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LEARNING THEORIES -COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES l Undergraduate

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 LEARNING THEORIES - COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES l CHAPTER 5

5.1 COGNITIVE REVOLUTION

The “Cognitive revolution” is the name for an intellectual movement in the 1950s that
 began with what are known collectively as the cognitive sciences. It began in the modern
context of greater interdisciplinary communication and research.

The relevant areas of interchange were the combination of psychology, anthropology and
linguistics with approaches developed within the then-nascent elds of articial intelligence,
computer science and neuroscience. Two of the prominent gures in cognitive psychology
are Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980) and Lev Vygotsky (1896 – 1934).

Figure 5.2 shows the relevant areas of interchange that know as cognitive revolution.

 Figure 5.2: The combinations of cognitive revolution

The cognitive revolution in psychology was a response to behaviourism, which was the
 predominant school in experimental psychology at the time. This school was heavily inu-
enced by Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, and other physiologists. They proposed that psychology
could only become an objective science if it is based on observable behaviour in test
subjects. Since mental events are not publicly observable, behaviourist psychologists
avoided description of mental processes or the mind in their literature.

Psychoanalytic theories on the other hand stress the importance of the unconscious while
cognitive theories emphasize on conscious thoughts. 3 important cognitive theories are
Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory, Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory and
information processing theories, which we have discussed in previous chapter.

Cognitive Psychology focuses on the study of how people think, understand, and know.
They emphasizes on learning how people comprehend and represent the outside world
within themselves and how our ways of thinking about the world inuence our behaviour.

106

CHAPTER 5 l  LEARNING THEORIES - COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES

From a cognitive learning perspective, learning involves the transformation of informa-

tion in the environment into knowledge that is stored in the mind. Learning occurs when new
knowledge is acquired or existing knowledge is modied by experience. Among the main
issues studied and discussed by cognitive psychologists are:
i. 107
• The cognitive theories present a positive view of development, emphasizing conscious
thinking.
• The cognitive theories (especially Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s) emphasize on the individual’s
active construction of understanding.
• Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories underscore the importance of examining developmental
changes in children’s thinking.
• The information processing theory offers detail descriptions of cognitive processes.

  What are the differences between Behavioural and Cognitive perspective

 pertaining to human learning.

http://dakota.fmpdata.net/PsychAI/PrintFiles/Cognitive.pdf 

107

 LEARNING THEORIES - COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES l CHAPTER 5

5.2 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY

Gestalt  is a perspective focuses on the belief that human

consciousness cannot be broken down into its elements. This
approach to psychology was founded on the concept of the
 gestalt , or whole. Gestalt psychologists led by Max Wertheimer
(1880 - 1943), Wolfgang Kohler (1887 – 1967) and Kurt Koffka
(1886 – 1941) have made substantial contributions to our
understanding of perception. Gestaltists pointed out that
 perception has meaning only when it is seen as a whole.

Max Wertheimer 

Figure 5.3 illustrated the gestalt perception which saw that the whole is different from
the sum of the parts.

 Figure 5.3: Gestalt saw that the whole is different from the sum of the parts

Gestalt psychology(also Gestalt of the Berlin School) is a theory of mind and brain that
 proposes that the operational principle of the brain is holistic, parallel, and analog, with
self-organizing tendencies, or that the whole is different from the sum of its parts. The
Gestalt effect refers to the form-forming capability of our senses, particularly with respect
to the visual recognition of gures and whole forms
instead of just a collection of simple lines and curves.
Figure 5.4 shows an example of picture that contains the
gestalt theory.

The word Gestalt in German literally means “shape”

or “gure”. Gestaltists performed many researches on
 perception and human learning. They believed learn-
ing is the result from good perception, which enable an
individual to form correct concept in their mind. Later
on they proposed the principles or law for perceptual
organization. Henceforth, we will discuss these  Figure 5.4: What did you see in
 principles, which consisted of six principles, which this picture? A saxophone player
are good form, gure or ground, similarity, proximity, or a lady?
closure, and continuity.

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CHAPTER 5 l  LEARNING THEORIES - COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES

i) The Law of Good form or Pragnanz

The word ‘Gestalt’ means ‘form’ or ‘shape’. Gestalt psychologists were of the view
that psychological organization will always be as ‘good’ as prevailing conditions allow. For
Gestalt psychologists, form is the primitive unit of perception. When we perceive, we
will always pick out form. Our perceptions are inuenced by our past experiences. This
 principle is also called Pragnanz Law. (Tan Oon Seng et al., 2003).

ii) The Law of Figure – Ground Discrimination

The Rubin vase shown in Figure 5.5 is an

example of this tendency to pick out form.
We do not simply see black and white shapes,
we also see two faces and a vase. What about
Figure 5.6? Do you see a young lady or an old
lady?

i. 109

 Figure 5.5: Two faces or a vase? (From Spooncer, 1992

 p.35)

The problem here is that we see the two forms

of equal importance. If the source of this mes-
sage wants us to perceive a vase, then the vase is
the intended  gure  and the black background is
the  ground . The problem here is a confusion of
 gure and ground .

 Figure 5.6: Young Lady or Old Lady?

(From Spooncer, 1992 p.35)

109

 LEARNING THEORIES - COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES l CHAPTER 5

iii) The Law of Proximity

 Figure 5.7: Two men and the table.

When you look at a you see (a man + a man) + a table.

When you look at b you see (a man + a table) + a man.

Things, which are close together in space or time, tend to be perceived as grouped together.
Thus, if you want your audience to associate the product with the presenter, put them close
together; if you want them to perceive two ideas as associated, present them in close
 proximity.

iv) The Law of Similarity

 Figure 5.8: Trees in different shapes

Things that are similar are likely to form ‘Gestalten’ as groups. So, in the graphic labelled
with A(on the left), you probably see an X of r trees against a background of the others. In
the graphic labelled with B(on the right), you may see a square of the other trees, partly
surrounded by r trees. The fact that, in picture labelled with A, we see an X while in the
 picture labelled with B, we can see a square, incidentally, an example of good form or
Prägnanz.

110

CHAPTER 5 l  LEARNING THEORIES - COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES

iv) The Law of Closure

Perceptually, we have the tendency to ll in
the gaps. In other words, we can still read
WASHO, see the square and read ‘perception’
despite the missing information. You prob-
ably know that redundancy can be deliberately
added into messages to increase the likely
delity of reception, but the Gestalt psycholo-
gists’ law of closure suggests that it certainly
is not always necessary.
 Figure 5.9: Words and shape

vi) The Law of Continuity

When you see gure 5.10(1), you are much more likely to see it as consisting of two lines
like 5.10(1a), rather than of the two shapes 5.10(1b).This is the Gestalt principle of
continuity which saw a single unbroken line is likely to be seen as an entity.

i. 111

 Figure 5.10: Lines and gures

When you see gure 5.11(2), you are much more likely to see it as consisting of two lines
like 5.11(2a and 2b), rather than as the series of shapes 5.11(2c).

111

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