alice to curtsey this time,
but ‘walked on quickly’ to the next peg, where she turned to say goodbye
and then ‘hurried’ on to the last. She was getting up speed. ‘How it
happened, Alice never knew, but exactly as she came to the last peg, she
was gone.’
What happened we can represent but not really imagine. According to
the key, the Red Queen moved away from Alice at an angle across the board
(R.Q. to K.R.’s 4th).
So long as the Red Queen was in the square next to her, Alice could see her
and hear her, but when she steamed off in a direction which did not as yet
exist for Alice, she simply vanished.
Whether she vanished into the air, or ran quickly into the
wood (‘and she can run very fast!’ thought Alice), there was no
way of guessing, but she was gone, and Alice began to remember
that she was a pawn, and that it would soon be time to move.
The moves of the two Queens are inexplicable to Alice because of a

limitation in her powers. She is unable to conceive of such moves as R.Q. to
K.R.’s 4th or W.Q. to Q.B.’s 4th. They can zig-zag about the board, sweep
from end to end of it if they like, or from side to side. She must laboriously
crawl from square to square, always in one direction, with a half-
remembered promise to spur her on: ‘“In the Eighth Square we shall be
Queens together, and it’s all feasting and fun!”’
But if the length of the board is time, the breadth of the board must be
time also, a kind of time known only to mathematicians and mystics: the kind
of time we call eternity.
For was and is, and will be are but is;

And all creation is one act at once,
The birth of light: but we that are not all
As parts, can see but parts, now this now that,
And live, perforce from thought to thought and make
One act a phantom of succession; thus
Our weakness somehow shapes the Shadow, Time.
What Tennyson put in poetry, Dodgson represented on his chess-

board. Alice as she trotted along could see but parts, now the Red King to
her right, now the White Queen to her left, but once she became a Queen
there was a change:
Everything was happening so oddly that she didn’t feel a bit

surprised at finding the Red Queen and the White Queen sitting
close to her, one on each side: she would have liked very much to
ask them how they came there,
(we can follow their moves by the key)
but she feared it would not be quite civil.

She could see them both at once; in the language of psychology, she could
attend to a plurality of impressions to which formerly she would have
attended in succession.
However, she was by no means sure of herself or her crown as yet, and
the Queens put her through her paces:
‘In our country,’ Alice remarked, ‘there’s only one day at a

time.’ The Red Queen said, ‘That’s a poor thin way of doing
things. Now here, we mostly have days and nights two or three at
a time, and sometimes in the winter we take as many as five nights
together—for warmth, you know.’
‘Are five nights warmer than one night, then?’ Alice ventured to ask.
‘Five times as warm, of course.’
‘But they should be five times as cold, by the same rule—’
‘Just so!’ said the Red Queen. ‘Five times as warm, and five
times as cold just as I’m five times as rich as you are, and five times
as clever!’
(Note clever and rich as opposites here.)
Alice sighed and gave it up. ‘It’s exactly like a riddle with no
answer!’ she thought.
It is, however, the answer to the ‘chess-problem’, or at any rate, one part of
it, the checkmate which, Dodgson said in the 1887 Preface, was strictly in
accordance with the laws of the game, while Mr Madan in the Handbook gives
him the lie direct: ‘whereas there is no attempt at one’.
According to the key, the position would appear to be:
There is therefore something very like a checkmate and a fairly complicated

one. The only objection is that the White King must have been in check
while the White Queen moved to Q.R. 6th (soup) at Move 10. On the other
hand, when Alice was on the Seventh Square she was still a pawn. The White
King was behind her and if he had moved to Q.B. 5th she would not have
known and he would not have been in check.
As to the succession of the moves, Dodgson admitted that was
‘perhaps not so strictly observed as it might be’. When Alice reached
the Eighth Square and became a Queen she naturally acquired new
powers, but not all at once. She could now see from end to end of the
board, but her sweep of vision from side to side was limited by the
presence of the White Queen on one side and the Red Queen on the
other. Whenever the White Queen moved to Q.R. 6th Alice had to
wake up. ‘“I can’t stand this any longer!” she cried’, and as the chess
world collapsed in ruins she seized the Red Queen and accomplished
the checkmate.
Dr Bell in a footnote to his History of Mathematics makes a two-fisted
attack upon Priestley and Dunne for the use they have made of
‘mathematical’ ideas; Mr Priestley in his time-plays, Mr Dunne in his dream-
philosophy. It is a good thing, Dr Bell thinks, that the literary world has still
not discovered the elliptic functions ‘whose double periodicity leads at once
to a two-dimensional time’, expressed, says Dr Bell, ‘in the lozenges of a
skewed chess-board’. On the other hand, he thinks there might be dollars in
it.5 Too late, Dr Bell! It has been done.
But Dodgson had other reasons for departing from the rules of chess
and for avoiding a normal checkmate. These Queens, whose powers in time
are far more remarkable than those of the Time Traveller in the ‘scientific’
romance by H. G. Wells, are none the less flatlanders. They live—or think
they live—on a surface, a time-surface. But the cream of the jest is that their
world is no more flat than ours. Like the people of the Middle Ages, they are
on a globe and do not know it.
When Alice went Through the Looking-glass, she went into the room
she had just left, the other way round. It was the drawing room and the door
was open. She went along the passage, downstairs, and out by the ‘front door’
into the front garden, reversed. In the game of chess she went down the
length of the board and at the end came to a door. By this time she was a
Queen and could look both ways, forward and back (in time). Which door
had she come to, the front door or the back door?
She was standing before an arched doorway, over which were

the words QUEEN ALICE in large letters, and on each side of it
there was a bell-handle; one marked ‘Visitors’ Bell’, and the other
‘Servants’ Bell’.
Visitors’ Bell: the Front Door. Servants’ Bell: the Back Door.
Time had gone full circle, or rather, Alice had gone full circle on time,
which unknown to her was a little planet like that in Sylvie and Bruno
Concluded, on which ‘the vanquished army ran away at full speed, and in a
very few minutes found themselves face-to-face with the victorious army,
who were marching home again, and who were so frightened at finding
themselves between two armies that they surrendered at once’. Her front and
back doors—the two ends of the board—were one and the same; in the
words of Donne,
As east and west

In all flat maps (and I am one) are one.
In the New Method of Evaluation Dodgson had shown that the

University, like the Church of England and, in a still wider sense, the whole
country, was broken up into two ‘partial factions’. One of these, the
Rationalist faction, had as its locus a superficies, and the other, the extreme
High Church party, had as its locus a catenary ‘known as the Patristic
Catenary’, which he defined as ‘passing through Origen and containing
many multiple points’. A Catenary is a curve formed by a cord or chain
suspended at each end and acted upon only by gravity.
No doubt these notions, working in his mind, helped him towards the
idea of the two Queens, those mighty opposites in chess, living on a surface
which was actually curved and representing once more two partial factions in
the University, the Church or the human mind.
‘The Red Queen,’ said Dodgson, in his Theatre article of 1887, ‘I
pictured as a Fury, but of another type: her passion must be cold and calm;
she must be formal and strict, yet not unkindly; pedantic to the tenth degree’
(I suspect that he wrote n-th here), ‘the concentrated essence of all
governesses!’ Clearly, she is on the Dogmatic side. She lays down the law to
Alice, stresses her title (Apostolic Succession), claims that all the walks
belong to her, demands the use of French (Latin services?) and curtseying
(genuflection). She is condescending, pats Alice on the head, and has ‘heard
nonsense, compared with which that would be as sensible as a dictionary’.
The biscuit which the Red Queen offered Alice as a thirst-quencher
might be dry on the Looking-glass principle, simply as the opposite of a
refreshing drink, or it might partake of the woody nature of visible, tangible
chess-pieces and be made of sawdust; but over and above these meanings, its
dryness must be similar to that of the passage read by the mouse in Alice.
(‘This is the driest thing I know. Silence all round, if you please!’) Shane
Leslie suggests that the biscuits were sermons and it is true that the High
Church sermons, regarded as of less importance than sacrament, were often
perfunctory.
In his general view of the allegory, Shane Leslie is wide of the mark. He
identifies the Red Queen as Archbishop Manning and the White Queen as
Dr Newman, who were on the same side in everything of any significance. It
is true that they had their disagreements, but to regard the Queens as both
representing Catholics reduces the allegory to triviality. The grand opposites
of Dodgson’s day were Reason and Dogma, and to regard the two sides as
anything less fundamental is to underestimate him. Besides, he had already
represented these great principles as they worked themselves out in Oxford
over the serio-comic business of Jowett’s salary, and represented them as
superficial in mathematical terms.
‘Lastly,’ said Dodgson in The Theatre of 1887, ‘the White Queen
seemed to my dreaming fancy, gentle, stupid, fat and pale; helpless as an
infant; and with a slow maundering, bewildered air about her just suggesting
imbecility, but never quite passing into it; that would be, I think, fatal to any
comic effect she might otherwise produce.’
Dodgson repeatedly asserted that he was ‘no conscious imitator’ in the
Alice books, and so far as the general design is concerned, his claim was just.
But certain resemblances to passages in Swift’s Tale of a Tub, Battle of the Books
and Gulliver’s Travels are too close to be mere coincidence.
‘Once upon a time,’ says Swift in A Tale of a Tub, ‘there was a Man who
had Three sons by one Wife, and all at a Birth, neither could the Mid-wife
tell certainly which was the Eldest.’ Wotton’s footnote reads: ‘By these three
sons, Peter, Martyn and Jack, Popery, the Church of England, and our
Protestant Dissenters are designed’ (Martyn: Martin Luther, Jack: John
Calvin). Each was left a new coat and a copy of the Will, containing
instructions for wearing it. In Through the Looking-glass the coats become
shawls; otherwise the White Queen is Jack, the Red Queen Peter.
The White Queen has trouble with her shawl, and Alice has to help her
to put it on again while the White Queen looks at her in a helpless,
frightened sort of way and whispers something that sounds like ‘Bread-and-
butter, bread-and-butter’. Compare this with Jowett signing the Articles for
the sake of his tum-tum.
Again, she has been ‘a-dressing’ herself. ‘Every single thing’s crooked,’
Alice thought to herself, ‘and she’s all over pins!’ These pins are no doubt the
counterpart of the Red Queen’s thorns. The latter was wearing a crown of
thorns when Alice met her, only the thorns were turned outward. ‘“She’s one
of the thorny kind,” said the Rose.’ Because she was a-dressing herself,
because every single thing was crooked and she was all over pins, the White
Queen must represent the side of the Church which argued, protested and
tried to re-interpret religious ideas by the light of reason—the Protestant
side of the Church of England and in particular the Rationalist ‘mode of
thinking’.
Alice herself does duty in the allegory for Martin or the Church of
England, though she certainly does not represent the Church of England as
it was in Dodgson’s day. Rather she is the essential quality of the Christian
religion—the one all the sects seemed to have forgotten—love.
She tools the place of Lily, the White Queen’s Imperial Kitten—no
doubt the Imperial Church of England which might be expected to result
from the first ‘Pan-Anglican’ Conference at Lambeth in 1867. That was why
Lily was too young to play and also why she was the child of the King and
Queen of Controversy. Alice was the True Church, hoping all things,
believing all things, suffering long. In the Theatre article, she was to be
‘loving as a dog’ and ‘gentle as a fawn’, courteous
even as though she were herself a King’s daughter and her

clothing of wrought gold: then trustful, ready to accept the
wildest impossibilities with all that utter trust that only dreamers
know; and lastly curious—and with the eager enjoyment of Life
that comes only in the happy hours of childhood.
Compare with Dodgson’s ‘even as though she were herself a King’s

daughter and her clothing of wrought gold’ his father’s words about his ideal
Church:
so did He prepare for His Church a covering, hidden within these

ordinances for her spiritual nakedness, ‘a clothing of wrought
gold’ (Ps. xix, 13) rendering her meet to be brought into the
Palace of the Heavenly King.6
To have used a real chess-problem would have been fatal to the

allegory, for it was by no means Dodgson’s view that the opposition of the
two sides Red and White, two aspects of the same Church, sprang from the
operations of two Hostile Players. On the contrary, the two Queens are
really two kittens who come from one cat, Dinah, and Dinah in Tenniel’s
final illustration is both black and white.
The Queens and Alice were used as mathematical symbols to illustrate
certain ideas about time and space. They were also used satirically and
allegorically, as described above. In addition there are signs that he borrowed

ideas for the appearance and nature of each character from real persons, and
in Alice’s case we know the original. It is true that the process of remaking
her in accordance with his own ideas and attitude to life has gone far, but we
can still recognize the first Alice in the last.
It has been suggested that Dodgson’s own parents sat for the portraits
of the chess Queens,7 but I think the Dean and Mrs Liddell are much more
likely models. Dodgson’s relations with his father and mother were never
anything but happy and normal, whereas a state of emotional tension, in
which there was jealousy on both sides, the insolence of office on theirs and
the pangs of despised love on his, existed between him and Alice’s parents.
The Red Queen was tall, half a head taller than Alice, which was about
the Dean’s superiority in height to Dodgson. She had heard nonsense,
compared to which ‘that would be as sensible as a dictionary’ and it would be
difficult for Dodgson or anybody at Christ Church to use the word
‘dictionary’ without thinking of Liddell and Scott. Her coldness, too, her
pride and pedantry, suggest the Dean.
There was emphatically no outward resemblance between the White
Queen and Mrs Liddell, who, according to Sir William Richmond, was dark
and beautiful.8 But she was once pinning a dress on Alice when the Prince of
Wales burst in unexpectedly and Alice fled. Mrs Liddell hid her agitation and
the Prince did not add to it until about to depart, when he remarked, ‘Tell
Alice I saw her.’9 If Dodgson knew the story it was the kind of thing to worry
him, and may have suggested the situation Through the Looking-glass, with
the figures transposed and Alice pinning on the White Queen’s shawl. The
allegorical and mathematical ideas would coat the rather dangerous and
embarrassing idea of Alice incompletely dressed, as mother-of-pearl coats an
irritant within the oyster-shell.
Working as he did by associations of ideas, there was no limit to the
variety of topics he could introduce. His art was to keep variety from
becoming chaotic, to make some unexpected departure lead back to the
last remark but one. Why some topics appealed to him and others did not
is an enquiry which would take us over the threshold of consciousness and
into that dark region where ambiguous forms and uncouth hybrids loom
and dwindle. Psycho-analysis, however, is no technique for amateurs. We
must be content to follow those trains of thought in which we can
perceive intention, and we shall lose little by this, for the intention is
fundamental.
There is in existence a photograph just published (1949)10 but taken by
Dodgson in 1858. It shows two of his aunts, the Misses Lutwidge, playing
chess. One wears a dark dress and plays black against a dark background; the
other, in a chequered or tartan dress, much lighter in tone, plays white

against a pale background. The effect is of a battle of light and shade. The
disposition of the pieces bears no relation to that in the Looking-glass chess
problem, but the germ of the idea is there in the opposed forces. In the
course of his chess lessons to Alice, Dodgson transferred the conflict from
the players and setting to the chess pieces, in particular to the two Queens.
Their powers of movement brought in his mathematics; their opposition
suggested the theological controversies of his time, and because he disliked
controversy, the Queens also acquired some characteristics from his more
personal antipathies.
In Fechner’s ‘Space Has Four Dimensions’ the opposites are the
Naturalists, who believe only what they see, and the Philosophers, who see
only what they believe. The Naturalists, like Dodgson’s White Queen, ‘know
only length and breadth—except that is for the astronomers who are forced
by the fall of bodies to recognize the third dimension, at least as a
hypothesis’. In this respect Fechner’s astronomers resemble Dodgson’s
White Knight, whose ballad he re-wrote for Through the Looking-glass,
adding the lines
Or if I drop upon my toe

A very heavy weight,
as an illustration of the fall of bodies.

Of all the chess-men, the Knight alone has the power of leaping.
This is the symbolism of chess, the horseman’s leap expressed by allowing
the Knight to move two squares in any direction and one at right angles
to that direction—a cross-section of a leap. Nevertheless, it makes no
difference to the Knight if the intervening squares are packed with friends
or foes. He can leap to a vacant square, take an enemy piece or deliver
check over their heads. It is this third dimension which enables him to
perform his little miracles, his sudden, unlooked-for interventions in the
game.
‘And really,’ said Alice,
referring to the game she had played the previous day, on our side of the
Looking-glass,
‘I might have won, if it hadn’t been for that nasty Knight that
came wriggling down among my pieces.’
In Looking-glass House he was sliding down the poker and balancing

very badly. He represents a stage half-way between the Queens, who
are flatlanders pure and simple, and Alice, who is a child or Human
Being.
It is not necessary to relate the Knight’s powers to time-length and
time-breadth as in the case of the Queens. Probably Dodgson developed the
ideas about the Knight quite separately and fitted them into the general
pattern later. However, if it is desired to do so, then his third dimension was
the whole of our space.
Of our world he has had only the most tantalizing glimpses, enough to
unfit him for his own but not enough to enable him to understand. Yet he is
by no means contemptible, this knight in tin armour. He has seen wonders,
has even brought back with him odd bits and pieces from his Wonderland,
which is our common workaday world—beehives and mousetraps, carrots
and fire-irons, outlandish bric-à-brac, whose true nature and purpose are
externally beyond him but which he collects hopefully and about which he
theorizes happily.
He is Science.
By constantly falling on his head, he has grasped that things never fall
upwards, you know, and his experience of rain has confirmed this.
Accordingly he turns his box upside down, so that the rain will not wet his
things, but alas! his theory is incomplete. He has overlooked the possibility
that his things might fall downwards and he has lost them.
Then he has thought of a brilliant scheme for turning himself over in
our space—a thing, it is safe to say, no other chess-man but a knight could
think of doing:
‘Now first I put my head on the top of the gate—then the

head’s high enough—then I stand on my head—then the feet are
high enough, you see—then I’m over, you see.’
‘Yes, I suppose you’d be over when that was done,’ Alice said
thoughtfully: ‘but don’t you think it would be rather hard?’
She means the ground.
‘I haven’t tried it yet,’ the Knight said gravely: ‘so I can’t tell
for certain—but I’m afraid it would be a little hard.’
The charming simpleton is thinking only of the difficulty (for him) of the
operation. The consequences to himself have never occurred to him.
Compared to the other inhabitants of the chess-world he is a genius,

like Newton, voyaging through strange seas of thought alone. His scheme
for training hair upwards, like fruit trees, might be impracticable, or it might
not. Experiment would have settled the matter, and he was a little dashed by
Alice’s lack of enthusiasm—but then so few of his schemes had ever met with
an enthusiastic reception. In the kingdom of the blind the one-eyed man is
thought to suffer from hallucinations.
The principle which eluded the White Knight was, of course, gravity.
The word gravity is carefully avoided during the whole of this chapter, but
he looked a little grave, and more than once he remarked gravely. The pun
had no existence for himself or Alice. His elevated and vertical position on
horseback was extremely precarious. Even when sliding down the poker he
balanced very badly. As a planesman or inhabitant of the surface ‘balance’ was
art idea he had failed to grasp. He was unbalanced. But his difficulties were
due to no lack of practice. He had had plenty of practice—both in mounting
and in dismounting.
There is something sublime in his persistence and in his ability to rise
above circumstance, to theorize from a head-downward position. Moreover,
he had realized that he would probably never be able to stay on horseback
without some sort of support and so had invented a helmet in the form of a
sugar-loaf. This was a conical mass of sugar displayed in confectioners’
windows in our grandfathers’ day. The White Knight’s sugar-loaf helmet was
like a large fool’s cap and touched the ground all round him. True he lost
himself in it (as one is apt to do in a theory) and the other knight put it on,
thinking that it was his helmet.
But his cleverest invention was a pudding—during the meat course. It
was not cooked in time for the next course, or the next day:
‘In fact,’ he went on, holding his head down, and his voice getting
lower and lower, ‘I don’t believe that pudding ever was cooked!
In fact, I don’t believe that pudding ever will be cooked! And yet
it was a very clever pudding to invent.’
After the cone, the sphere. He was trying to frame the notion of a solid
sphere but his world was flatland. It contained blotting-paper, which could
be bent round into a cylinder, or twisted into a cone, but no matter how he
stuck it together with sealing-wax, he could not make even a hollow sphere
out of it, much less a solid one. He even thought of blowing it to pieces with
gunpowder and then re-assembling the minute fragments. Theoretically, if
the fragments were small enough, the feat should be possible. Practically, he
had almost abandoned hope of that pudding.
‘It began with blotting-paper,’ the Knight answered with a

groan. ‘That wouldn’t be very nice, I’m afraid—’
‘Not very nice alone,’ he interrupted, quite eagerly: ‘but you’ve no
idea what a difference it would make, mixing it with other things—
such as gunpowder and sealing-wax. And here I must leave you.’
The White Knight’s appearance without his helmet is worth noting:
‘Now one can breathe more easily,’ said the Knight, putting
back his shaggy hair with both hands, and turning his gentle face
and large mild eyes to Alice.
Does not this suggest a dog or a horse, rather than a man? The Knight is being
compared to one of the higher animals which has some rudimentary intelligence;
an animal which is gentle, unselfish and uncomplaining. The equation may be
stated: man attempting to reason about the universe is like one of the higher
animals attempting to understand our world. Both collect data and frame
theories. Neither has any chance of understanding the reality. And the symbol by
means of which Dodgson demonstrated this profound truth was the knight in
chess with his leap over the intervening squares, in the course of which he lost
contact with the surface and, however briefly, glimpsed our world.
Of all the strange things that Alice saw in her journey Through
the Looking-glass, this was the one that she always remembered
most clearly. Years afterwards she could bring the whole scene
back again, as if it had been only yesterday—the mild blue eyes
and kindly smile of the Knight—the setting sun gleaming
through his hair and shining on his armour in a blaze of light that
quite dazzled her—the horse quietly moving about, cropping the
grass at her feet—and the black shadows of the forest behind—all
this she took in like a picture, as, with one hand shading her eyes,
she leant against a tree, watching the strange pair, and listening
in a half-dream to the melancholy music of the song.
The song was ‘Upon the Lonely Moor’, the parody of Wordsworth’s
‘Resolution and Independence’ which Dodgson had sent to The Train in
1856, but had partly rewritten and garnished with four new titles. Some of
the changes are mere improvements in the verse; for example:
He said ‘I look for butterflies

That sleep among the wheat’
is much better than
He said ‘I look for soap-bubbles

That lie among the wheat.’
Others seem, if anything, more nonsensical than what he had written at first:

To dye one’s whiskers green,
And always use so large a fan
That they could not be seen.
However, ‘a-sitting on a gate’ is a significant attitude for his aged, aged man.
If the White Knight’s plan of standing on his head on the top bar was likely
to prove ‘hard’, it was at least original and showed a desire to go somewhere.
Again, the new lines,

To feed oneself on batter
And so go on from day to day
Getting a little fatter,
suggest the White Knight trying another method of inventing, or, at all
events, producing the sphere, and Dodgson returned to this in his Spherical
Professor (Sylvie and Bruno Concluded) who finally succeeded in making
himself into a perfect sphere and in acquiring sufficient momentum to fly off
the Earth at a tangent. But the main lines were already laid down in the 1856
version and it seems quite clear to me through all the nonsense that the
White Knight is Pure Science and the Aged, Aged Man is Applied Science.
The book, so far from having no moral, is thus a new kind of Morality.
The characters are all abstractions and we are prevented from realizing this
only by sheer verbal sleight-of-hand. The symbols are deceptively simple—
but so are the properties of a great conjuror. It is the second-rate magician
who requires elaborate scaffoldings of chromium-plated tubes and other
complicated apparatus. Give Dodgson a ball of wool, a kitten, some chess-
men, a looking-glass and a little girl out of the audience—and watch
carefully.
NOTES
1. Coll., p. 138; Handbook, p. 236.

2. Letters of Lewis Carroll, ed. E. M. Hatch, p. 79.
3. Coll., p. 173.
4. Handbook, pp. 48–9.
5. E. T. Bell: History of Mathematics, p. 555, Note 15.
6. Ritual Worship, p. 13.
7. F. B. Lennon: Lewis Carroll, pp. 174–5.
8. Ibid., p. 131.
9. Cornhill Magazine, July, 1932.
10. Helmut Gernsheim: Lewis Carroll, Photographer.
PHYLLIS GREENACRE
From “The Character of Dodgson

as Revealed in the Writings of Carroll”
D odgson was regarded as an eccentric by his students and his

contemporaries, and although some saw him as dull and boring, the picture
in retrospect is interesting and at times colorful. In his boyhood he had been
so adept manually that he not only made his own marionettes and theater,
but on one occasion he made for a sister a very tiny set of tools, complete in
a case, only one inch long. He, like the White Knight, was an inventor—of
gadgets, of puzzles, riddles, games, and conundrums, as well as many
mnemonic devices.1 During a great deal of his adult life he apparently
suffered from an intractable insomnia; and he constructed many of his
inventions, seemingly, as a way of keeping his mind busy during the long
hours of the night. He invented an instrument which he called a nyctograph
for making records in the dark. He worked out most of his inventions
entirely in his mind, only making a record on completion.
To those who did not know him well he seemed “stiff and donnish”
(Collingwood’s words), and Mark Twain found him “the stillest and shyest
full-grown man” except for Uncle Remus that he had ever met. During
several hours of conversation in a group, Carroll contributed nothing but an
occasional question.2 On the other hand, Twain found him interesting to
look at. The shyness may have been increased by his stammering and by his
deafness (left ear), but it was almost all-pervasive, except with his little girls.
Robert Phillips, ed. © 1971 by The Vanguard Press. Originally published in Swift and Carroll.
105
106 Phyllis Greenacre
Only occasionally in some meeting would he flash out with an incisive

witticism—and he was generally more amusing when enticed into a
monologue than in a conversation. He was slight ... and rather drab in
appearance. It is said that the two sides of his face did not match. He
habitually put his right hand in front of his mouth while lecturing and was
sufficiently self-critical that he drew a caricature of himself in this position.
As he grew older, his face became more feminine in cast, an effect possibly
enhanced by his wearing his hair rather long. His effeminacy was sufficiently
obvious that some of his less sympathetic students once wrote a parody of his
parodies and signed it “Louisa Caroline.”
He disliked garish colors, preferred pinks and grays, and is said to have
requested one of the little girls not to visit him in a red dress.3 He himself
wore unobtrusive clothing, except that he habitually went without an
overcoat, wore a tall hat, and black cotton gloves. He stood so straight that
he seemed to be leaning backward, and is also said to have staggered a little,
i.e., veering more to one side than the other. In spite of this he was a
tremendous walker—and in 1897, six months before his death, he noted
walking seventeen to twenty miles on each of two days with only one day in
between.
There was a tinge of the crank inventor in his attitudes. For the most
part he carried out his mental researches without much reference to the
activities in the outer world, although he was a habitual publisher of his ideas,
either in articles in magazines or by letters to the newspapers. Thus he
invented a new method of reckoning postage which he sent to the post-office
department; a new method of scoring and eliminating in tennis matches, sent
to the Lawn Tennis Association; a new method of voting when more than
two choices are present. In 1876, he “invented” proportional representation,
although it had been invented by Thomas Hare and debated in Parliament
in 1867.
From an early age he was interested in time, and wrote and lectured
many times on the subject “Where does the day begin?” He spent much time
writing people all over the world to discover how they dated letters at a
specific time, but he paid no attention to the Prime Meridian Conference
held in Washington, D.C., to settle the question of the International Date
Line. He seemed always to be in some kind of battle with time, attempting
to avoid being caught by time or trying to entrap time himself. He often
refused invitations for a specific time but would announce his intention to
come at a later, unspecified time.
For twenty-one years (approximately 1870–1891), he consistently
wrote in purple ink; and then suddenly stopped. The significance of this
is unclear. But ink itself had great meaning. Throughout his stories it is
From “The Character of Dodgson as Revealed in the Writings of Carroll” 107
used as the agent for reviving creatures who faint out of terror or
excitement.
Not only was he a compulsive publisher of his ideas, but he was a
compulsive indexer. He kept a record of all the letters he wrote or received,
cross-indexed for topical content. At the time of his death, this registry
contained more than 98,000 items. He was something of a collector, too,
having a number of music boxes and more than two hundred fountain pens.
He frequently carried a little black bag, much like a doctor’s bag, filled
with safety pins, puzzles and games of his own making, pencils and paper,
handkerchiefs and other articles to aid little girls on railroad trains and at the
seashore, and to entice them into a fuller acquaintance. One is reminded here
of the original railroad whose victims must be thrice flattened by the engine
of Love before first aid is granted. Now, Mr. Dodgson being older, gave
prophylactic help.
With adults he was sometimes pompous. For over forty years he kept
a record of all his dinner parties, including a statement of the seating
arrangements and the menu for the occasion. He often invited little girls to
lunch, with instructions to them to leave their brothers at home. In his
middle life he frankly loathed little boys, and refused to stand in church until
after the boy choir had passed, as he wished to prevent the boys from
becoming conceited. He was known to invite a lady to dinner but stipulate
that she should leave her husband at home.
His sensitivity to fits and convulsions has already been described. He
also had a recurrent preoccupation with cords and knots—not only was the
baby tied into a knot by Alice, but the Mouse’s tail was also knotted, as was
the Tangled Tale. Carroll also sent Macmillan a diagram of just how all
packages to him should be wrapped, how the cords should be tied, and where
the knots should be placed. In packing for vacation trips, he had a great many
portmanteaus (luggage as well as words) with contents wrapped in paper in
individual packets, sometimes tied as well. Consequently paper very much
increased the size and weight of his luggage.
The illustrators of Carroll’s books found him a difficult man to work
with: exacting in the extreme, wishing to dictate many details to the
illustrator who should somehow reproduce exactly Carroll’s own mental
picture of the scene, almost as though the artist might photograph Carroll’s
own imagery. Sir John Tenniel, Henry Holiday, and Harry Furniss all found
their tasks arduous, and Furniss, a conscious caricaturist and much younger
than Carroll, tried to outdo him in eccentricity and threatened to strike when
Carroll became too strongly demanding. While Furniss’ account has been
discredited by some as burlesquing the situation—and he almost surely
embellished his description of it somewhat—yet it is too much in accord with
other traits of Dodgson-Carroll to be completely discarded. Furniss, who

was the illustrator for Sylvie and Bruno, worked with Carroll from 1885 to
1892, when Carroll had more and more retired into Dodgson and his
peculiarities had somewhat deepened. He had become solitary, had given up
much of his always moderate social life, abandoned his photography and his
teaching, but continued to live at Oxford and work on his manuscripts. He is
generally reported to have become increasingly vain, secretive, and even a
little suspicious. He rarely accepted invitations to dine, but would “drop in”
at a less exactly appointed time; if he did go out to dinner, he sometimes took
his own bottle of wine with him. He became more and more burdened by his
own prominence and had refused to accept mail addressed to Carroll at
Oxford; at the same time he published frequently and that, often trivia.
According to Furniss’ account, Carroll sent him an elaborate document
committing him to secrecy about the manuscript. He seemed to wish to
make sure that Furniss’ wife did not see a picture or look at the manuscript
before publication—a stipulation to which Furniss did not agree and so
refused to sign the document. But still cautious that others might see
prematurely the precious Sylvie and Bruno manuscript, which he considered
his best work, he prepared the manuscript by cutting it into horizontal strips
of four or five lines each, then placed the whole lot in a sack and shook it up.
Taking out piece by piece, he pasted the strips down as they happened to
come. All strips had already been marked with code hieroglyphics according
to which they might be properly reassembled. Furniss reports that he sent
the whole batch back with another threat to strike. This jumbled manuscript
had been delivered at night.4 Furniss found that Carroll wanted him to
assemble his illustrations from almost as many fragments as were represented
in the manuscript. The author would send the illustrator quantities of
photographs showing this or that feature which be found inspiring, or would
request him to visit friends or even strangers to collect “fragments of faces”
which Carroll had thought suitable for the illustrations.
Roger L. Green (editor of the Diaries recently published), in a Story of
Lewis Carroll, neutralizes the Furniss account of the misch-masch manuscript,
explaining it rather on the basis that the manuscript, which was frankly made
up of a number of short stories and sketches, had not yet been properly
assembled. That Carroll had a feeling for misch-masch as well as for order and
was constantly taking things apart, jumbling them, and reassembling them,
cannot be denied.5 How much Furniss caricatured is an additional question.
Two other preoccupations were so conspicuous both in his life and in
his writing as to be clinically noteworthy, viz. 1) special attitudes toward
eating and breathing, and 2) his relationship to animals, especially to cats.
AT T I T U D E S T O WA R D E AT I N G AND B R E AT H I N G
Eating (or drinking) and breathing are of course psychologically very

close together. In certain respects the latter appears as a kind of ghost or
spirit of the former. Both were exceedingly important in Carroll’s life. He
was himself rather slight in stature. This, combined with his somewhat stiff
erectness made him appear taller than he was. He was abstemious, eating and
drinking little. A biscuit and sherry constituted his lunch very often. He was
somewhat appalled by the healthy appetite of some of his little girl friends.
Nonetheless, he was greatly preoccupied with eating. His early sketches
tended to make people either abnormally fat or abnormally thin. The
interest in food and its “nothingness” represented in air is interestingly
apparent in one of his early drawings: a sketch of a family taking food in
homeopathic doses, in which a butler announces that only a billionth of an
ounce of bread is left in the house and that this must be saved for next week,
and the mother orders that a trillionth more should be ordered from the
baker. One child asks whether another should have “another molecule” and
an older sister deplores that her present glasses have not permitted her to see
a nonillionth which has come her way. The whole family party has the grim
appearance of those suffering from anorexia nervosa, and the humor has an
“Emperor’s New Clothes” type of satire, expressed of course in another
medium. This cartoon appeared in the Rectory Umbrella, which dates from
Dodgson’s period between Rugby and Oxford. A complementary cartoon,
appearing in the same magazine, was a sketch purporting to be a caricature
of Joshua Reynolds’ painting, “The Age of Innocence.” The Dodgson
version shows a young hippopotamus, obviously well fed, who, “seated under
a shady tree, presents to the contemplative mind a charming union of youth
and innocence” (written by Charles L. Dodgson, the Editor of the Rectory
Umbrella).
The question of eating or being eaten is introduced into the
Wonderland adventures before Alice gets fairly down the rabbit-hole, with
her ponderings as to whether cats eat bats or bats eat cats. Subsequently,
eating and drinking magically change her body size; the contents of the
“Drink Me” bottle, which she finds on the glass table, suddenly shrinks her;
whereas the “Eat Me” cake reverses this. Similarly, nipping from another
bottle near the looking-glass in White Rabbit’s house enlarges her and the
pebbles that turn into cakes reduce her. And so it goes. She frightens the
Mouse by talking about Dinah the cat, who is such a good mouser, and she
finds herself singing about the Crocodile who “welcomes little fishes in with
gently smiling jaws.” Time is suddenly involved when the turning of the
earth on its axis gets mixed with the preparation of the soup by the Duchess’s
cook; and again, this problem crops up in the eternally revolving and mad
tea-party in which the old subject “When does the day begin?” is revived.
Food is the source of trouble and guilt with the Seven of Hearts threatened
with decapitation for bringing the cook tulip bulbs instead of onions, and
again in the grand trial scene when the Knave of Hearts is being tried for
having stolen the tarts.
This same gastrointestinal axis to the world’s turning appears in some
of the early poetry written during Charles’s adolescence, especially the
moralistic poems dealing with hostility between siblings: “Brother and
Sister” (1845), a rollicking rhyme ending with the moral “Don’t stew your
sister”; and “The Two Brothers” (1853), which relates the tale of a boy who
baited his fishhook with a younger brother and so broke their sister’s heart
“into three” and provoked the lament, “One of the two will be wet through
and through and t’other will be late to tea.” Similarly, in parody “The Lady
of the Lake” becomes “The Lady of the Ladle.”
One can well imagine that sibling rivalry may have been expressed early
and drastically among the children of the Daresbury clergyman, in terms of
food preference and privileges. Edwin, who was probably the target of the
“Age of Innocence” cartoon, was born after the family had moved to Croft
and somewhat more affluent circumstances. He was an innocent infant of
three to four at the time of the drawing of the cartoon (1849–1850). The
Caucus-Race in Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, in which all the animals,
large and small, must have prizes, appears as the solution for, or warding off
of, such jealousy and rivalry, with Alice rather than the youthful Charles
playing the role of arbiter.
In Through the Looking-Glass, changes in body size and proportions are
lacking, but the time–space relationship is still puzzling and appears in
changes in space appreciation outside the body as indicated by the varying
rates of speed necessary to cover apparently similar distances, or sometimes
any distance at all. Volcanic explosions seem to have occurred when Alice
picked up the White King and Queen and moved them so rapidly that they
became breathless. Alice herself floated rather than walked downstairs
simply by touching the handrail with her fingertips. Again, there was the
eventful race in which the Queen seized Alice by the hand and ran
breathlessly and with toes barely touching the ground, but without actually
changing their location on the chessboard. A little later the Queen said
good-bye and vanished seemingly into thin air. Then there was the railroad
journey in which the entire train rose straight up in the air, in crossing a
brook, and Alice presently found herself talking to a giant Gnat which
fanned her with its wings. At this point flying seems to pervade the picture.
The Rocking-horse-fly swung itself from branch to branch while a Bread-

and-butter-fly crawled at her feet. People were threatened with the
extinction of going out like the flame of a candle; and in the final scene,
which is a banquet rather than a trial (in contrast to Wonderland), Alice
finds herself pressed between the two Queens in a way that lifts her into the
air, while the candles suddenly shoot upward to the ceiling and all the dishes
develop wings. Food was certainly not unimportant in the Looking-Glass
World, only it was not as ubiquitous as in Wonderland. In the former,
movement through the air appears rather as the reverse of passage of food
into the body.
Charles Dodgson considered whether air was healthy or morbid with
nearly the same intensity of concern which he gave to food and drink, which
he catalogued so constantly. His apprehension of infection was great and he
had such concern about contaminated or unhealthy air in general that at
times he stuffed all the cracks under doors and windows, and had an
elaborate system of keeping the temperature equalized throughout his
rooms, causing him to make repeated daily rounds of his series of
thermometers.
Gertrude Chataway, one of Carroll’s little girl friends to whom he
dedicated The Snark—and it will be recalled that the Boojum Snark caused
any onlooker to vanish into thin air—described Mr. Dodgson as follows:
Next door there was an old gentleman [actually aged 43!] who
interested me immensely. He would come onto his balcony which
joined ours, sniffing the air with his head thrown back and would
walk right down the steps on to the beach with his chin in the air,
drinking in the fresh breezes as if he could never have enough ...
Whenever I heard his footsteps, I flew out to see him coming and
one day when he spoke to me my joy was complete ... In a very
little while I was as familiar with the interior of his lodgings as
with my own ... He often took his cue [in telling stories] from [the
child’s] remarks ... so that the story seemed a personal possession
... It was astonishing that he never seemed tired or to want other
society ... He [later] told me it was the greatest pleasure he could
have to converse freely with a child and feel the depths of her
mind ... I don’t think he ever really understood that we whom he
had known as children, could not always remain such.
A letter from Carroll to little Miss Chataway, written October 3, 1875,

explains that he will drink her health instead of sending her a present. Then,
finding a pun in this phrase, he continued,
But perhaps you will object ... If I were to sit by you and to drink your
tea, you wouldn’t like that. You would say “Boo-hoo! Here’s Mr.
Dodgson’s drunk all my tea and I haven’t got any left!” I am very much
afraid Sybil will find you sitting by the sad sea-wave and crying “Boo!
Hoo! Mr. Dodgson’s drunk my health and I haven’t got any left!” Your
mother will say [to the doctor] “You see she would go and make friends
with a strange gentleman, and yesterday he drank her health! ... The
only way to cure her is to wait until next birthday and then for her to
drink his health.” And then we shall have changed healths. I wonder
how you’ll like mine! Oh Gertrude, I wish you would not talk such
nonsense! ... Your loving friend. Lewis Carroll.
Miss Chataway’s first description of the man breathing in health with

his exuberant sniffing of the sea air is a reverse side of the same picture as
that given elsewhere of his elaborate precautions against breathing in
contaminated air, especially that emanating from a letter received from one
of the Bowman children who suffered from scarlet fever. In this Chataway
letter, the idea of the gift of drinking the health and the turning by a pun of
this intensely positive attitude to the extreme opposite—a destructive
vampirish sucking or swallowing up—is implicitly suggested, with a merry
ghoulishness. It also contains an elaboration of childhood’s idea—with its
modicum of truth—that our bodies and hence our identities are determined
by what we eat.
T H E R E L AT I O N TO ANIMALS
The animals in the Alice books far outnumber the human beings, even
as they probably did in the gardens at Daresbury and Croft, and Charles
continued always to be in communion with them. He has his favorites and
his dis-favorites (to coin a Carrollian word), Among the less loved were dogs.
Although an oversized puppy appears amiably enough in the Wonderland
garden, there is evidence that in actual life Dodgson did not enjoy dogs, and
when one rushed violently at him on a visit to the Arnolds, he refused ever
to return there unless the dog were destroyed. (One may venture the
conjecture that the dog was a male.) He sent the Arnolds an exact diagram of
the canine tooth marks on his trouser leg, and when the dog was not
abolished, he continued on friendly terms with the family but arranged to see
them outside of their own home. In general, however, he seems to have been
charming with and charmed by small animals and to have treated them in
whimsy as somewhat superior to human beings, whom they either replaced
or in part represented.
Among all the animals, the cat has a special place. Not only were there
Dinah, the white kitten, and the black kitten (who became royalty), but there
was the Cheshire Cat as well.6 In Carroll’s letters (about 1863) to another
little girl friend, Agnes Hughes, he developed fantasies about cats in quite a
significant way. He had sent Agnes many kisses, apparently with some
instructions for dividing them up, at which the child apparently demurred.
He replied:
You lazy thing! What? I’m to divide the kisses myself, am I? Indeed
and I won’t take the trouble to do anything of the sort. But I’ll tell you
how to do it. First you take four of the kisses, and that reminds me of a
very, curious thing that happened to me at half-past four yesterday.
Three visitors came knocking at my door, begging me to let them in.
When I opened the door, who do you think they were? You will never
guess. Why they were three cats! ... They all looked so cross and
disagreeable that I took up the first thing I could lay my hands on which
happened to be the rolling pin and knocked them all down as flat as
pancakes: “If you come knocking at my door,” I said, “I shall come
knocking at your heads.” That was fair, wasn’t it? Yours
affectionately. ...
Again, one ventures the thought that the troublesome cats were little
males (or at least made him aware of maleness); and it is worth noting that
the preceding letter to Agnes carried a postscript in which Carroll had sent
his love to the little Agnes and his kindest regards to her mother, but “to your
fat impertinent ignorant brother my hatred—and I think that is all.” It was
in turn followed by more cat letters:
About the cats, you know. Of course I didn’t leave them lying flat on
the ground like dried flowers. I picked them up, and I was as kind as I
could be to them. I lent them a portfolio for a bed—they would not have
been comfortable in a real bed, you know; they were too thin; but they
were quite happy between the sheets of blotting paper, and each of them
had a pen wiper for a pillow. Well then I went to bed; but first I lent
them three dinner bells to ring in the night in case they wanted
anything in the night. You know I have three dinner bells,—the first
(which is the largest) is rung when dinner is nearly ready; the second
(which is rather larger) is rung when it is quite ready; and the third
(which is as large as the other two put together) is rung all the time I
am at dinner. Well, I told them they might ring if they happened to
want anything—and as they rang all the bells all night, I suppose they
did want something or other, only I was too sleepy to attend to them. In
the morning I gave them some rat-tail jelly and buttered mice for
breakfast, and they were as discontented as they could be. They wanted
some boiled pelican but of course I knew that would not be good for them.
So all I said was “Go to Number two Finborough Road and ask for
Agnes Hughes and if it’s really good for you, she’ll give you some.” Then
I shook hands with them all and wished them good-bye, and drove them
up the chimney. They seemed very sorry to go and they took the bells and
the portfolio with them. I didn’t find this out until after they had gone,
and then I was sorry too, and wished them back again. How are Arthur,
and Amy, and Emily? Do they still go up and down Finborough Road
and teach the cats to be nice to the mice? I’m very fond of all cats in
Finborough Road. Give them my love—Who do I mean by “them”?
Never mind. Your affectionate friend—
And another letter to Amy, the sister of Agnes, contained the following:
You have asked after those three cats. Ah, the dear creatures. Do
you know, ever since that night they first came, they have never left
me? Isn’t it kind of them? Tell Agnes this, she will be interested to
hear it. And they are so kind and thoughtful: Do you know, when I
had gone out for a walk the other day, they got all my books out of the
book-case and opened them all to page 50 because they thought that
would be a nice useful page to begin at. It was rather unfortunate,
though: because they took my bottle of gum, and tried to gum pictures
upon the ceiling (,which they thought would please me), and by
accident they spilt a quantity of it all over the books. So when they
were shut up and put by, the leaves all stuck together and I can never
read page 50 again in any of them! However they meant it very
kindly, so I wasn’t angry. I gave them a spoonful of ink as a treat, but
they were ungrateful for that and made dreadful faces. But of course,
as it was given them as a treat, they had to drink it. One of them has
turned black since: it was a white cat to begin with. Give my love to
any children you happen to meet. Also I send two kisses and a half for
you to divide with Agnes, Emily, and Godfrey, Mind you divide them
fairly. Yours affectionately—
These letters are perhaps as self-revealing as anything, except Sylvie

and Bruno, that Carroll ever wrote. They show readily enough the fluctuating
aggressiveness with an urge to cruelty and then to affectionate playfulness;
but there are expressed, further, more disguised but equally powerful
complex trends which will be delineated in the discussion of the dynamics of

the Carroll-Dodgson character formation.
THE MAIN THEMES IN C A R R O L L’ S W R I T I N G
The two Alice books, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and Through the
Looking-Glass, furnish naturally a starting place for the study of the thematic
content of Carroll’s fantasies; then The Hunting of the Snark and Sylvie and
Bruno—with of course secondary consideration of his poetry and
miscellaneous writings.
Wonderland
Alice in a state of sleepy boredom saw a rabbit run past her, nervously
looking at his watch and talking to himself about being late. Her curiosity
aroused, she followed him down a rabbit-hole which seemed very long
indeed, but after a time turned into another long passage, which in turn
became a long low hall with locked doors all around it. She found a tiny
golden key which opened a small door hidden behind curtains, and gave her
a view into a beautiful garden which she longed to enter. The story deals with
her vicissitudes in getting into the garden and finally with the unexpected
events within.
In brief, Alice goes through a series of bodily changes, always
induced by eating or drinking something, except in the last instance,
where her change in form is due to the fan (nosegay of flowers in the first
version) which she picks up and holds after it has been dropped by the
Rabbit.7 Sometimes she is enlarged and again she becomes too small to
reach even the door handle. In two of her enlarged states it is her neck
which grows especially long, and she is once mistaken for a serpent as she
coils her neck down through the tree branches in order to see underneath
them. In her small states, she once suffers from her chin hitting her feet
and apparently has no neck at all, and again is threatened with going out
like a candle.
She has feelings of alienation both from her body and from her mind,
believes that she may have become somebody else, and tests her identity with
problems in arithmetic, trials of her memory, and school lessons to see if she
still knows the things she has learned, as she has repeatedly found herself
saying nonsense. The great charm of the tale lies in the panorama of
grotesque caricature expressed in the general mixture and fusion of identities
of the animals, insects, and strange human beings whom Alice meets.
Through all this is a cacophony of cruelty so extreme as to be ridiculous:
animals eat each other up, a baby turns into a pig and is abandoned to wander
away into the forest, decapitation is a general threat, and a Cheshire Cat does
appear smiling, though separated from its own body. Even words are always
changing their identities through punning. All this appears against a
backdrop of illogical time and spatial relations, and an attitude of gentle
puzzlement on Alice’s part. In general, the irrational changes in size are
confined to sudden changes in Alice’s own body.
Finally, however, entrance into the beautiful garden, the home of the
royal family, is achieved. But the bedlam is, if anything, worse. The main
characters are an animated pack of cards: the Spades are the gardeners, the
Clubs are the police force, the Diamonds are the courtiers, and the whole
garden is ruled by the Hearts. It is interesting to consider here that the suit
of cards, the Royal Family, has exactly the same number of members as the
Dodgson family. There are admonitions of love, but a threat of execution
permeates the place, and the Queen of Hearts seems madly lustful for
everyone’s head. Irritability and rage prevail, only, as the Mock Turtle
explains, the executions, like everything else, are not real. “It’s all her [the
Queen’s] fancy, that: they never executes nobody, you know.” Finally it
develops that the Knave of Hearts is being tried for having stolen tarts made
by the Queen, and he in turn is in danger of execution. Alice is surprised to
find herself called as a witness, and upsets the courtroom both literally (for
she has again become gigantic) and figuratively by her rebellion against the
nonsensical course of the trial. A final bit of evidence is produced in the form
of an unsigned letter, written in rhyme, indicating that the tarts have been
returned. It is a masterpiece of confused identities, expressed in pronouns,
and concludes—
They all returned from him to you,

Though they were mine before....
My notion was that you had been

(Before she had this fit)
An obstacle that came between
Him, and ourselves, and it.
The Queen goes into another fit of rage while denying that she is subject to
fits and demands an indefinite sentence. Alice declares a verdict must be
given first and finds herself threatened with decapitation by the Queen, and
defiantly replies: “Who cares for a pack of cards?” Whereupon the whole
pack rises up in the air to hurl itself against her, and she awakes to find that
she had been having a nightmare.
In a curious epilogue to the main tale, Alice recounts the dream to her
sister, who in turn dreams the dream over, and in a half-awake state:
... pictured to herself how this same little sister of hers would, in the
aftertime, be herself a grown woman; and how she would keep, through
all her riper years, the simple and loving heart of her childhood; and
how she would gather about her other little children, and make their
eyes bright and eager with many a strange tale, perhaps even with the
dream of Wonderland of long ago
—truly an immortality of innocence as unreal and fantasied as were the

executionary threats of the Queen of Hearts.
Looking-Glass
This was written seven years after Carroll had told the tale of
Wonderland to the three little girls on the river and Alice is a little older than
she was in Wonderland. Its plot follows, with similarities and reversals, that of
Wonderland. The story opens with the theme of punishment; Alice
reproaching her kitten for its faults and threatening punishment, only to
think of her own fate if her punishments were accumulated and given to her
at once. In a final threat to put the kitten through the mantel looking-glass,
Alice discovers she can go through herself into that land of reversal, only a
small bit of which can be seen ordinarily. It is the space behind the clock.
Thus Looking-Glass begins with guilt and possible punishment rather than
ending so; and time is involved (in the White Rabbit’s watch and the mantel
clock) in both adventures. In Looking-Glass, inanimate objects have come
alive; the pictures on the wall move and the face of the clock grins, while the
chess pieces on the hearth become the active inhabitants of the land. The
motif of the game, expressed in the card game of Wonderland, is now
experienced more fully as the game of chess, and concern about external
space, not merely our own body change, plays a primary role, with the time
theme secondary. In fact, in all Looking-Glass Land, Alice never once changes
size herself, although objects external to her change frequently and distance
has a troublesome way of contracting, expanding, and reversing itself. There
is the same wish to get into the garden, but this is achieved early in the tale
and without trouble. Alice floats downstairs so rapidly that she steadies
herself by clutching the doorknob at the garden entrance.
The garden is full of pert flowers whom Alice finally threatens to
decapitate (pick) in order to subdue them. While attempting to reach a hill
from which to have a better view of the garden, Alice encounters the Red
Queen of chess, now grown life-size, whom she has previously seen on the
hearth and frightened by lifting her rapidly through the air. There is now
a reversal, in that the Red Queen forces Alice to run breathlessly through
the air with her, but without reaching anyplace. The rest of Looking-Glass
is involved with Alice’s progress through the chess game of life until she
can be crowned a queen herself, on attaining the Eighth Square. Each
square has its own adventures, which in general are not so frightfully
exciting as those of Wonderland. Alice is repeatedly confronted with the
facts that space, time, and even memory and cause-and-effect may be
reversed and run in either direction, this unreliability causing much
confusion. The Red King and Queen are the main characters, much less
fierce than the King and Queen of Hearts, and they have counterparts in
the untidy but well-meaning White King and Queen. Several fights or
threats of fights occur—notably between Tweedledum and Tweedledee,
and the Lion and the Unicorn. Finally, Alice encounters the White
Knight, who plays a role partly like and partly opposite to that of the
Knave of Hearts in Wonderland. The White Knight cannot possibly be
accused of any crime—he is just too muddled, awkward, and generally
impotent. He continually falls from his horse in every direction except
over its head, and he carries dangling from his saddle any number of futile
contrivances, each of which he owns to be his own invention. Alice has
repeatedly to pick him up and get him seated again, and in one final rescue
has to pull him out of a ditch, where he has plunged head foremost. The
Knight amiably explains: “What does it matter where my body happens to
be? My mind goes on working all the same. In fact the more head
downward I am, the more I keep inventing new things.” (Thus the White
Knight seems to be in a state of chronic partial alienation between head
and body, resembling in this the Cheshire Cat.) Finally the White Knight
sings Alice a song about an old man a-sitting on a gate, which is sung to
the tune of “I give thee all, I can no more”8 and parodies Wordsworth’s
“The Leech-Gatherer.”9 He is disappointed that Alice does not weep. The
White Knight then says farewell, foolishly smiling and begging her to
wave her handkerchief in good-bye to him by way of encouragement, after
which she will go on into the Eighth Square and queenship, as indeed
happens.
As preparation for queenship, Alice is sent through a course of
training by the Red and White Queens—a training and an examination
which have a shadowy resemblance to a trial; and she is finally obligated to
give a dinner party to celebrate her royal debut—all this under the
malicious and officious direction of the Red Queen. The party ends,
however, in chaos and confusion, not unlike the end of the trial scene—
only again, instead of Alice changing size, the objects on the dinner table
become large and animated: the candles shoot up to the ceiling, the plates
develop wings, the soup ladle is threatening, and complete pandemonium
is about to prevail until Alice, in reaction to the emergency, literally turns
the table by pulling the cloth off and dumping the whole mess on the floor.
She then turns to attack the Red Queen who had provoked the perversity
of the dinner party, but finds the Queen again shrunken to chess-piece size.
She awakes shaking the Red Queen, only to find she is really shaking her
kitten.10
While the manifest plots of the Alice books are thus similar and
simple in structure, it is not their plots which are generally remembered,
but their various absurdly irrational incidents with the apparent triumph of
sheer but rhythmical nonsense. Perhaps no book except the Bible is quoted
as often in unlikely places and by improbable people as Alice. For in the
account of Alice’s experiences there is always some vividly mad vignette
which can be used for comparison and relief in most of life’s troubling
dilemmas. The plot, however, the penetration into the hidden or secret
garden and the difficulties encountered there, is in essence the most
universal plot of mankind, whether stimulated by the sub-librarian’s vision
of the little girls playing in the Dean’s garden, or from the gardens at Croft
and Daresbury traversed by the engine of Love and inhabited by the
civilized but combatant worms and caterpillars, or more remotely derived
from that garden where Adam and Eve ate of the apple and the serpent of
sophistication lurked nearby.
NOTES
1. Dodgson “turned out nearly 200 little printed pamphlets, many of which consist
of only a single sheet. Nearly 60 were devoted to topics in mathematics and logic; over 30
were concerned with games he invented or were schemes for ciphering. Nearly 50 were
related to Christ Church—its little quarrels, its proposals for change, its regulations....
Over 50 were devoted to miscellaneous subjects—how not to catch cold, how to score
tennis tournaments, on secondhand books, proposals for a new dramatic institute and for
a bowdlerized Shakespeare for young girls, how to play billiards on a circular table ... how
to write and register correspondence, common errors in spelling, on the profits of
authorship, an advertisement for selling a house, a questionnaire based on the rules for
commissions chargeable on overdue postal orders, how to memorize dates, etc. etc.... In
one series [of pamphlets] he describes an unbelievably complicated variant on croquet,
successive editions making it less and less likely that anyone would ever learn the rules.”
Quoted from Warren Weaver.
2. See Editor’s Note in the Diaries under July 26, 1879.
3. Warren Weaver, who has examined many of Lewis Carroll’s manuscripts, letters,
and notations, writes in “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland: Its Origin and Its Author”
(Princeton University Library Chronicle, XIII, 1951)
“Every example I have ever seen is written with black ink up to June 27,
1870; in purple from Dec. 16, 1870 to Dec. 7, 1890; and then black
thereafter, except
a) one item dated January 27, 1871, written in purple ink but corrected
in black.
b) one item dated June 10, 1872, in black.
c) one item dated June 12, 1872 in black with purple corrections.
Every example I have seen dated February 5, 1891, or later is in black.”
4. Compare this with the account of Swift’s anonymous delivery of his manuscript at
night.
5. Compare the alleged treatment of the manuscript with the following stanza from
Poeta Fit, Non Nascitur:
For first you write a sentence

And then you chop it small;
Then mix the bits and sort them out
Just as they chance to fall:
The order of the phrases makes
No difference at all.
In Phantasmagoria, 1869
6. The Cheshire cat did not originate with Carroll, but is part of the folklore of the
county in which he was born. Its appearance in Wonderland, however, has made it so
famous that its earlier existence is often overlooked. The phrase “grinning like a Cheshire
cat” or “grinning like a chessy cat” appears in various writings before 1865. Wolcott (Peter
Pindar) wrote in 1792, “Lo, like a Cheshire cat our court will grin.” There seem to be two
main theories regarding its origin: One is based on the fact that a cheese was formerly
made in Cheshire molded like a grinning cat. This has a peculiar Carrollian appeal, as it
provokes the fantasy that the chessy cat may eat the rat that would eat the cheese. It
reminds one further of the current phrase for a smugly smiling person, “He looks like the
cat that has eaten the canary,” and again we ask with Alice, “Do cats eat bats, or bats eat
cats?” The explanation for the grin given by Brewer, however, is that the cats there knew
that Cheshire is the County Palatine, and the idea is so funny that they are perpetually
amused by it. (Certainly a cat may look at—and laugh at—a king.) Another explanation
offered is that a lion rampant being the crest of an influential noble family of Cheshire, a
cat’s head became substituted for it due to the maladroit work of a painter who made signs
for inns and other public places. Thus the cat became associated with Cheshire. The most
coherent explanation, offered by Michael Perkins, relates the grinning Cheshire cat to the
“witch cat” which began to grin on Hallowe’en in the Isle of Man and frightened observers
all the way to Scotland. This cat was probably derived from the Palug Cat which the Welsh
Triads record as having been kittened by the sow Henwen under the spell of the magician
Coll, at Collfrew, at the Black Stone in Menai Straits. In North Wales, the cat bogey
(which reappears in our grinning Jack-o’-Lantern) was a black hog with a “cutty” tail. It
seems related then to the Manx cat of the Isle of Man. The Dodgsons made a family
excursion to Beaumaris when Charles was a young boy, and the Menai Bridge reappears in
his rhymes about the aged, aged man. The cat without a tail, or the Manx cat, becomes
then converted into the cat without a head, or the head without a body, and is part of the
decapitation and body-mutilation theme so apparent in Carroll’s writing.
7. The close connection between the air (which is set in motion by the fan or given
special significance when breathed in from the nosegay) and eating and drinking is again
apparent.
8. Thomas Moore: “My Heart and Lute,” in Poetry and Pictures.
9. “Resolution and Independence.”
10. This whole picture reminds one inevitably of Carroll’s attack on the cats of
Finborough Road.
R I C H A R D K E L LY
Poetry
T H E P O E T RY OF WONDERLAND
M ost of the poems in the two Alice books are parodies of poems or
popular songs that were familiar to Carroll’s contemporaries. The first to
appear in Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland is “How doth the little crocodile,”
a parody of Isaac Watts’s moralistic little poem “Against Idleness and
Mischief.”23 Watts uses the bee as an example of wholesome industriousness:
“How skillfully she builds her cell! / And labours hard to store it well / With
the sweet food she makes” (p. 39). Carroll’s crocodile, on the other hand,
does its work by remaining passive and merely opening its jaws: “How
cheerfully he seems to grin, / How neatly spreads his claws, / And welcomes
little fishes in, / With gently smiling jaws” (p. 38). Again, there is the theme
of oral aggressiveness noted by Phyllis Greenacre, and it is very aptly applied
here. Watts’s sentimental vision of the animal world is replaced by Carroll’s
Darwinian view of survival of the stronger. There is considerable pleasure to
be derived from having such a cold picture of animal behavior, presented in
the rhyme, meter, and near language of Watts’s storybook view. Only the
smile of the Cheshire Cat can exceed the sinister gentleness of the crocodile’s
smiling jaws. The very human—and non-Darwinian—attributes which
Carroll gives to his predator suggest all too graphically the reality of social
Darwinism. John Ciardi chooses to read this poem as a criticism of the
hypocrisy in Watts’s poem: “Is it too much to argue that the crocodile is a
From Lewis Carroll. © 1977 G.K. Hall & Co.
123
124 Richard Kelly
happy hypocrite piously gobbling up the trusting fishes (including the poor
fishes among the readers who are willing to take Watts’s prettily shallow
morality as a true rule of life)?”24
Although shaped verse can be traced back to ancient Greece, Carroll’s
mouse’s tale is one of the best known examples of the form. An earlier
version, which appeared in Alice’s Adventures Under Ground, tells the story of
some mice who were crushed beneath a mat by a dog and a cat that were
pursuing a rat. The revision deals with a dog named Fury who suggests to a
mouse that they both go to court, for “we must have a trial” (p. 51). The
mouse protests that a trial without judge or jury would be meaningless, to
which Fury responds: “I’ll be judge, I’ll be jury,” and “I’ll try the whole cause
and condemn you to death.” Unlike the original tale, the revision is absurd
and violent. Fury wants a trial simply because “this morning I’ve nothing to
do,” and his view of justice is exceeded only by the Snark (which serves as
judge, jury, and counsel for the defense). If this poem is a satire on the legal
profession that aspect of it is incidental. It is primarily a piece of nonsense, a
playing with language—seen in the shape of the poem and the punning
introduction: “Mine is a long and sad tale!” said the Mouse. “‘It is a long tail,
certainly,’ said Alice, looking down with wonder at the Mouse’s tail” (p. 50).
The puns, the tail shape of the verse (like an illustration), Fury’s lack of
motivation (a dog not being the natural enemy of the mouse—whereas, in
the early version, a mouse offers a good reason for disliking both cat and
dog), and the non sequiturs are the essential aspects of the poem’s nonsense.
Its “statement,” therefore, must be read in the context of Wonderland, where
violence is usually verbal and impotent to harm the real world, represented
by Alice.
In Wonderland Alice has difficulty in saying things as she remembered
them. When she attempted to recite Watts’s poem she spoke the parody.
Now, at the request of the caterpillar, when she tries to repeat Robert
Southey’s “The Old Man’s Comforts and How He Gained Them,” she utters
still another parody. As the Caterpillar later comments, her recital “is wrong
from beginning to end.” This poem is reminiscent of “Upon the Lonely
Moor” in its unconventional treatment of old age. Southey’s old man is
incredibly smug about the comforts that his righteous behavior bestowed
upon his age: “In the days of my youth I remember’d my God. / And He hath
not forgotten my age” (p. 69). Carroll’s old man is also proud of the youthful
prowess he still retains, but is wonderfully short-tempered: “ ‘ I have
answered three questions, and that is enough,’” / Said his father. “‘Don’t
give yourself airs! / Do you think I can listen all day to such stuff? / Be off,
or I’ll kick you down stairs!’” (p. 71). Part of the humor of this conclusion
comes from the old man’s confusion of a literary convention with a
Poetry 125
personality—one does not expect him to take on the faceless speaker of the
refrain “You are old, father William” because he is simply the conventional
questioner who appears in the traditional ballad.
The lullaby which the Duchess sings to the pig-baby is a burlesque of
G. W. Langford’s “Speak Gently,” which counsels that it is better to rule by
love and gentleness than by fear: “Speak gently to the little child! / Its love
be sure to gain; / Teach it in accents soft and mild; / It may not long remain”
(p. 85). This saccharine advice is translated into that of comic violence and
absurdity: “Speak roughly to your little boy, / And beat him when he sneezes:
/ He only does it to annoy, / Because he knows it teases” (p. 85). In some of
the poems previously examined there was no explanation for why the
characters behaved the way they did. Here the Duchess’s advice is predicated
upon the motive of a child teasing its parents, as if he could control his
sneezing in a room full of pepper. When one expects motivation in
Wonderland, it is not given; and when one does not expect it, it is made
explicit. The poem intensifies the nonsense of Wonderland even when one
does not know Langford’s poem. When one thinks of the image of childhood
presented by the nineteenth-century authors, Carroll’s parody seems all the
more refreshing and innovative.
Jane Taylor’s well-known poem “The Star” is parodied in the Mad
Hatter’s song: “Twinkle, twinkle, little bat! / How I wonder what you’re at! /
Up above the world you fly, / Like a tea-tray in the sky. / Twinkle, twinkle—”
(pp. 98–99). Elizabeth Sewell has analyzed the process by which Carroll turned
the original four lines (“Twinkle, twinkle, little star, / How I wonder what
you are!? / Up above the world so high, / Like a diamond in the sky!”) into
nonsense by attempting to answer why bats and tea-trays are more suitable
to nonsense than are stars and diamonds:
A star is something exceedingly remote and beyond control;

it has no apparent parts and can be assigned by the ordinary
observer no definite qualities other than those of size and
degree of brightness; it is beautiful ...; it is one of an
unnumbered multitude. A bat is something near at hand,
reasonably familiar, small; it is a creature whose appearance and
habits are familiar; it is grotesque and we feel no attraction
toward it; it usually appears alone. The other substitution, that
of a tea-tray for a diamond, works on much the same principles,
abandoning beauty, rarity, preciousness and attraction for
ordinariness. It adds one further distinction, for a tea-tray is the
work of man. In other words, the artificial is here preferred to
the work of nature. Smallness, ordinariness, artificiality,
126 Richard Kelly
distinctness of units, and a tendency to concentrate on the part

rather than the whole are all helpful in the playing of
Nonsense.25
One very important element which Sewell omits is the surprise that comes
with the substitutions. Because we know the original poem the appearance of
a bat startles us. Even without knowing the original, however, the bat is
surprising because the two “twinkles” are totally inappropriate verbs to
describe the actions of a bat. Furthermore, as Sewell does point out, the
reader is unable to fuse together the image of the bat with the tea-tray,
thereby keeping the two images discrete. One’s imagination can, on the other
hand, fuse stars and diamonds without any difficulty.
The Mock Turtle’s song parodies the first line and employs the meter
of Mary Howitt’s poem “The Spider and the Fly.” The opening stanza of
Howitt’s version reads:
“Will you walk into my parlour?” said

the spider to the fly.
“’Tis the prettiest little parlour that
ever you did spy.
The way into my parlour is up a
winding stair,
And I’ve got many curious things to
show when you are there.”
“Oh, no, no,” said the little fly, “to
ask me is in vain,
For who goes up your winding stair can
ne’er come down again.” (p. 133)
The Mock Turtle sings very slowly and sadly:
“Will you walk a little faster?” said a

whiting to a snail,
“There’s a porpoise close behind us,
and he’s treading on my tail.
See how eagerly the lobsters and the
turtles all advance!
They are waiting on the shingle—will
you come and join the dance?
Will you, won’t you, will you, won’t you,
will you join the dance?
Poetry 127
Will you, won’t you, will you, won’t you,

won’t you join the dance?” (p. 134)
The Mock Turtle, living up to its name, appears to be mocking here the
moral of Howitt’s poem. There is clearly no lesson to be learned from the
song. Rather, it is an invitation to play, to dance. The rollicking rhythm of
Howitt’s poem is retained for its energetic playfulness, but the intrusive
moral lesson has been left out of Wonderland. The whiting, the lobsters, and
the snail, unlike the fly of Howitt’s verse, have nothing to fear—for although
they will be thrown out to sea, the experience will be “delightful” and,
furthermore, as the whiting explains, if they are then far from England, they
will be closer to France. It would be wrong to take this as anti-Gallic
sentiment. It is a statement of simple optimism—all that is and will be is
right. The whiting concludes by exhorting the “beloved snail” to enter in the
excitement of the dance, that is, into the amoral world of play. Donald
Rackin has this further point: “Note how the Mock Turtle’s song that
accompanies the Lobster Quadrille twists the sadistic original ... into an
innocuous nursery rhyme. This parody demonstrates that Wonderland
refuses to be consistent to itself: if the above-ground rhymes tend to hide or
deny Darwinian theory, Wonderland’s poems will be vengefully Darwinian;
but if above ground rhymes admit the cruelty of nature, then Wonderland
produces harmless nonsense verses.”26
When Alice attempts to recite another moralistic poem by Watts,
“The Sluggard,” she again distorts it into an amoral, cruel, Darwinian
commentary on nature. While Watts’s poem preaches the gospel of hard
work, Carroll’s parody tells of a panther who “shares” a meat pie with an
owl. The panther gets the meat pie and allows the owl to have the dish and
the spoon. Then “the Panther received knife and fork with a growl. / And
concluded the banquet by—” (p. 140). The grim final words, “eating the
owl,” appear in the 1886 printed edition of Savile Clarke’s operetta. This
poem not only makes fun of the self-righteousness of Watts’s verse but
comically subverts the sentimental picture of animal (and human?) behavior
that characterized so much of children’s literature in the Victorian era. An
angry Vicar in Essex actually wrote a letter to The St. James’ Gazette
accusing Carroll of irreverence because of the Biblical allusion in the first
line of his parody.27 Such an attack is surprising, since Carroll’s line “ ’Tis
the voice of the Lobster,” is practically the same as Watts’s “ ’Tis the voice
of the sluggard.”
The Mock Turtle’s mawkish song about beautiful soup is, of course, an
appropriate commentary upon his own destiny and, like the poem Alice just
finished reciting, depends upon oral aggressiveness for some of its humor.
128 Richard Kelly
“Turtle Soup” is a parody of the popular song “Star of the Evening,” by

James Sayles, which opens,
Beautiful star in heav’n so bright,

Softly falls thy silv’ry light,
As thou movest from earth afar,
Star of the evening, beautiful star.
Chorus:
Beautiful star,
Beautiful star,
Star of the evening, beautiful star. (p. 141)
The Mock Turtle, in “a voice choked with sobs,” begins: “Beautiful soup, so
rich and green, / Waiting in a hot tureen! / Who for such dainties would not
stoop? / Soup of the evening, beautiful Soup! / Soup of the evening, beautiful
Soup!” (p. 141). The substitution of “soup” for “star” turns the parody into
nonsense. A romantic apostrophe to a star, suggestive of beauty, aloofness,
and purity is fairly conventional. But soup is not usually thought of as
beautiful and an exclamatory song of praise for such a common food turns
the parody into good nonsense.
The response of a Victorian reader to these poems from Wonderland
would, of course, be very different from that of a twentieth-century reader.
The poems that are parodied were familiar if not known by heart, to Carroll’s
contemporaries. The recognizable meter, imagery, and morals of these works
had an immediate effect upon them. Carroll’s poetry, furthermore, asserted a
daring challenge to conventional, didactic children’s poetry and satirized
Victorian morality. The Victorians took seriously the familiar poetry of
Watts, Southey, Langford, Taylor, Howitt, and Sayles. These respectable
poets appeared in all the popular readers and, until Carroll, no one had
reason to question their sanctity. A modern reader, on the other hand, is
likely to be ignorant of the original poems. Nevertheless, Carroll’s parodies
survive and continue to delight. In their absurdity they have generated new
meanings that no longer depend upon the verses that are parodied.
T H E P O E T RY OF L O O K I N G -G L A S S L A N D
The first poem to appear in Through the Looking-Glass is

“Jabberwocky,” perhaps the best known and most frequently discussed of all
of Carroll’s poetry. Martin Gardner draws an interesting analogy between it
and abstract painting:
Poetry 129
The realistic artist is forced to copy nature, imposing on the

copy as much as he can in the way of pleasing forms and colors;
but the abstract artist is free to romp with the paint as much as he
pleases. In similar fashion the nonsense poet does not have to
search for ingenious ways of combining pattern and sense—he
takes care of the sounds and allows the sense to take care of itself.
The words he uses may suggest vague meanings, like an eye here
and a foot there in a Picasso abstraction, or they may have no
meaning at all—just a play of pleasant sounds like the play of
non-objective colors on a canvas.28
Characteristically, most of the nonsense words are nouns or adjectives.

Carroll apparently wanted his sentences to look genuine (nouns, verbs, and
predicates are usually easy to detect) so that he could avoid mere gibberish.
Elizabeth Sewell offers an explanation as to why most of the verbs are not
nonsense words: “In logic, a verb expresses a relation, and this suggests two
reasons for the few invented verbs in Nonsense. The first is the impossibility
of inventing new relations in logic. The second is that a verb is an expressed
relation, and relations in logic have to be simple and exact.”29 Sewell does
not accept on face value Humpty Dumpty’s explanation of the words in
“Jabberwocky” as portmanteaus: “frumious, for instance, is not a word, and
does not have two meanings packed up in it; it is a group of letters without
any meaning at all ... it looks like other words, and almost certainly more
than two.”30 The mind will play with a nonsense word and perhaps associate
with it several genuine words, but as Carroll says, “if you have that rarest of
gifts, a perfectly balanced mind, you will say ‘frumious.’” Sewell goes on to
comment that “the mind is encouraged by means of these Nonsense words
to notice likenesses; but the likenesses are to other words. It is the purely
verbal memory and associative faculty which is called into play.”31 The
likenesses between images, however, are not perceived in nonsense; and the
mind cannot fuse the verbal similarities together into a poetic unity.
There is, nevertheless, formal unity in “Jabberwocky,” inasmuch as it is
a mock-heroic ballad about an encounter between a young man and an
adversary and appears to have a beginning, a middle, and an end (although
the last stanza repeats the first). The young man, after being warned by his
father of the Jabberwock, the Jubjub bird, and the Bandersnatch, goes off to
do battle, slays the Jabberwock, and victoriously returns to his approving
father. The conventional ballad stanza, the clear story line, the traditional
syntax, and the many common words all provide a sensible framework of
reference. The element of nonsense is restricted to the use of certain
130 Richard Kelly
neologisms strategically placed in each stanza. If pure nonsense is conceived

of as a field of closed language which resists an interpretation based upon
some other system (e.g., ordinary prose, allegory, symbolism, etc.), then
“Jabberwocky” is not pure nonsense. There are not enough “structures of
resistance,” as Michael Holquist calls them,32 to close out of the poem
ordinary meaning—in the battle between sense and nonsense, sense wins out
in “Jabberwocky,” despite the structures of resistance provided by the
nonsense words.
Nevertheless, the central interest in “Jabberwocky” is not in its story
line but in its language. Our unfamiliarity with “slithy toves,” “borogoves,”
and “Bandersnatch” makes the poem fun. The words conjure up associations
in our minds that provide a “feeling” for their meanings. The word
“galumphing” illustrates the failure of pure nonsense. In the sentence “He
left it dead, and with its head / He went galumphing back,” the syntax makes
it clear that “galumphing” describes how he went back. As the only nonsense
word in an otherwise perfectly conventional sentence, the tendency of the
mind is to break sense, out of the word (and not to take it as a collection of
letters that only has meaning in the context of the work). Consequently,
associated words like “galloping” and “triumphantly” arise to help make
sense of the sentence. One may, of course, come to accept “galumphing” as
a word on its own, one that suggests a triumphant awkward gallop. If another
reader makes similar associations, then we could actually converse with that
word and be mutually understood. A. L. Taylor, for example, writes that “the
little St. George with his vorpal sword is made very attractive in Tenniel’s
drawing and could not possibly galumph.”33 Carroll’s own interpretation of
the nonsense words in the poem, though sometimes whimsical, contributes
to the reader’s impulse to explain and understand them.
In the final analysis, the poem is a work to have fun with. Martin
Gardner in his The Annotated Alice has enumerated the various explanations
of the nonsense words and notes that eight of them reappear in The Hunting
of the Snark. Some readers, such as A. L. Taylor, insist upon interpreting the
poem.34 He argues that Carroll is satirizing the religious controversies
around him, and sees the Tum-tum tree as “certainly the Thirty-nine Articles
which people like Jowett signed, according to Dodgson, for the sake of their
bread and butter.” The Jubjub bird and the Bandersnatch he explains as the
Catholic and Protestant aspects of the English Church. “Vorpal” is a
concoction of “verbal” and “Gospel.” And the repetition of the first stanza at
the end signifies that nothing has really changed, that one controversy (the
Jabberwock) has been slain but the “out-gribing” is as strident as ever. The
difficulty with making an allegory out of the poem, as Taylor has done, is that
it is arbitrary, unconvincing, and limits the interest of the poem if we stop
Poetry 131
with that reading. The poem has survived and perhaps thrived on countless
interpretations of that variety. What the poem finally “means,” of course, will
never be settled, for it is not a secret language to be eventually decoded but
a playful battle between sense and nonsense that can never be completely
resolved into simple prose sense. As Alice says, after reading the poem,
“‘Somehow it seems to fill my head with ideas—only I don’t exactly know what
they are! However, somebody killed something; that’s clear, at any rate.—’” 35
Perhaps with Alice’s response, the poem should be left at that.
Tweedledee’s poem, “The Walrus and the Carpenter,” satirizes the style
of Thomas Hood’s Dream of Eugene Aram. When Carroll gave the manuscript
of his poem to Tenniel for illustrating, be offered the artist a choice of
drawing a carpenter, butterfly, or baronet. Tenniel chose the carpenter. Any of
the words would have suited the meter and rhyme scheme, and Carroll
apparently had no strong preference as far as the nonsense was concerned.
Since words in a nonsense poem are interchangeable, one would be well
advised not to press such a poem too hard for a meaning. A butterfly or a
baronet would serve equally well as a contrasting member of the pair walking
near at hand along the beach. The nonsense would be less effective, however,
if the walrus were walking with a seal or the carpenter with an electrician.
The opening stanza sets the tone for the absurdities to follow:
The sun was shining on the sea,

Shining with all his might:
He did his very best to make
The billows smooth and bright—
And this was very odd, because it was
The middle of the night. (p. 233)
The nonsense of such “darkness visible” is reinforced by the rhyming of

“bright” and “night” and the matter-of-fact regularity of the meter. The
Walrus and the Carpenter are as mad as any of the creatures in Wonderland
or Looking-Glass Land. They say and do, things without the logic of
motivation and transition. The Walrus, for example, after speculating
whether seven maids with seven mops could sweep away all the sand on the
beach in a half year, beseeches the oysters: “O oysters, come and walk with
us!” After the oysters, who wear shoes even though they have no feet, follow
the odd couple down the beach aways, the Walrus speaks his famous stanza:
“The time has come,” the Walrus said,

“To talk of many things:
Of shoes—and ships—and sealing wax—
132 Richard Kelly
Of cabbages—and kings—
And why the sea is boiling hot—
And whether pigs have wings.” (p. 235)
The alliteration in the third and fourth lines and the rhyming of “things,”
“kings,” and “wings” suggest an affinity between the words that does not, in
fact, exist. “Shoes,” “ships,” “sealing-wax,” “cabbages,” and “kings” make up
a list of discrete items that can no more be fused together than can the items
in a shopping list for a mad tea party. Nevertheless the whole stanza has
come to have a meaning almost independent of the poem—namely, that the
time has come to get down to essentials and certainties. (In The Adventures of
Ellery Queen, for example, the first four lines of the stanza are an important
factor in the detective’s method of frightening a confession out of a
murderer).36 This meaning probably derives from the fact that the Walrus’s
statement is a chronological, though non-logical; prelude to the eating of the
oysters.
The theme of oral aggressiveness reappears in that the Walrus and
Carpenter eventually devour all of the personified oysters. The Carpenter is
ruthless and the Walrus sentimental, but the fact remains that they both ate
the oysters. Alice likes the Walrus best for he was “a little sorry for the poor
oysters.” But Tweedledum then tells her that he ate as many as he could get,
leaving Alice to conclude that “they were both very unpleasant characters.”37
This poem resembles Mary Howitt’s sadistic verse “The Spider and the Fly”
in its delicate, playful and fatal seduction of innocent, humanized creatures.
The poem surpasses Darwinian vengefulness or “Nature red in tooth and
claw,” in that Carroll’s creatures are humanized, and consequently their
cruelty and indifference become monstrous. Still, like Alice, we do not judge
them any more harshly than the phrase “very unpleasant” allows. They exist
only in the nonsense world of Looking-Glass Land and are, in fact, further
removed from Alice (and us) by having their existence in a poem recited by
a Looking-Glass character. Cruelty and sadism, no matter how violent in
Carroll’s writings, are always carefully controlled and tempered.
After Humpty Dumpty explains away the mystery (and fun) of
“Jabberwocky,” he recites for Alice “In winter, when the fields are white” (p.
273), a poem, he tells her that “was written entirely for your amusement.”
The trouble is that the poem leaves Alice more puzzled than amused. The
narrator of the poem sends a message to the fish: “This is what I wish.” They
reply: “We cannot do it, Sir, because—” (p. 274). At this point Alice remarks
that she does not understand, and Humpty Dumpty assures her that it gets
easier further on. The narrator urges the fish to obey his previous order and
when they refuse he fills a kettle with water. Someone comes and tells him
Poetry 133
that the fish are in bed. The speaker screams into his ear, “Then you must
wake them up again” (p. 275). Getting nowhere with this messenger, the
narrator takes a corkscrew and goes to wake them up himself. He finds the
door closed, and the last line of the poem reads, “I tried to turn the handle,
but—” (p. 275). Alice asks if that is all, to which Humpty Dumpty replies,
“That’s all,” and “Good-bye.” Alice’s relationship with Humpty Dumpty
ends as abruptly as his poem.
This has to be the worst poem in the Alice books. The language is flat
and prosaic, the frustrated story line is without interest, the couplets are
uninspired and fail to surprise or to delight, and there are almost no true
elements of nonsense present, other than in the unstated wish of the narrator
and the lack of a conclusion to the work. But the poem’s failure is important
for what it reveals about Humpty Dumpty. He is the solemn literary man, the
self-appointed critic of language who, though capable of a studious, self-
assured explication of hard poems, cannot come up with a successful poem
himself.
The last comic poem in Through the Looking-Glass is a riddle:
“First, the fish must be caught.”

That is easy: a baby, I think, could have caught it.
“Next, the fish must be bought,”
That is easy: a penny, I think, would have bought it.
“Now cook me the fish!”
That is easy, and will not take more than a minute.
“Let it lie in a dish!”
That is easy, because it already is in it.
“Bring it here! Let me sup!”
It is easy to set such a dish on the table.
“Take the dish-cover up!”
Ah, that is so hard that I fear I’m unable!
For it holds it like glue—
Holds the lid to the dish, while it lies in the middle:
Which is easiest to do,
Un-dish-cover the fish, or dishcover the riddle?
(p. 333)
Commenting on the riddle, why is a Raven like a writing desk,

Elizabeth Sewell argues that “it is essential for Nonsense that the riddle
should have no solution. It is propounded to keep the dream and disorder
side of the mind in play, but there must be no answer which could set up
some kind of unity between the parts.”38 Her point is well taken and may be
134 Richard Kelly
applied to the White Queen’s fish riddle. A solution would tie the verse
together and make sense of it. Perhaps Carroll had no solution in mind but
Martin Gardner offers a solution arrived at by a man named Peter Suckling:
an oyster.39 A baby can pick it from an oyster bed, a penny would buy one in
Carroll’s day, it cooks quickly, it lies in its own dish, it is easily placed on the
table, but the “dish-cover” is hard to raise because it is held to the dish by the
oyster in the middle. This solution makes perfectly good sense; and one
could certainly argue that in Sewell’s terms the verse is definitely not
nonsense, but simply a conventional riddle. The solution, however, is not
important in Looking-Glass Land, for after the White Queen finishes her
recitation the Red Queen says to Alice, “Take a minute to think about it, and
then guess”; but she then goes on to drink Alice’s health and no opportunity
is provided for Alice’s response.
NOTES
23. All of the poems quoted are from The Annotated Alice; subsequent page references
will be cited in the text.
24. “A Burble through the Tulgey Wood,” How Does a Poem Mean? (Boston, 1959), pp.
678–85; rpt. in Aspects of Alice, p. 258.
25. The Field of Nonsense, pp. 100–101.
26. “Alice’s Journey to the End of Night,” PMLA, 81 (Oct., 1966), 324.
27. The Annotated Alice, p. 140.
28. Ibid., p. 192.
29. The Field of Nonsense, p. 118.
30. Ibid., pp. 119–20.
31. Ibid., p. 122.
32. “What is a Boojum? Nonsense and Modernism,” Yale French Studies, 43 (1969),
145–64; rpt. in Alice in Wonderland, ed. Donald J. Gray (New York, 1971), p. 412.
33. The White Knight, p. 80.
34. Ibid., pp. 80–81.
36. Ibid., p. 235.
37. Ibid., p. 237.
38. The Field of Nonsense, p. 113.
DONALD RACKIN
Love and Death in Carroll’s Alices
C onsidering the internal and external evidence, most readers new to

Lewis Carroll would naturally expect to find love playing a major role in the
central narratives of his Alices. Wonderland ends (as does Alice’s Adventures
Under Ground) with remarks about Alice’s “simple and loving heart”; and
Through the Looking-Glass begins with a poem declaring that Charles
Dodgson’s “love-gift of a fairy-tale” will elicit a “loving smile” from his
dearest little reader, his beloved companion and model Alice Liddell.1 For
Dodgson devoted a great measure of his energy in a life-long service to his
love for little girls. Moreover, as a true amateur par excellence, in his
everyday affairs and amusements, and throughout his letters, diaries and
lesser literary works—from the satirical “Love’s Railway Guide” of his
juvenilia to his final maudlin opus Sylvie and Bruno Concluded (which ends
with an angel’s voice whispering “IT IS LOVE”)—love was clearly one of his
dominant concerns. As Dodgson wrote to an eleven-year-old correspondent
when he was fifty-nine, “love is the best thing in all the world.”2
Lewis Carroll is of course Dodgson’s “own invention” (if you want to
see him as he sometimes imagined himself, look at the frontispiece to
Looking-Glass), as are Alice and the White Knight. But in real life, too,
Dodgson played a genuine Christian knight, giving much of himself
From Soaring with the Dodo: Essays on Lewis Carroll’s Life and Art, Edward Guiliano and James R.
Kincaid, ed. © 1982 by The Lewis Carroll Society of North America. Originally published in
English Language Notes 20, 2 (December 1982).
135
136 Donald Rackin
gratuitously in authentic, loving generosity to the countless Alices, Ediths

and Ethels of his wide acquaintance.3 Love itself was also a crucial topic in
Dodgson’s milieu, a world where, in fact, some despairing Oxford
contemporaries had already turned to love as the only possible refuge on the
“darkling plain” of their faithless age (“Dover Beach,” incidentally, was
published just about halfway between Wonderland and Through the Looking-
Glass).
Furthermore, the Alice adventures themselves offer a variety of internal
evidence perhaps more convincing than these biographical and historical
facts or than the books’ rather sentimental frames (whose relations to the
actual adventures remain somewhat problematical), evidence that would also
lead readers to expect more on the subject of love from these works. After all,
THE KING AND QUEEN OF HEARTS stand prominently at the center
of the punning world of Wonderland, and a spirit of love is expected to
inform the audience’s emotional response to a child protagonist like Alice.
Love also lies at the base of several of those important nursery rhymes Alice
unwittingly subverts. And despite the Cheshire Cat’s assertion that madness
reigns in Wonderland, the Ugly Duchess declares with equal finality, “’Tis
love, ‘tis love, that makes the world go round!”
But Alice herself, in much the same uncontrollable way that she twists
the loving and sentimental messages of her nursery rhymes into dark visions
of unloving, predatory, post-Darwinian nature, reminds the insincere
Duchess of the Duchess’s own earlier declaration: the world goes round,
Alice suggests, “by everybody minding their own business!” Indeed, Alice’s
curt, unloving deflation of love here mirrors an important facet of Carroll’s
characteristically unsentimental wit, particularly as it works within the Alices.
Despite the great loving care Dodgson expended in preparing the beautiful
Under Ground manuscript as a love-gift for his dear Alice Liddell, near the
manuscript’s end he carefully placed his final drawing—the mad Queen of
Hearts, in his own later estimate a heartless “blind and aimless Fury,”4 as
alien from love and love-gifts as any fantasy creature could conceivably be.
Inside the Alice books, love seems to have no better prospect for survival than
do any of the other admirable motives and principles that underlie and make
our world go round, and that fall so easily to cool Carrollian wit and satire in
the nonsensical madhouses of Dodgson’s invention.
The quest structures of the Alices offer graphic representations of a
failed search for the warm joy and security of love. Once inside Wonderland,
Alice desperately seeks to enter the “loveliest garden you ever saw”5—that is,
for almost everyone in Carroll’s original audience, the Garden of Eden. But
instead of a tranquil, secluded place of perfect love, the Queen of Hearts’
Croquet Grounds turn out to be the grounds for perfect (albeit laughable)
hate and fury—like a comic Blakean Garden of Love, an ironically perverted,

dreadfully confused and threatening version of the paradise the child in us
seeks in its joys and desires. In Through the Looking-Glass—a very different
sort of book and one containing several positive but fleeting images of love—
Alice’s quest for Queenhood does not meet with exactly the same frustration,
although it too ends in “dreadful confusion” which Alice must escape because
she “ca’n’t stand [it] any longer!” In any case, being a Queen, Alice discovers,
offers neither the security of attachment nor the sovereignty of freedom to
which she refers in her opening words to the White Knight: “I don’t want to
be anybody’s prisoner. I want to be a Queen.” Finally, then, Alice’s worlds
under the ground and inside the mirror turn out, it seems, to be nonsensical
places without love, places of sheer and terrifying loneliness: in both, Alice
cries bitter tears engendered by that loneliness. “I am so very tired of being
all alone here!” she sobs in Wonderland; and with a “melancholy voice”
behind the looking-glass, she cries, “it is so very lonely here!”
These apparent contradictions between text and context and within the
text itself raise some important critical questions, among them these: Why,
in view of Carroll’s declared purposes for his Alice books and in view of other,
abundant evidence (literary, historical, and biographical), do the Alice
narratives seem to frustrate all impulses towards love—even the impulses
their own frames excite? Why does love within the Alices exist, apparently,
only fitfully and only in self-centered, infantile forms or in places where, so
to speak, things have no names? More specifically, how can these beloved
masterpieces of our literature be surrounded by so many frames of human
love and yet apparently exclude love from their central stories? Finally, why
do adult readers today often remember the Alices, despite all this evidence to
the contrary, as somehow warm, even loving, experiences and Alice herself as
the embodiment of Dodgson’s own later vision of her:
What wert thou, dream-Alice, in thy foster-father’s eyes? How

shall he picture thee? Loving, first, loving and gentle: loving as a
dog (forgive the prosaic simile, but I know no earthly love so pure
and perfect), and gentle as a fawn....6
II
Elizabeth Sewell’s celebrated study of Carroll and Lear, The Field of

Nonsense,7 explains why love has no place in nonsense, why, indeed, love and
nonsense are ultimately incompatible. Basically, Sewell’s argument rests on
the firm premise that nonsense is game; consequently, Alice in Wonderland
and Through the Looking-Glass (for Sewell, eminent examples of English
138 Donald Rackin
nonsense) must turn all life, all fluid human emotions, everything, into cold,
discrete, static counters for play within a closed field. The nonsense world
inside the Alices, claims Sewell, “is not a universe of things but of words and
ways of using them, plus a certain amount of pictorial illustration.... In
Nonsense all the world is paper and all the seas are ink” (p. 17).8
Bearing in mind that the games in Carroll’s Alices often involve kinetic,
changing counters, rather than the static ones required for the game of
nonsense postulated by Sewell (and accepted by diverse critics as an apt
description of Carroll’s chief comic power);9 keeping in mind, for example,
those wriggling, live-animal mallets and live-animal balls of Wonderland
croquet, we can nevertheless pursue Sewell’s argument profitably. For her,
the Alices constitute, finally, “a work about itself” (pp. 21–22). Thus, love—
whether as a serious subject or as a substantial conceptual element with more
than mere game-counter applications, or as the spirit (style, tone, manner,
etc.) in which the game of nonsense is played—has no place whatsoever in,
indeed is destructive of, the game world we must enter when we enter the
non-referential worlds of, say, Lear’s poetry or Jabberwocky. For what we
understand by human love (unlike, incidentally, Dodgson’s “pure and
perfect” love of dog or of fawn) is fiercely kinetic, its kinesis and imperfection
dominating the subject matter of Western literature since at least the
Renaissance. Furthermore, human love never is (as every game counter must
be) completely discrete, never fully completed, never isolated, and never
merely about itself. Indeed, the Romantic sensibility in which so many of us
agonize and glory depends heavily on the principle of incompleteness and on
dreams of mergers between ordinarily discrete entities and selves (in our day
represented most often by sexual unions; in Carroll’s day represented most
vividly in the operatic vision of love celebrated in Romantic fictions,
Wuthering Heights being a striking example). A game uses separate entities as
playthings; love, like imagination, seeks to dissolve separation and to
engender syntheses greater than the sums of their parts (according to Sewell,
“The Nonsense universe must be the sum of its parts and nothing more,” p.
98).
Thus, accepting Sewell’s definition, we must understand love as in a
sense destructive of nonsense, as the warm emotional force that naturally
resists taking the world the way nonsense presumably takes it, as simply a
congeries of cold, discrete “units going one and one and one” (Sewell, p. 67).
Love works like a solvent, dissolving isolation and breaking down
separateness, making the world more fluid and less static, tending towards
fusion and away from discreteness. Therefore, our quest for love in the
nonsensical Alices, like Alice’s nonsensical quest for the tranquil innocence of
the lovely Garden or for the permanent freedom of adult Queenhood, seems
therefore nonsensical too and appropriately destined to fail. Hence it appears

that, as critics anyway, we must simply declare that the warm (and sometimes
sentimental) love which permeates the frame materials of the Alices and
which is sometimes ridiculed within their narratives has no place there, is
finally extraneous, playing no important part in the books’ artistic successes.
In fact, it looks as though we must as critics declare the few bits of unsatiric
or unsatirized love we catch here and there in the Alices to be sentimentally
generated flaws in the generally pure nonsense which is their principal
achievement.
A useful gloss on these matters appears in one of Carroll’s minor early
fictions, “Novelty and Romancement”10 (published in The Train in 1856
when Dodgson was twenty-four and just getting used to his new pen-name).
In brief, “Novelty and Romancement” is the first-person account of one
Leopold Edgar Stubbs (among other things, a caricature of an overly
Romantic narrator-hero in Poe’s fiction), a young man with a feverish
imagination and an all-consuming “thirst and passion ... for poetry, for
beauty, for novelty, for romancement” (p. 1080).
The target of rather crude Carrollian derision, a Romantic mercilessly
lampooned by Carroll’s anti-Romantic irony, Stubbs serves as an objective
correlative for the spirit motivating the Romantic quest—the foolish, almost
nonsensical young lover foolishly in love with love itself. And the cream of
Carroll’s rather facile jest depends on Stubbs’ dim-witted belief that the
“romancement” he so ardently seeks (compare here Alice’s two quests or the
hunting of the Snark) is to be found, simply, in a mechanic’s shop on Great
Wattles street: he spies the sign “Simon Lubkin. Dealer in Romancement”
and thinks he has found the dear object of his life-long quest.
“Romancement” (here read “Love”), he fondly believes, can be bought like
herring or glue from a working-class shopman.
The climax of “Novelty and Romancement” comes when Stubbs, “with
a throbbing and expectant heart,” discovers that he has been “deluded by a
heated imagination”: he has, in his youthful ardor, misread the shopkeeper’s
sign (this short story, by the way, offers a treasure trove for our current
school of semioticians). What he had read on the sign as “Romancement”
was, all along, merely “Roman cement.” Until the climax, he had never seen
the “hideous gap” yawning between the “N” and the “C,” “making it not one
word but two!” (pp. 1087–1088). Instead of the fused and fusing
“romancement” Stubbs has hotly sought, he finds only “Roman cement,” as
cold and mundane a conception as the two discrete terms used to signify it
(again compare the disappointing un-romantic conclusions and the
awakenings to a dull reality that end Alice’s dreams and quests). Stubbs is
obviously from beginning to end a Romantic fool; but his “phantom hope”
140 Donald Rackin
for “romancement,” the childish dream he held with an “expectant heart,” is

no more foolish than is the dream-Alice that haunted Dodgson
“phantomwise,” or the imaginative dream-quests that motivated Alice
herself—or the object of warm love any one of us might cherish in a young
and hopeful imagination. Before Stubbs discovers the sad truth, Lubkin
innocently tells him what the stuff in his shop is used for: “It would piece a
most anything together.” Stubbs of course misunderstands Lubkin’s
straightforward remark, thinking it refers to the spirit of “romancement,” a
spirit, he imagines, that “serves to connect the broken threads of human
destiny” (p. 1084)—a view of human love consistent with much that
Dodgson wrote in many of his letters, diary entries and imaginative works, a
view of human love (and the imagination) to which most of us post-
Romantics probably would subscribe.
In any case, the emotional-imaginative cement fusing the two,
separate, lifeless, prosaic terms in Stubbs’ poetic and “fertile imagination” (p.
1084) suddenly loses its cohesive powers and its own fertility; the frigid,
isolated words fly apart into mere individual words again, mere dead
counters in the unimaginative game of commerce and commercial
communication. The experienced Stubbs puts it neatly at the end, without
for once his florid and poetic prose, “the dream was over” (p. 1088). Like a
reversed mirror-image of the ends of Alice’s dream-quests, like the apparent
relationships between the poetic, Romantic frames of the Alices and their
satirical and nonsensical prose narratives, this ending seems to deflate love
into a mere misreading of lifeless signs. As it so often does in Carroll,
Romanticism here becomes a matter of poor eyesight. The coherent, unitary
vision of a coherent, dynamic world alive and turning on the power of love
is shattered into the dreadful but business-like perception of a “real” world
of “broken threads” that goes round because each separate entity and each
separate word remains separate, minding its “own business,” while each
seeker of love’s coherence remains a fool permanently isolated in a solitary
and loveless prison.11
Preposterous as it might seem, then, we find ourselves at this point
apparently forced by firm and varied evidence to conclude that the supreme
and loving creations of a man whose life and religious devotion circled
around love have themselves internally little to do with love—except to treat
it where it occurs with the same cold mockery they turn on all the other fond
fictions and groundless imaginative constructs that help make our mad world
livable. Our quest for love inside these texts seems therefore doomed to the
fate suffered by similar quests within Carroll’s masterpieces: whether we seek
it with care and hope or with thimbles and forks, love will, Carroll’s great
fantasies seem to say, elude us forever. The old signs, the old words declaring
love’s fusing magic, like the words on Simon Lubkin’s sign proclaiming his
prosaic wares, fall before our clear vision into their morally meaningless,
discrete parts. “Novelty and Romancement” ends both sadly and comically:
The signboard yet creaks upon the moldering wall, but its sound
shall make music in these ears nevermore—ah! nevermore.
(p. 1088)
III
But our quest for the sustained and sustaining music of love within the
Alices need not end with a frustrating Boojum. In the eighth chapter of
Through the Looking-Glass (“It’s My Own Invention”), that quest yields some
authentic results. And, in spite of the apparent incoherent randomness of
Carroll’s nonsense materials, this chapter might even suggest for the Alices
the possibility of a satisfying moral shape.
Besides finding in “It’s My Own Invention” some of the best evidence
of the loving nature that Dodgson claimed was Alice in Wonderland’s chief
virtue, we witness in this late, concluding episode something which, in terms
of our own search for love, is much more significant—a response to that
loving nature in the only genuine, fully human exchange within all of Alice’s
adventures: a poignantly brief, disturbingly realistic farewell between a
foolish old White Knight and Alice, that Knight’s beloved seven-and-a-half-
year-old maiden in distress.12
At this late and pivotal point in her adventures underground and
behind the looking-glass, Carroll’s imprisoned pawn-princess is freed and is
now about to awaken to autonomous Queenhood (Chapter Nine is called
simply “Queen Alice”). Meanwhile, Alice’s thinly disguised creator
Carroll/Dodgson (after surreptitiously admitting that she too is his “own
invention”) prepares to lose forever his Galatea as she races off eagerly and
unthinkingly to adulthood and out of the dream worlds he has lovingly
invented for her, worlds where real death seems almost a stranger and where
her natural aging process has been slyly slowed to a Wonderland rate closer
to his heart’s desire—a mere half-year’s maturation for something like every
nine years on the other side of the looking-glass.13 Carroll’s sadly ineffectual
persona, meantime, that aged and impotent prince-charming, that familiar
nonsense-inventor, the ever-falling, pitiable White Knight, sings his last
song and bumbles off towards some isolated and ridiculous death:
As the Knight sang the last words of the ballad, he gathered up

the reins, and turned his horse’s head along the road by which
142 Donald Rackin
they had come. “You’ve only a few yards to go,” he said, “down
the hill and over that little brook, and then you’ll be a Queen—
But you’ll stay and see me off first?” he added as Alice turned with
an eager look in the direction to which he pointed. “I sha’n’t be
long. You’ll wait and wave your handkerchief when I get to that
turn in the road? I think it’ll encourage me, you see.”
In this chapter, Carroll finally brings to the surface and objectifies for
his readers what they have at best only dimly sensed in their journeys with
Alice through the loveless realms of heartless queens and unfeeling flat
characters from the worlds of nonsense game and nursery rhyme. Until now,
the only possible evidence of real love, it seemed, had been so deeply
embedded among the nonsense adventures that we could have easily called
lovelessness the keynote of the Alices. Until this late chapter of Carroll’s last
Alice, it appeared as if the only cogent and critically defensible way for us to
justify continuing our quest for love was to claim perhaps that the narrative
act itself—the narrator’s gentle structuring of the inherently unstructurable,
separate, discrete components of Alice’s dreams into a pleasurably coherent
text—comprises an act of love, a love-gift that provides Alice, and the reader
with a fictive shape which allows them to survive with some measure of sanity
in a mad world. But this seems to me an unsatisfying, overly theoretical
approach to our actual experience of the Alices. Now, however, in the
poignant passage I have just quoted, we begin to see some reason to hope for
real success in our quest.
But before continuing, let us turn for a moment to Carroll’s prefatory
poem, specifically to a passage that promises a particular emotional
immunity. The poem ends:
And, though the shadow of a sigh

May tremble through the story,
For “happy summer days” gone by,
And vanish’d summer glory—
It shall not touch, with breath of bale,
The pleasance of our fairy-tale.
The narrative following this promise, however, fails to sustain such an

emotional immunity. Indeed, the emotional charge underlying the haunting
farewell between the White Knight and Alice is so powerful it breaks
through the neat nonsense surfaces of Alice’s adventures, letting readers and
listeners hear distinctly and directly a different but vaguely familiar tone—
that nostalgic “shadow of a sigh” which, though we hardly suspected it, has,
as Carroll admits, “tremble[d] through the story” ever since Alice first
followed Dodgson’s White Rabbit down the rabbit hole.
The intrusion of such a nostalgic “sigh” subverts Carroll’s own intention
to give his audience a love-gift of game-like, pure, nonsensical pleasure
untouched alike by any breath of “bale” or by any warm, fluid emotions that
can threaten the static discreteness upon which the “pleasance” of nonsense
games rests. (In Dodgson’s day, incidentally, “pleasance” signified, among
other things, [1] a pleasant, unthreatening emotional experience, [2] for him,
Alice Pleasance Liddell, his real girl-love, and [3], a secluded garden.)
Admitting to the field of nonsense an emotion as alien as nostalgia risks
opening its pleasant seclusion to other disturbing strangers, among them
Death. Here in Chapter Eight, Death is no longer a stranger, a separate word,
a mere uncharged sign and discrete counter for endless games where “they
never executes nobody” and where Death’s agent Time can itself die, or stop
dead forever in a mad, unending tea-party. And the “voice of dread” that, as
Carroll’s poem reminds us, inevitably “summon[s] to unwelcome bed” every
“melancholy maiden”14 here also breaks through, becoming fully manifest for
the only time in all the adventures, but thereby revealing it has been a
dynamic element singing at the back of Carroll’s tales of Alice’s nonsensical
experiences of life, love, death and disorder.
Carroll himself understood the threat such a “breath of bale” poses for
nonsense games. Consciously, he believed that the approaching, inexorable
“bedtime” his poem alludes to must not, would not play any part in the
adventures themselves (except heavily disguised in such elements as the many
silly and unthreatening death and sex jokes that punctuate the Alices). But
here in “It’s My Own Invention”—the chapter Carroll apparently considered
central to the book (look at that frontispiece again)—the baleful “frost,” the
“raving blast” of fall and winter which is our common lot and the basis for
much of our love comes alive dramatically in the comic narrative’s overt and
realistic portrayals of aging, old age, and falling to earth (the text alludes to
the old Knight’s falling at least thirty times), as well as in its covert plays on
the word “grave” and its many references to gravity—a no-nonsense,
inescapable force pulling us all down to earth and our common grave. And
the tone that conveys all this, the emotional aura suffusing this autumnal
scene which reaches its climax with the spectacle of an aged man (not a mere
nonsense creature, mind you, but a man) singing, as his final love-gift for a
departing child, his nonsense song “The Aged Aged Man,” that melancholy
tone we hear distinctly in “It’s My Own Invention” reveals, finally and with
a direct immediacy, a fundamental thematic element that has subtly informed
all of the Alice books, making them something much more referential, much
richer and more human than the insulated nonsense we might have easily
144 Donald Rackin
mistaken them for. Paradoxically, this grave tone emanates from Carroll’s
fortunate failure to keep his nonsense pure, free from that “shadow of a sigh”
he himself admits. The tone emanates from a deep, abiding and inescapable
sense that human love springs from time and human mortality. Hardly a fit
subject for the closed fields of nonsense, but just the right subject for literary
works quoted as often as Shakespeare’s sonnets.
Much of the love Dodgson bore for the innumerable little Alices of his
own fleeting life was of a kind adult readers know well. His letters and diaries
(and his lesser literary works) are fully open about that sense of advancing age
that leaves us fallen “bare ruined choirs” and makes us “love that well which
[we] must leave ere long.” The depth and intensity of Dodgson’s
preoccupation with this particular emotional and spiritual experience can be
gauged by the heavy emphasis placed upon it in this structurally crucial
chapter, especially in the chapter’s continual iteration of two intertwined
motifs—old age and falling. Like Shakespeare’s May-time beloved beholding
the final decline of a winter-time lover, like Humbert Humbert’s pitiful
adoration of his indifferent nymphet fading before him into a future he
cannot share, like any of the countless figures in our literature that dramatize
and celebrate this notion of love springing from fallen man’s doomed race
against world and time, against the imprisoning Biological Trap or the
“blight man was born for,” the Alice undertexts, amidst all the surface
nonsense, have whispered from the beginning of love’s intimate relations
with inevitable death, but so faintly and subtly that the effect is necessarily—
and, I think, appropriately—subliminal. In this late, sunset chapter of the
final Alice, however, in this autumnal and peculiarly isolated scene of final
parting between (foster) father and the child he has created, the grave
undercurrent themes of age, evanescent and unrequited love and youth’s
impatience for autonomous life become for a very brief moment the vivid
mainstream and audible melody of Carroll’s narrative.
Indeed, we now know that Carroll intended to intensify these themes
and make them even more explicit in this chapter: With a characteristic
Looking-Glass doubling, he meant (although he was finally dissuaded by
Tenniel) to add immediately after the White Knight episode a parallel scene
of young Alice parting from another aged man—the even older, dying Wasp
in a Wig, who sings a sometimes gruesome song about his own last days:
So now that I am old and gray,

And all my hair is nearly gone,
They take my wig from me and say
“How can you put such rubbish on?”15
But although the Wasp episode does bear a number of similarities to

the White Knight section it was meant to follow, it might not appear to be
about love, the goal of our own critical quest. For while the “very unhappy”
Wasp represents the sadness of approaching death (being November behind
the looking-glass, it is already well past the “unwelcome bedtime” of most
wasps) and while Alice again represents impatient youth (she turns back to
the aged Wasp “rather unwillingly, for she was very anxious to be a Queen”),
readers might nevertheless find it difficult to discover in this Wasp fragment
any hint of the love-out-of-death theme I have been delineating. But the
distinct change Alice’s polite indulgence effects in this irascible old creature
should be read in the light of its full context, representing as it does the
sudden engendering of warm human emotion in the coldest, most rigid and
elderly figure in Carroll’s extensive collection of cranky, inflexible, waspish
grown-ups. In the final words of this episode, the Wasp suddenly reaches
emotionally towards Alice, displaying some true civility—a delicate social
sign that for fastidious Dodgson sometimes conveyed private love:
“Good-bye, and thank-ye,” said the Wasp, and Alice tripped down
the hill again, quite pleased that she had gone back and given a few
minutes to making the poor old creature comfortable. (p. 21)
Such genuine civility—here in response to Alice’s acts of genuine noblesse

oblige for a “poor creature” of the lower orders (lower biologically, socially,
morally)—coming so spontaneously and from such an improbable source,
represents, I think, the miraculous regenerative power loving childhood
offers to the dying old: a spiritual solvent that can teach us to love and can
free us from our emotional and class-conscious rigidity and isolation, as it so
often freed Charles Dodgson from his.
In any case, Lewis Carroll’s concentration on his peculiar child-love
version of the eros–thanatos principle, his bitter-sweet and sentimental
vision of a fallen old man’s innocent and fruitless love for an even more
innocent, unattainable child, shapes many features of “It’s My Own
Invention.” And comprehending Carroll’s strategies for transforming that
vision into the nonsensical parting of a ludicrous White Knight and an eager
Alice—a parting that also comically announces the approaching end of his
Alices and the approaching end of their loving inventor—will allow us to
understand better the love in the Alices.
For one thing, “It’s My Own Invention” dramatizes a strikingly realistic
encounter between two human figures as familiar in literary convention as
they are in ordinary life—the aged, inept, foolish and sometimes doting lover
146 Donald Rackin
and the indifferent, impatient, lively young object of his love. Carroll
naturally employs several screens, and his treatment of this traditional
material differs widely from the standard comic and tragic sentimentality
with which his audience was most familiar. But many of the principal
elements of the convention operate in Carroll’s nonsense rendition. For
example, what is often emphasized in such a couple (for tragic as well as for
comic purposes) is their essential incompatibility. Here that incompatibility
is deftly underscored and elaborated in some noteworthy ways. Alice, for
instance, looks upon the aged Knight as a laughable old fool, but she takes
pains to conceal her youthful amusement and “dares not laugh” at him; she
generously allows him to mistake her “puzzled” thoughts about his
ridiculous invention of a Platonic pudding for “sad” thoughts about her
eagerly awaited departure. The Knight, for his part, considers his
sentimental and funny song beautifully sad, while, upon hearing it, Alice
finds “no tears [come] into her eyes,” and even he is forced to observe gently
that she did not cry as much as he thought she would. From all of this
emerges a subtle, curious emotional exchange, a kind of loving mutuality we
have not seen directly before in the adventures and one that, on Alice’s side,
represents far more than just her well-bred politeness. The fleeting love that
whispers through this scene is, therefore, complex and paradoxical: it is a love
between a child all potential, freedom, flux and growing up and a man all
impotence, imprisonment, stasis and falling down.
While the White Knight’s continual falling and his outlandish
horsemanship also suggest sexual impotence (his name, it, should be noted,
constitutes a pun on a familiar term for a sleepless night—a “white night”—
in the context of these great dream books itself a mark of stasis and
impotence, as well as a reference to the kinetic, waking world of love and
mortality that keeps breaking through this chapter), that falling bears a more
immediate and wider reference to other sharp contrasts between him and
Alice, who has now attained the evanescent ability to handle, with the grace
of childhood, some rather tricky matters of gravity and balance. Indeed,
some of the conversation here sounds as if Alice is now the knowing grown-
up and the Knight the innocent child (a role reversal mirrored in a number
of Looking-Glass and Wonderland episodes). Considering his propensity for
falling, for example, Alice at one point declares, “You ought to have a
wooden horse on wheels, that you ought!” and he sheepishly asks, “Does that
kind go smoothly?” It is this sort of second-childhood childishness, his near-
senile frailty and dependence on a fickle child, that makes him here laughable
and pitiable at the same time (surely an undesirable fusion in the game of
nonsense). And it is the utter hopelessness of his attachment to the departing
child that, I submit, makes him a haunting figure of universal reference.
When the Knight, “a faint smile lighting up his gentle foolish face,”
sings his parting song for Alice, adult readers might easily overlook, in all its
silly nonsense, the serious, common-sensical aspects of the song and of the
entire scene. But the child Alice is not nearly so insensitive—she somehow
grasps the episode’s strange gravity:
Of all the strange things that Alice saw in her journey Through
The Looking-Glass, this was the one that she always
remembered most clearly. Years afterwards she could bring the
whole scene back again, as if it had been only yesterday—the mild
blue eyes and kindly smile of the Knight—the setting sun
gleaming through his hair ... and the black shadows of the forest
behind—all this she took in like a picture ... listening, in a half-
dream, to the melancholy music of the song.
For the open-hearted Alice has unwittingly heard the poignant, hopeless love
of The Aged Aged Man that moves secretly beneath the song’s surface
nonsense. And, as Carroll subtly suggests, there is a reasonable chance that
Alice Liddell (in her own “half-dream,” halfway between her actual,
listening, reading, waking self and her fantasy self inside the dream-fiction)
has heard similarly that same melancholy music here and there throughout
the nonsensical adventures—Dodgson’s trembling, grave “shadow of a sigh”
that makes Carroll’s best nonsense books timeless and universal in ways far
beyond the capacity of mere unreferential nonsense.
The tune of “The Aged Aged Man,” as Alice says to herself, “isn’t his
own invention” as he claims; the tune (and Alice apparently identifies its
source correctly) comes from Thomas Moore’s “My Heart and Lute,” a
poignant love lyric that no seven-and-a-half-year-old could completely
understand. As Martin Gardner suggests, “It is quite possible that Carroll
regarded Moore’s love lyric as the song that he, the White Knight [and
Charles Lutwidge Dodgson], would have liked to sing to Alice [and to Alice
Pleasance Liddell] but dared not.”16 In any case, Alice’s politely unspoken
recognition of the underlying love lyric here bespeaks her acute child’s ear,
her high-bred diplomacy, and her precocious sensitivity to the oblique voice
of love beneath the nonsense of his song and, I submit, beneath all her
fantastic adventures.
If we join Alice in recognizing such a faint but powerful loving
counterpoint, we add a new dimension to our understanding of the Alices.
Moore’s song begins, “I give thee all—I can no more— / Though poor the
off ’ring be. / My heart and lute are all the store / That I can bring to thee.”
The White Knight’s song, in turn, is also a poor offering, like the many poor
148 Donald Rackin
nonsensical offerings of another aged and silly inventor, given also in tones
of modest love to an unattainable child impatient for life and ultimately
incapable of understanding the pathetic depth of such grown-up
melancholy music. Moore’s singer sings of a “soul of love” and a “heart that
feels / Much more than lute could tell.” Carroll’s nonsense music likewise
cannot—must not—tell fully what Dodgson’s heart feels. Alice, of course,
while capable of recognizing the poignant love song beneath the nonsense
words, is, ironically, blessedly incapable of understanding fully what that
curious blend of words and music tells about herself, about the old man
singing before her and about the human condition: “She stood and listened
very attentively, but no tears came into her eyes.” Fortunately, only adults
can hear, if they listen very attentively, all of Carroll’s gravity and
melancholy love. Only adults can hear the full sad irony, for example, of this
little nonsensical exchange between innocent Alice and her experienced
White Knight:
... people don’t fall off quite so often, when they’ve had much
practice.”
“I’ve had plenty of practice,” the Knight said very gravely:

“plenty of practice!”
Before leaving this discussion of the melancholy tone of love upon

which Carroll’s nonsense tales are based, we should remind ourselves that the
oral element, the sound of the human voice (particularly, the spoken words
of a wise and kindly, upper-middle-class Oxford don, the product of Christ
Church, Rugby, and a well-bred family) can play a major, critically legitimate
role in our assessments of the Alices. The fact that Alice and her original
adventures grew out of their inventor’s extemporaneous, oral story-telling
seems to me important. And when we add to this the fact that references to
the literal occasion for the first telling of Under Ground whisper here and
there through the texts themselves (the last words of Looking-Glass, for
example, take us suddenly back twenty years to a boat-full of real Liddells
eagerly and with “willing ear” waiting “to hear” Dodgson’s “simple tale”), we
can probably assume that Carroll wrote all three Alices with the sounds of the
human voice constantly and vividly in mind. That assumption becomes a
critical certainty when we comprehend the extent and importance of
Carroll’s countless stage and musical directions—here say it “gravely”
(seriously and with full knowledge of the grave); there say it with “a scream
of laughter.” These directions can serve of course as oral performance notes
for a grown-up storyteller as much as they can serve as simple modifiers for
imaginative silent readers, be they adults or children. And such matters

deserve careful investigation.
But such an investigation must wait for another occasion. Suffice it to
say that the sense of a stable, orderly and correct voice (without the stammer
from which Dodgson often suffered when talking to most adults), speaking
in calm tones, and with great sympathy for its child subject and for its child
audience, informs the Alices, guiding our responses, fusing and shaping the
discrete nonsense materials with a warm and consistently loving tone. Many
readers of the Alices today probably hear, consciously or not, that voice of
love beneath the silly adventures, like the Moore love lyric beneath the
nonsense song “The Aged Aged Man.” And for those who do hear, that voice
somehow humanizes Carroll’s games of nonsense, making the whole Alice
experience into a love-gift as worthy of the childlike teller as it has been of
his countless childlike listeners ever since.
“And here I must leave you.... You are sad,” says the White Knight to
Alice; but “in an anxious tone” he adds, “let me sing you a song to comfort
you.” No one else in Alice’s many adventures has ever addressed her quite
this way. It is as if the narrator and the narrator’s gentle, loving voice have
crossed over some boundary between reality and fiction, between Alice’s
adventures and Carroll’s telling of them. It is the White Knight Carroll’s last
farewell and last love-gift to his beloved invention Alice. After this he must,
like his inventor Dodgson (who has had plenty of sad practice saying good-
bye to real girls entering queenhood), continue his well-practiced falling,
alone and unaided to the end. In his later years Dodgson writes to a former
girl friend now about to enter the dubious queenhood of Victorian marriage:
My child-friends are all marrying off, now, terribly quick! But, for
a solitary broken-hearted old bachelor, it is certainly soothing to
find that some of them, even when engaged, continue to write as
“yours affectionately”! But for that, you will easily perceive that
my solitude would be simply desperate!17
“Desperate” is perhaps too strong a word here—certainly too strong for a

Victorian clergyman like Dodgson, and probably too strong to describe the
White Knight’s own parting words and song. But “desperate” is not so wide
of the mark: both Alice and the Knight, after all, recognize that “The Aged
Aged Man” is full of very “melancholy music.” And, in many senses, so is the
nonsensical chapter that contains it. For the impending loneliness, the
approaching loss of love and life for which both Dodgson and his “anxious”
White Knight have been practicing so long in their inventive imaginations,
is far from a laughing matter. It is serious enough to make them both seek
150 Donald Rackin
soothing comfort and faint hope in the merest crumbs of affection from a
loving child’s fickle heart.
IV
Carroll’s doomed attempts to keep his beloved child-friends forever

“dreaming as the summers die,” his brilliant deployment of “magic words” to
“hold [them] fast,” his perfectly composed photographs that try to fix them
forever in their passing youth—all these things represent a glorious and futile
struggle of loving art against separating Time, that most-abused and
ridiculed figure of Carroll’s many fantasies. In “It’s My Own Invention,”
Time is finally displayed openly in its full relation to the human condition, a
relation usually well masked by Carroll’s sprightly nonsense. Here Carroll’s
many allusions to Time in the Alices and elsewhere seem to come into sharp
emotional and moral focus, offering suddenly a brief but clear and feeling
vision of Time’s human significance—the despised irresistible agent of our
ludicrous mortality and our wonderful love.
Nearing fifty, Dodgson writes in a letter to an adult friend, “the
experience of many years [has] taught me that there are few things in the
world so evanescent as a child’s love.”18 And because the poignantly familiar
love of an aged man for a young and innocent child intensifies that
evanescence several-fold, it serves as a fine symbol (in literary fantasies as
well as in everyday psychology) for the evanescence and preciousness of all
love and of life itself. Thus, the terribly brief encounter between a child
about to experience for the first time “queenhood” and its concomitant
knowledge of death’s “unwelcome bed” and a loving, protecting but foolish
adult who has had “plenty of practice”—that evanescent moment
permanently stopped by art’s saving magic—should be understood as
Carroll’s special message to us, his fellow grown-ups: his own, covert
interpretation, if you will, of the Alices, an interpretation at least as graphic
as the frontispiece he chose, presumably, to depict their central theme of
youth and age.
Essentially, the Alices stop time in their surface nonsense, presenting to
the child in their readers and listeners an unthreatened and unthreatening
vista of seemingly endless play, play (like the Caucus Race or Tweedle
brothers’ battle) curiously, charmingly static and full of discrete counters
within a safe, closed field. But for their adult audience they give something
more: they also whisper some sad truths about the world of flux beyond that
pleasant field. The walls of Carroll’s nonsense are thus constantly, if
surreptitiously, breached by Time and Death and consequently, as I have
argued here, by the love that springs from them both. So while Carroll’s
love-gift of the Alices helps the child Alice “keep, through all her riper years,
the simple and loving heart of her childhood,” another voice sings softly at
the same time to other ears, to those for whom childhood’s dreams might
already be like a “pilgrim’s wither’d wreath of flowers / Pluck’d in a far-off
land.”
Because it breaks open the closed field of nonsense with love, we can
say that Carroll’s finest comedy is much better than the cool nonsense he is
often credited with. Better because it is about much more than mere
nonsense is about; better because it takes account of a familiar human world
charged with love and fear of death. And better because it is, finally, morally
superior to the most elegantly cerebral nonsense, telling us fellow humans,
in tones of love, truths about our nature in a manner that somehow makes
delight of our foibles and lovely, evanescent joys of our sorrows. Like so
much Victorian comedy from Carlyle and Dickens to Eliot and Meredith,
Carroll’s Alices are great and good because they rest finally upon the warm,
fusing morality and sentiment the Victorian age cherished as “humor”—not
upon those surface games which have brought Carroll so much critical
esteem in recent years, but which his own age probably would have
considered mere entertaining “wit.”
Therefore, Carroll is for yet another reason one of our best writers of
subversive comedy, this time because of his treatment of love.19 Like his
satire, his witty nonsense often subverts love and sentimentality; of this we
are all well aware. But in addition, as we might not have noticed, his love
subverts his nonsense and satire. In this Carrollian world of mixed-up signs
and sensibilities, the question, as one of Carroll’s most unloving characters
would say, is “which is to be master—that’s all.” Dodgson, probably, would
have chosen love and romance as the masters of nonsense. The more
important question of whether or not Carroll would have made the same
choice can be answered in only one place, the Alices themselves. And these
wonderful adventures seem to tell us, finally, that there is no need for any
masters here; indeed, neither nonsense, nor death, nor love can master the
rich, fused music of all three that makes the peculiar, abiding romancement
of the Alices so delightfully complex.
Postscript
“unless this miracle have might”
Carroll probably had the last word, so to speak, on these matters of

nonsense, referentiality, time, death and love in his Alices—not exactly in a
word, but in a picture. The last words of Alice’s Adventures Under Ground (and
152 Donald Rackin
of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, too) are these: “... remembering her own
child-life, and the happy summer days.” But between those last two discrete
but resonating terms “summer” and “days,” at the very end of the Under
Ground manuscript sits Carroll’s referent herself, the real dream-child
Dodgson really loved, the real Alice Liddell gazing from her own “summer
days”—out of the 1860’s and Dodgson’s lovely photograph and right into our
eyes.
Although this little picture was meant for Alice’s eyes alone, it still can
play an important part in our understanding of love and death in Carroll’s
Alices.20 For in this haunting photograph of Alice—set into the beautifully
hand-wrought, illustrated Alice text and joining (as well as separating) those
two, final, discrete words—Carroll embodies the motives and issues that first
stirred his heart to create the nonsensical Alices and to animate them with a
special, curious melancholy music beyond the reach of nonsense. Here
before our eyes, then, is his sensitive portrait of the child who is both his
heroine and his beloved audience; both a creature in his fictional texts and a
real child living outside them; both a thing fashioned from mere words and
the living vessel for the “loving heart of childhood.” Before us is the actual
little recipient of a very precious love-gift, the only copy of one of the world’s
greatest fictions. Through the loving devotion of a brilliant and meticulous
photographer, Alice here somehow defies Time—as if some mad inventor
from Alice’s dream worlds had, with the magic of his words and art, found a
way in her waking world to defy gravity and stop aging and death by means
of an improbable Wonderland light-machine and some Looking-Glass
Roman-cement.
The Under Ground photograph records one discrete moment in the
actual life of one discrete child. Moreover, it records that moment without
recourse to an inevitably generalizing verbal medium (even the precious
name “Alice” is a name many can share). In the wood where things have no
names, Alice seems to find, for a moment, the elusive love she seeks. Here in
this picture of his beloved Alice, Carroll pierces through his own verbal
medium to a place beyond names and beyond art, bringing into his text life
itself and, in a real sense, the love we all seek—embodied in one specific, very
real little girl. In my mind, then, whatever else Alice’s Under Ground
photograph tells us, it certainly speaks the last word about nonsense,
referentiality, time, death and love in Carroll’s Alices.21
NOTES
1. All quotations from Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass
are based on the texts in Alice in Wonderland: Authoritative Texts of Alice’s Adventures in
Wonderland, Through the Looking-Glass, The Hunting of the Snark, ed. Donald Gray (New
York, 1971).
2. The Letters of Lewis Carroll, ed. Morton N. Cohen (New York, 1979), p. 869.
(Hereafter cited as Letters.)
3. In her recent, provocative biography, Anne Clark stresses love as a formative
element in Dodgson’s character and makes a rather convincing case that Dodgson wanted
to marry Alice Liddell. See Clark’s Lewis Carroll: A Biography (New York, 1979).
4. Lewis Carroll, “Alice on the Stage,” in The Theatre, 1887. Reprinted in Gray, p.
283.
5. The Oxford English Dictionary (1971) lists a number of definitions of “lovely” that,
although generally obsolete today, might have been operative in Dodgson’s mind in 1862:
“loving, kind, affectionate”; “lovable, worthy of love, suited to attract love.”
6. Carroll, “Alice on the Stage,” in Gray, p. 283. This highly sentimentalized view of
Alice’s nature is not of course always sustained by the evidence in the Alice texts. Several
shrewd critics have in their penetrating analyses made a point of delineating Alice’s flaws
and shortcomings. See, for example, James R. Kincaid, “Alice’s Invasion of Wonderland,”
PMLA, 88, No. 1 (January 1973), 92–99; Nina Auerbach, “Alice in Wonderland: A
Curious Child,” Victorian Studies, 17 (September 1973), 31–47; and Peter Heath,
“Introduction” to The Philosopher’s Alice (New York, 1974). Carroll himself joked, just two
short years after the publication of Wonderland, that his book about Alice was, he thought,
about “malice”—A Selection from the Letters of Lewis Carroll to his Child-Friends, ed. Evelyn
Hatch (London, 1933), p. 48.
7. London, 1952. Hereafter, all page references to this book are to this edition and
are cited directly in my text.
8. The fact that Professor Sewell has altered her views of Carroll’s nonsense and now
sees much that is referential in the Alices does not invalidate my use here of her Field of
Nonsense. For the definition of Nonsense as a literary genre that Sewell developed in her
book still operates in the speculations of many of today’s most sophisticated scholars of
Nonsense and critics of Carroll. See, for example, Susan Stewart, Nonsense: Aspects of
lntertextuality in Folklore and Literature (Baltimore and London, 1978); Gilles Deleuze, “Le
Schizophrène et le mot,” Critique, 24, Nos. 255, 256 (August/September 1968), 731–746;
and Robert Polhemus, “Carroll’s Through the Looking-Glass: The Comedy of Regression,”
in Comic Faith: The Great Tradition from Austen to Joyce (Chicago and London, 1980), pp.
245–293.
9. See note 8 above. Several Carroll critics, on the other hand, have pointed out that
the Alices are not, technically, nonsense at all. In his introduction to The Philosopher’s Alice,
Peter Heath, for example, makes the point forcefully: “Carroll’s fame as a nonsense-writer
is by now so firmly established that it is probably too late to persuade anyone that, apart
from a few isolated instances such as the Jabberwock poem, he is not strictly a writer of
nonsense at all.... Carroll stands at the opposite pole from the true nonsense-writer.
Although as a literary category the term had not been invented in his day, the proper genre
is that of the absurd.” I agree that in many ways the Alices do not belong in the category
of Nonsense. Nevertheless, Sewell’s views can be very useful in an empirical search for the
meaning of the Alices and the sources of their power; for Nonsense does play an important,
if subordinate, role in them.
10. In The Complete Works of Lewis Carroll (New York, 1937), pp. 1079–1088. Hereafter
all page references to “Novelty and Romancement” are to this edition and are cited
directly in my text.
154 Donald Rackin
11. The title “Novelty and Romancement” contains a complicated pun that deserves
our notice: “novel” and “roman” are of course the same word in two languages; “ty” can
easily transform to “tie,” which is very close in meaning to “cement.” By Carrollian
punning, then, the two discrete terms combine into one. Such comic visions of language
occur, of course, throughout Carroll’s writings. Here, as elsewhere, the wordplay has
profound philosophical significance.
12. The White Knight, a proper but silly, upper-middle-class protector of young girls,
is, as many Carroll scholars agree, clearly one of Dodgson’s best self-portraits. Moreover,
the emotional matrix of this scene is one with which any reader of Dodgson’s letters and
diaries must be familiar.
13. Although Alice Liddell (1852–1934) was ten when Dodgson first told his
extempore Alice tale (1862), she is seven in Wonderland (1865) and seven and a half in
Looking-Glass (1871). The heartfelt Carrollian arithmetic here occurs in a number of other
contexts. For example, Carroll writes to one of his child friends in 1876: “I want to do
some better photographs of you.... And mind you don’t grow a bit older, for I shall want
to take you in the same dress again: if anything, you’d better grow a little younger—go
back to your last birthday but one” (Letters, p. 238).
14. This passage has of course a distinct sexual connotation. Although sex has a very
small independent role in the Alices—indeed, I once argued that there was no sex in them
(see my essay “What You Always Wanted to Know about Alice but Were Afraid to Ask,”
Victorian Newsletter, No. 44 [Fall 1973], 1–5)—here sex is used to underscore the
frightening transience of life, conflating in a kind of portmanteau bed the first flush of full
human development with its last gasp.
15. Lewis Carroll, The Wasp in a Wig: A “Suppressed” Episode of Through the Looking-
Glass and What Alice Found There, ed. Martin Gardner (New York, 1977), p. 19. Although
some scholars consider this episode an unnecessary repetition of the White Knight scene,
Carroll obviously did not. He saw it through the galley-proof stage and carefully corrected
the galleys themselves. A probable explanation for the suppression is that Tenniel saw
himself caricatured in the Wasp and chose not to join his collaborator Carroll in his loving
farewell to their mutual invention Alice. Tenniel, by the way, was some twelve years older
than Dodgson.
16. The Annotated Alice (New York, 1960), p. 311.
17. Letters, p. 862.
18. Letters, p. 441.
19. Carroll’s subversiveness has been an important subject of some of the best Alice
criticism from the interpretation by William Empson in 1935 (Some Versions of Pastoral) to
that of Robert Polhemus in 1980 (see note 8 above).
20. We should recognize the open attitude towards photography current among the
educated classes in Dodgson’s day. Dodgson himself had no prejudices about
photographs—for him they possessed the inherent capacity to make the same
contributions to a literary text that Tenniel’s illustrations made to his two great Alices.
Indeed, Dodgson shared with many of his contemporaries the view that photography held
all the artistic potential that fine arts like painting held.
21. I am indebted to Professor Phyllis Rackin of the University of Pennsylvania for
suggesting this interpretation of the Alice photograph.
N I N A D E M U R O VA
Toward a Definition of Alice’s Genre:

The Folktale and Fairy-Tale Connections
T he two slender volumes of Alice by Lewis Carroll hold a special place in

world literature. The number of critical appreciations of them alone bears
witness to this. Among various aspects and problems analyzed by students of
Carroll, that of genre occupies the least prominent place. We all agree, of
course, that the two Alice books are literary fairy tales; and it has been
suggested, although not pursued significantly, that they belong to late
Romanticism. However, such general comments do not seem adequate; the
very originality of Carroll’s method suggests specific types of genre-forming
characteristics. Let us try to single out some of them at least.
The problem of the genre of the Alices is, in fact, the major problem of
Carroll’s poetics. What follows are a number of preliminary, tentative
remarks in connection with this wide and complex theme. In this essay I look
at the Alices in the context of the tradition of fairy tales in the nineteenth
century, noting the changes and reinterpretations evidenced in Carroll’s
work; I look at Carroll’s use of folklore and nursery rhymes, including
indirect influences on Carroll’s work-among them possibly that of Edward
Lear; and finally I look at the literary dialogue that is so much a part of the
fabric of the Alices. I proceed from the assumption that Carroll’s work
developed within the framework of late Romanticism, varying in a few major
points from the classical pattern of early nineteenth-century Romantic
From Lewis Carroll: A Celebration Edward Guiliano, ed. © 1982 Nina Demurova.
155
156 Nina Demurova
writing. One may say, in fact, that his work presents a somewhat reduced
variation on the usual Romantic pattern of a lonely hero’s (or heroine’s)
wanderings in strange lands full of wonders.1 The reductions were brought
about by a number of different causes, not least among them the particular
stability of the Victorian age as compared with the Romantic period.
In England—unlike Germany or other continental countries, where such

popularity had come earlier—the genre of literary tales gained wide
popularity only by the middle of the nineteenth century. John Ruskin’s King
of the Golden River (written in 1841, published ten years later), Thackeray’s
The Ring and the Rose (1855), Charles Kingsley’s Water Babies (1863), Charles
Dickens’s “The Magic Fish-Bone” (Holiday Romance, 1868), to name but a
few, all drew on the rich tradition of English folklore. Rehabilitation of the
theory of the fairy tale as a genre—pitting the fantasy of folklore against the
didacticism of utilitarian and religious writing—had been attempted by the
early Romantics in England as far back as the beginning of the nineteenth
century, although it is true that in their own work the English Romantics
made little use of the prose fairy tale, their interests lying in other genres.
However, the acknowledgment of the fairy tale in Romantic theory of the
early nineteenth century and the introduction of various other folklore forms
in poetic practice prepared the soil for the later blossoming of the literary
folktale in England. An important dimension of the development of the new
genre in England emerged when writers became acquainted with Romantic,
especially German, prose. Equally stimulating were the first translations of
Grimms’ (1824) and Anderson’s (1846) fairy tales.
The writers who took up the genre of literary fairy tale developed it in
accordance with their individual ideas and concepts. Ruskin, Kingsley, and
MacDonald used the folktale “morphology,” with its various functions of
character-types,2 to create their own fairy-tale narratives in the spirit of
Christian ethics and morals—remaining, on the whole, within the folktale
structure, with the kind of reductions, changes, and assimilations that are
permissible there. “Confessional” and “superstitious” changes or
substitutions (to use Propp’s terminology again) are of special importance in
the context of these writers’ tales.3 Dickens’s and Thackeray’s fairy tales have
a different character, since both these writers introduce an element of
parody, and not infrequently, self-parody. They blend, phantastically, typical
themes of their own realistic narratives with mock-romantic and fairy-tale
motifs, adding a rich dosage of irony and satire; yet, they retain the most
important characteristics of folktale structure.
Alice in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass are, undoubtedly,

close to this English ironic development of the fairy-tale tradition. However,
they, in their turn, differ substantially from other English literary fairy tales
of the period. There is, primarily, a certain difference in the functional
character of Carroll’s irony itself. In Dickens’s and Thackeray’s fairy tales,
irony is directed against popular second-rate books of melodrama or
adventure, as well as against certain aspects of their own works. In both cases
one finds in their fairy tales ironic models based on themes, characters, and
motifs they or other writers have used elsewhere, and their irony serves
primarily the aim of parody (or self-parody). Carroll’s irony has, in principle,
a different quality. In its very character it stands closer to that more general
category that, in relation to German Romantic writers, is known as
“Romantic irony.” To quote from N. Berkovsky, who made a special study of
German Romanticism: “Irony, on the purely cognitional level, meant that
the particular method of perceiving reality, practiced in the given work, was
considered as nonfinite by the author himself, although attempts to go
beyond it were also seen as purely subjective and hypothetic.” (Translations
throughout are mine.) This is why Tieck in his conversation with Keppke
drew his attention to the double nature of irony: “It is neither mockery nor
sneering, as the terms are usually understood; but, rather, profound
earnestness that is connected with joking and true joy.” Irony is both the
sorrow of impotence and the merry breaking of positive “frontiers.”4 This
sort of irony includes the elements of parody and self-parody, but it goes
further than that.
With a varying degree of probability, one may assume that Carroll
knew the fairy tales written by his contemporaries. Leaving aside, for lack of
factual data, the question of whether Carroll knew Thackeray’s The King and
the Rose at the time he was writing Alice in Wonderland from 1862 through
1865 (Dickens published his “Magic Fish Bone” three years later), suffice it
to mention that by the time Through the Looking-Glass was published in 1871,
Carroll must have been acquainted with it. He must also have known
Ruskin’s fairy tales as well as Kingsley’s. He was acquainted with Ruskin, who
taught at Oxford, and was on friendly terms with the Kingsleys and the
MacDonalds. In the texts of the two Alices we may find not a few passages
echoing certain episodes of these writers’ tales.5 Still, the similarities do not
extend beyond a number of details. Religious or didactic allegory within the
fairy-tale structure was never attempted by Carroll.
Under Carroll’s pen the folktale structure undergoes certain changes.

One such change occurs as early as the very first chapter of Wonderland,
which presents what Propp calls an “initial situation.” Alice’s departure down
158 Nina Demurova
the rabbit-hole is sudden and in no way premeditated; it is quite

spontaneous—“... burning with curiosity, she ran across the field after it [the
Rabbit],” etc. Neither is it brought about by “misfortune,” “villainy” or
“insufficiency” (which Propp calls also “lack” or “shortage”), situations that
traditionally inaugurate the plot of the folktale.6
In fact, Alice feels the insufficiency only when, looking through the
keyhole, she sees the beautiful garden beyond the locked door. It is then that
Carroll introduces a series of minor insufficiencies, connected with the
changing proportions between Alice’s height, the height of the table on
which the key lies, the size of the keyhole, the width of the little passage
leading to the garden, etc. Eliminating the main insufficiency (toward the
end of Chapter 7 when Alice, at last, unlocks the door with the little golden
key and gets through to the beautiful garden) does not lead to denouement,
since the beautiful garden proves to be a kingdom of chaos and fear.
The Queen’s croquet party; Alice’s meeting the Duchess, the Gryphon,
and the Mock Turtle; the trial and the waking up are yet to follow. None of
these episodes is prepared for by what proceeds it; none forms a pair with any
of previous ones. Neither the knotting nor the unknotting of the tale is
caused by any of the traditional devices. It is true that sometimes the folktale
can also do without the traditional insufficiency—which may become
apparent only later, after the hero’s necessary departure; so that in this
respect, at least, Wonderland exhibits a certain closeness to the traditional
pattern. But the arbitrariness (from the traditional point of view) of the
unknotting, or denouement, represents a drastic change from the folklore
norm. The rigid structure of cause and effect, characteristic of the folk fairy
tale, is openly broken in Wonderland. The book does not end when Alice
succeeds in eliminating the main insufficiency, nor because she does so—the
dream simply ends, and with it the fairy tale.
Other functions of different dramatis personae—these molecules that
make up the fairy tale—also undergo similar transformations. They are not
completely discarded or broken, they are still felt, but their quality and
interrelations are radically changed. In both Wonderland and Through the
Looking-Glass we come across “donors” who test, interrogate, or attack the
heroine “in preparation for receiving either a magical agent or helper.”7
In Alice in Wonderland, these are the blue Caterpillar, who provides
Alice with the magic mushroom; the White Rabbit, in whose house Alice
finds the bottle with the magic drink, etc. In Through the Looking-Glass there
is the White Queen, who makes Alice run and who later explains to her the
rules of the chess game; there are also the two queens, who ask Alice
questions and riddles and then invite her to her own feast. Of all these, it is
only the Caterpillar who actually plays the part of a donor as it should be
played. Even then, characteristically, the results of the interrogation, or test,

have no bearing whatsoever upon what follows. Alice, in fact, has not
answered any of the Caterpillar’s questions, so that the receipt of the magic
agent, i.e., the mushroom, is quite unexpected, not only for the reader but
for Alice herself.
The donor role differs from the traditional fairy-tale pattern to an even
greater extent with the other characters Alice encounters. The White
Rabbit, who at first takes Alice for somebody else, sends her upstairs,
inadvertently helping her to find the little bottle with the magic potion.
Later, when—suddenly and catastrophically grown—she takes up the whole
house, he leads an attack, giving her, again inadvertently, another magical
agent, i.e., the pebbles that, turning into little cakes, enable her to grow small
again. Perhaps what is important here is not so much the inadvertency of
donation, for this sometimes happens in the folktale too, but rather the fact
that the donor himself never learns about his own particular function. In
different interrogations and tests suggested by either or both of the two
queens, Alice also fails—at least from the queens’ point of view. Nevertheless
after these interrogations, tests, and trials—but not because she has succeeded
in them—Alice invariably learns what further steps she should take. The
cause-and-effect pattern in all of these episodes is extremely weak.
The impression is created in the reader that Carroll is playing with
these traditional elements of folktale and that finally, in the process of this
game, he destroys them, though they are never totally excluded.
“Contrariwise,” they are invariably present, as if to afford the author the
possibility of playing with them and to make them undergo these significant
changes. Here again, the dream device is instrumental in destroying these
traditional elements.
To a certain extent, a number of other personages in the two tales may
also be considered variables of donors. They also interrogate the heroine and
make her undergo different tests; however, they don’t present her with the
magical agent, but simply send her on to the next donor. The Queen in
Wonderland plays the role of the hostile donor; her function is also weakened,
however, since she only threatens attack and execution, but never carries out
her threats.
Other functions of the traditional fairy tale undergo similar changes in
Carroll’s two tales. This affects “spacial translocation between two
kingdoms,” or “guidance.” A tunnel, i.e., a “stationary means of
communication,” is made use of at the beginning of Wonderland, whereas in
Through the Looking-Glass another type of “transference” is used. Similarly
weakened is the important function of “struggle,” in which, according to
160 Nina Demurova
Propp, “the hero and the villain join in direct combat.” Here it takes the
form of verbal competition, and sometimes comes quite close to a squabble.
The weakening of these and certain other folktale functions is carried
through not only with the help of disorganization of cause-and-effect
patterns and of disorganization of the type and interrelation of primary
folktale elements, but also with the help of ironic interpretation of all the
events that take place, a particular romantic characteristic that Carroll
possessed in the highest degree. The dream device, mentioned above, forms
one of the tale’s most effective methods too.
Carroll’s fairy tale, for all its outward similarity to the humorous
folktale, is in fact very unlike it. This could be accounted for by a cardinal
difference in the very quality of laughter in Carroll’s work.
In his interest in folklore, Carroll did not limit himself to fairy tale alone.
He turned his attention to nursery rhymes as well-which he also interpreted in
his own way. The nature of these interpretations varies however.
A few nursery rhymes are directly incorporated into the text. This
occurs mostly in Through the Looking-Glass (Humpty Dumpty, The Lion and
the Unicorn, Tweedledum and Tweedledee), but the concluding chapters of
Alice in Wonderland, in which the trial of the Knave of Hearts takes place, are
also based on an old nursery rhyme. Its first stanza is cited in the text,
whereas the second one, in which the Knave brings back the tarts and vows
he’ll steal no more, is not taken into account at all. Carroll not only includes
these nursery rhymes in his fairy tale, he develops them into episodes and
chapters, keeping the peculiar spirit of folklore events and characters intact.
Apart from direct citations and borrowings from nursery rhymes, one
may trace some other direct or indirect folklore influences. One of the
channels for these could be the limericks of Edward Lear (although this is
merely conjectural, since we do not know whether Carroll read Lear). The
Carroll/Lear similarity is sometimes very striking, however. Indeed, it seems
not at all impossible that some of Carroll’s imagery was suggested by Lear’s
nonsense, such as his early Book of Nonsense (1846)—which is itself indebted
to the folklore tradition of madmen and eccentrics.8
There was an Old Man of Coblenz,

The length of whose legs was immense;
He went with one prance, from Turkey to France,
That surprising Old Man of Coblenz.
There was an Old Man with an owl,

Who continued to bother and howl,
He sat on a rail, and imbibed bitter ale

Which refreshed that Old Man and his owl.
There was an Old Man of Leghorn,

The smallest as ever was born;
But quickly snapt up he was once by a puppy,
Who devoured that Old Man of Leghorn.
There was an Old Man who said, “Well!

Will nobody answer this bell?
I have pulled day and night, till my hair has grown white,
But nobody answers this bell!”
There was an Old Man with a beard,

Who sat on a horse when he reared;
But they said, “Never mind! you will fall off behind,
You propitious Old Man with a beard!”
“The Old Man of Coblenz” may have inspired the episode in which
Alice bids good-bye to her legs, and the similarity is further enhanced if one
compares the drawings of the two authors. Lear’s other “old men” may have
suggested Carroll’s “aged man a-sitting on a gate” from the White Knight’s
ballad, whereas the White Knight himself, who is constantly falling off his
horse, has something in common with those old men of Edward Lear’s who
suffer similarly through poor horsemanship. It is, perhaps, not completely
incidental that both Lear and Carroll identified themselves, in a way, with
these unfortunate characters. In Lear’s drawings they invariably looked like
him, whereas Carroll’s White Knight has not a little of self-parody.
The number of these examples could be multiplied, but I shall not cite
many; it is sufficient for my purpose just to mention the fact of certain
similarities between Lear’s and Carroll’s nonsense. It could well be that
Lear’s limericks were instrumental in Carroll’s acceptance of one of the
aspects of the old folk tradition of madmen and eccentrics. This, of course,
is only one possible explanation. Others are to be looked for in a certain
affinity in the mental makeup of the two writers and in the aims they set for
themselves within the peculiar literary context of the period.
II
Apart from traditional fairy tales and nursery rhymes, Carroll’s muse drew
upon another treasure-house of national folklore. In Carroll’s Alice a few
162 Nina Demurova
characters came to life that owe their natures—and, in fact, their very
existence—to old proverbs and sayings: the March Hare, the Mad Hatter,
and the Cheshire Cat, as well as a few others. The proverbial stupidity of
oysters was “revived,” according to R. L. Green, “to a new life” by Tenniel’s
cartoon in Punch (January 19, 1861), and may have suggested the oyster
sequence in “The Walrus and the Carpenter.”9 It is, indeed, difficult to
overestimate the importance of these characters in Carroll’s fairy tale.
Deeply rooted in the national consciousness, under Carroll’s pen they turn
into extended metaphors that define the nature of these personages and their
very behavior, providing the structure for the story and its development.
Carroll’s madmen and eccentrics have a special place in his fairy tale.
They are, directly or indirectly, connected with that “powerful and wild”10
folklore tradition that constitutes one of the most brilliant features of the
English national self-consciousness. It is these madmen and eccentrics (and
apart from Alice and a few minor characters, that description embraces
practically all the characters in the two books) who inhabit—and indeed, one
almost feels entitled to say create—that particular “antiworld,” that
“irreality,”11 that topsy-turvydom that is the very essence of English
nonsense. One could discern distant echoes of the roaring carnival laughter
of bygone ages, preserved by folklore tradition. It is true that the laughter is
heard as a faint and very distant reverberation, “the carnival is undergone in
solitude” and “translated into the subjective language of the new epoch.”12
Scholars who are to some extent familiar with M. M. Bakhtin’s theory
of carnival and carnival laughter may feel tempted to perceive Carroll’s
nonsense in the light of this theory. Could it not prompt an answer to the
paradox that has been mystifying critics of different trends for so many years?
Could it not help us to understand the contradiction between Dodgson’s law-
abiding personality, his addiction to meticulous order, his piety, on the one
hand, and the very essence of his fairy tales on the other—which are
“unlawful,” “irreligious,” topsy-turvy?
Bakhtin’s conception proceeds from the underlying premise that in the
medieval and Renaissance consciousness, the world was dual. The official,
serious world was countered by the world of carnival ritual and pageantry—
based on what Bakhtin terms carnival laughter. The carnival presented a
completely different, patently unofficial, aspect of the world—of man and
human relations extraneous to church and state. It was another world and
another life on the other side of all officialdom. It was this life and this world
of which all medieval people were more or less a part and in which they lived
at certain seasons. It is a duality of a particular kind, and a full
comprehension of that duality is essential for an understanding of both
medieval and Renaissance culture. To ignore or to underrate the people’s
laughter in the Middle Ages would be to distort the picture of the whole
subsequent historical development of Western culture.13
The history of laughter during subsequent periods of the history of
culture in general, and of English culture in particular, still awaits
investigation. Here we can only point out that Bakhtin’s theory may suggest
new ways of interpreting Carroll’s nonsense. In it, perhaps, resound echoes
of the second world of the Middle Age and the Renaissance, conveyed
through folklore into the middle of the nineteenth century. Bakhtin’s remark
on the “element of play” in carnival forms may be important for a better
understanding of Carroll’s work. “Because of their visual, concrete and
sensual character and the presence of a strong play element, they [i.e., the
carnival forms] stand close to imaginative arts, to theater and pageantry ...,”
writes Bakhtin. “But the main carnival core of this culture is not purely art,
theater, or pageantry; in fact, it does not belong to the sphere of art at all. It
exists on the borderline between art and life itself. It is, in fact, life itself,
taking a specific play form.”14
Here again, in the subjective, reduced, formalized devices of Carroll’s
nonsense, one may distinguish echoes of a strong folk tradition. The first fairy
tale that was narrated to the Liddell girls was, in fact, a kind of game in which
everybody present participated—the audience not just listening passively, but
suggesting themes, moves, and clues. This tale was also shown to the
audience—not in action, it is true, but in a series of drawings (presenting
dramatis personae as well as the mise-en-scène) that Carroll later reproduced
in his manuscript of Alice’s Adventures Under Ground. The first episodes of Alice
in Wonderland were narrated orally—improvised, as it were, as a kind of
commedia dell’arte is improvised: prompted, to a large extent, by what has just
happened to the participants, who appear in it as some sort of masks with
accompanying names, nicknames, characteristic gestures, etc. Later, in the
literary, final version of Alice, this improvised freshness was somewhat reduced,
but it is still felt even now, constituting one of Alice’s major charms and
peculiarities. One may also speak of a specific theatrical or dramatic quality of
Alice. With the exception of initial descriptions—in which the author seems to
lay down the conditions of the game, the time and the place of dramatic action
(slightly longer in Wonderland, where he was just feeling his way, than in The
Looking-Glass)—the two Alices fall, easily and naturally, into scenes: The
participants first conduct a dialogue, which often takes the form of a
competition, quarrel, or squabble, and this is followed by actions characteristic
of a burlesque or a puppet show. The knights in The Looking-Glass hit each
other furiously with clubs that they hold with their arms, as if they were Punch
and Judy. The Cook throws everything within her reach at the Duchess, the
fire irons, saucepans, frying pans, plates, dishes. The Duchess, in her turn,
164 Nina Demurova
throws the baby at Alice. In fact, in the two Alice books somebody is always
hitting, banging, beating, kicking, teasing, threatening, scolding, or killing (but
not quite) someone. Many of Carroll’s jokes and puns, especially those on the
death theme, show ties with the fairground tradition. Here again, one may find
traces of the popular open-air theater of long ago—partially preserved in
Carroll’s day in the popular fairground and puppet tradition.
The squabbles of the actors in the Alices are singularly laconic,
dynamic, and expressive. In fact, Carroll reveals an extraordinary genius for
theatrical dialogue. His descriptions and introductions to scenes are
invariably short, his use of detail invariably sparing; he never says anything
that is not strictly necessary for action and dialogue. His dialogue is always a
kind of duel (not necessarily verbal); it is a competition in which his dramatis
personae realize themselves. Alice’s thoughts are no less expressive and
dramatic; as a rule, they are presented as inner monologues.
The illustrations play a specific role in the text of the two tales as
Richard Kelly and others have demonstrated in essays in this volume. They
make up for the economy of description, which otherwise might have been
felt to be a flaw, and from the very beginning Carroll’s story is patently
oriented toward them. They not only illustrate the text, but develop it—
being a necessary and organic part of the story. A comparison of Carroll’s
own drawings for Alice’s Adventures Under Ground with Tenniel’s illustrations
(as well as their letters to each other) shows how close Tenniel’s illustrations
were to Carroll’s concepts. In fact, many of Tenniel’s illustrations realize the
ideas of Carroll’s sketches.
Finally, in creating his topsy-turvy world, Carroll, more than anybody
else, follows what Charles Lamb called the wild spirit of folklore. Carroll
turns the situations upside down and inside out, making the cause follow the
effect; he alienates attributes and parts of the body and creates things and
creatures that cannot, and should not, be imagined; he realizes worn-out
idioms and phrases and breathes new life into old metaphors; he parodies; he
laughs at death; etc., etc. I am far from suggesting that Carroll’s nonsense is
a direct development from folk carnival tradition. Bakhtin develops his
brilliant theory upon the material of archaic cultures that constitute a
different stage of development from that of the nineteenth century.
Nonetheless, I feel it not completely irrelevant to point out the possibility of
some genetic connection of Carroll’s fairy tales with this old tradition.
III
Another powerful element in the Alices is that of literary dialogue, which is

constituted by parodies, allusions, borrowings, quotations, etc. Carroll seems
to be carrying on a never-ending dialogue with invisible interlocutors, many

of whom are long deceased. A level of this kind is found in every work of
literature, since they all take part—directly or indirectly—in a kind of
dialogue that is the essence of every culture. What draws our attention in
Carroll’s fairy tales is, primarily, the multitude of intonations and the types
of dialogue inferences.
Critics often speak of parodies in the Alices; among these they cite
“Father William,” the lullaby sung by the Duchess, “How doth the little
crocodile ...,” and “Beautiful Soup” from Alice in Wonderland, and “The
Walrus and the Carpenter,” “The Aged Aged Man,” and the chorus in the
Queen Alice chapter from Through the Looking-Glass. However, the term
parody in relation to these poems can hardly be considered completely
accurate. True, all of these poems are, in one way or another, connected with
some original text, which can be sensed through Carroll’s apparently
lowering parody. But in each particular case, the degree and the type of
connection with the original is different. Sometimes Carroll’s poems follow
the original very closely, making use of its vocabulary, arrangement of lines,
and general structure, while in other cases they preserve only a few details of
the original—the rhythmic pattern, or meter for example. In fact, Carroll’s
attitude toward the original and the aims of his parody varies.
In “Father William,” for instance, Carroll seems to lower the text of
Southey’s didactic poem “The Old Man’s Comforts and How He Gained
Them.” Southey’s moralizing and edifying reflections give place to Carroll’s
happy nonsense—following a rule that is openly and provocatively stated in
the second stanza.
“In my youth,” Father William replied to his son,

“I feared it might injure the brain;
But, now that I’m perfectly sure I have none,
Why, I do it again and again.”15
Keeping the same heroes and the question-and-answer pattern of Southey’s

poem, and retaining a number of descriptive phrases, the meter, and the
rhyme scheme, Carroll transforms Southey’s original into an irresponsible
“standing on one’s head.” What are the aims of this transformation? The
answer seems to be self-evident: satire. Carroll, one is tempted to say,
mocks at Southey’s dull didacticism and pious moralizing. But here we have
to face a difficulty, since Southey’s dull and pious moralizing was far from
being alien to Carroll. In fact, when Carroll was not busy writing nonsense,
he thought, felt, and wrote in exactly the same vein as Southey. In his
sermons and letters, in the serious and, in many ways, autobiographical
166 Nina Demurova
portions of Sylvie and Bruno, even in prefaces to his nonsense books,

Carroll enlarged upon the same themes. Could it be, then, that the object
of Carroll’s parody were certain formal aspects of Southey’s poetry that
were indeed far from being perfect? But, in that case, Carroll would have
followed another course, placing satiric emphasis directly upon these
formal elements.
We are faced with the same sort of problem when we consider “How
doth the little crocodile, ...” which the reader feels (or, at least, felt in
Carroll’s day) contains echoes of Watts’s “Little busy bee”; or when we
examine “Tis the voice of the Lobster, ...” which again follows Southey’s
original. Carroll, who wrote at length and with feeling on the necessity of
avoiding idleness, for idleness breeds sinful thoughts, could hardly have
satirized Watts’s poem, which he must have found congenial. The same can
be said about “Twinkle, twinkle, little bat, ...” based on Jane Taylor’s “Star”;
Carroll’s general agreement with the poem’s sentiment did not stop him from
parodying the poem.
In the Duchess’s lullaby, Carroll seems to depart even further from the
original than in the poems discussed above; but his position and approach
seem unchanged. In “The Walrus and the Carpenter,” as well as in the White
Knight’s song, “Beautiful Soup,” and the “Lobster Quadrille,” the
connection with the original is still more distant and is only imperfectly felt.
The satirical elements are practically absent; the underlying text is hardly
perceived at all and is felt only in intonation, or in a particular turn of phrase.
Perhaps this is so because here Carroll uses the texts of Wordsworth and
Tennyson, poets whom he admired greatly, and who, from a poetic point of
view, were superior both to Southey and to the children’s poets of the former
decades.
The question arises as to whether Carroll presents in these poems a
kind of poetic synthesis—an attempt to express through parody his attitude
toward the chosen poet.16 I believe that this question should also be
answered in the negative. Carroll’s “parodies” form an important part in the
“intellectual holiday,” strictly limited both in time and space, that G. K.
Chesterton wrote about.17 Satire and synthesis are present in Carroll’s
parodies only in a certain sense: only in that degree to which the reader tends
to read them in; and what is more important, only in that degree to which
they were allowed in by that particular dual, carnival quality that—with all
the modifications of its forms—was characteristic of Carroll’s work. It is also
possible that there was a measure of deep, unconscious ambivalence in
Carroll’s attitude not only toward such poets as Southey, Taylor, or Watts but
even toward Wordsworth, and Tennyson, and that this ambivalence found its
expression in his nonsense parodies. Following Eric Partridge, who has
spoken of Lear’s echoing words,18 these parodies could be called echoing

poems.
The dialogue, or echoing, character of Carroll’s Alices is not limited to

poetic parodies alone. It has been pointed out that the question concerning
cats and bats was probably suggested by Norman MacLeod’s “Gold Thread”
(1861), whereas a tiny golden key may have been suggested either by George
Macdonald’s poem “The Golden Key” (published in Victoria Regis, 1861) or
by his “famous allegorical fairy story of the same name,” which Carroll may
have read in manuscript by 1862.19 There are some distant echoes as well of
William Roscoe’s “Butterfly’s Ball” (1806) in the scene with the blue
Caterpillar and the mushroom. Through the Looking-Glass enlarges on still
another theme suggested by George Macdonald (among others) in his
romantic story of Cosmo Verstahl, a poor student of Prague University,
which was included in his Phantastes (1858). Carroll’s White Knight reminds
us of the Knight in the Rusty Armour in Macdonald’s “faerie romance,” and,
possibly, of Don Quixote.20 It has been noted that in the opening paragraphs
of Through the Looking-Glass Carroll was subconsciously recollecting the
beginning of a parody of Dickens’s Cricket on the Hearth that was published
in Blackwood’s Magazine in November 1845,21 whereas quotations from
Dante’s Divine Comedy and Virgil’s Aeneid have been found in Alice in
Wonderland.22 These quotations and allusions are of particular interest for
the Carrollian student, since a few of them introduce a new interpretation of
the original images and themes. Quotations, “others’ words,” incorporated
into the new text live a double life; they do not altogether lose the connection
with their source, yet they may present a kind of comment upon the new text
in which they appear. Carroll’s tale reverberates with these distant others’
voices—which add, in a new and quite unexpected way, to the misleadingly
simple melodies of Alice.
Of special interest are reminiscences of Shakespeare, whom Carroll
knew well and loved. Roger Lancelyn Green has pointed out not a few
hidden quotations from Shakespeare that are used in the dialogue.23 To these
should be added Alice’s conversation with the Gnat (“Looking-Glass
Insects”), in which one may hear an echo of Hotspur’s and Glendower’s
words in 1 Henry IV:
“What sort of insects do you rejoice in, where you come

from?” the Gnat inquired.
“I don’t rejoice in insects at all,” Alice explained, “because I’m
rather afraid of them—at least the large kinds. But I can tell you
the names of some of them.”
168 Nina Demurova
“Of course they answer to their names,” the Gnat remarked

carelessly.
“I never knew them do it.”
“What’s the use of their having names,” the Gnat said, “if they
wo’n’t answer to them?” (p. 132)
Compare 1 Henry IV (Act III, Scene i, lines 53–55):
Glendower. I can call spirits from the vasty deep.

Hotspur. Why, so can I, or so can any man;
But will they come when you do call for them?
Perhaps more important than such details is the underlying principle.

The method of diffused metaphor that is so characteristic of Shakespeare’s
work in general—and of A Midsummer Night’s Dream and The Tempest in
particular—forms the foundation for the two Alices, while Carroll’s treatment
of time and space also offers a few similarities with Shakespeare’s.
Finally, I could go on probing more and more levels diffused

throughout the Alices. I could follow Martin Gardner’s masterful lead in
interpreting and unraveling Carroll’s scientific intuitions; I could build upon
Elizabeth Sewell’s brilliant study of nonsense based upon the principles of
game; or I could travel the linguistic course previously traversed by M. V.
Panov and R. D. Sutherland, among others. The scientific, the nonsensical,
the linguistic—one thing is perfectly clear about these two books, with their
unexpected twists and depths: Carroll’s fairy tales realize in most original and
unexpected forms both literary and scientific types of perception. And this is
why philosophers, logicians, mathematicians, physicists, psychologists,
folklorists, politicians, as well as literary critics and armchair readers, all find
material for thought and interpretation in the Alices. Perhaps this is the
reason why Alice is, according to Louis Untermeyer, the most inexhaustible
tale in the world.24
NOTES
1. See U. R. Vogt’s interesting discussion of different folktale functions in Problemi

Romanitisma (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1967), especially pp. 77–92.
2. See Vladimir Propp, Morfologia skaski [1928], 2nd ed. (Moscow: Nauka, 1969), p.
166; published in English as Morphology of the Folktale, trans. Laurence Scott, 2nd ed.
(Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1968). Propp defines functions as actions of the character-
types related to the general importance of action in the folktale. He suggests that
character-type functions are an unchanging element of the folktale, invariably found in it
regardless of other details, including plot, and they thus provide the most important
pattern of the folktale. The number of actions of character-types is strictly limited, their
sequence is fixed, and some of them are arranged in pairs (departure and return, lack of
something and the elimination of this lack, etc.). Propp identifies a series of functions in
the folktale, such as “departure” (the hero leaves home), “lack or insufficiency” (one of the
members of the family lacks something or wants something), “testing” by a donor (the
hero is tested, interrogated, even attacked, before receiving a “magic agent” from the
donor), etc.
3. Vladimir Propp, “Transformatsiia volshebnykh skasok,” in Folkor i deistvitel’nost’
(Moscow: Nauka, 1976), pp. 153–73. Propp discusses different types of modifications in
the folktale over time and speaks, among other things, of “confessional” or “superstitious”
assimilations that occurred when elements or people with religious or superstitious aspects
were incorporated into the folktale (e.g., the devil instead of a dragon).
4. See N. Berkovsky, “Nemetzky romantizm” [German Romanticism], Nemetzkaya
romanticheskaya povest (Moscow: Academia, 1935), I, xxx.
5. Nina Demurova, “O literaturnoy skazke victorianskoy Anglii (Ruskin, Kingsley,
MacDonald)” [On the literary fairy tale in Victorian England], Voprosy literatury i stilistiky
germanskikh yazykov (Moscow: 1975), pp. 99–167.
6. See Propp’s Morfologia skaski [Morphology of the Folktale].
7. See note 2, above, and Propp’s Morfologia skaski, p. 40.
8. It might be enlightening to recall the publication dates of Lear’s and Carroll’s
major works, as the two nonsense writers may have influenced each other in their later
years:
1846 A Book of Nonsense (Lear)

1865 Alice in Wonderland
1871 Nonsense Songs, Stories, Botany and Alphabets (Lear)
1871 (December) Through the Looking-Glass
1872 More Nonsense Pictures, Rhymes, Botany, etc. (Lear)
1876 The Hunting of the Shark
1877 Laughable Lyrics (Lear)
9. Roger Lancelyn Green, Lewis Carroll (London: Bodley Head, 1960); rpt. as “Alice”
in Aspects of Alice, ed. Robert Phillips (New York: Vintage, 1977), p. 27.
10. K. I. Chukovsky, Ot dvukh do pyati [From Two to Five], 11th ed. (Moscow: Detskaya
kniga, 1956), p. 258. The “powerful and wild” distinction is Chukovsky’s; see his book for
a discussion of this concept.
11. These terms are quoted from D. S. Likhackev and A. M. Panchenko “Smekhovoi
mir” drevnei Rusi [The “World of Laughter” in Ancient Russia] (Leningrad: Nauka, 1976), p.
17.
12. Mikhail Bakhtin, Tvorchestvo Fransua Rable i narodnaya kul’tura Srednevekov’a i
Renessansa (Moscow: Goslitisdat, 1965), pp. 43–44; published in English as Rabelais and His
World, trans. Helene Iswolsky (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1968).
13. Ibid., p. 8.
14. Ibid., pp. 9–10.
15. Alice in Wonderland: Authoritative Texts of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, Through
the Looking-Glass, The Hunting of the Snark, ed. Donald J. Gray, Norton Critical Edition
(New York: W. W. Norton, 1971), p. 37. All subsequent citations to the Alice books are to
this edition. Page numbers are cited parenthetically.
170 Nina Demurova
16. See V. Novikov. “Zachem i komu nuzhna parodia,” Vosprosi literaturi, No. 5 (1976),
p. 194; A. Morosov, “Parodia kak literaturny zhanr,” Russkaya literatura, No. 1 (1960); and
N. Tynianov “O parodii,” Poetika. Istoria. literature Kino (Moscow: Nauka, 1977), pp.
284–310.
17. G. K. Chesterton, “Lewis Carroll,” in his A Handful of Authors, ed. Dorothy
Collins (London and New York: Sheed and Ward, 1953).
18. Eric Partridge, “The Nonsense Words in Edward Lear and Lewis Carroll,” in
Here, There, and Everywhere (London, 1950).
19. See Roger Lancelyn Green’s commentary in his edition, Alice’s Adventures in
Wonderland/Through the Looking-Glass and what Alice found there (London and New York:
Oxford Univ. Press, 1971), p. 254.
20. See John Hinz, “Alice Meets the Don,” South Atlantic Quarterly, 52 (1953),
253–66; rpt. in Aspects of Alice, ed. Phillips, pp. 143–55.
21. See Kathleen Tillotson, “Lewis Carroll and the Kitten on the Hearth,” English, 8
(1950),136–38.
22. Green, ed., Alice’s Adventures, pp. 256, 261.
23. See Green’s notes to his edition of Alice’s Adventures.
24. Louis Untermeyer, Introduction to Alice in Wonderland/Through the Looking-Glass
(New York: Collier, 1962), p. 5.
KAROLINE LEACH
The Unreal Alice
No one knows what Alice really felt as a child for ‘Mr Dodgson’, though
some have filled in the gap in a spirit of sentimental Alice-olatry, partly
perhaps because they confuse Alice and ‘Alice’... or simply because they
hope it was like that.
—Colin Gordon, Beyond the Looking-Glass
‘A lice’ is Carroll’s twin in mythology. In Oxford heritage shops and in

biography they are, inevitably, sold as a pair. Separate them and like antique
candlesticks they lose a lot of their value and most of their meaning. In the
guidebooks that tourists buy and in scholastic life stories they walk, hand in
hand, through an eternity of loosely defined golden afternoons. In a way this
is only right. Alice as a symbol, as a meaning, was unquestionably
overwhelmingly important to Dodgson. She was his dreamchild, his
aspiration, a key to his inner world. But who or what was she?
With our modern love of literalism we have interpreted his ‘Alice’ as
the real-life Alice he knew when he wrote the story. We confuse their
separate identities in Jungian, suggestive ways. Biographers write things like
‘Alice Liddell, the little girl who was the heroine of Wonderland ... moved
into the Deanery at Christ Church on 25th February 1856’; they caption the
Tenniel drawing of Alice on the mantelpiece as ‘Alice going through the
From In the Shadow of the Dreamchild: A New Understanding of Lewis Carroll. © 1999 Karoline
Leach.
171
172 Karoline Leach
looking glass at Hetton Lawn, her grandmother’s house near Cheltenham’.1

To us, ‘Alice’ and Alice Liddell are synonymous. The consensus in modern
biography is that Alice Liddell was the ‘dreamchild’ and, beyond that, the key
to Dodgson’s inner mind, his muse, the love of his life: the cipher by which
we read his soul.
This view began to emerge around the time of the centenary of
Dodgson’s birth, when Florence Becker Lennon was beginning her research
and when romantic stories of unrequited love were beginning to feature in
the press. It was popularized and legitimized by Alexander Taylor in the early
1950s. Writing before the diary had been published, even in edited form, he
was forced to guess what the documentation he was forbidden to see might
have said and to construct a theory out of that guesswork. In The White
Knight he told the story that is now so familiar of a man who fell in love with
a little girl and renounced ‘all intention of marrying because of a child not
yet out of the nursery’.
His theory was, inevitably, largely fiction, in that it was based entirely
on his imaginative reconstruction. And, as we saw earlier, how much he ever
believed in it himself must be debatable, since it was added to his book
(which was originally intended to be simply an analysis of the chess puzzles
in Looking-Glass) only as an afterthought. But however half-hearted Taylor
may have been about it, his image of Alice as the ‘little ghost’ in Dodgson’s
life proved immensely popular. His portrait is, after all, a love entirely
suitable to the image of the bizarre chastity of the patron saint of children—
pure (indeed if not in desire), self-sacrificing and lonely, tapping directly into
the religious and renunciatory roots of the myth. Its dramatic potential is
obvious.2
Dennis Potter’s 1965 television play, Alice, took its inspiration directly
from Taylor’s book. Its dramatization of the nervous, lonely, helplessly
stammering Dodgson, gripped by a suppressed and tragic passion for his
dreamchild, became the Carroll image for the mass-media age. Its repetition
in colour twenty years later, as the film Dreamchild, with added soft-focus
suggestiveness, further gave the impression that this was art as definitive
biography, and in apparent confirmation of this the biographers themselves
took up the image and disseminated it even more widely. Today it exists as
the central theme of Dodgson’s biography. A detailed narrative is provided
that goes something like this:
Dodgson ‘fell in love’ with Alice Liddell soon after he met her. It was
his unprecedented adoration of her, his passionate desire to please her, that
made him create the story of ‘Alice’ just for her. After he told the story in the
boat on that dreamy afternoon of 4 July 1862 his devotion inspired him to sit
up all night writing the whole tale down for her. Thus, in a spirit of distorted
sacrifice, was a work of genius born. Alice the child was the love of his life
and the passion of his tragically deviant soul, and for a brief while she gave
him happiness. But then, goes the story, things got out of hand. He became
too obvious in his affection, may even have proposed marriage to the eleven-
year-old girl. This is said to have precipitated a crisis in his relationship with
her family, dated in the summer of 1863. A particular page, cut from his diary
by a later hand, is assumed to have told the story of this confrontation. Her
shocked parents are said to have banned him from her presence and burned
his letters to her. Thus ‘the little girl whom he had immortalized by his
writing and whom he had photographed with such love was lost to him’, and
thus his life was wrecked.
Individual biographers are very certain about their facts here. ‘There is
no doubt at all that Alice became his dream child ... he never fully recovered
from the pain that accompanied the severance of their relationship, and ... for
years he went on dedicating the fruits of literary labours to her and her
alone’, writes Anne Clark. ‘Dodgson did not know then, as we do now, how
important his friendship with Alice was to be, but he sensed something
special about her from the first day,’ writes the very recent biographer
Stephanie Stoffel.
Morton N. Cohen, one of the first biographers to recognize the
significance of Dodgson’s private psychological pain, unhesitatingly connects
the period of his ‘sin’ and guilt to this story and to Dodgson’s alleged passion
for the child Alice, and thus she becomes the means of understanding almost
every crucial aspect of the man’s life. This certitude is infectious. The
presentation of this story as fact by authorities such as Cohen suggests that
it has an extensive and well-researched historical basis. But surprisingly, as
with the ‘child-friends’, close examination shows that this is not so. In fact
the evidence on which this story is based is extremely thin.3
Dodgson’s extant and aggravatingly elliptic diaries give no indication
that he had any special attachment to Alice over and above his affection for
the entire family. She appears mostly as one of the undifferentiated ‘Liddells’
(by which he seems to mean mother and children or sometimes just the
children) with whom he shares croquet games, river trips and pleasant winter
evenings. In fact there are only three or four remotely significant individual
references to Alice at all, none of them revealing of his feelings in any way,
unless we count one brief statement of his intention to write a poem about
her (that he seems never to have written). Nor do his surviving letters
contain any hint of passion or desire or even any reference to such feelings
in the past. In fact none of his personal papers contain any evidence in
support of the Alice Liddell story at all. Upon what, then, apart from legend
does the current image base itself?
174 Karoline Leach
After half a lifetime of research Cohen, a convinced believer in Alice

Liddell as the ‘dreamchild’, has managed to discover only two pieces of
documentation that can be claimed to offer it any corroboration. One is a
fragment of rumour, dating from the late 1870s, when Alice Liddell was
twenty-six and had long ceased to be a child. The other is a cryptic reference
in Dodgson’s diary to someone he calls ‘A.L.’
The rumour, repeated by Lord Salisbury in a slightly jokey aside in a
private letter, suggested Dodgson had recently asked for ‘the real Alice’s’
hand, had been refused and ‘gone out of his mind’. Cohen makes quite a bit
of this, even back-referring it fifteen years to fit in with his theory of a
marriage proposal when Alice was eleven. But even if we do not balk at using
a rumour from 1878 to back a story about 1863, this is a fragile piece of
evidence. After all, similar rumours circulated at different times about Alice’s
mother, her governess and her older and younger sisters. Do we accept them
all as ‘evidence’ and conclude that Dodgson enjoyed at least four separate
liaisons with different members of the family? No. Rumour can be used to
corroborate existing evidence, and even to suggest possibilities, but it cannot
ever be evidence in its own right. In any good methodology this story,
unfortunately, is a horse that will not run, at least not without a little help.
What is needed is good prima-facie material to suggest that this rumour has
some basis. But there is very little of this, and what there is leaves a great deal
to be desired.
Dodgson’s journal for 17 October 1866 makes this observation: ‘On
Saturday Uncle S. dined with me, & on Sunday I dined with him at the
Randolph, & on each occasion we had a good deal of conversation about
Wilfred, & about A.L.—it is a very anxious subject.’4
Wilfred was Dodgson’s younger brother, who was causing his family
some, embarrassment at the time in various ways. This is at least part of what
Dodgson and his uncle discussed over their dinner. But who was A.L. and
what did he or she have to do with it?
The most obvious explanation is a slip of the pen. The principal
difficulty with Wilfred at that time was his continued courting of a girl called
Alice Donkin. She was young (aged fifteen), and Wilfred had no job and no
money and was therefore in no position to offer a formal proposal. His
family were worried about potential indiscretions in this volatile situation,
and Charles even suggested Wilfred go abroad for a while to calm the
situation down. It seems most likely that the ‘anxious subject’ was their love
affair and that Dodgson, in a momentary slip, wrote ‘A.L.’ in mistake for
‘A.D.’
But because there is so little else this reference has been weighted with
an enormous significance by the many biographers anxious to establish Alice
Liddell’s ascendancy in Dodgson’s life. The ‘A.L.’ has been assumed, without
question, to refer to Alice Liddell, and, although there is nothing in the
wording to suggest so, to be a tacit admission on Dodgson’s part of his love
for her, a suggestion that he sat over dinner with his favourite uncle and
discussed Wilfred’s love problems and his own. Some extravagant claims
have been made on its behalf.
‘A.L. can only have been Alice Liddell and Dodgson must have been
haunted by the spectre of what he had lost,’ urged Michael Bakewell. ‘This
close association of his anxieties about Wilfred’s romantic affairs and his own
relationship with Alice Liddell is one of the strongest arguments for
concluding that he was romantically attached to the Dean’s daughter and
wished to marry her,’ wrote Clark, while Cohen was equally convinced and
convincing about what this reference meant: ‘the two brothers, both in their
prime, were attached to two teenage youngsters named Alice’.5
I think we have a surfeit of logical fallacies here, starting with ‘he
mentions “A.L.”; Alice Liddell’s initials were “A.L.”; therefore he mentions
Alice Liddell’ and proceeding from there in a perfect circle. If we consider
the evidence more coolly we have to admit that this is reasoning rather a long
way ahead of the data.
Even if we allow that ‘A.L.’ is indeed A.L., and not a mistaken
reference to ‘A.D.’, there is nothing in the entry even to suggest the sex of
the unknown person, never mind any hint that he or she is some kind of love-
object for Dodgson. In fact it is perfectly obvious from the phrasing that,
whoever A.L. was, that person was connected with Wilfred in a single
‘anxious subject’, and under this circumstance ‘A.L.’ is far more likely to be
the brothers’ Aunt Lucy (who was at least referred to in Dodgson’s diary as
‘Aunt L.’) or some man lost to history to whom Wilfred owed money than it
is to be Alice Liddell. It just might be her of course, but it just might be
almost anyone, and biography is supposed to be a study of the probable, not
an accretion of undisprovable negatives.
It is understandable that Cohen and others seek to give this fragment
such significance, since it is, evidentially, almost all there is. But in
discovering here their ‘proof ’ of Dodgson’s attachment to Alice Liddell they
are expressing only the intensity of their need to find what they are looking
for. There is no evidence beyond remote supposition to justify linking this
diary entry with Alice Liddell at all and absolutely nothing to suggest it
means she was Dodgson’s love-object.
The one other piece of evidence to offer support for any part of the
Alice/Dodgson story is not contemporary and is very dubious in content. It
is a strange self-serving letter written by the first biographer and possible
destroyer of the missing diaries, Stuart Collingwood, to his cousin Menella.
176 Karoline Leach
It was written in February 1932, and the date is significant. The centenary
celebrations of Lewis Carroll’s birth were cranking up. The story of Alice
Liddell as ‘dreamchild’ and object of desire was beginning to take shape, and
the family was beginning to be pestered for information more urgently than
ever before. In the midst of this, Menella, who as keeper of the family papers
was at the centre of this unwanted attention, wrote to Collingwood asking
for some biographical information, possibly with a view to making a public
statement in the press. It is possible to reconstruct her questions from his
answers.
What, she wanted to know, had happened to the four missing volumes
of the diary? Was there any truth in the newspaper rumours then circulating
connecting Dodgson romantically with, first, the actress Ellen Terry and,
second, various members of the Liddell family? And what had Collingwood
meant by his reference in his biography to the autobiographical ‘shadow of
disappointment’ that lay over his uncle’s love poetry?
Collingwood’s reply to this honest inquiry from a member of his own
family was a massively disingenuous composition, conceived, apparently,
more as some sort of apology to posterity than as a private reply to a private
letter. It makes it obvious that, as far as Collingwood was concerned, there
were some things he had to keep even from his own relatives. He lied to his
cousin, claiming never to have had the ‘complete diary’ and vouchsafing the
assurance that he had ‘not the least idea’ where the missing volumes might
be. ‘But,’ he added in an obvious piece of attempted blame-shifting on to the
conveniently dead, ‘possibly Uncle Wilfred had it.’ His response to the other
inquiries was even more circumspect and infinitely stranger:
Nothing I have read in L.C.’s diaries or letters, suggested—to the

best of my memory—that he had ever had any affaires de coeur ...
I think that Aunt Fanny once told me that it was the family’s
opinion that Uncle Charles had had a disappointment in love, &
that they also thought (or she also thought) that the lady in
question was Ellen Terry ... The ‘shadow’ I hinted at had no other
basis than what I had heard from Aunt Fanny.
But after this oddly qualified affirmation that he knew absolutely

nothing about his uncle’s love life beyond the vaguest of second-hand
remarks Collingwood suddenly drew a metaphorical and physical line across
his narrative and abruptly changed his tack. Come to think of it—he did
know about Lewis Carroll’s love-life after all. And in the stroke of a pen the
man who thought his Aunt Fanny might have said something once became
the man who knew almost everything:
When Ellen Terry was just growing up—about 17—she was

lovely beyond description (I have seen a photo of her, which
belonged to L.C., at about that age), and it is highly probable that
he fell in love with her; he may even have proposed to her.
But this was not the only passion in Dodgson’s life; Collingwood had
suddenly remembered another one as well:
Whereas, in regard to the Liddells, it was Alice who was

undoubtedly his pet, and it was his intense love for her (though
she was only a child) which pulled the trigger and released his
genius. Indeed it is quite likely that Alice’s marriage to
Hargreaves may have seemed to him the greatest tragedy of his
life.6
Biographers wisely tend to dismiss this self-contradictory and self-

serving account. It is, after all, not even internally consistent, the second
portion frankly countering the first and implying an extraordinarily high
level of dishonesty. It is described even by the gentle and kindly Derek
Hudson as ‘not entirely reliable’, but some writers try to make an exception
for the Alice part, suggesting that Collingwood’s ‘speculation about the Alice
affair is more to the point’. However, this is hard to sustain objectively.
Collingwood demonstrably lied about his own actions and the extent of his
own knowledge. The claim that he never had the complete diary is untrue.
The claim about a proposal to Ellen Terry is lifted straight from newspaper
stories circulating at the time and is, as Cohen himself pointed out, ‘out of
the question’, since the woman was married before Dodgson even met her.
The claim about Alice Liddell is lifted from the same romanticized sources
and is supported by almost no independent evidence at all. In what sense is
it ‘more to the point’? Perhaps in terms of what is currently believed, but that
is all. It is not Collingwood baring his soul: it is Collingwood saying what he
wants others to believe and manifestly making it up as he goes along. As with
the ‘child-friends’, another image that he helped to create, he is simply re-
telling a popular story while keeping selected realities to himself.7
Almost certainly he knew more about Dodgson’s ‘affaires de coeur’ than
anyone else alive. But equally certainly he had decided long ago to say
nothing about what he knew. He had stated publicly that there was nothing
to be gained by ‘lifting the veil’ on Dodgson’s private pain and the ‘shadow’
that afflicted him. Whole chunks of his uncle’s diary had been removed—
probably by him—in order to conceal something even from other members
of the family, and this letter of his continues the process of concealment and
178 Karoline Leach
dissimulation. Indeed if the text suggests anything it is that he would not

have been so keen to use either the Terry or the Alice story if he had known
them to be connected in any way to the aspects of Dodgson’s life he wanted
to conceal. This final piece of ‘Alice evidence’ is ruled suspect, if not
inadmissible, by its own multifarious dishonesties.
It is plain that the source of the historical data that can be called in
support of the Alice story is not rich. Up to the present time Taylor’s
portrayal of Alice Liddell as Lewis Carroll’s ‘lost love, the withered rose in
his filing cabinet, the little ghost that was to come crying in the night to the
windows of his bachelor apartments in Tom Quad’, followed as it is by almost
every mainstream biographer, remains a hypothesis bare of almost any
corroboration.8
To those who have seen the Potter play and read the life stories, this
paucity might seem incredible. After all, what about the marriage proposal to
the eleven-year-old child? The banishment from the Deanery that wrecked
Dodgson’s life? Surely there must be some evidence for this, however small
and fragmentary?
But, actually, no; there is not. The entire story of Dodgson’s marriage
proposal to the eleven-year-old girl, his banishment from the Deanery, has
always been a piece of guesswork, an attempt to explain the strange
anomalies in his relationship with the Liddell family by what was thought the
most likely means. There has never been even the smallest shred of evidence
for it. If it builds itself on anything, beside biographical imagination, it is on
the crucial and famous missing page in Dodgson’s diary from 27 to 29 June
1863.
This cut page—chopped out untidily by one of his descendants with
what seem to have been nail scissors—occurs right in the midst of Dodgson’s
personal experience of guilt and sin, during a summer when, after a brief lull,
he begins to feel the sting of his old anguish again. The last entry before the
cut ends ambiguously where a sentence travelled over on to the now missing
page. It reads: ‘wrote to Mrs Liddell, urging her either to send the children
to be photographed...’
The subsequent cut seems to cover a crisis of some kind in his
relationship with the Liddell family. Before this erasure, he is seeing them
regularly; after it, they disappear from his narrative for several months and
not just because of the intervening vacation. When he mentions them again,
on 5 December, he observes that he has ‘held aloof from them’ all that term.9
The cut page, is, as Cohen himself says, ‘crucial’. Obviously something
happened between Dodgson and the Liddells at that time. But what? For the
lack of anything else concrete this ‘absence’ has achieved the status of a
keystone in the Alice story. Surely this jagged stump is the place where the
much-needed evidence would have been. Surely the page was cut out by
Dodgson’s descendants because it contained a confession of his love for
Alice, his desire to marry her, and if it had not been erased we would be able
to read in his own words the story that is so conspicuously not told anywhere
else. This is how the proposal/banishment is worked into the narrative.
There have always been obvious difficulties with this interpretation.
For example, Dodgson’s diary records that on 17 December 1863, some six
months after he is supposed to have been banished from the Deanery for
inappropriate conduct with the child Alice, he wrote to Mrs Liddell offering
to call, and she invited him to the house the following Saturday. He went
there for the evening, stayed to dinner and spent a few hours playing with the
younger girls and, according to his diary, their mother was there only ‘part
of the time’. The rest of the evening, presumably, he was alone with the
children, since he does not say that the governess was in attendance. It has
always been difficult to make any of this seem consistent with his having been
discovered to have dangerous sexual feelings for one of these children.10
Beyond these anomalies, however, the ‘missing page’ has remained the
Alice story’s most powerful raison d’être, and biographers remain all but
convinced of what must have been written there: ‘The most obvious
conclusion is that Dodgson had asked the Dean if he might court Alice.’
‘What was the alternative that Dodgson “urged” on Mrs Liddell? ... The
most commonly advanced explanation is that Dodgson asked for Alice’s hand
in marriage.’11
While I was researching in the Dodgson archive in early 1996 I came
across a small piece of paper I have referred to briefly earlier. Never
published or even seen before, it was torn out of an account book and written
in the hand of Dodgson’s niece, Violet, who, with her sister Menella, was a
guardian of the family papers between 1929 and 1966. On the back were
some details of the births and deaths of various members of the Liddell
family. But on the front there was a heading ‘Cut Pages in Diary’ and a brief
resume of three entries from Dodgson’s diary.
Almost immediately certain things became apparent. The paper was
evidently very private, never intended to find its way into a public archive.
Violet wrote it as a personal aide-mémoire of material she and Menella
were intending to cut out of Dodgson’s diaries, and in fact two of the three
pages referred to are now missing, while the third is still there but heavily
crossed out. It is possible to read the text of this entry beneath the
scribble. It is a brief, unflattering observation about Alice being in a bad
mood through ill health—‘Alice was in an unusually imperious and
ungentle mood’—which sheds an interesting light on how actively the
sisters were trying to preserve the popular image of his unfailing adoration
180 Karoline Leach
of the girl by removing his unflattering comments on her. This has a

significance of its own.
However, the really important entry of the three on this little page is
the second, headed ‘Vol. 8, page 92’, because this is the missing page, the one
for 27–29 June 1863, that all the fuss is about, the one described as ‘crucial’
by Cohen, the one assumed to have contained the story of Dodgson’s
marriage proposal and his banishment from the Deanery. Here, on this little,
scruffy document, Violet had written a one-sentence summary of what that
page had really contained, and this is what she wrote:
Vol. 8 Page 92. L.C. learns from Mrs Liddell that he is supposed
to be using the children as a means of paying court to the
governess—He is also supposed [unreadable] to be courting Ina.
When we read this the mystery of what actually happened at that time
begins to be unravelled.12
‘L.C.’ is, of course, Dodgson. As he says in his last diary entry before
the break, he ‘wrote to Mrs Liddell’ with a suggestion that she send the
children over to be photographed. This new diary document shows that on
the same day, or soon after, he either received a reply or spoke to Lorina in
person. She told him that there was damaging gossip circulating about his
continued visits to the Deanery. Either she told him, or they agreed, that he
should keep away for a while, until the gossip died down. Hence, he ‘held
aloof ’ from her and her children for the next few months, not out of bad
feeling but out of caution, and hence, when danger might seem to be past, he
wrote to ask if he could come back and she said yes. This is the reality,
according to all evidence, of what happened between Dodgson and the
Liddells in the summer of 1863.
This amounts to something of a bombshell for the Alice story. If
Violet’s note is to be believed—and there is no shred of evidence to suggest
it should not—Dodgson was not banished from the Deanery for
indiscretion with the child; he was advised to stay away for a while because
of a spate of gossip about him and two members of the household, the
governess and ‘Ina’, neither of which was Alice. The missing page 92 in his
diary is indeed a ‘crucial’ entry but not in quite the way that might have
been imagined. It is crucial because it effectively eradicates the last fragment
of assumptive reasoning that provided some form of backing for the ‘Alice
Liddell story’.
With the revelation that the most famous missing page of Dodgson’s
diary did not, according to the evidence, contain any reference to Alice at all,
let alone confirm the story of marriage proposals and banishments, certain
conclusions become inevitable. It suggests irresistibly that the time has come
for a major reassessment.
Currently, Alice Liddell—and Dodgson’s supposed passion for her—is
used as a cipher for interpreting almost every aspect of his work, as well as
his emotional and creative life. She is, after all, the ultimate demonstration
of his strangeness. But it is apparent that the evidential justification for this
is—has always been—almost non-existent. There remains no contemporary
evidence linking Dodgson romantically with Alice Liddell in any way during
the all-important 1860s, when his life turned briefly upside down, and only
the slightest rumour to link him with her at all. There is no evidence that he
was in love with her, no evidence that her family worried about his
attachment to her, no evidence that they banned him from her presence.
There are no letters or private diary entries to suggest any kind of romantic
or passionate attachment or even to indicate he had a special interest in her
for any but the briefest time. There is no evidence, either prima-facie or
secondary, cryptic or elliptic, to suggest he proposed to the eleven-year-old
girl or even considered doing so. The fine academic Cohen can find no more
to say in support of his own belief that ‘Charles, aged 31, proposed marriage
to Alice, aged 11’ than to claim ‘Oxford gossip had it so’. But even this fragile
rationale is untrue. Oxford gossip did not have it so. Nothing and no one
ever had it so—except Cohen and his fellow biographers.13
In 1888 Dodgson met the young man Reginald Hargreaves who had
recently married Alice. If modern biography and Collingwood’s heated prose
are to be believed, he was encountering the man who had robbed him of his
one chance of happiness, the man who had married the girl to whom he had
proposed marriage when she was eleven or, according to Cohen’s
interpretation of the A.L. reference, when she was fourteen or again,
according to rumour, when she was a young woman of twenty-six. Dodgson
wrote of this meeting: ‘I met him [Hargreaves] in our Common Room not
long ago. It was hard to realize that he was the husband of one I can scarcely
picture to myself, even now, as more than 7 years old.’ He made almost
exactly the same comment at the same time in the privacy of his journal.
Even Taylor had to admit that this did not fit with his own theory of
life-long passion. ‘That does not ring true,’ he wrote, and we have to agree
with him. As he points out: ‘Alice was ten in the boat, thirteen when the book
was published and twenty-eight when she left Christ Church to be married.’
It is unquestionably difficult to imagine that any man who cherished these
memories, who regarded this girl as the love of his life and her marriage as
the ‘greatest tragedy’, who had asked for her hand when she was eleven,
fourteen or twenty-six, would be unable to remember her as any more than
seven years old. Taylor’s only option was to conclude that Dodgson did not
182 Karoline Leach
really mean it, but it is a dangerous moment when biography elects to put its
own beliefs and its fragmentary hearsay evidence before the subject’s own
experience of himself.14
Beyond the mythology, Dodgson’s own writings say more about the
probable limitations of his feelings for Alice Liddell than for many of the
other girls and women in his life. It is just that in the rush to believe in Alice
as dreamchild no one has paid much attention to what he said. Ironically, she
seems to have been one of the very few girls that he really did lose interest in
when she reached puberty. His diaries, his letters, tell the simple story of
early affection for a ‘dear child’ turning to bland indifference as she grew up.
At seven Alice Liddell was his ‘ideal child-friend’, the linchpin of his
quasi-paternal role in her family. But it was a brief role for her. By the early
1860s, when he first told the story of Alice’s Adventures to the ‘children three’
in the boat, her special status was probably already beginning to fade. There
are only three or four even vaguely significant references to her by name
throughout the 1860s, and two of these are grossly unflattering. At eleven
she is ‘in an unusually imperious and ungentle mood, not at all improved by
being an invalid’; at thirteen she is ‘changed a good deal, and hardly for the
better’.15 This suggests that adolescent Alice was already growing into an
adult personality he found less than congenial, and this was a tendency that
seems to have continued. Her elder sister Ina by contrast is referred to
repeatedly in ways that suggest continuing affection.
She did—and posterity has to be grateful to her for that—ask him to
write down the Alice story, after he first told it on the famous July river trip,
and he did promise to do so, but the image of his sitting up that night,
writing by candle-light, is pure legend. After all, he did not know that an
impromptu story about a rabbit hole would make him immortal. The Liddell
girls loved ‘Alice’s adventures’, but he was less impressed. Sometimes their
demand for the ‘interminable’ tale irked him, and he wanted to do other
things. Only in later years would he re-light this bumpy reality in the soft
glow of pure middle-aged nostalgia.
At the time he evidently forgot all about Alice’s request almost
immediately. He was preoccupied with other things—his burgeoning artistic
career, his London friends, the looming problem of the priesthood, the sense
of sin that haunted him. She asked him to write it down, he said he would,
but in his usual manner he did not get round to it. Only a chance meeting
with the Liddell girls in the quad, four months later on 13 November,
rescued his promise, and his story, from oblivion.16
He started work on it that evening, probably with a little shiver of guilt
at the delay. It took another two years of very intermittent labour to finish
the book and, somewhere along the way, getting it ready for Alice began to
take second place to finding a publisher for what he began to realize was a
potentially commercial story. The entrepreneur in him came to the fore. He
had always wanted to think of a book that would ‘sell well’, and now he had.
His influential writer friends, Tenniel his illustrator, Macmillan his publisher,
all read his manuscript before Alice did. In fact by the time she eventually
received her story-book in late 1864 Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland was
nearing publication.
He evidently felt guilty about how long it had taken him to fulfil his
promise to the ‘dear child’ and perhaps about the way in which his gift had
been transformed into a career move. He probably remained in a sense both
guilty and grateful to her for the rest of his life. She had, after all, indirectly
helped to change that life and make him the literary figure he had wanted to
be since his early teens. He did not forget to commemorate her in the four
Alice volumes; he paid her the nice little compliment of using her birthday as
a leitmotif and wrote a lovely verse just for her at the end of Looking-Glass.
In the circumstances he might have thought it ungracious to do much less.
And he never did more. He never confused Alice with ‘Alice’ as we do. She
was never his ‘dreamchild’, and he never pretended that she was.
His Alice, the dreamchild, shared her name, but she enjoyed an entirely
independent existence; ‘my dream-child (named after a real Alice, but none
the less a dream-child)’, a creature of his fancy, whose separateness he
guarded jealously, almost pointedly. Even when he wrote the first draft of the
Wonderland story his ‘little heroine’ was already carefully differentiated
from the real child whose name she shared. In this proto-story it is his
dream-Alice who tumbles down the rabbit hole and has adventures. Alice
Liddell only appears at the end, as ‘another Alice’, a little girl in a boat,
listening to the tale of his Alice’s adventures. By the time he wrote Looking-
Glass the dream-child was fleshed out in his mind, but her long hair trailing
in the stream is not Alice Liddell’s neat bob. Even in his personal dedication
in her copy of the 1886 facsimile of Alice’s Adventures Under Ground Dodgson
carefully emphasizes that it was not her but her ‘namesake’ who ‘inspired his
story’. For him, ‘dream-Alice’ reigned paramount. Alice Liddell soon
became largely irrelevant. In his middle age, her contribution to it all had
been reduced, by the author himself, to a mere accident of nomenclature.17
There are few references to Alice Liddell in Dodgson’s journal for the
last thirty years of his life. Politeness, banality and distance characterized
their later and barely existent correspondence. His warmest sign-off to her
was ‘sincerely yours’, cool indeed compared to the love and kisses he
dispensed to so many of his female correspondents. His favourite people
were always those who preserved the laughter, the spontaneity of childhood,
into their adult years. Perhaps Alice Liddell did not do that. She became very
184 Karoline Leach
‘county’, married an amateur cricketer, played bridge. Perhaps her social

conformity chilled him.
She asked him to be godfather to one of her children.18 He declined,
not out of spite but because he had too many godchildren already and had
promised himself to take on no more. He made an exception of this rule for
his sister’s child; but not for Alice’s.
For her part, as an adult she seems to have resented the success he had
built on borrowing her name and his continued exploitation of the Alice
phenomenon. He was the first one to market his own legend. She observed
him publish two volumes of the original stories, a Nursery Alice for tots and
eventually even a Wonderland Stamp Case. But when, in 1885, he wrote
asking to borrow back the original manuscript of Alice, the little book it had
taken him so long to finish for her twenty-two years before, so that it could
be published in facsimile, she was stung. She did not want to let him have her
book back and wrote to her father asking if she really had to, considering he
had already sold 120,000 copies of the story he had told her. Her father wrote
back to say that he thought she could not deny Mr Dodgson, even though he
had been so successful.19 In receipt of the paternal advice, Alice, with who
knows what reluctance, wrote to Dodgson to say he could have her book but
that he must take care of it. He did, and in the end she got it back.
Subsequently, they had very little, almost nothing, to do with one
another. When he died she sent a wreath, but her own father had died not
long before and she did not attend Dodgson’s funeral. As she became old,
and mythic in her own right, she evidently was not comfortable with the
growth of the legend. She never seemed to want to be dubbed ‘the real
Alice’, perhaps because she knew that she never really had been that person.
When the celebrations for the centenary of Dodgson’s birth got under way,
and she began to be hymned as the ‘dreamchild’ all over the world, she
entered into the game with tight lips and few words. Although she could
have made a fortune out of her memoirs she preferred to say as little as
possible, and the only manuscript she ever produced was written ‘with her
son [Caryl] almost literally guiding the pen’. Even though he tried to put as
much golden gloss on it as possible, the sting of old bitterness still comes
through from time to time—little drops of acid in Caryl’s thickly applied
sugar coating. While he dealt in the generalities of the legend, her detailed
personal memories told their own little muted story. She remembered
Dodgson himself slightly venomously, as looking ‘as if he had swallowed a
poker’. She remembered going on the river with his sisters. ‘They seemed
to us rather stout, and one might have expected that with such a load in it
the boat would have been swamped.’ She remembered old omissions: ‘One
Boxing Day, the horse I was riding crossed its legs and came down with me
on the Abingdon Road ... I was on my back for six weeks, with a broken
thigh. During all these weeks, Mr Dodgson never came to see me.’ Even
though there was so much profit to be made out of being ‘Alice’ she could
not suppress the prickly reality she remembered and play the game her son
so evidently wanted her to play. Perhaps this was why she took refuge in
silence.
This is the evidential reality of Carroll and the second daughter of
Henry and Lorina Liddell. He did not ‘continue for years to dedicate the
fruits of his labour to her and her alone’. He did not, according to all
evidence, find her irreplaceable, ‘desire a holy union with her’ or consider
her the love of his life. She is not, in any way, the solution to the puzzle of
his life or the source of his genius. So why is biography not comfortable with
this diagnosis?20
Dodgson’s ‘dreamchild of the mind’, a quasi-religious symbol, is
something not easily encompassed in an irreligious age that has lost its
capacity for metaphysics. Perhaps we make our dreamchild of the only
substance we still understand how to worship: Alice Liddell exposing her
flesh to Dodgson’s camera, Alice Liddell as King Cophetua’s beggar maid. As
a culture we are obsessed with such things and we apparently want to believe
that Dodgson was too. This level of conviction is liable to become in some
sense self-fulfilling. Even the best biographers can unwittingly force the
story to take the expected path, and two recently discovered letters show this
process in operation beautifully.
In the spring of 1930 the very able writer Florence Becker Lennon was
making preparations for her biography of Dodgson. She interviewed the one
member of the Liddell family who would talk to her, Alice’s 81-year-old
widowed sister Ina, who was living quietly in retirement. Lennon was fairly
convinced of the reality of the burgeoning Alice myth, the blighted marriage
proposal and the banishment from the Deanery, and she apparently went to
the interview with Ina determined to extract a confession about all this. Ina
subsequently wrote two letters to her sister about this interview. The first of
these reveals her astonishment as she began to realize that Lennon was
fishing for evidence that Dodgson proposed marriage:
On thinking by myself, I think she tried to see if Mr Dodgson

ever wanted to marry you!! She said he had such a sad face, and
she thought he must have had a love affair ... and it did occur to
me at the time what she perhaps was driving at!! ... I had no idea
it was to be put in her book as from me!! However, thank
goodness I am to see and correct it.
186 Karoline Leach
But the second letter makes it clear that, however astonished she might
have been, Ina deliberately encouraged Lennon to continue believing the
story, at least in part, for reasons of her own.
I don’t suppose you remember when Mr Dodgson ceased coming

to the Deanery? ... I said [to Lennon] his manner became too
affectionate to you as you grew older, and that Mother spoke to
him about it, and that offended him ... as one had to give some
reason for all intercourse ceasing.21
The period Ina is referring to, when ‘Mr Dodgson ceased coming to
the Deanery’, must be the crisis covered by the cut page of June 1863, which
we now know was nothing to do with Alice. Ina could have told Lennon the
truth about that time, the truth that we are just beginning to uncover, but
instead the old lady told the biographer what she wanted to hear. She told
the ‘Alice story’ because she ‘had to give some reason’ for all intercourse
ceasing and did not want to bring the awkward reality out into the light of
day. In the grip of the myth Lennon let her get away with it and did not
notice the sleight of hand.
Today the still-growing weight and bulk of the Alice Liddell mythology
flattens out Dodgson’s monopolized life like a flayed skin. His work is
assumed to be about Alice Liddell or about nothing. His poetry is assumed
to be about Alice Liddell or it does not signify. His two most famous books
are said to do far more than simply play with her name and other familiar
Oxford images; they somehow are Alice Liddell in a way Peter Pan has never
been thought to be any one of the Llewellyn-Davies boys.
It is time to restore a little balance. The only book truly written for
Alice Liddell was Alice’s Adventures Under Ground, the manuscript version
of the little tale Dodgson originally told in the boat. Thereafter, as in
every creative process, the story, and ‘Alice’, stopped being Alice Liddell’s
and became Dodgson’s. As any author inevitably must, he used the
narrative to explore his own inner and outer worlds, and the stories
evolved as a reflection of his experience. Wonderland is already
significantly his own literary voice in an assured way not present in Under
Ground. It plays with the themes of politics and female dominance in ways
that reflect his personal obsessions of the time. Looking-Glass was written
on the other side of the great divide in his life by a man who was just
emerging from a prolonged depression, whose father, with whom he had
always shared an ambiguous relationship, had just died unexpectedly,
leaving him a quasi-paternal figure to his own brothers and sisters,
burdened for the first time with family responsibilities. The book’s themes
of autumn, renunciation and loss have plenty of echoes here, and the
White Knight is obviously a powerful symbol of dying father as well as
childhood’s end.
However, the mechanistic reductio ad absurdum of the Alice story
dismisses all this as irrelevant and says that Dodgson is using the White
Knight not to say goodbye to his father or his own youth or his innocence
but to—Alice Liddell. The sadness and darkness are not because of the
emotional and psychological turmoils through which he has recently come;
they are because he does not have—Alice Liddell. His touching introductory
poem for Looking-Glass, ‘Child of the Pure Unclouded Brow’, is presented as
a poem of love for—who else?—Alice Liddell, because it uses the word
‘pleasance’ in the last verse (Pleasance being Alice Liddell’s middle name)
when it is evidently, and far more sensitively, a poem to the child-reader of
future ages whom he would never see.
I have not seen thy sunny face,

Nor heard thy silver laughter:
No thought of me shall find a place
In thy young life’s hereafter—
Enough that now thou wilt not fail
To listen to my fairy-tale ...22
These lines are completely meaningless if addressed to the Alice

Liddell who lived across the quad from him and whose face he had, to the
best of anyone’s knowledge, seen quite a few times, but they are full of
poignancy in their true context. When biography loses this to the Alice
legend it loses an important truth about the man. The future haunted him,
more than the past. The thought of his work, which he already sensed to
have immortality in it, living on through generations that he would know
nothing about was something that obsessed him. ‘Think of me in 1924,’ he
told one girl-friend, and he wrote his verse as another small personal message
to every child of the future who would pick up his book and find something
good there.23
It makes little sense to put so much of this richness aside; to suppose,
as biography does, that it is about a girl he was almost certainly never in love
with and who had ceased to be a part of his life many years before is not
simply counter to the evidence, it is counter to the reality of life and the
creative process. At present almost every aspect of his life is processed
through the Alice machine and comes out Alice-shaped. Little or nothing
escapes. Even his mathematical story, ‘Dynamics of a Particle’, about the
friendship between two straight lines, even the confused entirety of Sylvie
188 Karoline Leach
and Bruno, have been turned by some into an exploration of his supposed
worship of this one girl whose moment of real meaning in his real life was so
evidently transient. Charlotte Zeepvat, author of a biography of Prince
Leopold, youngest son of Queen Victoria, shows more acuity over the
strange and pernicious nature of the Alice Liddell myth than any Dodgson
biographer has yet managed. Leopold is another man with whom a fairly
amorphous legend links her, her romance with him being recounted with as
much certitude as any aspect of the Dodgson story. He is even supposed to
have named his daughter Princess Alice after her, although he actually named
her after his own and beloved dead sister and said so in his own words.
Commenting on the skewed nature of this widespread myth, Zeepvat
observes: ‘[Prince Leopold] was in love. There was talk of a marriage, which
the Queen put a stop to. The question remains: who was the girl?’ There
were contemporary hints linking Leopold with someone in the Liddell
family but no suggestion as to who, but ‘modern attention focuses exclusively
on Alice because of her association with the book’ and thus ‘the disappointed
romance between Alice Liddell and Leopold has become an accepted part of
the Alice mythology)’.24
In fact, says Zeepvat, it seems more likely that the girl Leopold briefly
courted was Alice’s younger sister Edith. Substitute Dodgson’s name for
Leopold’s in the above quotation and we have an important truth about how
biography has interpreted his relationship with the Liddells.
If there is likely to be any truth at all in the idea that Dodgson was
actively courting one of the sisters in the 1860s, then there is far more
evidence to suggest that girl was Alice’s older sister, Ina. In 1863 she was an
attractive and physically developed teenager. Dodgson himself was aware
that she was no longer a child; his comment that ‘I quite think Ina is now so
tall as to look odd without an escort’ shows a full recognition of her maturity
and, according to one possible interpretation of the ‘Cut Pages in Diary’
document, it was this fourteen-year-old that gossip linked him with at the
time. Of the three famous sisters it was most certainly Ina who most often
wrote to him at this time and Ina who received most individual recognition
in his journal. Dodgson even carefully noted the exact number of times she
had been with him on the river: ‘her fourteenth time’, he observed, and one
can almost hear the sigh. (He never made any such poignant and sentimental
comment about Alice.) Their mutual friendship continued until Dodgson’s
death. And an undergraduate satire from 1874, Cakeless, written as a
‘celebration’ of Ina’s marriage to William Skene, puts Dodgson (thinly
disguised as ‘Kraftsohn’) in the role of disconsolate objector. There is even a
scribbled note on one extant copy of this work that reads ‘Dodgson had been
rejected’.25
Was Dodgson ‘courting’ Ina? In contrast to the Alice story this

possibility is well documented and plausible. It has yet to be recognized or
followed up, only because ‘Alice’ obliterates all other realities.
But, while this must remain a possibility, to see the Dodgson of the
1860s as lovelorn suitor for any of the Liddell daughters makes very little
sense in terms of his own self-knowledge or his relationship with the family.
His expressed affection for all the girls is profoundly paternal and protective.
Everything in his demeanour, in his writing, in the fashion in which he
remembered these girls suggests that they were seen by him as a ready-made
family, stepchildren to play at father with, not as potential wives or sexualized
love-objects.
The elderly Ina’s letters to her sister quoted above make it evident that
she used Lennon’s own Alice story as some form of camouflage for whatever
had really been going on between Dodgson and her family at that time,
presumably because it was too private or too potentially harmful to be
revealed. She knew, just as the evidence is beginning to make clear today, that
Dodgson did not really become too affectionate to her sister and that her
mother did not speak to him about it, and her admission that she told
Lennon these things because she ‘had to give some reason for all intercourse
ceasing’ raises the obvious question, why? Why did she feel the need to
invent along with Lennon’s expectations? Why could she not simply tell the
truth, whatever that might have been?
The same question could be asked many times about different aspects
of the relationship between the Liddells and Dodgson. It is an inescapable
fact that while his life was at its most turbulent the Liddells were involved
with him in an anomalous and curious way. His diary is full of oblique
references that imply entanglements with them beyond anything recorded.
He encounters them, apparently by accident, on his daily walks, on trains,
while holidaying in London, with a frequency and in circumstances that
imply a deliberate arrangement he never acknowledges. Almost everything
about his contact with them speaks of secrecy and subtext.
Mrs Liddell, the other Lorina, destroyed his letters (not simply those
to Alice, as the state of the archive shows, but those he wrote to herself and
her other children). She is said sometimes to have ‘hated’ him, yet she
continued to write to him and invite him into her home until the end of his
life. She kept photographs of him but would not allow her husband’s
biographer to mention his name. Dodgson’s diary hints at bad relations
between him and Lorina’s mother, Mrs Reeve, but gives no explanation.
The Dean broke college rules in an unprecedented fashion to allow
Dodgson to keep his job without taking holy orders, yet the two were
political enemies. Alice obviously resented him, would not talk about him
190 Karoline Leach
even when there was serious money to be made out of doing so, yet she felt
the need to name her youngest son ‘Caryl’ while denying it was any kind of
tribute.
None of this seems applicable to a situation in which the family have
been merely the recipients of an unwanted marriage proposal. It implies
much deeper and more secretive involvement. This is stated most baldly by
the author who has, to date, had the most unrestricted access to the Liddell
private papers. ‘To put it at its most melodramatic,’ writes Colin Gordon,
‘was Dodgson a skeleton in the Oxford closet, not to be rattled at all costs?’26
It seems likely that, as far as the Liddells were concerned, he was.
The episode of June 1863 has long been supposed to hold the key to
Dodgson’s puzzling relationship with these people, and it probably does. It
was evidently as sensitive a topic for the Liddells as it was for the Dodgson
nieces who destroyed the relevant entry in their uncle’s diary.
In a way the cryptic information of the ‘cut pages in diary’ document
and the subsequent behaviour of Dodgson and Mrs Liddell raises more
questions than it answers. There had been gossip for years about Dodgson
and this family. He had himself recorded earlier rumours about him and the
astonishingly ugly governess with wry disbelief. Such talk had never
bothered Mrs Liddell before, nor had it prompted the guardians of his
reputation to cut out the references in his diary. What was different about
this time? Why was it necessary for him to ‘hold aloof ’ from the family for
six months? Why did Mrs Liddell make sure she invited him back into her
home on a day that her husband was away?
And how does this connect with Dodgson’s own sense of sin that so
evidently haunted his contact with her family?
The greatest weakness with the image of Alice as love-object, and
indeed with any suggestion of Dodgson as suitor to one of the Dean’s
children, is that it requires us to reject such a large amount of his own
experience of himself at that time as biographically irrelevant. We must
dismiss his self-identification with David the adulterer and his own
confessional poetry of erotic indulgence. We have to assume his guilt to have
been masturbatory, even though the circumstances surrounding it clearly
suggest that it was not. This does not seem sensible, unless there are no other
options available.
I think there are explanations that take better account of the vast and
disparate factors at work here, but so far they have been simply overlooked
because the pre-eminence of the Carroll myth made them appear impossible.
After all, ‘Ina’ is a shortening for ‘Lorina’, the name of the Dean’s
daughter but also of the Dean’s wife—and we cannot be certain whether the
shortened form or the full name was used in Dodgson’s original diary entry.
In short, there is an ambiguity about which Lorina is being referred to here.

If, indeed, it was the mother and not the daughter then we might be able to
understand why Menella and Violet felt the need to cut out the entire entry
and, if the cause of his pain had been not one of the Dean’s daughters but
their mother, it would certainly make him guilty of David’s sin, and his
repeated evocation of Psalm 51 would suddenly make sense. If we assume
this possibility then we may at last have a cogent reason for the snipped-out
pages, the careful circumspection of his own descendants and the secrecy and
nervousness with which the Liddells remembered him. If the Dean’s wife had
been guilty of adultery there would have been ample reason for her
daughters’ nervous silence about Mr Dodgson, ample reason to make things
up, ‘as one had to give some reason’. His poetry of desire for his ‘star of
perfect womanhood’, his poetic confessions of secret pleasure with a
powerful seductress who tempts him and nearly destroys his life are then no
longer anomalies, wandering homeless through his biography.
Circumstantially, the case for the ‘Ina’ of the document being not the
daughter but the mother seems stronger than anything else presented in
explanation of this strange and troubled time in his life. But is there more to
it than circumstance? Is there any evidence to lend it the credibility and
corroboration the Alice story so eminently lacks?
NOTES
1. Deborah Manley, Oxford Town Trail: Alice and Lewis Carroll (Oxford: Heritage
Tours, 1991), p. 4; Mavis Batey, The World of Alice (Oxford: Pitkin Guides, 1991), p. 20.
2. Taylor, pp. 32, 34.
3. Bakewell, p. 246; Clark, pp. 124, 144; Stephanie Lovett Stoffel, Lewis Carroll and
Alice (London: Thames and Hudson, 1997), p. 38; Cohen, Lewis Carroll, p. 219.
4. MS Diary, Vol. 5, 17 October 1866.
5. Clark, p. 143; Bakewell, p. 149; Cohen, Lewis Carroll, p. 101.
6. DFC, Cat. No. F/17/2.
7. Hudson, p. 192; Cohen, Lewis Carroll, p. 342.
8. Taylor, pp. 32–3.
9. Diaries, Vol. 4, pp. 214, 264.
10. Cohen, p. 103; Diaries, Vol. 4, p. 266.
11. Stoffel, p. 82; Bakewell, p. 127.
12. Diaries, Vol. 4, p. 193; document in Dodgson archive, DFC, Cat. No. F/17/1.
13. Cohen, Lewis Carroll, p. 100.
14. Letters, Vol. 2, p. 876; MS Diary, 1 November 1888; Taylor, p. 197.
15. MS Diary, 11 May 1865.
16. Diaries, Vol. 4, pp. 115, 141–2.
17. Letters, Vol. 1, p. 607; Lewis Carroll, Alice’s Adventures Under Ground (London:
Pavilion Books, 1985), introduction, p. 17, Chapter 10.
18. Alice’s Adventures Under Ground, foreword by Mary Jean St Clair (Alice’s
granddaughter), p. 8.
192 Karoline Leach
19. Letter from Dean Liddell to Alice dated March 1885.

20. Gordon, p. 92; Cohen, Interviews and Recollections, pp. 84–7; Clark, p. 144; Cohen,
Lewis Carroll, p. 101; Bakewell, p. 173.
21. Edward Wakeling, ‘Two Letters from Lorina to Alice’, Jabberwocky, Vol. 21, No.
4, pp. 91–3.
22. Collected Works, p. 123.
23. Cohen, Interviews and Recollections, p. 114.
24. Charlotte Zeepvat, Prince Leopold (Stroud: Sutton, 1998), pp. 90–2.
25. Diaries, Vol. 4, pp. 115, 192; British Library MS No. 11779 B5 (3).
26. Gordon, p. 85.
HUGH HAUGHTON
Alice’s Identity
“‘Who in the world am I?’ That’s the great puzzle!”
I n the opening chapter of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland we are told Alice

is ‘fond of pretending to be two people’, but early in her shape-changing
adventures she fears ‘there’s hardly enough of me left to make one
comfortable person’. Wondering if she’d been changed in the night, she asks,
“‘Who in the world am I?’” In a book humming with puzzles, this is
probably the greatest puzzle of all for Alice.
It is the question that the best novels and children’s stories return to
again and again. If the heroine is at one level the straight guy in a series of
bizarre comic turns, at another her adventures compose a miniature
Bildungsroman in nonsensical form. It is as if what Harold Bloom called ‘the
internalization of the Quest Romance’ in Romantic poetry, with its obsession
with questions of identify, were rewritten as a utopian comedy of manners—
a combination of Shelley’s Alastor and Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice. The
queerness of nonsense language and the bizarre rules and regulations the
creatures try to impose on Alice tell us much about the terrifying
arbitrariness of the world she has to operate in, but also about who she is.
One of the great appeals of the Alice books is that, like Kafka’s The Trial and
The Castle, they dramatize the puzzling nature of identity in a world
dominated by rules and rulers that remain obstinately unpredictable and
From Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass. © 1998 Hugh
Haughton.
193
194 Hugh Haughton
indecipherable. In one of the early shape-changing scenes in Wonderland,

Alice goes to a table to ‘measure herself by it’. There is a sense in which this
is what is happening all through both narratives.
In fact, when Alice worries about her identity, she reveals herself to be
very much a child of her time and class. In this she is like Alice Liddell, the
daughter of the Dean of Christ Church, born into the heart of the English
establishment, a well-educated upper-middle-class Oxonian girl, versed in
good manners, good verse, and the rules of chess, cards and croquet.100
Christ Church was the smartest Oxbridge college, where the Prince of Wales
became an undergraduate in 1859, and Queen Victoria visited the Liddells in
the Deanery in 1860. Not long after Through the Looking-Glass, Alice was
briefly involved with Prince Leopold (who’d attended her sister Lorina’s
wedding in 1874 and had been photographed by Dodgson), so that the royal
scenario that pervades both stories reflects on her own social status, as well
as on the romance conventions of fairy tales and the games of cards and chess
she is caught up in. The fictional Alice measures herself by her superior
knowledge and social status: ‘“I’m sure I ca’n’t be Mabel, for I know all sorts
of things, and she, oh, she knows such a very little! Besides, she’s she, and I’m
I, and—oh dear, how puzzling it all is!”’ Her adventures test her sense of
identity to the full. Her worries have something in common with those
Elizabeth Bishop dramatizes in her searching autobiographical poem ‘In the
Waiting Room’ about a young girl exactly Alice’s age, who, looking into the
mirror of other people, reflects on who she is herself. ‘Why should I be my
aunt, / or me, or anyone?’ she asks:
I said to myself: three days

And you’ll be seven years old.
I was saying it to stop
the sensation of falling off
the round, turning world
into a cold, blue-black space.
But I felt: you are an I,
you are an Elizabeth,
you are one of them.101
Alice’s fall down the rabbit-hole induces a comparable identity crisis.

The descent into the ‘deep well’ shakes all the assumptions of her waking
self. When she tries to re-establish her poise by reciting the improving verses
of Isaac Watts’s ‘How doth the little busy bee’, the admirably industrious bee
turns into a predatory crocodile with ‘gently smiling jaws.’ Having travestied
the pious hymn, she fears she must be Mabel after all: ‘“I shall have to go
and live in that poky little house, and have next to no toys to play with, and,
oh, ever so many lessons to learn! No, I’ve made up my mind about it: if I’m
Mabel, I’ll stay down here!”’
When the White Rabbit takes her for a ‘housemaid’ soon afterwards,
Alice exclaims, ‘“How surprised he’ll be when he finds out who I am.”’
Whoever she is, she couldn’t be one of the servant classes in a ‘poky little
house’. Hers is a world of governesses, school-rooms, middle-class etiquette,
tea-parties, croquet lawns, visiting royalty, and querulous pedants—just like
Alice Liddell’s (and Dodgson’s own). By and large those she meets in her
adventures are upper and middle class too; with the exception of the Rabbit’s
stage-Irish gardener, Hattan and Haigha and a few other bit-part players
with vaguely cockneyfied voices, the creatures generally speak what Alice
calls ‘good English’. As I hope the notes to this edition show, Dodgson
constructed Alice’s dream worlds out of the details of Alice Liddell’s actual
environment, and did so with something of the meticulous literalism of
contemporary paintings such as Ford Maddox Brown’s Work, Frith’s Derby
Day, or the domestic genre scenes of painters admired by Dodgson, such as
Arthur Hughes and Millais. Tenniel therefore proved an inspired choice of
illustrator for Alice and her world. His graphic idiom, however fantastic and
allegorically grotesque, is as pedantically referential as an exhibition
catalogue of Victorian social types, settings, furniture and costume—just like
Dodgson’s own. When Alice travels underground and through the glass, it is
not only her unconscious dream world that she finds—but Victorian
England, and the world of the Oxford establishment she shared with
Dodgson.
Alice’s unconscious parody of Watts’s hymn about the busy bee invokes
not Protestant industry and moral purposiveness, but a crocodile’s ‘jaws’ and
‘claws’, and William Empson has pointed out how high a proportion of the
jokes, poems and parodies in the Alice books hinge upon death and eating.
The secure domestic order of Alice’s moral universe is exposed to reveal
terror and appetite. ‘Wonderland’ sounds Edenic, as do many of Dodgson’s
accounts of childhood, but the world of the stories is grins as well as comic.
There’s a ‘lovely garden’ there but also a ‘pool of tears’; nature in
Wonderland is more akin to Tennyson’s ‘Nature red in tooth and claw’ than
Wordsworth’s ‘fair seed-bed’; it’s overshadowed by the fear of death and
extinction (think of the Dodo), and reverberations of the Darwinian debate
about evolution that had taken place in Oxford in 1859–60. The Wonderland
garden is no childhood Eden, but a life-and-death croquet match presided
over by a homicidal Queen shouting ‘Off with their heads’ every second
minute. Faced with all this random violence and competitiveness, Alice notes
‘“they’re dreadfully fond of beheading people here”’, ‘“the great wonder is
196 Hugh Haughton
there’s anyone left alive”’. Even Alice herself, when she gets to the ‘lovely
garden’ is taken to be a marauding snake (a ‘serpent’) by the outraged
maternal Pigeon of Wonderland, not a ‘human child’ (she inspires
comparable terror in the fawn of Looking-Glass as soon as they leave the wood
of no names). ‘“We’re all mad here”’, says the grinning Cheshire Cat; the
Carrollian grin, like the crocodile’s, reveals a disconcerting madness and
violence at the heart of its order—both the ‘natural’ order of the garden, and
the legal order of the Trial, with its travesty of justice. In all this, Alice
emerges as the book’s nonsensometer (she dismisses the court’s verdict as
‘stuff and nonsense’) and, as much as any Jane Austen heroine—its
intellectual conscience. Sense-making is imperative in this world, but it’s a
lonely business.
In the tonally bleaker, more elegiac Through the Looking-Glass, the
winter sequel to the Maytime trip to Wonderland, Alice’s sense of self hardens
in the colder, more political climate she finds six months later behind the
glass. The air grows cold in the region of mirrors. The looking-glass, like
Keats’s ‘magic casement’, leads into the world of Victorian medievalism and
the ‘dark wood’ of Spenserean Romance, albeit in a comically warped form.
It is a world where modern railways, newspapers and postal systems interlock
with Quixotic knights, lions and unicorns. It is dominated by political
battling—the competing Kings and Queens, the battling Tweedle brothers,
the Lion and Unicorn, the White and Red Knights, and the political images
of Gladstone and Disraeli in the railway carriage. In the carriage, as in the
shop, wood and palace, Alice’s attempts to decipher the world around her
become more critical and anxious. Even the garden of live flowers offers a
pricklier, colder pastoral than that of Wonderland, as can be seen in the less
than rosy world-view of the Rose Alice chats to:
“You’re beginning to fade, you know—and then one ca’n’t help

one’s petals getting a little untidy.”
Alice didn’t like this idea at all: so, to change the subject, she
asked “Does she ever come out here?”
“I daresay you’ll see her soon,” said the Rose. “She’s one of the
kind that has nine spikes, you know.”
“Where does she wear them?” Alice asked with some curiosity.
“Why, all round her head, of course,” the Rose replied. “I was
wondering you hadn’t got some too. I thought it was the regular
rule.”102
Against the cruel pathos of seeing the seven-and-a-half-year-old Alice

as a fading flower, the Rose presents adulthood with a certain grim realism.
She is referring to the Red Queen with her spiky chess crown (‘the essence
of all Governesses’, as Dodgson called her),103 and the Queens as
representatives of the queenliness Ruskin ascribed to all women, are at best
a grisly duo—the one all bossiness and bile, the other all slovenliness and
resignation, the one manically over-assertive (like Humpty Dumpty and the
Tweedles), the other ineffectually depressive (like the gnat and Knight). In
the chess world of Through the Looking-Glass it seems to be the regular rule
that creatures (even the two bona fide children, the Tweedles) protect
themselves by a rather acerbic style of conversational prickliness; though
they tend to be sticklers for their own rules and regulations, their style is
domineering and their order profoundly irrational.
Despite this, Alice, who starts out as a pawn in the game, ‘would like to
be a Queen best’. These Queens are not like the idealized stereotypes
envisaged by Ruskin in his tract on women’s education, ‘Of Queens’
Gardens’, but studies in power and powerlessness. However well-mannered
Alice may be, she aspires to be a Queen too, and a powerful one, and as the
story draws towards a close, she aspires towards an impressive vision of
feminine autonomy in the face of the bullying she faces on all sides.
When Tweedledum says she is only part of the Red King’s dream and
isn’t real, Alice retorts ‘“I am real!”’ and begins to cry. Though she succumbs
to tears, she is able to argue her corner (“‘If I wasn’t real ... I shouldn’t be
able to cry”’) and attempts to dismiss the disconcerting Berkleyan idealism
of the Tweedles as ‘nonsense’. Still, faced by the dark wood, the battling
philosophical twins and the monstrous crow, she keeps her composure as best
she can. When she meets that arrogant egghead Humpty Dumpty, who
murderously advises her to ‘Leave off at seven’, she comes out with one of
the great defiant lines of nineteenth-century childhood literature (not unlike
Oliver Twist’s ‘I want some more’): ‘“I never ask advice about growing”’.
After the battle between the Lion and Unicorn, she says, ‘“I do hope it’s my
dream”’, ‘“I don’t like belonging to another person’s.”’ Later, after the
shambolic battle between the two knights which the White Knight calls a
‘glorious victory’, she affirms her freedom with characteristic defiance, ‘“I
don’t want to be anybody’s prisoner. I want to be a Queen.”’ Having shown
admirable kindness and good humour towards the absent-minded quixotic
Knight, she eventually gets her crown, but this isn’t the end of her subjection
to the bossiness endemic in Carrollian nonsense. She immediately finds
herself peppered with regal advice by the other Looking-Glass Queens and
finds she really doesn’t like ‘being found fault with so much’. Eventually,
when she rises to give a speech at her coronation banquet, and the tediously
formal dinner-party breaks up into pandemonium, she cries out with her
most powerful blast of self-assertion, ‘“I can’t stand this any longer!”’—thus
198 Hugh Haughton
freeing herself from the game, the dream and the mirror. Though she ‘wins’
her crown and the game, it seems she outgrows both at the very moment
when the dream of being a Queen is realized and found to be as nightmarish
as her time as a child and pawn.
Though Dodgson inherits the first generation of Romantic poets’
sense of childhood (Humpty Dumpty’s ‘glory’ recalls Wordsworth’s as does
the opening poem of Looking-Glass) and the second generation’s interest in
romance and dreams, his own ‘dream-child’ pursues her quest through a
world which is as profoundly social as that of Jane Austen. In the frame
poems of each book, and in the account he gives in ‘“Alice” on the Stage’,
the author writes as if Alice travels to some fairyland of pastoral childish
innocence. As Isa Bowman noticed, however, Dodgson himself ‘cared for
neither flowers nor animals’,104 and the language of Wonderland is a product
of culture, not nature. In it Alice is confronted by grave travesties of most of
the institutions which govern her and her author’s life—the monarchy, the
rule of law, education, grammar and social etiquette. So, after the fall and
bodily metamorphoses of the opening chapters of Wonderland, Alice is caught
up first with a Caucus Race with wild animals (a parody of competitive
‘natural selection’ and democratic procedure), then the fussy domestic life of
a fastidious bachelor rabbit (complete with maid and gardener). Having
discussed growth and reproduction with a caterpillar and pigeon, and
madness with a brainy disembodied cat, Alice finds herself in the more
complex rituals of Wonderland society—first the endlessly rotating Mad Tea
Party, with its parodies of a parlour-song recital, children’s story (as told by
the dormouse) and tea-tune etiquette; then the shambolic royal Croquet
Game with the Queen, her courtiers and minions all flaunting the rules of
that popular new middle-class game (regularly played by the Liddells on the
Deanery lawn) and playing havoc with the garden; then, to cap it all, the
Mock Turtle and Gryphon’s nostalgic Old Boys’ duet about their schooldays.
The Mock Turtle and Gryphon are two highly artificial creatures, fathered
not by biology but language, and their mournfully punning chronicle of
distant school-days recollected in tranquillity parodies not only the
established curriculum of private education in the public schools of the day,
but the entire educational system based on ‘reeling and writhing’. There’s a
particular pungency in the allusions to classical ‘Laughing and Grief ’ (Latin
and Greek, but also the classical genres of comedy and tragedy), since these
were intimately associated with Alice’s father, Dean Liddell, co-author of the
famous Greek lexicon used in schools. ‘“How the creatures order one about,
and make one repeat lessons”’, Alice observes, ‘“I might just as well be at
school at once”’. The Gryphon and Mock Turtle are parodic products of the
education system they romanticize so tearfully, just as their performance of
‘The Lobster Quadrille’ is a galumphing parody of fashionable ballroom

dancing (an institution that played a positively Darwinian role in the struggle
of nineteenth-century girls for suitable husbands). Nonsense thrives on
travestying authority, and Alice’s last view of Wonderland is the absurd court
scene, where the Knave of Hearts is accused of stealing tarts, and tried before
a court dominated by an incompetent King, tyrannical Queen and abject
jury. The nonsense theatre of Wonderland, with its haywire kings and
queens, comes to a climactic finale in this finely tuned satire on the social
order. It offers a deadpan comedy of (bad) manners.
The social world of Through the Looking-Glass is dominated by the
nominal kings and queens of chess, and is, if anything, more systematically
constricting than that of the earlier book. It begins in an untidy Janus-faced
version of the haute bourgeoisie drawing-room of Alice’s home, peopled by
quarrelling kings and queens, but soon moves into another garden, a
caricature of the lush flower garden evoked by the disappointed lover in
Tennyson’s Maud and part of a wider landscape which is modelled, not on any
natural or picturesque order, but on a geometrically mapped out chessboard.
This may seem less anarchic than Wonderland but it’s no less threatening as a
mirror of modernity. ‘It’s all a great game of chess that’s being played—all
over the world’, we are told, where ‘it takes all the running you can do to keep
in the same place’ as the Red Queen says, and where people in the railway-
carriage think (in chorus) that ‘time is worth a thousand pounds a minute’,
land ‘a thousand pounds an inch’ and language ‘a thousand pounds a word’.
In the Looking-Glass Insects’ episode where she takes the train, Alice is
caught up as a cypher in the communication networks of Victorian England.
She has to produce a ticket to validate her travel, but is told she could as well
be sent by luggage, telegraph or post (since, like a stamp, she ‘had a head on
her’) and gets classified in terms of ticket-offices, alphabets and (in a chapter
about names) her name. Throughout all this, she is confronted by two
imposing male figures who in Tenniel’s drawing look suspiciously like the two
politicians who dominated parliamentary politics at this time, William
Gladstone and Benjamin Disraeli (the latter appropriately dressed in paper
and reading a newspaper). She is also subjected to aggressive public scrutiny.
All this time the Guard was looking at her, first through a
telescope, then through a microscope, and then through an
opera-glass. At last he said “You’re traveling the wrong way,” and
shut up the window, and went away.
Alice’s progress, as befitting a pawn in the game of chess, is made

through a series of bewilderingly abrupt and involuntary jumps from place to
200 Hugh Haughton
place and from time to time. Despite the projections of the modern political
order of Victorian Britain that shape so much of the looking-glass world, and
those archetypal modern settings, the train and the shop, Looking-Glass is
haunted by the past—in disconcertingly parodic nonsensical forms.
‘Jabberwocky’, the first poem Alice encounters, is a telegrammatic reductio of
a dragon-slaying northern epic, and after her railway journey Alice finds
herself in the wood of no names—an eerie place where she loses her own
name (‘“and who am I?”’ she wonders) and, during her brief Pan-like
communion with the Fawn, her identity as a ‘human child’. Though she
recovers her name, she isn’t out of the wood yet. The bulk of the rest of her
journey is set against the backdrop of a dark forest that is a legacy of both
Spenserean romance and German fairy tales. It is there that she meets a
series of characters from traditional nursery rhymes105—Tweedledum and
Tweedledee, the Lion and the Unicorn and Humpty Dumpty—and the
White Knight, a sad quixotic figure who is both an eccentric inventor (like
Dodgson) and a travesty of the heroic Pre-Raphaelite medievalism of
Rossetti, Morris and the Laureate’s Idylls of the King (Tenniel’s frontispiece
illustration of the White Knight guys the lumbering pictorial medievalizing
of Sir Isumbras at the Ford in the same vein). Through the Looking-Glass has
some affinity with the Gothic revivalism of Pugin’s Houses of parliament
and, nearer hone for Dodgson, the fake antique frescos recently designed for
the Oxford Union, but revels in its own nonsensical anachronism. Even as
the book takes us through the iconography of the chivalric and royal past—
Humpty Dumpty characteristically assumes Alice has read about him in a
‘History of England’ and the Lion and the Unicorn survive in the royal coat
of arms—its conversational style, manners and tone are unmistakably
modern. In Through the Looking-Glass, Tenniel dresses Alice in the newly
fashionable hair-band and striped stockings of her time, and the author
always presents her as a thoroughly contemporary girl. Though the story
veers back and forth between past and present as dizzily as Twain’s
Connecticut Yankee, Alice’s final coronation banquet is clearly represented in
the text and illustrations as a Victorian dinner party, complete with decanters
and soup tureens. The text ends with a Dunciad-like apocalypse of that
hierarchical social world, as the story dissolves in Alice’s final inpatient
gesture of revolt.
“I ca’n’t stand this any longer!” she cried, as she jumped up and
seized the tablecloth with both hands: one good pull, and plates,
dishes, guests, and candles came crashing down together in a
heap on the floor.
Alice’s protest is against the irrational nonsense of the mad chess game
she has dreamed she is part of—with its comic, but potentially threatening,
dream logic. To re-establish her own identity and her faith in the real world
of social conduct, she has to reject the awful travesty of proper social life
played out by the Queens, Kings and subjects of the Looking-Glass world.
Despite his subsequent canonization by the Surrealists, Dodgson was a
Euclidean logician, a pious Christian and a political conservative, whose life
was fanatically devoted to tidiness and order. Alice mirrors him in this.
Nevertheless, it is possible to read her dream adventures as a protest against
the world of governesses, teachers, bullies and pedagogues, and all the social
rituals they impose on her. The hall-of-mirrors discovered in the Looking-
Glass inevitably reflects back on the world of the Victorian drawing-room,
school-room and play-room, and the ordinary assumptions of a comfortable
middle-class childhood this side of the mirror.
‘Who dreamed it?’ asks the last chapter, and the book’s dream realism
is clearly a reflection of the fictional Alice’s waking world. It can also be read
as a reflection of the real Alice Liddell’s domestic universe, as I’ve suggested
earlier. Beyond that, however, we can read the two books as reflexes of their
author, Charles Dodgson, also of Christ Church. He appears to have so
closely identified with his dream heroine that his problems of identity, of
establishing coherent selfhood in the face of the violent changes inherent in
human life and the disorder at the heart of the order, seem mirrored in hers.
Looking-Glass is much preoccupied by passing time, violence, ageing
and death, as well as the potential for linguistic aberration and disorder
discovered in Wonderland. The obsessively tidy Dodgson was acutely
concerned by contemporary debates which threatened the established order.
The dreams of Alice, that Oxford child, and her author abut on to the
universe of mid nineteenth-century Oxford, a place that considered itself
with good reason to be at the centre of British intellectual life at the time. In
An Oxford Chiel, published in 1874, only four years after Through the Looking-
Glass, Dodgson published a series of highly political satirical squibs on
university issues written over the previous nine years—about the new belfry
commissioned by Liddell for Christ Church, the defeat of Gladstone as MP
for Oxford, the salary and status of the Liberal Jowett (who was Professor of
Greek and a notoriously ‘heretical’ contributor to the Essays and Reviews of
1861), the terms of Max Müller’s professorship of comparative philology,
among other burning issues of the time. Though Dodgson disclaimed
making any such topical or political allusions in the Alice books, controversy
is the very air breathed by the embattled creatures in both; Humpty Dumpty
is the most belligerently radical of the many philosophers of language who
202 Hugh Haughton
haunt their pages, but the majority of the creatures Alice meets are
comparably argumentative, and constitutionally prone to wrangle about the
interpretation of words, names, rules and logic. We should remember that in
between the two Alice books in 1869, Dodgson published one of his own
most sustained exercises in academic controversy, Euclid and His Modern
Rivals, a work intended to champion and popularize Euclidean geometry for
a modern audience. It’s a dramatic dialogue, featuring the ghost of Euclid, in
which a modern mathematics lecturer (ominously called Minos) and his
antagonist Professor Niemand (the German for ‘Nobody’), sit in judgement
over thirteen rival theorists who challenge the secure order of Euclidean
geometry which Dodgson wished to defend. In the disputatious world of
Wonderland it is possible to hear echoes of such controversies, as well as the
more stirring controversies aroused by the Oxford Movement, the
Darwinian debate of the 1860s, Ruskinian aesthetics, Max Müller’s brand of
comparative philology and Arnold’s Culture and Anarchy (1869). In one of his
Popean satires of the time, Dodgson ironically takes the Liberal side,
warning readers to ‘shun Conservatism’s evil star’, and affirm ‘the march of
Mind’ against Oxford’s ‘wisely slow’ traditional order, in which intellectual
values were tempered by moral and Christian ones:
Neglect the heart and cultivate the brain—

Then this shall be the burden of our song,
‘All change is good—whatever is, is wrong—’
Then Intellect’s proud flag shall be unfurled,
And Brain and Brain alone, shall rule the world!106
Possible ripples and aftershocks of these ideological contests may be

detected playing over and under the elusively nonsensical surface of the two
children’s books the conservative Dodgson wrote for the daughter of the
Dean of Christ Church he christened ‘the relentless reformer’ Liddell.107
But if there are echoes of such contemporary debates, they are muted
and indirect. The main focus of the two books is Alice’s own consciousness,
as she struggles to make sense of a world through the looking-glass that is
more unstable, changeable and radically nonsensical than her author could
acknowledge elsewhere. The ‘innocent’ language of nonsense associated
with Alice, ‘the child of [his] dreams’,”108 gives expression to more things
than are dreamed of in Dodgson’s conscious philosophy—or his culture’s
dream of order.
NOTES
100. For a fuller account of Alice Liddell, see Anne Clark, The Real Alice: Lewis Carroll’s
Dream Child, London, 1981, and Colin Gordon, Beyond the Looking-Glass: Reflections of Alice
and her Family, London, 1982.
101. Elizabeth Bishop, ‘In The Waiting Room’, The Complete Poems 1927–1979,
London, 1983.
102. ‘The Garden of Live Flowers’, TLG, chapter 2.
103. In ‘“Alice” on the Stage’. See p. 296.
104. Bowman, Lewis Carroll as I Knew Him, p. 73.
105. J. O. Halliwell, collector of Popular Rhymes & Nursery Tales of England (1849), a
book owned by Dodgson, calls his prefatory essay ‘Nursery Antiquities’. He argues there
that ‘the humble chap-book is found to be descended from medieval romance, but also not
infrequently from the more ancient mythology, whilst some of our simplest children’s
rhymes are chanted to this day by children of Germany, Denmark and Sweden, a fact
strikingly exhibiting their great antiquity and remote origin’ (p. 1).
106. ‘The Elections to the Hebdomadal Council’, 1866-8, The Lewis Carroll Picture
Book, pp. 88–9.
107. The Works of Lewis Carroll, ed. R. L. Green, Feltham, 1965, p. 950.
108. ‘“Alice” on the Stage’.
WILL BROOKER
Introducing Alice
T hree major new editions of the Alice books were published around the
turn of the twenty-first century: the centenary Penguin Wonderland, Looking-
Glass, and Under Ground in a single volume (1998); the definitive third
edition of The Annotated Alice (2000); and the Bloomsbury versions of each
book with illustrations by Mervyn Peake (2001). Each was a prestigious
release, offering up an old favourite for the new millennium with fresh
packaging and extra features; each, to some extent, included a modern
reassessment of these Victorian children’s stories. The Bloomsbury Alices
showcased short introductions by novelists Zadie Smith and Will Self,
Martin Gardner added new annotations and reproduced his prefaces from
the previous editions, and the Penguin volume included a substantial essay
by the writer and academic Hugh Haughton.
Haughton’s is certainly one of the most accomplished engagements
with Alice I have personally encountered: sharp, deft, and glittering with
wordplay, it casts the net wide, drags in details from the two adventures and
nimbly carves them open. Haughton is fully aware of the interpretive
heritage he inherits here, from Nabokov through Woolf to Disney, and
begins by establishing two schools of thought on the books: those who
choose to enjoy them merely as a pretty nonsense (broadly speaking, the
nineteenth-century approach) and those who insist the text has hidden
From Alice’s Adventures: Lewis Carroll and Alice in Popular Culture. © 2004 Will Brooker.
205
206 Will Brooker
meanings that they want to shake out (to generalise, the twentieth-century
method). Which path we opt for depends partly on whether we see the Alice
books as stories for children or adults, and at this point Haughton agrees
with all the analyses in the previous section that what they provide on one
level is “a child’s view of adulthood ... dismayingly bizarre and perverse.”87
The ability to see Alice as delightful whimsy certainly seems to have been
lost; whatever age the books are assumed to appeal to, there is an overriding
agreement both in this chapter and in the newspaper reports of the last—that
this appeal is “dark” and based on the recognition that growing up is an
assault-course.
He then takes a detour into biography, and into the least sparkling
section of his introduction. The life of Carroll given in these sixteen pages is
conventional enough in its details, but Haughton wholeheartedly subscribes
to the theory that Carroll was fixated on little girls and, more specifically, was
romantically infatuated with Alice Liddell. This is a familiar part of the
Carroll myth, but it is surprising that the man introducing Alice to a new
century embraces it so warmly and uncritically, with less equivocation than
either Bakewell, Thomas, or Cohen. The falling back on a pat notion of the
repressed paedophile and his child-muse seems strangely old-fashioned, and
Haughton’s decision to treat the secondary evidence at face value results in a
conveniently but misleadingly straightforward account. This may simply be
another example of space–time compression, with the uncertainties we
would expect in a book-length biography flattened into facts when an entire
life has to be crammed into sixteen pages.
Carroll is portrayed here as a rather dull man with one intriguing
abnormality: “a dream of childhood, focused on the figure of a beautiful
young girl. [...] The anomaly’s first name and incarnation was Alice Liddell,
and it was in the shadow of Alice’s name ... that Dodgson lived his later
life.”88 While “the nature of Dodgson’s love of Alice remains a subject of
speculation”89 “he never explained the nature of their friendship”—there is
no doubt in Haughton’s mind that he loved her; not just regarded her with
affection, but “was head over heels in love” with her.
This is a pretty solid statement that leaves little room for further
guesswork; neither is there much ambiguity in the description of the
“haunting, yet subliminally creepy photographs” of the Liddell girls. The
images themselves are easily read: Haughton agrees with Bakewell that they
“tell us, if nothing else, he was in love with Alice.”90 She was the “only
begetter” of Wonderland,91 and the social break from the Liddells—a
“dramatic rift”92—prompted a lovestruck Carroll to write an elegy for her in
the prefatory poem to Looking-Glass, “as if she was dead.” Haughton
mentions all the usual clues to a possible love-relationship between the little
girl and the don—the diary entry about A.L.—“presumably Alice Liddell”,
he explains—the gossip from Lord Salisbury, and the anguished prayers at
the time of his “banishment” from the Deanery.
As already implied, Alice Liddell is represented here as just the primary
incarnation of Carroll’s internal ideal; his love for her was symptomatic of his
“mysterious paedophile sexuality.”93 Like many other commentators,
Haughton’s makes sly insinuations that whisper of an erotic aspect to
Carroll’s child-friendships: he had an “obsessive fascination with girls before
puberty,”94 he was “the Casanova of the Victorian nursery”, his diaries are a
“roll-call of conquests”, he used Eastbourne for “cruising.”95 The last word
in particular carries connotations of “queer” deviance—“cruising” still
implies a gay pick-up—and conjures the stereotype of the predatory loner
seeking anonymous sex. The Alice books—and here Haughton echoes
Morton Cohen’s analysis allowed—Carroll to channel this weird erotic drive
by placing himself in the persona of a young girl, exploring “his
identifications with his child heroine”96 and combining this intense passion
for prepubescent females with his equally fervent investment in questions of
mathematical and linguistic meaning.
When he moves on to this latter area, Haughton’s findings are far more
original and provocative. While not going to the literalist extremes of
Gladstone and Jones—or, in places, Donald Thomas—he argues that
Carroll’s dream worlds were built “out of the details of Alice Liddell’s actual
environment”97 and perceptively notes that although Carroll himself
presents the stories “as if Alice travels to some fairyland of pastoral childish
innocence,”98 both fantasies are constructions of “culture, not nature”.
... Alice is confronted by grave travesties of most of the

institutions which govern her and her author’s life—the
monarchy, the rule of law, education, grammar and social
etiquette. [...] Having discussed growth and reproduction with a
caterpillar and pigeon, and madness with a brainy disembodied
cat, Alice finds herself in the more complex rituals of Wonderland
society—first the endlessly rotating Mad Tea Party, with its
parodies of a parlour-song recital, children’s story ... and tea-time
etiquette; then the shambolic royal croquet game ... then, to cap
it all, the Mock Turtle and Gryphon’s nostalgic Old Boys’ duet
about their schooldays.99
There is no attempt to say that the Gryphon was inspired by Ruskin,

as Jones and Gladstone characteristically suggest;100 the point made here is
that Wonderland is a stylised Victorian realm on a level that goes beyond
208 Will Brooker
specific links between fictional creature and real-world individual. Looking-

Glass Land, Haughton observes, is “if anything, more systematically
constricting than that of the earlier book ... less anarchic than Wonderland
but no less threatening as a mirror of modernity.101 Holding up this fictional
world like a snow-globe, Haughton examines its juxtaposition of the mythic
British past with “the communication networks of Victorian England”. His
language becomes beautiful.
In the tonally bleaker, more elegiac Through the Looking-Glass, the

winter sequel to the Maytime trip to Wonderland, Alice’s sense of
self hardens in the colder, more political climate she finds six
months later ... the air grows cold in the region of mirrors. The
looking-glass ... leads into the world of Victorian mediaevalism
and the “dark wood” of Spenserean Romance, albeit in a
comically warped form. It is a world where modern railways,
newspapers and postal systems interlock with Quixotic knights,
lions and unicorns.102
In this light, Tenniel’s artwork is the only possible match for Carroll’s
monstrously warped version of 1860s culture:
His graphic idiom, however fantastic and allegorically grotesque,

is as pedantically referential as an exhibition catalogue of
Victorian social types, settings, furniture and costume just like
Dodgson’s own. When Alice travels underground and through
the glass, it is not only her unconscious dream world that she
finds—but Victorian England, and the world of the Oxford
establishment she shared with Dodgson.103
Again we are reminded that this is a harsh world for a child to

wander through; Haughton sees various horrors in the dream landscape:
“terror and appetite”, a “lovely garden” but also a “pool of tears”, a
“random violence and competitiveness”, “a disconcerting madness.” And
yet this analysis offers a satisfying reason why Alice should be forced to
struggle. Wonderland and Looking-Glass deal with the biggest issues in her
life, and perhaps in the lives of all her peers: “food and the food-chain,
growing and ageing, manners and madness, childhood and adulthood,
freedom and rules, authority and identity.”104 These concepts do not
merely apply to children, or to the Victorians, and they are huge themes
to grapple with: it makes sense that the dreamworlds should involve
loneliness, loss, and the threat of death.
While playing down the influence of direct satire, contemporary

debates and Oxford squabbles as “muted and indirect”, Haughton
convincingly locates the books as projections of their specific period in a
broader sense. However, their appeal has to be explained beyond a Victorian
social allegory, and Haughton maintains that their deeper, most central
theme is the construction of identity and meaning. Alice is measuring herself
against what she remembers from the real world (“I ca’n’t be Mabel ...”),
“very much a child of her time and class,”105 but questions of who we are and
what words signify are, of course, broad-ranging enough to apply beyond
Alice’s schoolroom. “Who am I?” is, Haughton suggests, “the question that
the best novels ... return to again and again,”106 and it recurs constantly in
the Alice books, from “I’m sure I’m not Ada”107 to “who are you?”108 to
“you’re only a sort of thing in his dream!”109 The context of the question
may be specific to Lewis Carroll, Alice Liddell, and their contemporaries,
but the question itself is, arguably, part of what makes us human.
So far, then, some form of consensus is emerging as to what recent
commentators feel the Alice books are “about”. They are grounded in their
specific social context, although there is disagreement about the extent to
which they intentionally reflect or parody individuals, debates, and locations
in Alice Liddell and Lewis Carroll’s lives. They are concerned with the child’s
experience in an adult environment and with the process of growing up, with
finding a sense of self. This environment is frequently brutal and cruel;
Wonderland and Looking-Glass Land are commonly seen as nightmarish
rather than light-hearted dreamworlds. The stories contain something of
Lewis Carroll’s intense attitudes towards childhood, whether he is
understood to have invested himself in the character of Alice or projected his
own ideal of Alice Liddell into the protagonist. In any case, they are far from
nonsensical: they are packed with heavy-duty, “adult” meanings about
language, identity, maturity, and death.
Martin Gardner’s contribution to this discussion is probably more
influential than any other. Though reissued for 2000 as the final word in
Alice encyclopaedia, Gardner’s Annotated Alice: The Definitive Edition
reproduces the introduction from his original Annotated Alice of 1960 and
follows it with the More Annotated Alice preface of 1990, which contradicts a
number of points from the first essay. The only brand-new introduction is a
brief note on the text, a page long. The dominant voice here, then, is from
1960.
Gardner explains his project almost apologetically, anticipating
objections to any book that threatens to ruin the innocent fun of Alice; “but
no joke is funny unless you see the point of it, and sometimes a point has to
be explained.”
210 Will Brooker
... we are dealing with a very curious, complicated sort of

nonsense, written for British readers of another century, and we
need to know a great many things that are not part of the text if
we wish to capture its full wit and flavor. It is even worse than
that, for some of Carroll’s jokes could be understood only by
residents of Oxford, and other jokes, still more private, could be
understood only by the lovely daughters of Dean Liddell.”110
So the books’ dependence on a specific context is established, although a

more universal meaning is also implied; Gardner does not say we cannot
appreciate or enjoy the Alice stories at all without knowing the background,
only that certain levels of reference will remain obscure. Unlike Cohen, he
fears that children of the late twentieth century, especially American children,
do not read and enjoy the books; young readers are “bewildered and
sometimes frightened by the nightmarish atmosphere of Alice’s dreams.”111
The stories’ immortality, to Gardner, lies entirely in the fact that they are still
studied by adults, by “scientists and mathematicians in particular”, and so his
own annotations are addressed to this audience. As such he roundly confirms
the notion that Alice is a dense text for grown-ups, to the point that he places
the hopes for the books’ future in wholly adult hands. I might point out here
that I first read Gardner at age nine, and adored him.
On the whole, The Annotated Alice avoids the Jones and Gladstone
method of seeking direct parallels between every character and an Oxford
notable; his explanations are generally more dependably solid, noting for
instance that a fender is a kind of fireguard,112 that “washing extra” meant a
boarding school that sent out the laundry,113 and that whiting did appear to
have their tails in their mouths when laid out in a fishmonger’s window.114
Gardner warns that he has no truck for psychoanalytic readings, which at the
time of his writing qualified as “recent”. “We do not have to be told what it
means to tumble down a rabbit hole,” he rumbles, “or curl up inside a tiny
house with one foot up the chimney.”115 There will be no room for the “oral
sadistic traits of cannibalistic character” here, for Gardner prefers the
explanation that “small children are obsessed by eating and like to read about
it in their books.”
However, Gardner’s Carroll does not escape analysis. “The point here
is not that Carroll was not neurotic (we all know he was) ...” The account of
the author’s life that follows is dated, though with some justification given
the period in which it was written. His external self was “dull”—this is in
keeping with the Virginia Woolf theory that Carroll, as Dodgson, “had no
life”116—“he was a fussy, prim, fastidious, cranky, kind, gentle bachelor
whose life was sexless, uneventful, and happy.”117 Photography was one of
his “hobbies”, on the same level as making a mouse from a handkerchief or

folding a pistol from paper. He had a “fixation upon little girls” yet
“professed a horror of little boys, and ... avoided them as much as
possible.”118 He took photographs of nude little girls, of which “none seems
to have survived”; Gardner amends this note in the preface to More Annotated
Alice below, but lets it stand here.
“A long procession of charming little girls ... skipped through Carroll’s
life, but none ever quite took the place of his first love, Alice Liddell.”119
There is no “hint of impropriety” to his relationships or indication that
Carroll consciously approached girls with anything other than “the purest
innocence”; there is no evidence that he wanted to marry Alice or “make love
to her”, but “his attitude towards her was the attitude of a man in love.”120
At this point Gardner offers his parallel with Humbert Humbert, contrasting
the carnal passion for “nymphets” with Carroll’s feelings of sexual safety in
young female company; this idea that Carroll felt his passions comfortingly
neutralised by children is, we might remember, the line that was later taken
by Donald Thomas.
“It is easy to say,” Gardner observes, “that Carroll found an outlet for
his repressions in the unrestrained, whimsically violent visions of his Alice
books.121 Indeed, this is precisely what Cohen and Haughton conclude.
Gardner, however, declines to come down on either side of the question, and
leaves it hanging here. As to the broader meaning of Alice, he approaches the
issue by comparing the books to Kafka and G. K. Chesterton. The ultimate
moral in all three, whether expressed through grim fable or “metaphysical
nightmare,”122 is that life is nonsense. It is a tale “told by an idiot
mathematician ... we all live slapstick lives, under an inexplicable sentence of
death.”
In the preface to More Annotated Alice that follows directly on the tail
of this essay—correcting, contradicting, and sometimes overlapping with
the previous piece—Gardner reconsiders the question as to whether the
stories channelled Carroll’s repressed energies, and wavers towards the
conclusion presented by Hugh Haughton. The Alice books were, he
decides, a flood of creativity produced by the twinning of Carroll’s two
internal streams—the passion for logic, linguistics, and numbers and the
enthusiasm for the company of young girls. The question as to whether
Carroll was in love with Alice is reconsidered in the light of more recent
data, and we get a sense here of the shifts that occurred in Carrollian
studies between the 1960s and 1990s: the cut diary is mentioned as part of
the proof that “Mrs Liddell sensed something unusual in his attitude
towards her daughter,”123 and Gardner includes a lengthy quotation in
which Morton Cohen changes his mind.
212 Will Brooker
Actually, I didn’t change my mind recently; I changed it in 1969

when I first got a photocopy of the diaries ... I believe now that
he made some sort of proposal of marriage to the Liddells, not
saying “may I marry your eleven-year old daughter,” or anything
like that, but perhaps advancing some meek suggestion that after
six or eight years, if we feel the same way that we feel now, might
some kind of alliance be possible?124
The definitive edition of this influential text, then, very strongly gives
the impression that Carroll was not just in love with Alice but that he
“expressed marital intentions to Alice’s parents.” There is no more
interpretation of the actual books offered in the introduction, but of course
Gardner’s analysis continues throughout the extensive notes (he admits to
rambling) that run in columns of tiny print alongside the text. His comments
on Alice fall into several categories, yet for the most part offer inarguable
explanations and background rather than speculation; he is true to his word
about steering clear of psychoanalysis. Some of his contextualising betrays an
American perspective and imagined readership: “treacle” is translated as
“molasses,”125 “barley sugar” is described in ploddingly pedantic terms,126
and “take care of the sense, and the sounds will take care of themselves” is
given its origin in the familiar British proverb about pence and pounds.127
There are occasional ventures into the Jones and Gladstone field, with
a firm statement that the “drawling-master” is “none other than the art critic
John Ruskin”128 and “little doubt” that the man in white paper is Benjamin
Disraeli.129 This confident, possibly overconfident assumption that the
dream worlds contain thinly disguised figures from 1860s England intersects
with Gardner’s theories about Carroll and Alice when he tells us the White
Knight’s farewell is a secret message from the author to his love: “This scene,
in which Carroll clearly intends to describe how he hopes Alice will feel after
she grows up and says good-bye ...”130 The Wasp, from the suppressed
Chapter Eight-and-a-half of Looking-Glass, is also presented as a mouthpiece
for Carroll’s appraisal of Alice “there never was such a child!”—but not as
another authorial self-portrait; Gardner accepts that the class-conscious
Carroll would not have allowed himself to guest-star as a mere drone.
Other notes fulfil Gardner’s promise to provide Victorian references
for the satire, such as the source for “Father William,”131 the possible
birthplaces of the Cheshire Cat,132 and the potential causes of the Hatter’s
insanity.133 There are occasional discoveries of accidental inconsistency in
the text and Tenniel illustration, as when the Cheshire Cat appears in the
same tree despite the fact that Alice has “walked on”134 or the milk-jug fails
to appear either in the description or drawing of the Tea Party, yet gets
tipped over two pages later.135 For the most part, though, the notes are
content to point toward trivial and intriguing side roads from the main route
of Carroll’s story; it is entirely possible to ignore them and the detours may
distract, but the off-track rambling is often fascinating.
Finally, the two briefest and most recent introductions from this group:
Will Self and Zadie Smith’s prefaces to the Bloomsbury Alice books are
essentially “celebrity” cameos, intended as a showcase for two contemporary,
relatively young and high-profile novelists to do a turn about Alice. The
point, presumably, is more about linguistic flair and idiosyncratic authorial
stamp than scholarly analysis, and so these are quite different from either
Haughton or Gardner’s essays. Self ’s prose is garnished with arcane,
swallowed-a-dictionary vocabulary—“the pun is ... a numinous fulcrum”,
“these few short scenes ... are wholly ensorcelling”136—while Smith’s often
slips into a grating arm-round-the shoulders familiarity, musing “Oh man,
darker, yes” and nodding “yeah, that’s what I thought.”
Both take a personal, unashamedly subjective view of the books—
Smith admits she “couldn’t quite remember”137 Looking-Glass when she
came back to it after a number of years, and recalls being “more afraid of
Tenniel’s drawings than amused”138—but Self is unique in devoting his five
opening pages to memories of Wonderland.
The boy sits among a slew of records, 45s and LPs, some in their
sleeves, some out. In front of him is a portable record player, a
heavy, foursquare cabinet, with grey cloth stretched over its
wooden sides, a black lid, and a rubber mat on the turntable ... the
LPs are dramatisations of Treasure Island and The Count of Monte
Cristo, there’s also a London Symphony Orchestra recording of
Prokofiev’s Peter and the Wolf, with Peter Ustinov doing the
narration.139
One of the 45s is an adapted dramatisation of Alice in Wonderland, and

through “these few short scenes” the young Will Self is drawn into the sticky
May afternoon with Alice on the riverbank; “he wanders in her train,
through the hypercast of the fervid imagination itself ...”140 Although the
record lasted only fourteen minutes, Self claims that it included the opening
scene and rabbit hole, the Pool of Tears, Bill the Lizard, the meetings with
the Caterpillar, Duchess, and card-gardeners, and the Hatter’s Tea Party. It
is pretty hard to see how all these episodes, complete with dialogue and
songs, could be crammed into a quarter of an hour, but as the experience is
constructed as a precious and unreachable gem from distant childhood, we
should perhaps allow for idealisation.
214 Will Brooker
Although he touches on the various cultural uses of Alice in the

twentieth century—“from James Joyce to Jefferson Airplane”—and makes a
topical snipe at the “child abusers on the internet”141 who stole Wonderland,
the remainder of Self ’s introduction is about what the books mean to him
personally. We learn about his first encounter with the pages as opposed to
the vinyl of Wonderland (“a particularly luxurious edition”142), about the role
of Carroll’s language in his own childhood and in the lives of his children (an
“inter-generational epiphany”143), and about the part Alice plays in his career
as a novelist.
When people ask me (as they often do) what books have
influenced me most as a writer I almost always detail the same
three: Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels, Kafka’s Metamorphosis and
Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland. What these three
share is a marvellous confidence in the primacy of the
imagination, and a conviction that the fantastic is anterior to the
naturalistic.
Here Self comes closest to pinning down the “meaning” of Alice in his own
terms—and comes closest to Martin Gardner when he implies that the books
are about the fundamental chaos of the real world, exaggerated and revealed
through a parallel universe:
... the juxtaposition of the quotidian and the fantastic; the

transposition of irreconcilable elements; the distortion of scale
and a means of renouncing the sensible in favour of the
intelligible; and most importantly, abrupt transmogrification
conceived of as integral to the human condition. [...] The word
“curious” appears so frequently in Carroll’s text that it becomes a
kind of tocsin awakening us from our reverie. But it isn’t the
strangeness of Alice’s Wonderland that it reminds us of—it’s the
bizarre incomprehensibility of our own.144
Zadie Smith’s approach to Looking-Glass is also a closer cousin to

Gardner’s analysis than to any other interesting, given that his thoughts on
the book are more than forty years old. Like him, she brushes aside “Mr
Freud and the rest”,145 while proving unable to resist a comparison to
Humbert Humbert and Lolita; the difference to her is that Lolita was
possessed by Humbert, constructed through the adult gaze, and “seen
through his glass”, while Alice “remains untouched”, “always and
everywhere herself.”146 Carroll, she suggests, loved his child-friend and
dreamchild “without at all impinging on them”; she calls this hands-off

adoration a “noble instinct” in the author, which comes as a refreshing
contrast to the whispering campaigns in recent journalism about his
predatory perversions.
As in Haughton, Gardner, and the biographies discussed above,
Carroll’s real-life relationship with Alice Liddell is seen to shape the text
intimately. Looking-Glass is to Smith, as Wonderland is to Cohen, a story about
Alice Liddell’s growing up to maturity, “from eternal seven-year-old to fully
grown woman.”147 In common with Gardner, Smith subscribes to the belief
that Carroll inserted himself as the White Knight to say goodbye and wave
her off into womanhood: “I think it was very hard for Carroll to watch her
go.” The real Alice and fictional Alice are confusingly merged in this
interpretation, which seems to assume the two are one and the same: the
name is used indiscriminately to describe the Dean’s daughter and the
Carroll character in adjoining sentences.
Smith, like Self, runs through some of the text’s broader meanings
and cultural significance, although she has little more time for the
linguistic uses of Alice—“neither big, I fear, nor clever”148—than she does
for the Freudians, the “sexologists”, or the logicians.149 She spends a while
on her own personal feelings about portmanteaus, making rather strained
connections with early-1990s culture such as Nirvana’s “Smells Like Teen
Spirit” and Norman Schwartzkopf ’s pronouncements on the Gulf War150;
Carroll’s humour is traced vaguely down through P.G. Wodehouse and
Kingsley Amis to Monty Python,151 and Alice’s importance is compared,
not altogether flatteringly, with that of Harry Potter. “We have kept her
this long,” Smith proclaims for her generation, “and we will not lose her
yet.”152
The main reason for these new editions, though, is not Carroll but
Mervyn Peake, whose 1940s illustrations have been digitally restored.
Unsurprisingly, both Self and Smith approach him through Tenniel, whose
images of Alice are, in Self ’s words, “a given”.153 Peake himself admitted
that Tenniel was “inviolate, for he is embedded in the very fabric of
childhood memories.”154 However, Self compares Peake’s style favourably
with the “undifferentiated planes of colour, which typify Tenniel’s work.”
These are quite distinct from Peake’s own fluidity of line, let
alone his subtle interpenetrating of stippling and adumbration.
The Tenniel illustrations are hieratic—many of them take the
form of tableaux. Certainly Tenniel’s Alice is a plangently
Victorian miss, a mannish boy-woman, let loose in a crowded,
bourgeois drawing-room of painfully arranged knick-knacks and
216 Will Brooker
taxidermy. Whereas Peake’s Alice is more eroticised and more

downbeat. In the opening drawing, the curve of her hip acts as an
insinuating portal to the netherworld, and her eyes are dilated
with dewy astonishment.155
This is a chunky piece of writing, convincingly recreating the stilted quality

of Tenniel’s images: it echoes Haughton’s observation above that “however
fantastic and allegorically grotesque”, Tenniel’s depiction of dreams remain
“as pedantically referential as an exhibition catalogue of Victorian social
types, settings, furniture and costume.”156 Smith’s response to the two very
different styles is remarkably similar, suggesting perhaps a shared cultural
and generational attitude towards Tenniel as the man behind a respected but
slightly stuffy establishment Alice. She too praises Peake’s technique with
line, judging it more suited to the “encroaching darkness” of Looking-Glass
than Tenniel’s static, unchanging style from Wonderland to the altogether
colder world of the sequel: “... perfectly textured background cross-hatching
imbues many of the drawings with a certain foreboding; the delicate
shadowing on faces, in forests, in wool shops, on walls, creates a kind of
scotopia in the reader everything you’re looking at is fading, pretty much, or
dying, or leaving ...”157
This vision of Looking-Glass as elegiac, a fable of loss, is familiar from
Haughton’s commentary, and it can also be found in Bakewell, who finds
“images of decay, mutability and fading beauty haunt[ing] the pages of the
book.”158 However, Smith’s real enthusiasm is reserved—oddly, perhaps,
after she has hymned his darkness—for Peake’s sense of fun.
Though only a fool would cast any serious cloud over Tenniel ...
as a child I remembered being more afraid of Tenniel’s drawings
than amused—such severe-looking birds, such aggressive flowers,
such a frowning, school-marmish Alice! It makes a nice change,
then, to see a wide-eyed beatific Alice in her crown, not to
mention a wide-eyed positively camp March Hare (in ballet
pumps? And a skirt?)159
These latter two introductions are most valuable not in what they say about
Carroll—apart from the personal reminiscences, their observations can be
found in expanded form elsewhere—but in what they suggest about Tenniel’s
role; what Tenniel makes of Alice and her world, and how it changes when
his stage-setting, costuming, and casting is replaced with someone else’s
vision. And that’s another chapter in itself.
NOTES
87. Haughton, “Introduction,” p. xiii.

88. Ibid., p. xix.
89. Ibid., p. xxi.
90. Ibid., p. xx.
91. Ibid., p. xxiii.
92. Ibid., p. xxi.
93. Ibid., p. xxii.
94. Ibid., p. xix.
95. Ibid., p. xxvi.
96. Ibid., p. xxv.
97. Ibid., p. xlii.
98. Ibid, p. xlvi.
99. Ibid.
100. Jones and Gladstone, Alice Companion, p. 11 3.
101. Haughton, “Introduction,” p. xlvii.
102. Ibid., p. xliv.
103. Ibid., p. xlvi.
104. Ibid., p. lx.
105. Ibid., p. xli.
106. Ibid., p, xl.
107. Carroll, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, reprinted in Gardner, Annotated Alice, p.
23.
108. Ibid., p. 49.
109. Carroll, Through the Looking-Glass, reprinted in Gardner, Annotated Alice, p. 199.
110. Gardner, Annotated Alice, pp. xiii–xiv.
111. Ibid., p. xiv.
112. Ibid., p. 20.
113. Ibid., p: 102.
114. Ibid., p. 109.
115. Ibid., p. xv.
116. Woolf, in Phillips, Aspects of Alice, p. 47.
117. Gardner, Annotated Alice, p. xvii.
118. Ibid., p. xviii.
119. Ibid., p. xix.
120. Ibid., p. xx.
121. Ibid., p. xxi.
122. Ibid., p. xxiii.
123. Ibid., p. xxviii.
124. Cohen, quoted in Gardner, Annotated Alice, p. xxix.
125. Ibid., p. 80.
126. Ibid., p. 94.
127. Ibid., p. 96.
128. Ibid., p. 102.
129. Ibid., p. 182.
130. Ibid., p. 262.
218 Will Brooker
131. Ibid., p. 51.

132. Ibid., pp. 61–62.
133. Ibid., p. 69.
134. Ibid., p. 71.
135. Ibid., p. 74.
136. Will Self, “Introduction,” Lewis Carroll and Mervyn Peake, Alice’s Adventures in
Wonderland (London: Bloomsbury, 2001), p. viii.
137. Ibid., p. ix.
138. Ibid., p. xv.
139. Self, “Introduction,” pp. vii–viii.
140. Ibid., pp. viii–ix.
141. Ibid., p. xii,
142. Ibid., p. xi.
143. Ibid., p. xii.
144. Ibid., p. xiii, xvii.
145. Smith, “Introduction,” p. vii.
146. Ibid., p. viii.
147. Ibid., p. ix.
148. Ibid., p. xi.
149. Ibid., p. x.
150. Ibid., p. xiv.
151. Ibid., p. xii.
152. Ibid., p. xvii.
153. Self, “Introduction,” p. xv.
154. Quoted in Self, ibid.
155. Ibid., p. xv.
156. Haughton, “Introduction,” p. xliii.
157. Ibid., p. x.
158. Bakewell, Biography, p. 173.
159. Ibid., p. xv. Her liberal use of italics for indignant or astonished stress could be
paralleled with the pastiche of Carroll’s style I identify in Adair, Noon, and Roiphe’s novels
in Chapter 5, and with fan “performance” in Chapter 9.
HAROLD BLOOM
Afterthought
I regularly receive unsolicited documents from groups seeking to persuade

me that all of Shakespeare was written by the Earl of Oxford. Other sects and
covens assert that Christopher Marlowe or Sir Francis Bacon truly were the
authors of the plays ascribed to “the man from Stratford.” I am not charmed
by any of this, but my heart leaps up whenever I hear from another
organization which is dedicated to proving that all the works of Lewis
Carroll actually were composed by Queen Victoria. It seems a comfort that
in a world increasingly less literate, someone (however eccentric) should still
care who wrote the Alice books.
I would hazard the estimate that, on a global basis, about ten thousand
children (and adults) now peruse the Harry Potter books for every child (and
adult) who is absorbed by Lewis Carroll. Since I am an experienced veteran
of the Canon Wars, and go on fighting, I am not dismayed by this situation.
The Alice books were first published in 1865 and 1871, and remain timelessly
refreshed and refreshing in 2006. If I were to be around in 2065 (I would be
merely a hundred and thirty-five years old) I do not think that the Harry
Potter Phenomenon would persist, even in the dustbins.
Lewis Carroll is the greatest master of literary fantasy in Western
tradition. His peers exist only in related realms of the imagination: William
Shakespeare, Charles Dickens, Sigmund Freud. Figures as large as Hans
219
220 Harold Bloom
Christian Andersen, Edward Lear, and even Franz Kafka tend to diminish in
too direct a comparison to Carroll. To find equals of the White Rabbit and
the Mad Hatter you must turn at last to Shakespeare because Carroll shares
the vitalistic inventiveness of the great plays.
Alice herself is Carroll’s most remarkable creation, and is certainly the
most memorable seven-year-old girl in all literature. Carroll desires her to
remain seven forever, though he cannot control her dynamism or her will to
live. But as an artist, Carroll triumphed over the obsessions of Dodgson the
man. Wonderland and the Looking-Glass world have immolated time. Alice
finally breaks out of them into temporal existence, but that means she enters
a cosmos no longer Carroll’s. While she abides in his domains, she is the
triumphant realization of what may have been his impossible dream of love.
Chronology
1832 Charles Lutwidge Dodgson is born on January 27 in

Daresbury, Cheshire, to the Reverend Charles Dodgson
and Frances Jane Lutwidge Dodgson. He is the third child
and eldest son of their eleven children (seven daughters,
four sons).
1832–1843 Dodgson is educated at home. He is found to be left-
handed and afflicted with a stammer (as are most of his
siblings).
1843 The family moves to Croft, in Yorkshire, where the
Reverend Charles Dodgson has been made Rector.
1844–1846 Dodgson attends Richmond Grammar School in Yorkshire.
He entertains family with poems, drawings, and games.
1846–1850 Dodgson attends Rugby College; although he does well
there, he is not happy in the public school atmosphere.
1850 Dodgson is at home, working on family magazines such as
The Rectory Umbrella and Useful and Instructive Poetry.
1851–1854 He attends Christ Church College, Oxford. Enters as a
Commoner two days before his mother dies (on January
24). Contributes to the Oxonian Advertiser and the Whitby
Gazette. In 1852, is awarded a Studentship that will provide
him with an income for the rest of his life. (The
Studentship stipulates that he remain celibate and take
Holy Orders.) In 1854, Dodgson becomes Bachelor of Arts,
with a First Class degree in Mathematics.
221
222 Chronology
1855 Dodgson is made Sub-Librarian and Master of the House

at Christ Church; becomes Mathematical Lecturer. Writes
Mischmasch, a scrapbook which contains, among other
writings, the first stanza of “Jabberwocky,” listed as “Stanza
of Anglo-Saxon Poetry.”
1856 Dodgson publishes a number of parodies, including “Upon
a Lonely Moor” (“Resolution and Independence”), under
the name Lewis Carroll, derived from Latinate forms of
Charles and Lutwidge. Buys his first camera, beginning his
lifelong devotion to photography. Meets the daughters of
the Dean of Christ Church, among them Alice Pleasance
Liddell, who will serve as the model for the character of
Alice.
1857 Dodgson takes his M.A. Befriends and photographs various
Pre-Raphaelite poets and painters, as well as Thackeray and
Tennyson.
1860 First mathematical publications, A Syllabus of Plane
Algebraical Geometry and Notes on the First Two Books of
Euclid, Designed for Candidates for Responsions, both intended
as aids for students.
1861 Dodgson decides not to take full Holy Orders as the
Studentship stipulated, in part because he is an ardent
theatergoer. Dean Liddell allows him to be ordained as
Deacon instead. In this capacity, he occasionally baptizes
infants and officiates at funerals. Begins his Register of
Correspondence, an account, with a summary, of every
letter he writes or receives: at his death, it numbers 98,721
pieces of mail.
1862 Deacon Dodgson, Canon Duckworth, and the three
Liddell sisters take a boat ride up the river to Godstow on
July 4. On that trip, Dodgson amuses the children with the
story of Alice’s adventures under ground. Alice Liddell begs
him to write down the account. He begins work on what is
to be Alice’s Adventures under Ground.
1863 Publishes Enunciations of Euclid.
1864 Dodgson completes a special, hand-illustrated version of
Alice’s Adventures under Ground as a present for Alice
Liddell. In the meanwhile, at the urging of George
MacDonald’s children, he has begun a revision of the book
for publication, to be illustrated by John Tenniel. He sends
Chronology 223
Tenniel a photograph of another child-friend, Mary Hilton

Badcock, from which to do the illustrations. Publishes A
Guide to the Mathematical Student in Reading, Reviewing, and
Working Examples.
1865 First publication of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland in July;
Dodgson is unhappy with the printing. Withdraws the
book (sending the poor copies to America) and has it
reprinted and published in November. Generally well
reviewed, the book sells quite well after a slow start.
Publishes the satires “The New Method of Evaluation as
Applied to π” and “The Dynamics of Parti-cle.”
1866 Second American edition of Alice’s Adventures in
Wonderland. Dodgson publishes Condensation of
Determinants.
1867 Publishes An Elementary Treatise on Determinants. Publishes
“Bruno’s Revenge” in a children’s magazine; the story is the
basis for the Sylvie and Bruno books. Takes a tour of Russia.
1868 Dodgson’s father dies on June 21—“the greatest blow that
has ever fallen on my family.” Dodgson publishes The Fifth
Book of Euclid Treated Algebraically and the satire “The Offer
of the Clarendon Trustees.” A conversation with child-
friend Alice Raikes gives Dodgson the idea for Through the
Looking-Glass.
1869 Publishes collection of verse, Phantasmagoria.
1871 Through the Looking-Glass and What Alice Found There, with
illustrations by John Tenniel, published in December.
Immediately successful.
1872 Publishes satire “The New Belfry of Christ Church,
Oxford.”
1873 Publishes satire “The Vision of the Three T’s.”
1874 Publishes the book for students Examples in Arithmetic and
the satire “The Blank Cheque.”
1875 Publishes polemic “Some Popular Fallacies about
Vivisection.”
1876 Publishes The Hunting of the Snark: An Agony in Eight Fits,
with illustrations by Henry Holiday (except for a picture of
the Snark, which Dodgson deletes). It is dedicated to child-
friend Gertrude Chataway. Refuses to have his caricature
done for Vanity Fair by Leslie Ward, as “nothing would be
224 Chronology
more unpleasant for me than to have my face known to

strangers.” Also returns all mail addressed to Lewis Carroll.
1879 Publishes Euclid and His Modern Rivals.
1881 Dodgson resigns his Lectureship at Oxford, although he
continues to live at Christ Church, hoping to devote more
time to his writing.
1882 Elected Curator of the Senior Common Room at Christ
Church.
1883 Publishes Rhyme? And Reason?, a collection of verse,
containing new material and previously published poems.
1885 Publishes A Tangled Tale, a series of previously published
mathematical problems posed as short stories.
1886 Teaches logic in several girls’ schools in Oxford. Facsimile
edition published of Alice’s Adventures under Ground. Stage
version of Alice in Wonderland produced, created by H.
Savile Clark.
1887 Publishes The Game of Logic, a serious and nonsensical
introduction to logic.
1888 Publishes Curiosa Mathematica, Part I: A New Theory of
Parallels.
1889 Publishes Sylvie and Bruno, a highly moral fairy tale, and
The Nursery Alice, a picture book of Alice for the very young.
1893 Publishes Sylvie and Bruno Concluded and Curiosa
Mathematica, Part II: Pillow Problems Thought Out During
Sleepless Nights.
1896 Publishes Symbolic Logic.
1898 Dies of bronchial infection at his sisters’ home, The
Chestnuts, in Guildford on January 14.
1928 Alice Liddell Hargreaves auctions her handwritten
manuscript of Alice’s Adventures under Ground for £15,400—
the highest price ever bid for a book in a British auction and
more than the buyer had just paid for a Shakespeare first
folio.
1932 Alice Liddell Hargreaves is awarded an honorary degree
from Columbia University for being Alice.
1934 Alice Liddell Hargreaves dies at her home in Westerham,
Kent, on November 16.
Contributors
HAROLD BLOOM is Sterling Professor of the Humanities at Yale

University. He is the author of 30 books, including Shelley’s Mythmaking
(1959), The Visionary Company (1961), Blake’s Apocalypse (1963), Yeats (1970),
A Map of Misreading (1975), Kabbalah and Criticism (1975), Agon: Toward a
Theory of Revisionism (1982), The American Religion (1992), The Western Canon
(1994), and Omens of Millennium: The Gnosis of Angels, Dreams, and
Resurrection (1996). The Anxiety of Influence (1973) sets forth Professor
Bloom’s provocative theory of the literary relationships between the great
writers and their predecessors. His most recent books include Shakespeare:
The Invention of the Human (1998), a 1998 National Book Award finalist, How
to Read and Why (2000), Genius: A Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative
Minds (2002), Hamlet: Poem Unlimited (2003), Where Shall Wisdom Be Found?
(2004), and Jesus and Yahweh: The Names Divine (2005). In 1999, Professor
Bloom received the prestigious American Academy of Arts and Letters Gold
Medal for Criticism. He has also received the International Prize of
Catalonia, the Alfonso Reyes Prize of Mexico, and the Hans Christian
Andersen Bicentennial Prize of Denmark.
J.B. PRIESTLEY was a British journalist, novelist, playwright, and essayist.

Over his long career he published more than one hundred plays, novels, and
essays. Among his publications are The Good Companions; Angel Pavement;
English Journey; Literature and Western Man; and Found, Lost, Found.
225
226 Contributors
FLORENCE BECKER LENNON was a leading biographer of Lewis

Carroll, and her 1945 book Victoria Through the Looking-Glass remains one of
the most influential biographies of Carroll.
WILLIAM EMPSON is considered to be one of the great English literary

critics and is often compared with such masters as William Hazlitt and
Samuel Johnson. Among his works are Seven Types of Ambiguity; Some Versions
of Pastoral; The Structure of Complex Words; Milton’s God; and Essays on
Shakespeare.
ELIZABETH SEWELL was a poet, novelist, and scholar who was one of
the founding contributing editors of Literature and Medicine. She was Joe
Rosenthal Professor of Humanities at the University of North Carolina,
Greensboro. Among her works are The Orphic Voice: Poetry and Natural
History; Signs and Cities; and The Field of Nonsense.
ALEXANDER L. TAYLOR was a scholar and critic and is best known for
his early work on Carroll, The White Knight: A Study of C.L. Dodgson.
PHYLLIS GREENACRE, a noted professor in clinical psychology, wrote

several books on psychoanalysis including Emotional Growth: Psychoanalytic
Studies of the Gifted and a Great Variety of Other Individuals; The Quest for the
Father: A Study of the Darwin-Butler Controversy, As a Contribution to the
Understanding of the Creative Individual; and Trauma, Growth, and Personality.
RICHARD KELLY is the emeritas Lindsay Young Professor of English at

the University of Tennessee at Knoxville. He taught poetry for many years
and has written on numerous authors, including Graham Greene. He also
coedited a collection of illustrations from Punch.
DONALD RACKIN is emeritus Professor of English at Temple University.

He has written extensively on Lewis Carroll.
NINA DEMUROVA is a literary critic and a translator from English into

Russian, known best in Russia for her excellent translation of Lewis Carroll’s
Alice in Wonderland.
KAROLINE LEACH is an English playwright and author. Her book In the

Shadow of the Dreamchild takes on many of the myths that have surrounded
Lewis Carroll’s life.
Contributors 227
HUGH HAUGHTON teaches in the Department of English and Related

Literature at the University of York. He has edited, introduced, and written
numerous books, including The Chatto Book of Nonsense Poetry; Second World
War Poems; and Derek Mahon and Modern Irish Poetry.
WILL BROOKER is Associate Professor of Communications at Richmond

University in London. His books include Batman Unmasked; Using the Force;
The Audience Studies Reader; and Alice’s Adventures: Lewis Carroll and Alice in
Popular Culture.
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Acknowledgments
“A Note on Humpty Dumpty,” by J.B. Priestley. From Aspects of Alice: Lewis

Carroll’s Dreamchild As Seen Through the Critics’ Looking-Glasses, Robert
Phillips, ed., pp. 262–266. © 1971 by The Vanguard Press. Reprinted by
permission.
“Escape into the Garden” by Florence Becker Lennon. From Victoria

Through the Looking Glass: The Life of Lewis Carroll, pp. 135–157. © 1947
Collier Books. Reprinted by permission.
”The Child as Swain” by William Empson. From Aspects of Alice: Lewis

Carroll’s Dreamchild As Seen Through the Critics’ Looking-Glasses, Robert
Phillips, ed., pp. 344–373. © 1971 by The Vanguard Press. Reprinted by
permission.
”The Balance of Brillig” by Elizabeth Sewell. From Alice in Wonderland: A

Norton Critical Edition Donald J. Gray, ed., pp. 377–387. © 1971 W.W.
Norton and Co. Reprinted by permission.
“Through the Looking Glass” by Alexander L. Taylor. From The White

Knight: A Study of C.L. Dodgson, pp. 94–116. © 1952 Alexander L. Taylor.
Reprinted by permission.
“The Character of Dodgson As Revealed in the Writings of Carroll” by

Phyllis Greenacre. From Aspects of Alice: Lewis Carroll’s Dreamchild As Seen
Through the Critics’ Looking-Glasses, Robert Phillips, ed., pp. 316–331. ©
1971 by The Vanguard Press. Reprinted by permission.
235
236 Acknowledgments
”The Poetry of Wonderland” by Richard Kelly. From Lewis Carroll, pp.

59–72. © 1977 G.K. Hall & Co. Reprinted by permission.
”Love and Death in Carroll’s Two Alices” by Donald Rackin. From Soaring
with the Dodo, Edward Guiliano and James R. Kincaid, ed., pp. 26–45 © 1982
Edward Guiliano. Reprinted by permission.
“Towards a Definition of Alices Genre: The Folktale and Fairy-tale

Connections” by Nina Demurova. From Lewis Carroll, A Celebration, Edward
Guiliano, ed., pp. 75–88. © 1982 Nina Demurova. Reprinted by permission.
“The Unreal Alice” by Karoline Leach. From The Shadow of the Dreamchild:
A New Understanding of Lewis Carroll, pp. 161–183. © 1999 Karoline Leach.
Reprinted by permission.
“Alice’s Identity” by Hugh Haughton. From “Introduction” in Alice’s

Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass, pp. xl–li. © 1998
Hugh Haughton. Reprinted by permission.
“Introducing Alice” by Will Brooker. From Alice’s Adventures: Lewis Carroll

and Alice in Popular Culture, pp. 89–104 © 2004 Will Brooker. Reprinted by
permission.
Every effort has been made to contact the owners of copyrighted material
and secure copyright permission. Articles appearing in this volume generally
appear much as they did in their original publication with few or no editorial
changes. Those interested in locating the original source will find
bibliographic information in the bibliography and acknowledgments sections
of this volume.
Index
Characters in literary works are indexed by first name (if any), followed by
the name of the work in parentheses
Aeneid (Virgil), 167 model for, 20, 24, 40, 135, 143,
“Against Idleness and Mischief” 171–72, 174, 176, 178, 180,
(Watt), 123–24 183–87, 194, 215
Alastor (Shelley), 193 and the mushroom, 30, 158–59,
Alice (Potter, play), 172, 178 167
Alice (Alice’s Adventures in and the pig and pepper episode,
Wonderland) 1–3, 30–31, 107, 164
alienation in, 115 and poetry, 124, 127
curiosity of, 58–59 and the pool of tears, 33–34, 40,
easily offended, 29, 31, 54–55, 51–52, 213
57, 62–63 snobbery of, 58–59, 64, 66
elegiac aspect of, 205–18 as swain of pastoral tradition,
fall into Rabbit hole, 33, 47, 39–67
109, 115, 143, 157–58, 163, Alice (Through the Looking-Glass
194–95, 198, 213 and What Alice Found There),
freedom of, 5, 53 135
and growing up, 1, 3, 5, 15, 29, age, 29, 44, 117, 196, 215, 220
48–51, 56, 115 animals in, 112–15
identity, 32–33, 193–203, 205, and the chess game, 82–83,
209 85–93, 96–99, 118, 193, 201
illustrations of, 24–26, 51, 60, defeat of the Red Queen, 49,
171, 195 94–95, 119, 134
journeys, 21, 31, 33, 116–17, and the Gnat, 53–54, 57, 77–78,
136, 139, 183, 194 110, 167
longing for Dinah, 28, 82, 109, and Humpty Dumpty, 14–17,
113 69, 73, 75, 133–34
madness, 3–4, 8, 13–14, 35, 162 identity, 193–203, 205, 208–9
237
238 Index
illustrations of, 23, 200 original ending, 83–84, 135

journeys of, 9, 41–42, 77, 101, pig and pepper episode in, 1–3,
117, 136, 146–49, 163 30–31, 107, 125, 163–66
judgmental, 7–8, 83 plot of, 31, 36
and poetry, 131–34, 200 poetry of, 123–34, 165–67, 195
quest for Queenhood, 137–42, publication, 13, 24, 135, 183,
145, 149–50, 166, 197–98 205, 219
and the rose garden, 61–62, 96, representation in, 20, 40
117, 196–97 satire in, 58, 82
snobbery of, 64–66 stage and film versions, 172
unity with nature, 45–46, 53, 56 sublimity of the poetry in,
and the Wasp, 144–45 123–34
Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, 81 symbolism in, 31
allegory, 3, 57, 82, 95 writing of, 27–28, 182–84
“Beautiful Soup,” 165 Alighieri, Dante
Bill the Lizard, 33, 213 The Divine Comedy, 167
birth dreams in, 33–34, 42, Annotated Alice: The Definitive
50–51, 55, 82, 137, 139–40, Edition (Gardner), 130, 205,
160, 201 209–10
card game in, 31, 117, 138, 149, Apologia, 63
213 Arnold, Matthew, 63
caucus-race in, 110, 150, 198 Culture and Anarchy, 202
Cook, 1, 30, 110, 163 Austen, Jane, 196, 198
Crocodile in, 109, 123, 166, 196 Pride and Prejudice, 193
criticism, 35–36, 39, 139, 155
death of time in, 1–12, 109–10, Bakhtin, M.M., 162–64
143, 150, 152, 168, 201 Battle of the Books (Swift), 95
fairy tale tradition in, 155–70, Beggar’s Opera (Gay), 58
200 Bell, E.T.
food in, 109–11, 115, 195, 208 History of Mathematics, 93
growing up theme in, 39, 48–51, Beyond the Looking-Glass (Gordon),
56, 206, 208, 215 171
illustrations in, 22, 24, 26–27, Bishop, Elizabeth
29, 40, 51, 171, 195, 212–13, In the Waiting Room, 194
216 Bloom, Harold, 225
Knave of Hearts in, 160, 199 afterthought, 219–20
linkage of love and death in, 49, on Carroll’s enigmatic allegory,
62, 75, 135–54, 195, 208 1–12, 193
main themes in, 115–17, 75 on Carroll’s popularity, 219–20
narrative, 6–7, 135, 198 introduction, 1–12
nonsense words in, 119, 124–26, on the death of time in
136–39, 142–43, 146, 152 Wonderland, 1–12
Index 239
Book of Nonsense (Lear) inventions, 105–6, 135, 141,

“The Old Man Of Coblenz” in, 150, 152, 168
160–61 irony, 157
Brontë, Emily letters, 26, 107, 111–14, 116,
Wuthering Heights, 138 135, 150, 173, 175–76, 181,
Brooker, Will, 227 189
on the elegiac aspect of Alice, main themes of, 115–19
205–18 and mathematics, 29–30, 96,
on the tonality of Carroll’s art, 108
205–18 parodies, 5, 124, 128, 164–67,
Brown, Ford Maddox 195, 198, 210
Work, 195 and photography, 20, 22, 40, 97,
“Bruno’s Revenge” (short story), 152, 185
82–83 politics, 40, 201
Butler, Samuel, 47 popularity, 219–20
Erewhon, 84 and satire, 14, 16–17, 32, 51, 82,
“Butterfly’s Ball” (Roscoe), 167 84, 109, 124, 135–36, 151,
166
Carroll, Lewis social work, 193–203
and Alice Liddell, 19–20, 26, 34, storyteller, 20–22, 27, 148,
136, 143, 163, 171–91, 195, 163–64, 172, 182, 186
201–2, 206–7, 209, 211–12, tonality of art, 205–18
214–15 unemotional nonsense mode of,
birth, 172, 176, 184 4, 40, 69–80, 130–34,
childhood, 19, 29, 31, 33–34, 136–37, 150–52, 161–68,
105, 110, 112, 195 197, 199, 205
chronology, 221–24 Castle, The (Kafka), 193
death, 106–7, 184, 188 Caterpillar (Alice’s Adventures in
diaries, 21–22, 172–76, 178–81, Wonderland), 32, 44, 213
183, 189–90 hookah, 30
on eating and breathing, poetry, 124
109–12, 195 question, 158–59
education, 34–35 symbolism of, 50, 167
enigmatic allegory, 1–12, unpleasantness of, 35
130 Cheshire Cat (Alice’s Adventures in
genre, 155–70 Wonderland), 113
hidden aspects of personality, grin of, 1, 52, 59, 116, 123, 196
105–21 madness of, 3–4, 8, 35, 136, 162
illustrations, 23–25, 34, 40, 51, unpleasantness of, 3, 212
107, 109, 163–64, 195 symbolism, 52, 119
influences on, 5, 11, 25, 45–47, vanishing of, 4, 28
155, 166–68, 198 Cohen, Morton N.
240 Index
biography of Carroll, 173–75, nature of, 53–55, 62, 136, 158,

180, 206–7, 211, 215 163–64
Collingwood, Stuart, 27, 29, 106 remarks of, 29
biography of Carroll, 175–77, sneezing, 1–2, 125
181 song, 1–3, 125, 165–66
Collins, Wilkie Duckworth, Robinson, 20–22,
No Name, 32 24–26
Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s
Court, A (Twain), 200 Empson, William, 226
Cooke, M.C., 30 on Alice as the swain of pastoral
Creators of Wonderland (Mespoulet), tradition, 4, 39–67, 195
25 Some Versions of the Pastoral, 75
Cricket on the Hearth (Dickens), 167 Erewhon (Butler), 84
Critic, The (Sheridan), 64 Euclid and His Modern Rivals, 202
Culture and Anarchy (Arnold), 202
Fechner, Gustave, 85
Dante see Alighieri, Dante “Space Has Four Dimensions,”
Darwin, Charles 86–87, 98
The Origin of Species, 40 Field of Nonsense, The (Sewell), 137
theories, 123, 125, 132, 136, Freud, Sigmund, 219
199, 202 theories, 5, 13, 39, 51, 55,
Demurova, Nina, 226 214–15
on Carroll’s genre, 155–70 Frith, William P.
Derby Day (Frith), 195 Derby Day, 195
Dickens, Charles, 151, 219 Furniss, Harry, 23–24, 30, 107–8
Cricket on the Hearth, 167
“The Magic Fish-Bone,” Gardner, Martin
156–57 Annotated Alice: The Definitive
Divine Comedy, The (Dante), 167 Edition, 130, 205, 209–10
Dong with a Luminous Nose, The on Carroll’s poetry, 128–30,
(Lear), 77 134, 147, 168, 213–15
Dormouse (Alice’s Adventures in More Annotated Alice, 209,
Wonderland), 28, 56, 95 211–12
and food, 109 Gay, John
illustrations of, 26–27 Beggar’s Opera, 58
tail, 107, 124 Gimme the Ax (Sandburg), 36
“Dover Beach,” 135 Gladstone, William, 199, 207, 210,
Dreamchild (film), 172 212
Dream of Eugene Aram (Hood), 131 Gnat (Through the Looking-Glass
Duchess (Alice’s Adventures in and What Alice Found There)
Wonderland), 28, 110, 213 and Alice, 53–54, 57, 77–78,
illustrations of, 24–25 167, 197
Index 241
Goblin Market (Rossetti), 5 Hughes, Agnes, 113–14

“Golden Key, The” (Macdonald), Humpty Dumpty (Through the
167 Looking-Glass and What Alice
“Gold Thread” (Macleod), 167 Found There)
Gordon, Colin, 60, 190 illustrations of, 23
Beyond the Looking-Glass, 171 and impenetrability, 15–16
Green, Roger L. isolation of, 46
biography of Carroll, 20, 26, as literary critic, 13–17, 69,
162, 167 71–73, 75, 129, 132–33, 198,
Story of Lewis Carroll, 108 200–1
Greenacre, Phyllis, 123, 226 and loneliness, 65
on the hidden aspects of and the narrow wall, 14–15, 17,
Dodgson’s personality, 73
105–21 unpleasantness in, 7–8, 197
Gryphon (Alice’s Adventures in Hunting of the Snark: An Agony in
Wonderland), 158 Eight Fits, The, 1, 5, 25
antagonism, 29 Boojum Snark in, 111, 124, 141
and nonsense words, 73, 198, nonsense in, 130
207 themes in, 115
Gulliver’s Travels (Swift), 48, 84, 95, Huxley, Aldous, 40–41
214
Idylls of the King (Tennyson), 200
Hasbrouck, Muriel Bruce In the Waiting Room (Bishop), 194
Pursuit of Destiny, 31
Haughton, Hugh, 227 “Jabberwocky” (Through the
on Alice’s identity, 193–203, Looking-Glass and What Alice
205–8 Found There)
on Dodgson’s social work, formal unity in, 129
193–203, 209, 211, 213, language of, 70, 74, 77, 79,
215–16 128–30, 138, 200
Henry IV (Shakespeare), 167–68 meaning of, 13, 16, 132
Here, There, and Everywhere mock heroism, 129
(Partridge) Jones, Jo Elwyn, 207, 210, 212
nonsense words of Carroll and Jung, Carl, 13, 31, 171
Lear in, 69–70, 72–74,
166–67 Kafka, Franz, 42, 211, 220
History of Mathematics (Bell), 93 The Castle, 193
Hood, Thomas Metamorphosis, 214
Dream of Eugene Aram, 131 The Trial, 193
Howitt, Mary, 128 Keats, John, 5, 196
“The Spider and the Fly,” Kelly, Richard, 164,
126–27, 132 226
242 Index
on the sublimity of model for Alice, 20, 24, 40, 135,

Wonderland’s poetry, 123–34 171–72, 174, 176, 178, 180,
King of the Golden River (Ruskin), 183–87, 194, 215
156 Liddell, Edith, 19–20, 136
King of Hearts (Alice in Liddell, Harry, 19–20, 185
Wonderland), 30, 118, 136 Liddell, Ina, 185–86, 188–90
children of, 29, 32 Liddell, Lorina, 19–20, 26, 185,
fright of, 42, 50, 52, 199 189, 191, 194, 211–12
Kingsley, Charles, 22, 157 “Love’s Railway Guide,” 135
The Water Babies, 81, 84, 156 satire, 135
Lowes, John Livingston, 34
Langford, G.W., 128 The Road to Xanadu, 25
“Speak Gently,” 125 Lyrical Ballads (Wordsworth), 47
Leach, Karoline, 226
on Dodgson’s attraction to Macdonald, George, 156
Alice’s mother, 171–92 “The Golden Key,” 167
Lear, Edward, 4–5, 220 Phantastes, 167
Book of Nonsense, 160–61 Macleod, Norman
The Dong with a Luminous Nose, “Gold Thread,” 167
77 Madan, Falconer, 24–25, 29
Moppsikon-Floppsikon, 69, 72 Lewis Carroll Handbook, 87–88,
Nonsense Book, 25 92
nonsense words of, 69–70, Mad Hatter (Alice’s Adventures in
72–74, 77, 137–38, 155, Wonderland), 3, 86, 213, 220
160–61, 167 neuroses of, 13, 35, 162, 212
Pobble, 74 portrayal of, 29
The Seven Families, 77 rudeness of, 4, 66
“The Leech-Gatherer” song, 125
(Wordsworth), 118 watch, 30
Lennon, Florence Becker, 226 Mad Tea Party (Alice’s Adventures in
biography of Carroll, 172, Wonderland)
185–86, 189 discussions at, 56
on Wonderland as Carroll’s illustrations, 212
refuge, 19–37 prelude to, 4
Lewis Carroll Handbook (Madan), symbolism of, 13, 29, 143, 198,
87–88, 92 207
Liddell, Alice Pleasance , 147, 152, “Magic Fish-Bone, The”
198 (Dickens), 156–57
and Carroll, 19–20, 26, 34, 136, March Hare (Alice’s Adventures in
143, 163, 171–91, 195, Wonderland), 3, 28
201–2, 206–7, 209, 211–12, madness, 35, 162, 216
214–15 temper of, 30
Index 243
Maud (Tennyson), 60, 199 Peake, Mervyn, 205, 215–16

Mespoulet, Marguerite Pen, Pencil and Poison (Wilde), 60
Creators of Wonderland, 25 Phantasmagoria, 81
Metamorphosis (Kafka), 214 Phantastes (Macdonald), 167
Midsummer Night’s Dream, A Pobble (Lear), 74
(Shakespeare), 168 Poe, Edgar Allan, 66, 139
Mock Turtle (Alice’s Adventures in Potter, Dennis
Wonderland), 158 Alice, 172, 178
education, 58 Pride and Prejudice (Austen), 193
and nonsense words, 73, 116, Priestley, J.B., 93, 225
207 on Humpty Dumpty as literary
song, 126–28, 198 critic, 13–17
and soup, 46, 128 Propp, Vladimir, 156–57, 160
weeping of, 28–29, 63, 128 Punch, 22–23, 25, 60
Moore, Thomas Pursuit of Destiny (Hasbrouck), 31
“My Heart and Lute,” 147–48
Moppsikon-Floppsikon (Lear), 69, 72 Queen of Hearts (Alice’s Adventures
More Annotated Alice (Gardner), in Wonderland), 2, 28, 118,
209, 211–12 136
Mother Goose’s Melodies, 42–43 and Alice, 5–6, 75, 198
Müller, Max, 201–2 children of, 29
“My Heart and Lute” (Moore), croquet party, 158–59, 198
147–48 eccentricities, 32, 52, 63, 199
palace of, 51
“New Method of Evaluation as symbolism of animal passion, 39
Applied to π, The” (satire), 94 threats of, 116–17
No Name (Collins), 32
Nonsense Book (Lear), 25 Rackin, Donald, 125, 226
“Novelty and Romancement,” 139, on the linkage of love and death
141 in both Alice stories, 135–54
Nursery Alice, The, 184 Red King (Through the Looking-
Glass and What Alice Found
“Ode to Intimations” There), 36, 196
(Wordsworth), 44 absence of, 49
“Old Man’s Comforts and How He and the chess game, 87–88, 91,
Gained Them, The” (Southey), 118, 201
124, 165–66 trance state of, 83, 197
Origin of Species, The (Darwin), 40 Red Knight (Through the Looking-
Glass and What Alice Found
Partridge, Eric There)
Here, There, and Everywhere, and the chess game, 87–88
69–70, 72–74, 166–67 Red Queen (Through the Looking-
244 Index
Glass and What Alice Found Alastor, 193

There), 32, 36 The Triumph of Life, 5
and the chess game, 83, 85, Sheridan, John
87–92, 96–99, 117–19, 199, The Critic, 64
201 “Sluggard, The” (Watts), 127
defeat of, 49, 119, 134 Smith, Zadie, 205, 213–16
nature of, 94–95, 159, 196 “Solitude” (poem), 27
and the rose garden of girls, Some Versions of the Pastoral
61–62, 85, 95–96, 197 (Empson), 75
“Resolution and Independence” Southey, Robert, 128
(Wordsworth), 8, 46, 101–2 “The Old Man’s Comforts and
Ring and the Rose, The (Thackeray), How He Gained Them,”
156–57 124, 165–66
Road to Xanadu, The (Lowes), 25 “Space Has Four Dimensions”
Roscoe, William (Fechner), 86–87, 98
“Butterfly’s Ball,” 167 “Speak Gently” (Langford), 125
Rossetti, Christina Spenser, Edmund, 196, 200, 208
Goblin Market, 5 “Spider and the Fly, The”
Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, 5, 200 (Howitt), 126–27, 132
Ruskin, John “Star, The” (Taylor), 125, 166
criticisms, 157, 197, 202, 207, “Star of the Evening” (Sayles), 128
212 Story of Lewis Carroll (Green), 108
King of the Golden River, 156 Stubbs, Leopold Edgar, 139–40
Swift, Jonathan
Sandburg, Carl Battle of the Books, 95
Gimme the Ax, 36 Gulliver’s Travels, 48, 84, 95, 214
Sayles, James Tale of a Tub, 95
“Star of the Evening,” 128 Sylvie and Bruno
Self, Will, 205, 213–15 autobiographical content in,
Seven Families, The (Lear), 77 114, 165–66
Sewell, Elizabeth, 125–26, 226 Bruno in, 29, 31
The Field of Nonsense, 137 confused entirety of, 187–88
on the unemotional nonsense elfin, 28
mode of Carroll, 69–80, 129, illustrations for, 108
133–34, 138, 168 nonsense words in, 73
Shakespeare, William, 1, 8, 13, plot, 36
144, 219–20 themes in, 115
Henry IV, 167–68 Uggug in, 31
A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Sylvie and Bruno Concluded, 135
168 eerie state in, 82–83
The Tempest, 168 planet in, 94
Shelley, Percy Spherical Professor in, 102
Index 245
Symbolic Logic creatures in, 28

nonsense words in, 71 criticism, 35–36, 39, 139, 155
Mr. Dash in, 17
Tale of a Tub (Swift), 95 fairy tale tradition in, 155–70,
Tangled Tale, A, 107 200
Mad Mathesis in, 28 food in, 111, 195, 208
nonsense words in, 73 growing up theme in, 39, 41,
Taylor, Alexander L., 226 49, 56, 206, 208, 215
on Carroll, 130, 172, 178–79 illustrations, 23–25, 84, 96, 131,
on the Looking Glass world as a 162, 199–200, 208, 213,
new realm of mortality, 215–16
81–103 language of, 62, 77–78, 92, 131,
Taylor, Jane, 128 201, 208–9, 214
“The Star,” 125, 166 linkage of love and death in
Taylor, Tom, 22, 30 both Alice stories, 49, 62,
Tempest, The (Shakespeare), 168 64–65, 75, 135–54, 195, 201,
Tenniel, John, 66, 107, 183 208
illustrations for Alice’s Adventures looking glass in, 84–85, 89,
in Wonderland, 23–24, 26–27, 93–94, 97–98, 101–2, 111,
29, 40, 51, 60, 195, 212, 213, 117, 131–32, 147, 152, 199,
216 201, 208–9
illustrations for Through the main themes in, 75, 78, 117–19,
Looking-Glass and What Alice 208
Found There, 23–25, 84, 96, narrative, 6–7, 135, 142, 144
131, 162, 171, 199–200, 208, new realm of mortality in,
213, 216 81–103
Tennyson, Lord Alfred, 40, 62 nonsense words in, 69–80, 119,
Idylls of the King, 200 129–31, 133–34, 136–39,
Maud, 60, 199 141–43, 146–49, 152, 197,
parodies, 5, 195 200
poetry, 91, 166 parallel moment in, 5
Terry, Ellen, 176–78 poetry in, 6–8, 50, 65–66, 123,
Thackeray, William Makepeace, 25 128–35, 160, 165–67, 187,
The Ring and the Rose, 156–57 195, 198, 200, 206
Through the Looking-Glass and What plot, 36, 117, 119
Alice Found There, 1 publication, 13, 81, 135, 157,
animals in, 112–15, 196, 200 201, 205, 219
bitterness in, 6 punishment theme in, 117
Mr. Blank in, 14, 17 rose garden of girls in, 60–62,
chess game in, 31, 83–93, 117, 196
96–99, 110, 117–18, 138, satire in, 14, 16–17, 82, 131
149, 158, 172, 197, 199, 201 self-consciousness in, 42, 95
246 Index
Sheep in, 7, 82 madness of, 131

symbolism in, 16, 130, 157 oral aggressiveness in, 132
time in, 94, 110, 150, 152, 168 oyster sequence in, 162
unity with nature in, 44–45, 56 weeping in, 8
Wasp episode in, 144–45, 212 Water Babies, The (Kingsley), 81,
writing of, 28, 117, 183, 186 84, 156
Trial, The (Kafka), 193 Watts, Isaac, 128, 166, 194–95
Train, The, 27 “Against Idleness and Mischief,”
Triumph of Life, The (Shelley), 5 123–24
Twain, Mark, 105 “The Sluggard,” 127
Connecticut Yankee in King “We are Seven” (Wordsworth), 45
Arthur’s Court, A, 200 Wells, H.G., 83
Tweedledee (Through the Looking- White King (Through the Looking-
Glass and What Alice Found Glass and What Alice Found
There), 45 There), 196
belligerence, 28, 197 and the chess game, 93, 96, 118,
conflicts of, 13, 118, 150, 196 201
poetry, 131, 200 White Knight (Through the
valetudinarianism of, 29 Looking-Glass and What Alice
Tweddledum (Through the Looking- Found There), 137, 142, 200
Glass and What Alice Found ballad, 46, 98, 118, 143, 148–49,
There), 45, 132, 200 161, 166–67
belligerence, 28, 197 and the chess game, 87–88, 98,
conflicts of, 13, 118, 150, 196 110–11, 118, 158–59
valetudinarianism of, 29 death, 141, 143, 146, 212, 215
eerie state of, 83, 197
“Upon a Lonely Moor” (parody), gentle spirit of, 8–9, 46–47, 101,
124 147, 196
inventions, 98–102, 105, 135,
Victorian Romance, 151 141, 143–45, 200
and Carroll, 4–5, 8, 44, 47, 60, madness, 8, 163
128, 138–40, 155–57, 160, self-portrait of Carroll, 8, 187
193, 195–96, 198–200, “White Knight’s Ballad, The”
207–8, 212, 216 (poem), 10–12
Virgil love in, 172
Aeneid, 167 publication, 8
White Queen, 32
“Walrus and the Carpenter, The” and the chess game, 83, 85–93,
(Through the Looking-Glass 96–99, 110–11, 118, 201
and What Alice Found There), fish riddle, 134
165–66 and knitting, 65
craft and cruelty in, 6–7, 65–66 nature of, 63–64, 95, 196
Index 247
White Rabbit (Alice’s Adventures in moral lesson in, 127

Wonderland), 28, 143, 220 motivation in, 124–25
house, 33–34, 109, 158–59, punning world of, 136
194–95, 198 death of time in, 5
parody of Carroll, 6, 30, 32 Woolf, Virginia, 205, 210
sternness of, 51 Wordsworth, William, 56, 66
watch, 117 influence on Carroll, 5, 11,
Wilde, Oscar, 58–59 44–47, 166, 198
Pen, Pencil and Poison, 60 “The Leech-Gatherer,” 118
Wonderland (Alice’s Adventures in Lyrical Ballads, 47
Wonderland) “Ode to Intimations,” 44
adventures, 109, 111, 209 “Resolution and Independence,”
inhabitants of, 3–11, 14, 28, 99, 8, 46, 101–2
112, 131, 138, 195–96, 202 sentiments, 45
light-machine, 152 “We are Seven,” 45
madness in, 5, 136–37, 141, 196, Work (Brown), 195
199 Wuthering Heights (Brontë), 138

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Bloom’s Modern Critical Interpretations

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Introduction © 2006 by Harold Bloom

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Editor’s Note vii

A Note on Humpty Dumpty 13

Escape into the Garden 19

Alice in Wonderland: The Child as Swain 39

The Balance of Brillig 69

Through the Looking-glass 81

From “The Character of Dodgson

Love and Death in Carroll’s Alices 135

Toward a Deﬁnition of Alice’s Genre:

The Unreal Alice 171

Alice’s Identity 193

Introducing Alice 205

My Introduction meditates upon Lewis Carroll’s enigmatic allegory, with its

Whatever the process is of renewing one’s experience of Alice’s Adventures in

“Speak roughly to your little boy,

“I speak severely to my boy,

Speak gently to the little child!

The Cheshire Cat is an ironic enigma, typical of many such in Carroll’s

The Cat only grinned when it saw Alice. It looked good-natured,

Much of the technique of the rudeness of the Mad Hatter has

Romantic Quest. Christina Rossetti’s Goblin Market has more in common

“Hold your tongue!” said the Queen, turning purple.

This is the crisis of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, it asserts Alice’s

There was not a moment to be lost. Already several of the guests

The movement from “You’re nothing but a pack of cards!” to “I can’t

“‘But wait a bit,’ the Oysters cried,

‘A loaf of bread,’ the Walrus said,

‘But not on us!’ the Oysters cried,

‘It was so kind of you to come!

‘It seems a shame,’ the Walrus said,

‘I weep for you,’ the Walrus said:

‘O Oysters,’ said the Carpenter,

In an additional stanza, written for a theatrical presentation of the Alice

Dumpty, though we do not receive them as quite the weird representations

“I’ll tell thee everything I can:

He said ‘I look for butterﬂies

But I was thinking of a plan

His accents mild took up the tale:

But I was thinking of a way

He said ‘I hunt for haddocks’ eyes

“And now, if e’er by chance I put

Whose hair was whiter than the snow,

A Note on Humpty Dumpty

A lice in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass are, I understand, to be

wistful shade of Lewis Carroll; may he remain in ignorance a little longer as

Indeed, the whole passage is signiﬁcant. Notice that Humpty Dumpty

The little ﬁshes’ answer was