(Practical Strategies For Successful Classrooms) Wendy Conklin, M.A. Ed. - Instructional Strategies For Diverse Learners (Practical Strategies For Successful Classrooms) - Shell Education (2007) PDF

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S964
Instructional
Strategies
for Diverse
Learners
Wendy Conklin, M.A.
Instructional Strategies for
Diverse Learners
Editor Cover Design

Maria Elvira Kessler, M.A. Lee Aucoin
Lesley Palmer
Project Manager
Maria Elvira Kessler, M.A. Imaging
Phil Garcia
Editor-in-Chief
Sharon Coan, M.S.Ed. Lead Print Designer
Don Tran
Creative Director
Lee Aucoin
Publisher
Corinne Burton, M.A.Ed.
Shell Education
5301 Oceanus Drive
Huntington Beach, CA 92649-1030
www.shelleducation.com
ISBN 978-1-4258-0373-5
© 2006 Shell Education
Reprinted, 2007
Made in U.S.A.
The classroom teacher may reproduce copies of materials in this book for classroom use only.
The reproduction of any part for an entire school or school system is strictly prohibited. No
part of this publication may be transmitted, stored, or recorded in any form without written
permission from the publisher.

Table of Contents
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Vocabulary Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Chapter 1: Brainstorming
Pre-Reading Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Why Use Brainstorming?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
How to Implement Brainstorming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
More Brainstorming Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Ideas for Classroom Brainstorming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Chapter Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Chapter 2: Graphic Organizers
What Are Graphic Organizers?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Why Use Graphic Organizers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Ideas for Using Graphic Organizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Chapter Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Chapter 3: Questioning Techniques
Why Is Questioning so Important?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
What Questions Should We Ask?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Socratic Seminar as a Questioning Strategy. . . . . . . . 48
Bloom’s Taxonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Williams’ Taxonomy of Creative Thought . . . . . . . . 57
The Three Story Intellect Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Chapter Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Chapter 4: Problem-Based Learning
What Is Problem-Based Learning?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Why Use Problem-Based Learning? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
How to Implement Problem-Based Learning. . . . . . . 69
Examples of Problem-Based Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Chapter Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Instructional Strategies for Diverse Learners
Table of Contents (cont.)
Chapter 5: Primary Sources

What Are Primary Sources?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Why Use Primary Sources?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Ideas for Using Primary Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Chapter Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Chapter 6: Simulations
What Are Simulations?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Why Use Simulations? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Ideas for Using Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Chapter Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Chapter 7: Multiple Intelligences
Pre-Reading Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
What Are Multiple Intelligences?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Why Use Multiple Intelligences?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Products for Multiple Intelligences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Multiple Intelligences Product Grid. . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Biology Lesson Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Chapter Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Chapter 8: Creative Dramatics
Pre-Reading Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
What Is Creative Dramatics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Why Use Creative Dramatics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Ideas for Using Creative Dramatics. . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Chapter Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Chapter Reviews Answer Key. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Introduction
There are many teaching strategies in the education
world today. Some enhance learning and some do not.
This book details eight different kinds of strategies that
enhance learning. With the demanding needs of diverse
students in our schools today, the necessity for making
the curriculum accessible to everyone is central to suc-
cessfully teaching all students. Teachers need strategies
that enhance learning for everyone. The strategies in this
book enhance learning in a way that can also differenti-
ate the curriculum for diverse learners. This book defines
each strategy, shows why each should be used, and gives
ideas for their use.
Within this book you will find:
• A vocabulary review and glossary of relevant

terminology
• Pre-reading reflections and other opportunities
to reflect—these give the learner an opportunity
to activate prior learning and apply the skills of a
reflective practitioner
• Chapter reviews at the end of each chapter to
check newly-acquired knowledge
• References of professional readings for the analysis
of new information and reflection
• Direct instruction/information that provides
information applicable to the topic
• Application opportunities for the learner to
reinforce the content

Each chapter in this book covers a different strategy

that enhances learning. Chapter 1 explains what brain-
storming is and why it should be used in the classroom.
Graphic organizers are covered in Chapter 2 to show how
they formulate patterns in much the same way that the
brain seeks out patterns. Chapter 3 explains several dif-
ferent types of questioning techniques and how to recog-
nize good questions. A set of steps is provided in Chapter
4 to show how a teacher can implement problem-based
learning. Chapter 5 explores the value of primary sources.
In Chapter 6, different kinds of simulations are shown.
The theory of multiple intelligences, as well as practical
ways to implement the theory, is explored in Chapter 7.
Finally, the unusual concept of using creative dramatics
in the classroom is studied in Chapter 8.

Vocabulary Review
Vocabulary Review
Education is notorious for its jargon. Many specific terms that are used in this book
are provided here. Before you begin reading, note your initial definition of each term.
Then, when you have finished reading the book, note your final definition of each
term. You will also find the definitions of these terms in the Glossary.
Term My First Definition My Final Definition
active learners
Attribute Listing Method
authentic learning
Bloom’s Taxonomy
brainstorming
brainwriting
complexity
creative dramatics
curiosity
differentiation

elaboration
electronic brainstorming
flexibility
fluency
graphic organizer
imagination
lateral thinking
Morphological Synthesis
Multiple Intelligences Theory
originality
passive learners
primary sources

Vocabulary Review
problem-based learning
problem statement
reverse brainstorming
risk taking
SCAMPER
semantic memories
simulations
Socratic Seminar
Three Story Intellect Model
vertical thinking
visual learners
Williams’ Taxonomy

Chapter 1 Pre-Reading Reflection
1. What are some ways to get your students to be

creative thinkers?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
2. Why should teachers have their students

brainstorm?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
3. What are some basic rules that teachers should

enforce when having their students brainstorm in
their classroom?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
10
Chapter
One
Brainstorming
Businesses use it all the time to develop new products,

to improve existing products, and to solve marketing and
advertising problems. Teachers use it to compel students
to be creative and to solve real-life problems in the class-
room.
Getting students to generate new ideas can be a difficult

task, even for the best teacher. Many students are afraid
of letting others know about their ideas for fear of criti-
cism. How can teachers get the creative juices flowing in
their classrooms on a daily basis? One of the best ways is
by teaching students how to brainstorm effectively.
Brainstorming is a method of thinking up new con-

cepts, ideas, or solutions. Take the word brainstorm and
separate the two words, brain and storm. To brainstorm
means to use the brain to storm (or think of) creative
problems. Alex Osborn, the advertising executive who
11
is affectionately named the father of brainstorming,

coined the word brainstorm back in 1939. He said that
storm meant to take charge as “in commando fashion,
each stormer audaciously attacking the same objective”
(1953, p. 297). Osborn believed that creative ideas should
be expressed without any judgment or evaluation. He did
not believe that one could be both creative and critical
at the same time. Some of the ideas produced in a brain-
storming session will be wild and crazy. Oftentimes,
these ideas lead to the best solutions. Osborn said, “It is
easier to tone down a wild idea than to think up a new
one” (Davis, 1998, p. 174).
Brainstorming is a type of lateral thinking. Edward de

Bono, a psychologist and professor of investigative medi-
cine at Cambridge University, coined the term lateral
thinking. Vertical thinking occurs when one solves a
problem by going from one logical step to another logi-
cal step (De Bono, 1970). Lateral thinking comes from
seeking solutions to problems through unconventional
methods, as illustrated in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Lateral vs. Vertical Thinking
Lateral Thinking Vertical Thinking

Logical
Step
Ra Logical
nd Step
om
Ide Logical
a
Step
Random Idea Unrelated Related
a Ideas Ideas
Ide
o m
nd
Ra
Solution
12
Brainstorming
Our brains function very differently than computers. It

takes years before we learn to do simple math problems,
but it takes computers only seconds. The brain is a pat-
terned recognition system, and we quickly and easily
recognize faces, languages, and objects. It is easy to get
stuck in our patterned way of thinking, but lateral think-
ing helps us to break out of this habit. Lateral thinking
generates new ideas and concepts. Brainstorming helps
students to break out of their patterned way of thinking
and look at things in a new way.
Why Use Brainstorming?

Brainstorming strengthens a person’s natural abilities,
which improves both teamwork and productivity. Many
believe that creativity is the most important human
resource of all. Without creativity, we would see no
progress and would be perpetually repeating the same
patterns.
To understand the benefits of brainstorming, it might

help to look at why so many businesses utilize it.
Businesses use it with their employees to help produce
creative solutions to problems. Someday many of your
students will be called on in the workplace for creative
ideas. Will they be able to meet the task? One thing we
know is that those who are able to brainstorm will be
able to solve problems more efficiently.
The main reason many people like brainstorming is
because it generates so many ideas in a short amount of
time. Whether it is a company looking for a new adver-
tising campaign for a product or a classroom trying to
decide how to raise money for charity, many ideas can be
generated in just a matter of minutes.
It is important to know that creative thinking is a skill

that can be taught and learned. Brainstorming increases
mental capacity to think creatively, which improves
with practice. The more we practice thinking creatively,
13
the more creatively we will think. It’s a skill that can be

used with any age group or learning level.
Creatively thinking individuals can see the best ideas

when they arise. Many times these ideas are the crazy
ones, but if seen in a creative light, they become the
appropriate choices for the occasion. For example, how
can a company keep from being bought out by a competi-
tor? By giving things away for free! This very idea kept a
software company from being taken over by Microsoft.
How to Implement Brainstorming

When brainstorming is done correctly, it taps into the
brain’s capacity for creative thinking. There are many
ways a teacher can implement the brainstorming tech-
nique in the classroom. If the class has many students,
divide it into small groups where students will feel more
at ease. Another alternative is to have each student
brainstorm an individual list and then share it with the
class. Oftentimes, using individual brainstorming ses-
sions can be just as productive.
To ensure a productive brainstorming session, here are

some general guidelines:
1. Before getting started, formulate an open-ended ques-
tion for students to brainstorm. It should not be too
specific or have just one right answer. This question
should be shared the day before the brainstorming ses-
sion so that students can be thinking about it ahead of
time.
2. Set aside a specific time for brainstorming. Brain-.
storming sessions should not last very long—five to 15
minutes should be enough time in the classroom.
3. No criticism should be allowed while brainstorming.
All ideas should be written down, no matter how crazy
they seem. Remember, some of the best ideas seem
very crazy at first glance.
4. Students should not only contribute original ideas, but
14
Brainstorming
they should also build upon the ideas already presented.

Some call this “piggy-backing.”
5. Props like a grab bag of items can be used to stimulate
creativity.
6. After the session is over, have students select the top
three ideas and write about why they like these ideas the
most.
After a brainstorming session, students should judge
the ideas using some sort of criteria. These criteria can
include questions like: Will it work? Is it too complicat-
ed to implement? Will others accept it? Is it a temporary
or permanent solution? Is it cost effective?
Using criteria to evaluate the brainstorming results is

helpful for many reasons. It helps to solve a problem in
a reasonable way by which the class can agree upon the
solution. Students will see that evaluating the results is
a necessary part of the creative process. Evaluation helps
students to consider many perspectives of a problem. It
is also good for students to explore the values related to
the problem. Finally, the evaluation process proves that
some of the most far-fetched ideas are the best solutions
to a problem.
For example, suppose a school has a very high tardy rate.

A teacher might present the following question a day
ahead of time to the class for brainstorming: How can
we get more students to arrive at school on time? Before
the brainstorming session, the teacher should remind
students that there will be no criticism during the brain-
storming session, one person will speak at a time, and
all ideas will be considered. One by one, students’ ideas
should be recorded on the board. After five minutes, the
teacher stops the group and they evaluate the ideas using
set criteria.
Brainstorming can take on many variations. One varia-

tion is stop-and-go brainstorming. After five minutes of
gathering ideas, the teacher can stop the group and then
15
have the group briefly evaluate the ideas and then con-
tinue brainstorming with another evaluation after five
minutes.
Another variation is called reverse brainstorming. The

problem is turned around and students brainstorm for
ideas to help them see new viewpoints. For example:
How can costs be increased? How can we stimulate tar-
diness? With reverse brainstorming, students are actu-
ally listing the causes of the problem.
Brainwriting is a variation that helps students to hitch-

hike ideas from each other. Students should work in
small groups. One student writes down a solution to
the problem, then the paper is passed to another student
who writes a completely new idea on the paper, modifies
the original idea, or uses the original idea to stimulate
another related idea. The process continues until the
paper gets back to the original writer. Then the group
evaluates the ideas on the paper.
Some teachers who have a technology-savvy group might

want to try electronic brainstorming. These types of
brainstorming sessions can be accomplished through
electronic messaging, discussion boards, chat rooms, or
e-mail. This way no one has to wait in order to give an
idea. With no face-to-face interaction, some students
might be able to overcome their anxiety of criticism as
well.
More Brainstorming Methods

Brainstorming not only can be used for creative problem
solving, but it can also be used to generate a list of new
ideas. This technique is called the Attribute Listing
Method.
Robert Crawford, the designer of the Attribute Listing

Method, believed that every time we take a creative step,
we do it by changing the attributes of something. These
16
Brainstorming
attributes can then be modified (1954).
For example, if students want to create a new type of

chips, they would first identify important attributes of
chips with which they are already familiar. A chart can be
made on the board with the following headings: flavors,
shapes, colors, and sizes. Under each heading, students
can list the qualities of chips. For example, under colors,
students may list orange, white, yellow, blue, and black.
Then, students think of ways to improve each attribute
or good combinations can be chosen from the list.
If a toy store has an overabundance of scooters in its

warehouse, students can be asked to change one or more
parts of the scooters to make them really different in
hopes of selling them. Students would list the parts of a
scooter. Then under each part, changes would be listed
in a chart format.
Suppose your school has bought all new desks. How can
the old desks be put to use? First, have students list the
qualities of a desk in a chart. Then, have them list the
qualities or changes that they could make to the desks so
that they can be used in another way around the school.
An extension of the Attribute Listing Method is

Morphological Synthesis. A matrix grid is drawn with
one attribute listed along the left hand side and another
set of attributes listed along the top of the matrix. The
two attributes or ideas combine in the cells of the matrix
to create a new attribute or idea. Suppose students want
to invent a new flavor of ice cream. Students can use the
matrix grid on page 18 to create 100 new flavors of ice
cream. A blank matrix grid is also provided on page 25.
17
Matrix Grid to Create New Flavors of Ice Cream
cake bubble rocky white

vanilla berry coconut pineapple coffee cheesecake
batter gum road chocolate
cherry
strawberry
peach
lemon
sherbet
orange
sherbet
peppermint
lime
peanut
butter
cookie
chocolate
18
Brainstorming
Brainstorming can be formatted into an idea checklist to help generate new products.
One idea checklist is called SCAMPER (Osborn, 1953). Each letter stands for a way
to change the product or item.
S Substitute—components, materials, people
C Combine—mix, combine with other assemblies or services, integrate
A Adapt—alter, change function, use part of another element
Modify, Minify, or Magnify—increase or reduce in scale, change shape,

M attributes
P Put to another use
Elaborate or Eliminate—remove elements, simplify, reduce to core

E functionality
R Reverse or Rearrange
Sample SCAMPERâ•‹activity: First, read the passage below.
The Ring Lady was a famous skeleton found by archaeologists in a boat-

house in nearby Herculaneum, Italy (also destroyed and buried by Mt.
Vesuvius in A.D. 79). Along with her skeleton were found two gold rings,
two gold bracelets, and two earrings for pierced ears. Archaeologists have
deducted that these articles were jewelry used by the woman. Thieves stole
these jewelry items in 1990. Luckily, archaeologists had made pictures of
her jewels.
Find a picture of the Ring Lady; then complete the following SCAMPER activity
using the blank SCAMPERâ•‹chart on page 24.
19
Substitute: If the Ring Lady did not have pierced ears,

in what other way could she have used the earrings that
archaeologists think were made for pierced ears?
Combine: Jewelry gives messages based on how it is

made and what pictures it displays. On her ring was a
strutting bird and on her bracelets were two snakes. If
you could combine these images onto one piece of jew-
elry, along with anything else, what message would that
piece of jewelry send?
Adapt: Imagine that the Ring Lady was allergic to gold.

What could have been her purpose for having these gold
jewelry items with her at the time of her death?
Modify/Minify/Magnify: Archaeologists believe that the

Ring Lady was “homely,” but her elaborate jewelry
shows that she was well cared for. What kind of feel-
ings does this stir up in you toward the Ring Lady? How
would your feelings change if she was described as a
beautiful rich princess, or an ugly wretched witch, or a
mean old stepmother?
Put to another use: Jewelry isn’t only used for adorning
oneself. What are some other ways that the Ring Lady’s
jewelry could have been used in everyday life?
Elaborate/Eliminate: The gold jewelry items were the

only things by the skeleton that lasted for two thousand
years, before the Ring Lady was discovered by archaeolo-
gists. What other items could have survived two thou-
sand years with her body if she had chosen to be buried
with them?
Reverse/Rearrange: Skeletons tell us many things about

a person. Scientists know that she was female, 45 years
old, and what she possibly looked like almost two thou-
sand years ago. What if the Ring Lady had turned out to
be a slave? What would the general public think about
her?
20
Brainstorming
Ideas for Classroom Brainstorming

1. Brainstorming: Suppose you just bought a pizza
restaurant and want to expand your business to
other countries. Your recent research reveals that
people in other countries don’t just like traditional
toppings, such as cheese, pepperoni, and sausage.
They want toppings of food found in their own cul-
ture. What kinds of toppings would someone who
lives in Mexico like? What kinds of toppings would
people who live in China like? How about in Saudi
Arabia? Give each pizza a name and list its ingredi-
ents.
2. Reverse Brainstorming: There is a theft problem in
your school. Try reverse brainstorming. What types
of things can be done to make the theft problem
worse in your school? Do any of these ideas give
you some ways for making the school a theft-free
place?
3. Attribute Listing: You are a writer/producer work-
ing for one of the major TV networks. They need
a new idea for a show that would air on Saturday
mornings. Make four columns. In the first column,
list all the interesting characters you can think of.
In the second column, list some ideas for plots (sav-
ing the planet, feeding the homeless, caring for pets)
for the story line. In the third column, list problems
that the characters might have, such as: they can’t
walk, they have no home, they have no power, or
they are angry. In the fourth column, list some
solutions that the characters find in the story, such
as finding courage in unknown people, discovering
hope in a hopeless situation, or persuading others to
change their minds. Finally, choose three characters
from the first column and one or two ideas from the
second, third, and fourth columns. Use these ideas
to write a sketch for your Saturday morning show.
4. SCAMPER can be used with people or things from
21
history. Try this activity with the Revolutionary

figure of Abigail Adams:
Substitute: If Abigail Adams lived today, how
would she communicate with her husband John
Adams?
Combine: In your opinion, what other events in
Abigail Adams’ life would be interesting to know
about?
Adapt: If Abigail Adams lived today, what modern
figure would she resemble?
Modif/Minify/Magnify: What if Abigail Adams had
not written any letters? How would we know about
her life?
Put to another use: What if John Adams had used
his legal training to prosecute the Boston Massacre
defendants instead of defending them? How would
the trial outcome have been different?
Elaborate/Eliminate: What if John Adams had not
listened to his wife? How would her life have been
different?
Reverse/Rearrange: What if the British had won the
Revolution? How would John and Abigail Adams’
lives have changed?
5. SCAMPER can also be used with books. Try this

activity with the storybooks about the epic of
Gilgamesh. The books are titled: Gilgamesh the
King, The Revenge of Ishtar, and The Last Quest of
Gilgamesh by Ludmila Zeman.
Substitute: The goddess, Ishtar, kills Gilgamesh’s
dear friend, Enkidu. Gilgamesh then sets out on a
quest for eternal life. If you could change the reason
that Gilgamesh sets out to overcome death, what
would it be?
Combine: If you could combine Ishtar, the goddess
of love, and Humbaba, the monster who hid in the
forest, what kind of character would you have?
22
Brainstorming
Describe and draw this new character.

Adapt: Gilgamesh learned that the good he could
accomplish in his kingdom during his lifetime
was his immortality. How can this lesson that
Gilgamesh learned be applied to you and your life?
Modify/Minify/Magnify: What if Gilgamesh had
attained immortality? How would the story have
ended? Rewrite the ending of Gilgamesh, telling
what he did with this immortality.
Put to another use: Utanapishtim offered Gilgamesh
a plant that would keep him young, but not neces-
sarily keep him from dying. If Gilgamesh had been
able to keep this plant, how could he have used it
in his kingdom for the good of his people instead
of for selfish means? Write a persuasive letter to
Gilgamesh urging him to follow your advice.
Elaborate/Eliminate: Gilgamesh’s quest took him
to the house of Siduri, who gave him directions
to Utanapishtim, the only mortal to have attained
eternal life. Eliminate the female tavern owner,
Siduri, from the story. How else would Gilgamesh
have found his way?
Reverse/Rearrange: Rearrange all three picture
books in the opposite order in which they were
intended. Could the story make sense if events
were reversed? Create a flow chart with this rear-
ranged story.
23
Excerpted from Successful Strategies for Reading in the Content Areas: Grades 3–5. Copyright © 2004 by Shell
Education.
24
Brainstorming
Blank Matrix Grid
25
Chapter 1 Review
1. What are some general guidelines when
brainstorming with a class?
a. resist criticism
b. set aside a specific time for brainstorming
c. allow students to build upon ideas already
presented
d. All of the above
e. only a and b
2. Why should we evaluate brainstorming using

criteria?
a. Students need to see that evaluation is a
necessary part of the creative process.
b. It is good for students to explore the values
related to the problem.
c. It helps students to consider many
perspectives of a problem.
d. Evaluation proves that some of the far-fetched
ideas are sometimes the best solutions to a
problem.
e. All of the above
3. What are some ways to brainstorm?

a. Morphological matrix
b. SCAMPER
c. Attribute Listing Method
d. All of the above
4. True or False? All ideas should be judged
immediately during a brainstorming session.
26
27
1. What is a graphic organizer?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
2. Why do graphic organizers help students retain

information?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
3. Why is a graphic organizer sometimes referred to

as a “map”?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
28
Chapter
Two
Graphic Organizers
When working with very young children, what is the

best way to have them classify different kinds of ani-
mals? How about getting them to explain the connec-
tions between certain characters in a story? Is it possible
to get elementary-age children to remember the specific
parts of a story? How can they best explain the rock cycle
to their classmates? In what ways can middle and high
school students show the key reasons for the Civil War?
Will they ever be able to differentiate between the differ-
ent instruments in a band?
There are answers to all these (and many more) ques-
tions. The answers lie in the use of graphic organizers.
Graphic organizers help students stay focused on the
task at hand. They visually demonstrate how informa-
tion and ideas are organized. They also show us how
students think. The graphic organizer is a picture worth
a thousand words.
29
What Are Graphic Organizers?

Graphic organizers are visual representations of informa-
tion that help us gather and sort pertinent information.
They allow the mind to see patterns and relationships
between information. More often than not, these orga-
nizers are called “maps” because they help us map out
our ideas in a visual way.
Perhaps the most common graphic organizer that people

see on a daily basis is the calendar. Calendars help us
sort, sift, record, and share information. In recent years,
graphic organizers have taken on the following names,
just to name a few—semantic maps, webs, concept maps,
story maps, and semantic organizers.
Graphic organizers have a way of connecting several

pieces of isolated information. They take new informa-
tion and file it into an existing framework. Old informa-
tion is retrieved in the process and the new information
is attached.
Pages 31 and 32 show several examples of filled-in graph-

ic organizers to show how they can be used in the class-
room for a variety of topics. Blank graphic organizers are
provided later in the chapter for your classroom use.
30
Graphic Organizers
Education.
31
Education.
32
Graphic Organizers
Why Use Graphic Organizers?

Understanding how the brain works helps us understand
why graphic organizers are valuable tools for learning.
In the book Science Continuum of Concepts for Grades
K–6, Karen Olsen states:
From brain research we have come to understand
that the brain is a pattern-seeking device in search of
meaning and that learning is the acquisition of men-
tal programs for using what we understand. Thus,
the most usable and useful curriculum for classroom
teachers would be one that made clear for teacher and
student what the patterns are and how those under-
standings would be used in the real world. (Olsen,
1995, p. 5)
Other researchers say that graphic organizers are one
of the most powerful ways to build semantic memories
(Sprenger, 1999). Eric Jensen says that semantic memory
is “activated by association, similarities, or contrasts”
and graphic organizers assist students with such neces-
sary connections (1998, p. 106).
How does the brain do this? The brain stores informa-

tion much like the way that a graphic organizer shows
information. It screens large amounts of information and
looks for patterns that are linked together. The brain is
able to take meaning much easier from a visual format
like a graphic organizer than from merely written words
on a page. Graphic organizers not only help students
manage information, but they offer information that
students can understand at a glance. When connections
are made on paper, the information engages other parts
of the brain. When these connections happen, the brain
transfers the information from short-term memory to
long-term memory.
Using graphic organizers enriches students’ reading abili-

ties. First of all, graphic organizers help students learn to
focus on key concepts taken from a text or broad idea.
33
As a result, they help students understand how concepts

develop and evolve. As already mentioned, graphic orga-
nizers take new knowledge and integrate it with prior
knowledge.
Using graphic organizers also enriches students’ writing

abilities. When students fill out graphic organizers, they
learn to summarize information. Students cannot merely
copy information to their page. When using graphic orga-
nizers, students have to think about how to write the
information in a different way. This provides a unique
way for students to take notes during a lecture or while
reading a passage. Graphic organizers are also a great way
to assess and evaluate students’ learning.
Finally, using graphic organizers enriches students’
thinking abilities. Especially when used with the brain-
storming technique, graphic organizers can help students
generate creative ideas. These organizers also help stu-
dents clarify their thinking and demonstrate their under-
standing of a topic.
It is important to consider learning styles. Many stu-
dents are visual learners. Visual learners remember
information better through pictures, like graphic orga-
nizers. Students get into the habit of thinking in terms of
symbols or key words. Not only are graphic organizers a
great tool for those who are already visual thinkers, they
are a great tool for helping others become stronger visual
thinkers.
Ideas for Using Graphic Organizers

Graphic organizers can be used before, during, and after
instruction in a classroom. They help us predict, plan,
organize and reorganize, interpret, and compare and con-
trast.
34
Graphic Organizers
Graphic organizers can be used for:
• Brainstorming
• Note-taking while reading a text or listening to a
lecture
• Summarizing and organizing information
• Prewriting tools
• Comparing and contrasting information
• Finding the main idea and supporting details
• Showing sequence of events
• Organizing a story
• Finding cause and effect relationships
• Character maps/traits
• Differentiating between facts and opinions
• Helping with decision making
• Showing cycles
• Finding the 5 Ws
Look at the following pages for printed samples of graphic

organizers that you can copy and use in your classroom.
35
Education.
36
Graphic Organizers
Education.
37
Education.
38
Graphic Organizers
Education.
39
Education.
40
Graphic Organizers
Education.
41
Education.
42
Graphic Organizers
Chapter 2 Review
1. Why should we use graphic organizers?
a. The brain stores information much like
the way that a graphic organizer shows
information. It screens large amounts of
information and looks for patterns that are
linked together.
b. Graphic organizers offer information that
students can understand at a glance.
c. Graphic organizers help students manage
information.
d. All of the above
2. Graphic organizers are called “maps” because . . .

a. they help us find our destination.
b. they help us map out our ideas in a visual
way.
c. they are tools for learning much like a map is
a tool for a traveler.
3. Graphic organizers enrich a student’s reading
ability by _______________.
a. clarifying his/her thinking and demonstrating
his/her understanding of a topic
b. focusing on key concepts taken from a text or
a broad idea
c. explaining how to write the new information
in a different way
4. When should graphic organizers be used?

a. before instruction
b. during instruction
c. after instruction
d. All of the above
43
1. What makes a question a good question?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
2. What types of questions should teachers ask

students?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
3. Why is it important to model good questioning

techniques to students?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
44
Chapter
Three
Questioning
Techniques
In any given classroom today, a teacher will ask about

80 questions every hour. In that same classroom, only
two questions per hour will come from the students.
What does this say about our classrooms today? First of
all, it says that teachers are spending a lot of time asking
questions. But experience tells us that these questions
are mostly “yes” and “no” questions and strictly recall
questions. It also tells us that teachers, not students,
are doing the asking. That means today’s students are
mostly passive learners, not active ones.
What would a classroom be like where students were

asking most of the questions? It is important to note that
students will only know how to ask the questions that
are modeled by the teacher. So, what kinds of questions
should those be? The answer is both simple and com-
plex—they should be good questions.
What makes a question a good question? Think about
this question for a minute. Do you want to know the
45
answer? Does it make you pause and think? Does this

question strike you as a broad one with many answers?
Could this be a good question in itself? The right kinds
of questions make students think. Many of these good
questions are developed from curiosity. Good questions
may have many right answers or no right answers at all.
They stem from a desire to acquire information. Even
Socrates and Plato urged their students to question inces-
santly. Good questions make learning meaningful.
Why Is Questioning so Important?

Questions are the tools that bring insight and under-
standing. They bring sense to a confusing world. Some
say questioning is the most powerful tool ever created.
Can we think without questions? What does the word

think mean anyway? Webster’s Dictionary defines think
as “to form ideas, conceive, judge, consider, or arrive at
conclusions.” According to this definition, regurgitat-
ing is not thinking. To think is to be actively engaged
in learning. To have great thinkers, we must have great
questions. But not all forms of thinking are the same.
Thinking occurs at various degrees depending on the
depth of the questions.
Questioning is important for many reasons. First of all,

questioning has so much to do with communicating
with one another. Many of our conversations revolve
around questions. In other words, without questions, we
would not have many conversations. Questioning also
helps us avoid mistakes. It improves our study skills by
making us independent learners. Questioning expands
our knowledge and thinking ability. It gets us wondering
and pondering the unknown. But most importantly, by
using the right questioning techniques, teachers serve
as a model by teaching students the right kinds of ques-
tions to ask. Teaching students how to question will
transform our students from being passive learners to
46
Questioning Techniques
active learners. They will become problem solvers who

can make decisions.
What Questions Should We Ask?

A good question can begin with any of these words—
Why, How, and Which. When a question begins with
why, students analyze cause-and-effect relationships.
Most questions asked by young children begin with the
word why. It is the word used for figuring out answers.
Why does the sun come up each day? Why does the
rooster crow at dawn? Why do plants die?
Questions that begin with how tend to be problem-solv-

ing questions. It is a level of synthesis. These types of
questions seek to change and improve things. Inventors
ask the how questions. It is the how questions that spurn
new inventions, improve businesses, and repair items.
How will the prince win her love? How will the hero
emerge from the war? How can I get my computer to
work faster?
Finally, questions that begin with which are decision-

making questions. These questions require thoughtful
choices based on evidence or clearly-stated criteria.
Which questions are the most important questions of
all because they often determine who we will become.
Which city is best to live in? Which road will I travel in
life? Which plan is the best?
A teacher should model these questions, and, most

importantly, students should be asking them, too. In the
past few years, studies show that students have not been
the ones asking the questions. Instead, teachers have
fired off recall questions every three seconds or so.
There are numerous models of questioning. In this chap-

ter we will explore Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive
Domain, Williams’ Taxonomy of Creative Thought, and
the Three Story Intellect Model.
47
Socratic Seminar as a Questioning

Strategy
It is no coincidence that the term Socratic Seminar
sounds like the name Socrates. Questioning was at the
very core of what he taught his students in Athens. He
firmly believed skepticism to be a positive trait. His
classroom became famous and popular because of his rig-
orous questions. This attracted many notable students.
Needless to say, his model of questioning is one that has
stood the test of time.
The Socratic Seminar examines ideas, principles, and

issues. Before conducting a seminar, students should be
very familiar with the topic or issue at hand. The semi-
nar can be about a primary source document, a painting,
or an issue being debated on the local news.
The role of the teacher is to prepare the open-ended ques-

tions that explore ideas, values, and issues. These are not
questions that focus on facts already known. These ques-
tions should encourage participation, and the teacher
should encourage students to address one another during
the discussion if a conflict or disagreement arises.
The teacher is also the one asking the questions. These

questions should be open-ended and should focus upon
ideas and themes related to the topic. In addition, the
questions should capture students’ interests.
Sample questions include:

• What would you cite to defend the actions of . . . ?
• What information would you use to support the
view . . . ?
• How would you justify . . . ?
• Why was it better that . . . ?
• How would you compare ideas . . . ?
48
Using the sample questions on page 48 or any others

of your choice, do the following example of a Socratic
Seminar with your students.
On the day of the seminar, have students sit in a large

circle, with yourself as part of that circle. Lead the dis-
cussion by asking a question. When students answer,
other students may speak their mind too, but only one
person should speak at a time. When there is no more
discussion on that question, move on to another ques-
tion that has been prepared beforehand, repeating the
same process. The goal is to get students to think criti-
cally and to model how to ask questions.
Closing questions should help students see the big pic-

ture. Students can point out the most important aspect
of a piece. Students can also reflect on how their opin-
ions have changed since the discussion.
Sample closing questions include:

• What would you select as the most important
aspect of this piece?
• What caused you to change your mind during the
discussion?
• What have you learned about this piece?
• How will your new knowledge enable you to be a
better person?
If the discussion has historical value, have students talk

about the actual historic event. Students can also reflect
on the discussion in a journal or writing activity for
homework.
Bloom’s Taxonomy
In 1956, educator Benjamin Bloom worked with a group
of educational psychologists to classify levels of cogni-
49
tive thinking. Bloom’s Taxonomy has been used in class-

rooms over the last 40 years as a hierarchy of questions
that progresses from less difficult to more complex. The
progression allows teachers to identify the level at which
students are thinking. It also provides a framework for
introducing a variety of questions to students as well as
differentiating according to students’ ability levels.
Many teachers see this taxonomy as a ladder or pyramid.

For example, some teachers think they have to begin at
the bottom with knowledge questions and work their
way progressively up to the evaluative questions. But
that is not necessary to achieve good questions for stu-
dents. For example, a question can begin with analysis.
Students can be challenged to figure out why test scores
are low in a particular district. This type of question
requires students to acquire, analyze, and synthesize
information to arrive at a solution. There are appropriate
times for each level of questions.
Bloom’s Taxonomy is a useful model for categorizing

test questions. According to Bloom, as students move
toward more advanced levels of thinking, they analyze
by breaking things into smaller parts, synthesize when
they think creatively, and evaluate when they make
judgments based on evidence.
On the following pages, each level of Bloom’s Taxonomy
has four categories of information:
1. A description of the type of thinking that is

involved.
2. Key verbs for teachers to use in asking a question
at that level.
3. Typical products and activities that result from
this level of thinking.
4. Specific question/sentence example prompts that
represent Bloom’s taxonomy.
50
Knowledge Skills
This cognitive skill requires that students:
• Recall or locate information
• Remember something previously learned
• Memorize information
When asking questions that require knowledge, the
following verbs are used:
tell recite list
memorize remember define
locate describe identify
name match arrange
duplicate label order
recognize relate recall
repeat reproduce state
Products/activities resulting:
workbook pages quizzes tests
exams vocabulary facts in isolation
Specific examples of knowledge in the classroom:

Write the definitions of the following words.
Label the planets in the solar system.
51
Comprehension Skills
• Understand and explain facts
• Demonstrate basic understanding of
concepts and curriculum
• Translate to other words
• Grasp the meaning
• Interpret information
• Explain what happened in their own
words (or pictures)
When asking questions that require comprehension,
the following verbs are used:
restate give examples explain
summarize translate show symbols
edit distinguish estimate
predict generalize classify
describe discuss illustrate
express identify indicate
locate recognize report
restate review select
drawings diagrams
response to questions revisions
Specific examples of comprehension in the classroom:
What are some reasons why clouds bring rain?
Summarize the first chapter of the story.
52
Application Skills
• Use prior learning to solve a problem or
to answer a question
• Transfer knowledge learned in one
situation to another
• Use new material in new and concrete
situations
• Apply the lessons of the past to a
situation today
When asking questions that require application, the
demonstrate build cook
compute prepare solve
produce discover choose
apply dramatize employ
illustrate operate practice
schedule sketch chart
use write
recipes models artwork
demonstrations crafts
Specific examples of application in the classroom:
Take the specific data and put it into a bar graph.
Consider how you feel about the dress code and
draw a picture that represents your feelings.
53
Analysis Skills
• See in-depth relationships between and
among parts of the information
• Understand how parts relate to a whole
• Understand structure and motive
• Note fallacies
• Break down material into its component
parts so that its organizational structure
can be understood
• Take a complicated situation and break
it down into its parts
When asking questions that require analysis, the
investigate classify examine
categorize compare contrast
solve diagram differentiate
illustrate outline distinguish
separate
Venn diagrams lists of attributes surveys
solutions conclusions
Specific examples of analysis in the classroom:

Compare and contrast the current president’s cam-
paign promises to those of President Abraham
Lincoln.
In what ways could a large influx of migrants change
a community?
54
Synthesis Skills
• Create new ideas by pulling parts of the
information together
• Reform individual parts to make a new
whole
• Take a jumble of facts and add them up
to make sense
When asking questions that require synthesis, the
compose design invent
create hypothesize construct
forecast imagine categorize
combine compile reconstruct
summarize plan write
arrange assemble collect
develop formulate manage
organize prepare propose
rearrange parts set up
original plans hypothesis creative stories
compositions inventions experiments
Specific examples of synthesis in the classroom:

Create a new song about the continents that goes to
the melody of “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star.”
Write a new ending to the book Hatchet or any
other classic book.
55
Evaluation Skills
• Make judgments based on evidence
• Determine the value of something, i.e.,
criteria
• Support judgment
• Consider the value of material for a given
purpose
• Examine a person/policy/event and tell
whether it measures up to a certain
standard
When asking questions that require evaluation, the
judge evaluate give opinions
viewpoint prioritize recommend
critique appraise compare
conclude justify criticize
interpret argue assess
defend estimate predict
rate support value
rating ideas making judgments book reviews
editorials self assessments
Specific examples of evaluation in the classroom:
Justify the decision made by the principal to require
uniforms for students at school.
Decide whether you agree or disagree with the state-
ment “Lying is always bad.” Be prepared to support
your decision.
56
Williams’ Taxonomy of Creative

Thought
Williams’ Taxonomy of Creative Thought has eight lev-
els of questions that expand a student’s creativity. All
eight of these questions are an extension of Bloom’s syn-
thesis levels of thinking. The first four levels are of the
cognitive domain, while the last four levels of questions
work with the affective domain.
1. Fluency—Questions generate a great many ideas,
related answers, or choices.
2. Flexibility—Questions encourage flexibility
and seek to change everyday objects so that an
array of categories is generated. Detours are
taken and sizes, shapes, quantities, time limits,
requirements, objectives, or dimensions are varied.
3. Elaboration—Questions expand, enlarge, enrich, or
embellish possibilities that build on prior ideas or
thoughts.
4. Originality—Questions promote originality and
seek new ideas by suggesting unusual twists to
change content or to generate clever responses.
5. Curiosity—Questions promote curiosity and allow
students to follow a hunch, question alternatives,
ponder outcomes, and wonder about options.
6. Risk taking—Questions deal with the unknown by
asking students to take chances, try new things, or
experiment with new ideas.
7. Complexity—Questions create structure in an
unstructured setting. They can also build a logical
order in a given situation.
8. Imagination—Questions encourage imagination
and help students visualize possibilities, build
images in the mind, picture new objects, and reach
beyond the practical limits.
57
The Odyssey and Williams’ Taxonomy

Using the passage below and students’ knowledge of
The Odyssey, practice the eight levels of questions of
Williams’ Taxonomy of Creative Thought with your
students.
Odysseus, king of Ithaca, has made his way homeward

and has reclaimed his rightful place. You feared that he
(and you) might not make it, seeing that his quest for
home took 17 years from the time he left Ithaca. This
long trip has made you tired, but you are also eager to
tell your story in a new light.
Have students expand their creative knowledge of The

Odyssey with the exercises below.
Fluency
You are an Oscar-winning screenwriter and have been
commissioned to write a screenplay for The Odyssey.
While writing this screenplay, you have envisioned sev-
eral actors for the main roles. If anyone could be cast
for the main roles, who would they be? The main roles
include Odysseus, Penelope, Telemachus, crew of five
comrades, three evil suitors, and Athena.
Flexibility
Pick a time in history in which this epic tale would
be set. Remember, the time in history will have bear-
ing on the costumes, problems/conflicts that arise, and
transportation Odysseus takes to get home to “Ithaca.”
Explain how the setting affects each of these—costumes,
problems and conflicts, and transportation.
Elaboration
Elaborate on the scene where Odysseus and his crew are
trapped in the cave with the Cyclops. Tell the story from
the Cyclops’s point of view. Remember, he is Poseidon’s
son.
58
Originality
Decide on a new name for Odysseus, king of Ithaca.
Choose a name with substantial meaning for this quest.
Search through baby name books and the Internet to gain
ideas.
Curiosity
Odysseus and his men safely passed the first peril of the
Sirens about which Circe had warned them. What do you
think would have happened to Odysseus and his men if
they had landed on the island with the Sirens? Create a
brief script in the form of a dream to show what would
have taken place on that island with the Sirens.
Risk Taking
You are afraid that the name The Odyssey would not
bring many viewers to this potential box office hit.
Create a poster and rename this screenplay to make it
more electrifying to the general public.
Complexity
How would the movie fare if the gods had not inter-
vened? Choose a part of the book where the gods helped
Odysseus and decide on another way Odysseus could
have combated the problem. (Remember, Athena and
Hermes both interceded help when needed.)
Imagination
Close your eyes and imagine how this movie would fare
if the following movie stars played Odysseus—Arnold
Schwarzenegger, Jackie Chan, Eddie Murphy, or Homer
Simpson. With each name, write the mood that each star
would cast upon the setting.
59
The Three Story Intellect Model

There are one-story intellects, two-story intel-
lects, and three-story intellects with skylights.
All fact collectors who have no aim beyond
their facts are one-story people. Two-story
people compare, reason, and generalize, using
the labor of fact collectors as their own. Three-
story people idealize, imagine, predict—their
best illumination comes from above through
the skylight. —Oliver Wendell Holmes (poet)
The Three Story Intellect Model (illustrated in Figure

3.1) is much like Bloom’s Taxonomy, except that it cat-
egorizes thinking into three levels instead of six. The
three levels work together in order to process informa-
tion much like the brain works.
Level I, called the Gathering or Input Phase, describes
how students gather information through their senses.
This is the foundation for higher-level thinking. Students
learn to state problems in their own words, observe and
gather information for making decisions, create goals,
and connect information with previous experiences.
Level II is the Processing Phase. Information is processed
to make it meaningful. Students build on the foundation
of skills in Level I by comparing, inferring, organizing,
and questioning information. In Level III, the Applying
Phase, students incorporate all the levels of thinking.
They generate new ideas by predicting, judging, imagin-
ing, and evaluating.
It is not necessary to advance in our thinking in a par-
ticular order. Thinking can begin at Level III with a
problem for the students to solve. A problematic situa-
tion is one of the best ways to get students excited about
learning. When students are confronted with a problem
(Level III), they have to then gather information (Level I),
process it (Level II) and then return to Level III to make
a final decision.
60
Figure 3.1: Three Story Intellect Model
From The Best of Skylight: Essential Teaching Tools by James Bellanca. Reproduced by permission from LessonLab,
a Pearson Education Company. Copyright © 2002 by Skylight Professional Development.
61
Sample Questions from the

Three Story Intellect Method:
Level I: Gathering Questions
How did the pioneers make their way out west?
Who is Bill Gates?
What did Napoleon accomplish for the people of

France?
Why was the Declaration of Independence signed in

Philadelphia?
Where is the island of Cyprus?
Level II: Processing Questions

How can you explain why terrorism occurs?
If you were a southern soldier in the Civil War, how

would you feel about the battle at Gettysburg?
Why did the Boston Tea Party take place?
Compare the two main events in the story.
How do you know that the earth is always changing?
Level III: Application Questions

What kind of advice would Shakespeare give the presi-
dent today?
How could you solve the problem of pollution in your

town?
What would the world be like without death?

Which is the best dessert?
How would you justify war?
62
Chapter 3 Review
1. The following task would be an example of which
one of the following stages of Bloom’s Taxonomy?
“Based on your understanding of the water cycle,
illustrate the four main stages.”
a. Synthesis
b. Application
c. Analysis
d. Evaluation
e. Comprehension
2. Which stage of Bloom’s Taxonomy requires

students to recall specific facts?
a. Knowledge
b. Synthesis
c. Application
d. Analysis
e. Evaluation

one of the eight stages of Williams’ Taxonomy?
“How many questions can you write for the
solution ten?”
a. Flexibility
b. Originality
c. Complexity
d. Fluency

stage of the Three Story Intellect Model? “Take
and defend a position on a U.S. citizen’s right to
own handguns.”
a. Gather
b. Process
c. Apply
63
1. Why should we seek to engage students in

identifying and solving problems?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
2. What is the relationship between problem solving

and learning?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
3. What are the benefits of problem-based learning?

________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
64
Chapter
Four
Problem-Based
Learning
Imagine you are a student again. You are well aware that
vandalism is on the rise in your school. Lockers have
been broken into, students’ belongings have been stolen,
furniture has been scratched, and walls have been writ-
ten on during school hours. The school has decided to
implement safety measures. Hall passes will be strictly
enforced, no outside recess will be permitted, and no one
will be allowed to leave the cafeteria before their lunch
time is over. These rules seem extreme to you. You feel
that innocent students are being punished for what only
a few do. There has to be a better way to stop the van-
dals. What can you do?
Your teacher allows you to work in groups to generate
possible ideas or solutions to this problem. You decide
to write a petition, form volunteer patrols, and survey
65
students. You identify available information related to

this problem, such as reviewing school policies, viewing
a sample petition, and looking at parts of the school that
have been vandalized. You identify issues that need to be
investigated further, i.e., how to form patrols, what other
schools are doing, and how to write a survey. Your group
finds resources to consult. These might include policies
from other schools, the police force, and sample surveys.
Group members are assigned one of the tasks above and
information is gathered and recorded. Finally, your group
is ready to propose a solution and you present your solu-
tion to the school board. This type of learning is called
problem-based learning.
What Is Problem-Based Learning?

Problem-based learning, as we know it today, was first
used in the 1950s at Case Western Reserve University. It
is currently used by more than 80% of medical schools
to train students about medicine.
Problem-based learning is a curriculum develop-

ment and instructional system that simultane-
ously develops both problem-solving strategies
and disciplinary knowledge bases and skills by
placing students in the active role of problem
solvers confronted with an ill-structured prob-
lem that mirrors real-world problems. (Finkle
& Torp, 1995, p. 1)
Problem-based learning gives students the opportunity

to collaborate with their classmates as they study the
issues of a certain problem. They use the information
they find to try and create viable solutions. Instead of
listening to teacher-led lectures in a classroom, students
participate in small-group discussions. The amount of
direct instruction in a problem-based classroom is very
limited, so students have to take on the responsibil-
ity for their own learning. The teacher’s role is much
66
Problem-Based Learning
like a coach—he/she presents the problematic situa-

tion, becomes the subject matter expert, resource guide,
and consultant, as well as a co-investigator that keeps
students on task. The teacher asks the questions like
“Why? What do you mean? How do you know that is
true?” He/she questions a student’s logic and even hints
at erroneous reasoning. He/she models critical thinking
so that students will begin to ask each other the same
kinds of questions. The student’s role is a participant
who grapples with the complexity of the situation while
investigating and resolving the problem from the inside
out.
Why Use Problem-Based Learning?

There are many reasons for using problem-based learning
with students. First, we know that our minds are capable
of thinking through complex situations. It is the nature
of our survival on Earth. Research says that it is the com-
plex challenges that develop our intellect and ability to
think productively (Caine & Caine, 1997; Diamond &
Hopson, 1998).
Problem-based learning also increases motivation in

students. Students see that the outcome of their work
can make a real difference in society. The main goal of
problem-based learning is to engage students in learning.
One cognitive theory states that students will work if
presented with problems that are perceived as meaning-
ful.
In addition, it provides the reason for learning informa-

tion. It shows that what students do in school can have
an impact in the real world. Even John Dewey said that
school should be life-like instead of merely preparing
students for life.
Problem-based learning promotes higher-level thinking

skills. These types of problems do not provide just one
right answer. Students are forced into thinking both
67
critically and creatively as they seek to find solutions to

problems. Perhaps the most important aspect of problem
solving is analyzing problems versus simply performing
a task or practicing a set of skills. Studies performed in
other countries, such as Japan, show teachers beginning
lessons with a challenge and asking students to analyze
the many ways to solve the problem (Barell, 2003). Many
of these countries have produced students who are well-
trained to problem solve once they reach the workplace.
This type of learning provides opportunities for students

to work with others in collaborative groups. In problem-
based learning, students are required to listen to one
another, synthesize information, and work as a group to
solve problems. It prepares students for the workplace,
where teamwork is both valued and required. Think about
Apollo 13. The mission control staff on the ground in
Houston had to work together to save the crew in outer
space. Were it not for their teamwork, the crew of Apollo
13 would not have survived.
Problem-based learning provides a learning atmosphere in
which students can think about thinking, also called meta-
cognition. Strategies are generated for defining a problem,
gathering information, analyzing data, and building and
testing a hypothesis. Problem identification without refer-
ring to a text book is a life skill (Barell, 2002b). Many state
standardized tests call for inquiry. Inquiry is not limited
to science alone. It is a skill that can and should be used in
Language Arts and Social Studies, where students analyze
conflicts in stories and in historical events.
Finally, authentic learning takes place in a classroom

where problem-based learning is incorporated. A prob-
lem-solving context is the best way to acquire informa-
tion (Tyler, 1949). The way that students are engaged in
learning information is similar to the way in which stu-
dents will recall it and use it in the future. Problem-based
learning also assesses learning in ways that show student
understanding.
68
How to Implement Problem-Based

Learning
A typical problem-based learning lesson has several
cycles. These steps can be repeated over and over as nec-
essary to come to a conclusion.
Steps for Problem-Based Learning:

1. Locate the problem
2. Hook the students into the problem
3. Develop a problem statement—How can we . . . in
such a way that . . .
4. Organize the problem with questions, research,
and fact finding
5. Decide on an action plan
6. Create and present a final product
7. Assess
First, the teacher should locate a real-world problem. It

is best if this problem can connect to learning standards
and goals.
Next, the teacher determines facts and finds a way for

students to enter the problem. Students tie it to some-
thing that they are interested in. This is called the
hook.
After the problem has been presented, students discuss

what they know to be the facts of the problem. Then stu-
dents analyze the problem, brainstorm ideas about the
problem, and create an exact statement of the problem.
This is the hypothesis. The problem statement might
sound like this:
How can we . . . in such a way that . . .
69
Next, students will need to identify information needed

to understand the problem and identify resources to be
used to gather information. Students will then find and
share information by interviewing, collecting data, and
performing other forms of research. They can revise the
problem statement and ask additional questions if nec-
essary. Remember, any of these steps can be repeated in
the process as students grapple with the problem.
Next, students develop solutions by reasoning with

information, finding a solution that fits best, as well as
considering the consequences for their solution.
Lastly, students develop some sort of presentation where

they explain, apply, and justify their solution to the
problem. Their information can be published for others
to see.
It is important to remember that the problem should not

have a fixed or formulaic solution. There is not one right
answer. The problem is generally described as messy and
complex in nature. It requires questioning, information
gathering, and reflection.
The chart on page 71 could be used in your classroom

to help you and students organize the problem-solving
process.
70
Directions: Use the chart to help organize the problem-solving process.
Problem Idea/ Hunches Facts Questions Action Plan
71
The KWHLAQ Strategy is another strategy that can be

used to analyze a problem and organize information.
KWHLAQ Strategy
What do we think we know about the

K subject?
W What do we want or need to know?
How will we go about finding answers to

H our questions?
What are we learning on a daily basis, and

L what have we learned after our culminating.
projects?
How can we apply the major concepts,

ideas, principles, and skills to the same
A subject, to other subjects, and to our lives
beyond the classroom?
Q What new questions do we have now?
From Problem Based Learning: An Inquiry Approach by John Barell.

Reproduced by permission from LessonLab, a Pearson Education Company.
Copyright © 2002 by Skylight Professional Development.
72
Examples of Problem-Based Learning

Ideas for problem-based learning can come from televi-
sion, newspaper articles, or literature. Because students
bring their own prior knowledge to develop ideas and then
formulate those ideas into hypotheses, these scenarios
can be used with almost any age group. The high school
level will invariably produce a deeper investigation with
complex results than will a younger classroom.
Possible scenarios:
1. You are a resident in a suburban area where the
deer population has become problematic. Deer
are eating up all the plants and the neighbors are
complaining. It has even become dangerous to
drive at night in the area for fear of hitting a deer.
What action can be taken?
2. You are a widower who has a six-year-old son.
When your wife died, you received $25,000 dollars
in worker’s compensation and $15,000 in stock
option shares. You want your son to attend college
after high school. How can you invest this money
so that by that time, its growth is maximized?
3. You are a member of the President’s staff of
homeland security. Your particular area of
expertise is the security of schools in the area.
What advice will you give the President to help
make schools more secure?
4. You are a member of the local school board. The
book Huckleberry Finn has been included on a
state censorship list. A session has been called to
determine whether this book should be read in
school classrooms or not. What arguments would
you give for or against allowing this book to be
read in classrooms?
73
5. The water in your town is not fit to drink. The

grocery stores in town have seized upon this
opportunity and are charging high prices for
drinking water. What can you do about it?
6. The local museum in your town needs appropriate
materials that explain organ function, effects
of nutrition, and benefits of exercise for young
children who visit the museum. The museum has
contacted your class to provide these materials.
How will you do it?
7. You are the superintendent of schools in your
area. Student test scores are at an all time low
in your district. Parents and school officials are
worried. What can be done to raise these scores?
8. You are a local doctor in town. Recently, you have
seen several mysterious cases of sickness that
cannot be explained. The numbers are growing at
an alarming rate. What can be done to stop the
spread of the disease?
9. Your classroom has received a grant of $100 that
will allow you to plant a vegetable garden. You
must consider the weather in your area before you
plant so that the vegetables will not die. What will
you plant and what location will allow for the best
crop?
10. Voter turnout has been pathetic in the past
two local elections. You are a member of the
local community group that advocates voter
responsibility. How can you encourage people in
your community to get out and vote?
74
Chapter 4 Review
1. True or False? Teachers use direct instruction
during problem-based learning lessons.
2. True or False? Students can repeat the problem-

solving steps several times over before coming to
the conclusion to a problem.
3. Which of these are parts of the problem-solving

process for problem-based learning?
a. Develop a problem statement—How can
we . . . in such a way that . . .
b. Decide on an action plan
c. Create and present a final product
d. Organize the problem with questions,
research, and fact finding
e. All of the above
4. Problem-based learning is beneficial for students

because ________________.
a. it provides opportunities for them to work
together collaboratively.
b. students need to see that there are problems
in this world.
c. if students don’t start solving problems, they
will never learn how.
75
1. Try to think of an item or document that

describes you.
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
2. What type of document is it?

________________________________________________
3. How does the document relate to you?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
4. What is the date of the document?
________________________________________________
5. Who created the document?
________________________________________________
6. What does this document say about the person

who created it and the person who saved it?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
7. What does this document tell us about life during

that time period?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
76
Chapter
Five
Primary Sources
Think about the school identity badges that so many

teachers are required to wear today. What will this docu-
ment tell people two hundred years from now? It will tell
the person’s name, show what that person looked like,
and tell the date the badge was created. It will also tell
the name of the school where this person worked. The
fact that this document exists will tell that schools had
to take security measures to keep children safe.
Think of a woman during the Great Depression who

struggled to feed her family. Those facts become real
when you see her written receipt showing that she traded
chickens to pay for piano lessons for her child. What does
that receipt tell us about how people had to live back
then?
How about Michelangelo’s statue of David, da Vinci’s

painting of the Last Supper, and Brunelleschi’s architec-
tural structure on the cathedral in Florence? All of these
were created during the Renaissance in Italy. And all had
77
a religious theme. What does that say about the time

period and the role of the Church?
In ancient times, people used cylinder seals as their sig-

nature or personal stamp. These seals, made from small
pieces of stone shaped like a tube, had special carvings
on them. Ancient people would roll a cylinder seal on
wet clay and it would leave an impression of an interest-
ing design, picture, or written message. What do these
impressions tell us about the ancient people who owned
the seals?
Primary sources are a voice from the past and tell us

more about life during the time period than even the
best written book could tell. They provide an avenue by
which we can touch history and make it personal. They
offer us the opportunity to analyze and the opportunity
to participate in history.
What Are Primary Sources?

Primary sources are a powerful learning and teaching
device that provide students, teachers, and scholars with
a window to the past unlike any other kind of resource.
In some ways, just about everything around us can be
deemed a primary source. A primary source is any docu-
mentation of an event from a person who actually par-
ticipated in the event. Such sources give us a firsthand
look at the past. Like the letters from someone’s grand-
parents, these documents help the students define who
they are and provide direction for the future.
Some examples of primary sources include:
• Columbus’ Spotlight Journal from his first voyage

to the New World
• A letter written by a general who survived the
USS Maine explosion
78
Primary Sources
• Recipes used during the Great Depression

• Comic books written during the Cold War
• Games played during Colonial Times
• Lusitania passenger log book
• Paintings from the Renaissance
• Photographs of Civil War generals
• Egyptian hieroglyphics
• Children’s books used as Nazi propaganda during
the Holocaust
• Revolutionary War cartoons printed by the English
• Maps from early explorers
• Sketches of Zheng He’s ten masted ships
• Posters from WWII encouraging people to ration
sugar
Why Use Primary Sources?

Using primary sources offers students the opportunity to
act and think as historians. They participate in the con-
structive process of history by studying primary docu-
ments and photographs. History comes alive as students
view historic photographs, handle facsimiles of famous
documents, and read the comments and opinions of those
in the past. When students understand the background of
primary sources, they begin to put historical events and
attitudes into perspective, think progressively, and walk
in the shoes of their ancestors.
Primary sources don’t have to be used only in history

class. Introduce primary sources when reading works
from particular authors. Primary sources can be used in
math class when studying about different mathemati-
cians. Artifacts from Galileo are particularly useful in
science, too.
79
With an array of primary sources at your disposal, teach-

ers can help connect students to the past in ways that
are unimaginable. They enrich student understanding
and give the past meaning. They enhance your repertoire
of teaching tools by providing relevance and depth. With
primary sources, teachers can easily answer the ques-
tion, “So what?”
Ideas for using the following primary sources are pro-

vided on pages 81–87:
• Photographs
• Posters
• Cartoons
• Maps
• Artifacts
• Sound Recordings
• Film Recordings
80
Primary Sources
Ideas for Using Primary Sources
Excerpted from Exploring History Through Primary Sources: The Great Depression by Wendy Conklin. Copyright
© 2003 by Teacher Created Materials, Inc.
81
82
Primary Sources
83
84
Primary Sources
85
86
Primary Sources
87
Chapter 5 Review
1. Which of the following are examples of primary
sources? (circle all that apply)
a. letters
b. diary entries
c. photographs
d. clothing
2. Why are primary sources an excellent way of

teaching history? (circle all that apply)
a. students like to see pictures of old things
b. it gets students involved in the constructive
process of history
c. it provides relevance and meaning
3. When students understand the background of

primary sources, they begin to ____________.
(circle all that apply)
a. put historical events and attitudes into
perspective
b. think progressively
c. walk in the shoes of their ancestors
d. none of the above
4. True or False? The only way to get students to

analyze a primary source photograph is to tell
them to look at it.
88
89
1. What is a simulation?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
2. How can simulations enhance the learning

process?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
3. How does active learning equal authentic

learning?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
90
Chapter
Six
Simulations
What do you remember most about your experiences in

school? How did you learn about the different subjects?
Were you out of your seat and active? For example, did
your teacher have you simply read a chapter on the
Renaissance and then take a multiple-choice test? Or did
you enter class one day to find yourself in a town council
meeting in Florence? Your teacher convenes a meeting
to decide where a piece of artwork created by the local
artist, Michelangelo, should be placed. After viewing a
picture of the statue named David, you and many others
give ideas of where this statue would best suit the town.
Unknown to you, the teacher has arranged with one
student to reply with a planned answer. At the end of
the discussion, that student raises his/her hand and says
that it should be placed in the back corner of the loggia,
an open air stage with columns, where no one can see it.
The teacher asks that person his name, and he replies,
“Leonardo da Vinci.”
What an impression this simulation would make on the

class! Instead of merely reading that there were antago-
91
nistic feelings between these two artists, students are

allowed to participate in an event that actually took
place in Florence. Will students remember this simula-
tion? Students are more likely to remember a simulation
in which they participated rather than remembering
a text that they just read. This is active learning. And
active learning is authentic learning.
What Are Simulations?

Simulations are activities that get students actively
participating in the learning process. Some simulations
demand that students involve their entire body. For
example, in language arts, teachers can have students
act out punctuation. When the teacher reads a sentence,
students can show what the end punctuation should be
by either curling into a ball on the floor for a period,
jumping straight up and down for an exclamation point,
or hunching their shoulders for a question mark.
Math teachers can employ the same concept for adding,

subtracting, multiplying, or dividing. Put students into
groups and have them form their bodies into the number
that answers a math sentence. For example, the teacher
might ask groups to solve five times five. Each group will
need to use their bodies to show that the answer is 25.
A science teacher might use a simulation to show

how warm and cold molecules differ in their activity.
The teacher will need to mark off a small square area
in a room and then tell the students to be molecules.
Students should walk inside the square area very slowly
without touching anyone. As students are doing this,
explain that cold molecules act this way. They live com-
fortably in small tight areas. That is why cold air sinks.
Then tell students to walk around very fast inside the
square area. They will be bumping into each other. As
students are doing this, explain that warm molecules act
this way. Their activity has increased and so they need
92
Simulations
more space to keep from bumping into each other. They

need to expand and that is why warm air rises. All these
simulations engage students actively.
In other simulations, students visualize themselves in

another time period or situation. These types of activities
lend themselves easily to historical events. Simulations
can provide students the opportunity to travel back in
time, think like the people did back then, discuss strat-
egies, and make decisions as if they were a part of the
actual historic event. In this book, there is a distinction
made between simulations and problem-based learning.
While some simulations have students solving problems
and working toward conclusions, the ultimate goal for a
simulation is that students experience the simulation.
The goal for problem-based learning is for students to
solve a problem. (Problem-based learning was explored
in Chapter 4.)
Simulations vary in length and commitment. Depending

on the topic and the amount of time that can be devoted
to a simulation, they can be very simple and quick or
very involved and last several hours, days, or weeks.
The simulation between Michelangelo and da Vinci only

takes a few minutes and would serve as a great opener
to a unit of study. A simulation involving passengers
aboard the Santa Maria, Niña, and Pinta could take
several days and help students to understand what it
would have been like to travel with Columbus on a ship.
Students can be a citizen accused of witchcraft during
the Salem witch trials and decide how they will plead.
A simulation between the North and the South during
the Civil War could take weeks and would help students
understand the intense issues that divided a nation and
caused a war. A section of the students in the classroom
can be quarantined during a study of World War II to
show what it was like to be a Japanese American living
in the United States.
93
Why Use Simulations?

Research shows that facts are more likely to be recalled
if emotions are tapped right after a learning experience
(McGaugh et al., 1995). When students participate in
simulations, they actively participate in learning. When
simulations are used, the emotions are engaged in the
learning process. Experiences generate emotions, which
allows students to express opinions.
Research also suggests that that there are significant

links between learning and body movements (Jensen,
1998). Because of this link, it is imperative that teachers
integrate movement into learning everyday. Simulations
are a great way to involve movement while learning.
Through simulations, students can learn the history of

the time period and learn to think like the people did
during that time period. They begin to understand why
people made particular decisions, and they offer ideas
for what could have been done differently. When stu-
dents encounter learning like this, they remember better
what was taught. For example, Edgar Allan Poe wrote
the genre that he did because of the time in which he
lived. What did Mark Twain’s childhood have to do with
the books that he wrote? It’s important to understand
Shakespeare’s time frame in order to fully understand
his writings.
These types of activities pack a lot of exciting content

and details into a short amount of time. Simulations
teach what textbooks teach, but the format provides a
more exciting learning environment. Students get excit-
ed about history and it suddenly becomes meaningful
because their emotions are involved.
Simulations challenge students to use higher-level think-

ing skills. It provides interaction and feedback, some-
thing textbooks cannot do, and students evaluate history
in the process.
94
Simulations
Ideas for Using Simulations

First of all, when a simulation is finished, students
should always compare the simulated event with the
actual event. How are they alike and how are they differ-
ent? Teachers need to assist students in analyzing these
two events. Students could simulate important historical
events from any curriculum area, such as Social Studies,
Science, Math, Literature, and Art. The following are a
few examples of simulations and activities you could
use in your classroom. For more discussion and activity
ideas on these and other simulations, see Social Studies
Strategies for Active Learning by Dr. Andi Stix (2004).
95
Bartering
Bartering is a fun activity that turns the classroom into a babble of hagglers, trad-
ers, and bargain hunters, and in the process gives students an opportunity to learn
the strengths and weaknesses of exchanging goods without using money. Students
become members of a self-sufficient community, whether in ancient Egypt, ancient
Greece, or as European peasants of the Middle Ages (Stix, 2004).
Sample Activity: Bartering in Colonial America

In this activity, students simulate a day at a marketplace in Colonial America. The object
is for each student to trade away his/her items and to accumulate a variety of other goods
for his/her family. Have students keep a simple bartering ledger so that they can review
their trades and determine whether or not they had a good bartering day.
1. Divide students into equal groups—each group can represent a different colonial
settlement. Try to include colonies from the New England Colonies, (Plymouth,
Massachusetts Bay, etc.), the Middle Colonies (New Amsterdam, New
Netherlands, etc.), and the Southern Colonies (Jamestown, Charleston, etc.).
2. Distribute labels for students to wear with different colonial occupations, such
as butcher, farmer, dairy farmer, baker, leather maker and shoe weaver, weaver,
glazier/glass blower, and carpenter. Assign each student in a group a different
occupation.
3. Distribute cards with possible items that were traded in Colonial America, such
as corn, maple syrup, dairy, leather goods, metal ware, fruit, and meat. Be sure
that each occupation has an equal number of items for bartering. In each group,
have students make piles of their cards, i.e., the farmer places all tomato cards
together in one pile, all apples into another pile, etc.
4. Model the activity before you proceed. Walk up to a “concession stand” and
browse through the cards. Tell the person that you’d like to barter. This person
then browses through your cards. The person tells you what he/she would like,
and you reply by stating what you’d like. You negotiate together to determine
how many cards of theirs would be an equitable trade with yours. For example,
a chair that was cut and carved from raw wood can never be worth the same
amount as a dozen apples. Once you agree, you exchange cards. Have students
continue independently, keeping track of their trades in their bartering ledgers.
Excerpted from Exploring History: Colonial America by Dr. Andi Stix and Frank Hrbek. Copyright © 2001 by
Teacher Created Materials, Inc.
96
Simulations
Lobbyist Hearing
In this simulation, students simulate participating in a public meeting, where panel
members listen to the persuasive opinions of different interest groups to determine
an important decision. The interest groups try to persuade a panel to their point of
view about what should be done. The panel can act the part of judges, legislators, or
congressmen and women (Stix, 2004).
Sample Activity: Should or Shouldn’t We Celebrate Columbus Day?

In this activity, students will simulate a congressional committee hearing to determine
whether or not the United States should celebrate Columbus Day.
1. Separate the class into a maximum of five lobbyist groups and assign each group
one of the following points of view, which they will use to argue for or against
Columbus Day. Have students research their assigned point of view with their
groups or individually.
Points of View
• Cheng Ho, a great Chinese explorer who voyaged all over Southeast Asia
• Scandinavian Vikings, who sailed the oceans prior to Columbus
• Native Americans, such as the Carib Indians from the Caribbean Islands,
who had lived in the New World for many years
• Christopher Columbus, explorer in search of a new all-water route to Asia
• Vasco de Gama, the Portuguese explorer, who discovered the all-water
route around Africa to India
2. In their lobbyist groups, students generate a list of key issues to argue their
viewpoint. Each student must choose one or two points from the list to write
his/her own 30-second to one-minute speech.
3. As students write and practice their speeches, pull one student from each group
to form the panel that will make the final decision (make sure it is an odd
number). These panel members must now create a list of questions that they
want answered by the lobbyists before making their decision.
4. Call on one lobbying group at a time—the first speaker states the group’s point of
view and whether it is for or against the issue. After each member’s speech, each
panel member asks at least one follow-up question of the group. Repeat with
each lobbyist group.
5. After some discussion, the committee makes its decision and announces it to the
class. Allow for discussion on the entire process as a whole-class follow-up.
Excerpted from Exploring History: The Age of Exploration by Dr. Andi Stix and Frank Hrbek.
Copyright © 2000 by Teacher Created Materials, Inc.
97
Vote On It!
This is an activity in which students participate in the task of determining leadership
qualities by examining the résumés of people from a specific time period. The names
of the individuals are omitted from the résumés, and the goal is to help select one of
the people to complete a given job, i.e., help President Lincoln choose a new general
to lead the northern armies during the Civil War. Students will choose the individual
they feel is best qualified by his or her education, experience, and background (Stix,
2004).
Sample Activity: Elect the First President of the United States

In this activity, students are given the résumés of candidates who lived during the
American Revolution. Students must choose the candidate they think would make the
greatest contribution to the leadership of the United States.
1. Divide the class into cooperative groups of four students. Ask each student to
first generate independently a list of qualifications he/she would like to see in a
presidential candidate. Each student then shares his/her ideas with the group, and
they collectively decide on their top ten priorities.
2. Create résumé cards for notable historical individuals from the American
Revolution and randomly number them. Distribute one set of four to six résumé
cards to each pair of students. The following is George Washington’s résumé:
H Education: No formal education H

Work Experience: Farmer; land surveyor; planter; military officer and
commander-in-chief; member of a lawmaking body; congressional
member; land investor; justice of the peace
Personal Background: Married, has stepchildren, adopted two of his
grandchildren
Age as of 1789: 57
H H
3. Students read the résumés and compare and contrast the data about the six
unknown candidates. A vote is held within each group, and the majority
selection wins as if the Electoral College had met. Discuss the reasons each
group voted for a particular candidate and then reveal each candidate’s identity.
Students will be surprised by some of their choices!
Excerpted from Exploring History: The Constitution and a New Government by Dr. Andi Stix
and Frank Hrbek. Copyright © 2001 by Teacher Created Materials, Inc.
98
Simulations
Flexogeneous Reading Groups

For this strategy, teachers can prepare readings that are nonfiction, based on primary
source documents, such as newspaper clippings, biographies, and magazine articles.
At first, each member of a cooperative learning group of students receives the same
reading, which differs from another group. They discuss the piece in depth. Then,
they are “jigsawed” into new groups, which bring together members who represent
different readings. Another variation of this strategy is to use historical fiction or
historical young-adult literature written at varying reading levels, which allow for
student choice, differentiation, and the discussion on a specific book (Stix, 2004).
Sample Activity: Literature Circles and Journal Writing

Literature Circles: If you have 24 students in your classroom, you could offer four differ-
ent books to students—novels written with slightly different focuses during any specific
historical period. The first step is to group students by book and to assign a specific num-
ber of pages to be read. Ask students one open-ended question before they are given the
reading assignment—it will be the same for all groups. Pose questions such as these:
• Describe how the environment is having an effect on the main character.

• Describe the tensions between the main character and other characters in
the book.
• In what ways is the setting described in your book different from your
hometown or city?
• Describe what is happening historically that creates tension within the
story.
• If you were living back in that historical time period, what would you find
most disturbing and want to change?
When students return to class, have them sit with their groups and discuss their answers
to the question posed. The second level is to “jigsaw” students into new groups, so that
students who read different books are represented in the new groups. Students discuss
the same question. Their common bond is the time and main historical events of each
book.
Journal writing: Have each student keep a journal. Encourage students to use multi-
modal journal writing, where they can write, draft diagrams, draw pictures, design and
draw tables of simple statistics, or even paste pictures of small collectibles onto the
pages. Allow them to reflect in their journals after each literature circle.
Excerpted from Social Studies Strategies for Active Learning by Dr. Andi Stix. Copyright © 2004 by Teacher
Created Materials, Inc.
99
Playlets
Students fashion the dialogues and settings as they write their own scripts. They may
elect to do a puppet show, interview, jury trial, musical, poetry that utilizes rhyme,
flashback technique, live comic strip, regular drama, or some other format that the
students design. This strategy is best suited to periods in history that encompass a
decade or two, the administration of a powerful president or leader, sections of a long
story, or any event that had cataclysmic results (Stix, 2004).
Sample Activity: The Rosetta Stone Skits

In this activity, students will write their own two- to three-page script of a scene from
the Rosetta Stone story.
1. Create scene cards that cover different stages of the Rosetta Stone story. In
addition to the sample scenes on page 101, you could also create scene cards
for the following events (create them yourself or have students create them as a
whole-class project):
• The French start to decipher the Rosetta Stone
• The French begin their quest in deciphering the Rosetta Stone
• The British make the Rosetta Stone available for their scholars
• Dr. Thomas Young tries to decipher the Rosetta Stone
• Champollion’s early investigations
• Champollion examines Alexander the Great’s cartouche
2. Using a sentence from one of the scene cards on page 101, set the stage
by modeling how to write a historical fiction script with historical fiction
characters.
3. Divide students into cooperative groups of four to five students and assign one
scene per group, providing copies of the cards for each student. It is essential that
all students have a part. Ask students to discuss the points of their scenes before
they begin writing their scripts. Allow the students time to edit their work,
rehearse, and bring in props. They could also incorporate graphics, maps, and
artifacts to embellish their scripts and to make them livelier.
4. Provide enough class time for each group to act out its skit. After each
performance, a question-and-answer period should be allowed.
Excerpted from Exploring History: Ancient Egypt by Dr. Andi Stix and Frank Hrbek. Copyright © 2004 by
Teacher Created Materials, Inc.
100
Simulations
Rosetta Stone Scenes
Excerpted from Exploring History: Ancient Egypt by Dr. Andi Stix and Frank Hrbek. Copyright © 2004 by Teacher
Created Materials, Inc.
101
Chapter 6 Review
1. True or False? Students should never compare the
simulated event with the actual event.
2. Which of the following are true about

simulations?
a. They challenge students to use higher-level
thinking skills.
b. They provide interaction and feedback.
c. They have students evaluate history.
d. All of the above
3. Research also suggests that _________________.

a. there are significant links between learning
and body movements
b. facts are more likely to be recalled if
emotions are used right after a learning
experience
c. both a and b
d. None of the above
4. True or False? The ultimate goal for a simulation

experience is for students to handle and analyze
primary source materials.
102
103
1. What are some of the different ways that you

think students learn?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
2. Why is it important to consider what kind

of learners students are when planning your
curriculum?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
3. According to Gardner’s theory, we all have

strengths in certain intelligences and weaknesses
in others. How can weak areas be developed?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
104
Chapter
Seven
Multiple
Intelligences
“It’s not how smart you are, but how you are smart.”
—René Diaz-Lefebrve
Teachers across the nation are repeatedly finding it chal-

lenging to teach the new generation of students who
demand constant entertainment. Television, music vid-
eos, and especially computer games are just the tip of the
iceberg when listing what preoccupies students’ minds.
How can schools possibly compete with this mirage
of fast and entertaining information? Do we as educa-
tors cave in to the habits of bribing and entertaining
students in the hopes of keeping their attention? What
is the secret to increasing students’ confidence, helping
them become self-directed learners, and thus instilling
the love of learning? If we merely bribe and entertain
students, we are only feeding the problem, and it will
worsen. Instead, we should offer students activities that
engage their natural talents and gifts.
105
How can we find out their natural talents and gifts?

Understanding your students is the first step in being
able to do this. What makes them tick? What do they
enjoy? How do they learn best? How do your students
best express what they know?
Just in the past few years, researchers have provided

various ways to understand students. One way is to build
lesson plans around the model of Multiple Intelligences.
This model seeks to nurture the broad range of talents
in students. It identifies and categorizes eight different
intelligences. Today, this information is readily available
to teachers who can use this information to create cur-
riculum that nurtures these intelligences in students.
What Are Multiple Intelligences?

The multiple intelligence model is based on the work of
one primary researcher named Howard Gardner. He has
identified eight intelligences, which include verbal/lin-
guistic; logical/mathematical; bodily/kinesthetic; intrap-
ersonal; interpersonal; musical/rhythmic; visual/spatial;
and naturalistic. Researchers say that everyone possesses
each of these intelligences, but some intelligences are
more developed than others.
In most classrooms, intelligence is measured logically/

mathematically and verbally/linguistically. But some
teachers are finding that Gardner’s theory of multiple
intelligences is like a breath of fresh air. Teachers who
learn about this theory finally begin to understand why
they teach the way they do. The tendency is to teach
according to one’s own intelligence preference (Gardner,
1993).
Here is a quick review of the eight intelligences:

Musical/Rhythmic Intelligence—the ability to recog-
nize and compose musical tones, rhythms, and pitches.
Generally, these people like to sing, play an instrument,
106
Multiple Intelligences
hum tunes, compose music, and listen to music. They

are good at remembering melodies and noticing sounds.
They learn best when there is rhythm, melody, and/or
music associated with learning.
Visual/Spatial Intelligence—the ability to create mental
images and pictures in order to solve problems. These
individuals generally like to draw, design, build, day-
dream, do art projects, create architecture, and watch
videos. They are good at visual imagery, mazes, puzzles,
reading charts, maps, and other graphic organizers. They
learn best when they can visualize, dream, and work
with color, pictures, and graphic representations of infor-
mation.
Bodily/Kinesthetic Intelligence—the ability to use move-

ment for learning. These people like to touch, talk, use
body language, and move around. They are usually good
at physical activities like acting, athletics, and dance.
They learn best with “hands on” activities where they
can touch and move, processing through bodily senses.
Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence—involves expertise with
language. People strong in the verbal/linguistic intel-
ligence can express themselves well rhetorically and
can use language as a means to remember information.
Generally, they like to read, write, and tell stories. They
tend to be good at memorizing names, places, and dates.
They learn best when they say, hear, or see words.
Logical/Mathematical Intelligence—involves reasoning
deductively and thinking logically. This intelligence is
generally associated with scientific and mathematical
thinking. People strong in logical/mathematical intel-
ligence like to work with numbers, explore patterns,
do experiments, and solve problems. They are typically
good at math, reasoning, problem solving, and logic.
They learn best when they can sequence, categorize,
classify, and work with patterns and numbers.
107
Interpersonal Intelligence—the ability to understand the

feelings and intentions of others. Generally, these people
have lots of friends and enjoy joining groups and talking
to others. They are good at understanding people, solving
conflicts, teaching, management, and are often leaders.
They learn best when they are allowed to share, relate,
and cooperate with others.
Intrapersonal Intelligence—the ability to understand
one’s own feelings and motivations. Generally, these
people like to work alone and pursue their own interests.
They are good at understanding themselves, psychology,
counseling, and tend to be goal-oriented. They learn best
on their own with individualized projects and self-paced
instruction.
Naturalist Intelligence—the ability to classify natural
phenomena and have an ongoing curiosity and knowl-
edge of the natural world. Generally, these people love to
be outdoors. They are good with natural history, plants,
and animals. They learn best when they can go outside
and explore in nature’s classroom.
Why Use Multiple Intelligences?

The reason why so many educators love the multiple
intelligence model best is because it is a flexible way
of designing curriculum and creating learning environ-
ments. It gives a basic framework for each of the eight
intelligences, and then teachers form their own unique
lesson plans around it, providing various learning experi-
ences for their students.
Many educators have come to think of multiple intelli-

gences as a philosophy of how children learn. It provides
avenues by which all students can achieve success. Sue
Teele from the University of California, Riverside sums
up Gardner’s goal of the multiple intelligence model by
saying that “multiple intelligences provides for differ-
ent windows into the same room. We need to unleash
108
the creative potential in all our schools in order to open

as many windows as possible for every student in every
classroom to succeed.” She concludes by emphasiz-
ing that “the future mandates that we all move for-
ward together in a way that builds on both our mutual
strengths and respects our unique differences” (Teele,
1994, p. 17).
Howard Gardner believes that students possess all eight

of the multiple intelligences. Some are just better devel-
oped than others. Teachers can use multiple intelligences
as a strategy that challenges students to take control of
their own learning. When students understand how they
learn best, they will also understand their weaknesses.
While it is good to have activities that enhance students’
natural talents, teachers can also use the information
about each student to encourage him/her to develop his/
her weak intelligences. More often than not, students
will take on this responsibility and work toward develop-
ing their weak intelligences.
Certain schools that have adopted the multiple intelli-

gence model schoolwide have reported a rise in standard-
ized test scores. Studies conducted by Linda and Bruce
Campbell (1999) in six schools, ranging from elementary
to high school, have shown an increase in standardized
test scores. These schools are in various locations all
over the country and range demographically, from inner
city to suburban, magnet schools to public schools, low-
class to middle- and upper-class neighborhoods, and low
population of minority students to a high population of
minority students.
Some research suggests that certain pathways of learning

are stronger at certain stages of development. Sue Teele
(1994) devised a survey titled the “Teele Inventory for
Multiple Intelligences” (TIMI). She gave it to over 6,000
students. Her research found that verbal/linguistic intel-
ligence is strongest in kindergarten through third grade. It
declines dramatically thereafter. The logical/mathemati-
109
cal intelligence is strongest in first through fourth grade.

It also declines dramatically thereafter. The visual/spa-
tial and bodily/kinesthetic intelligence was shown to be
dominant throughout elementary and middle school. In
addition, middle school children also show a preference
for musical/rhythmic and interpersonal intelligences.
What does Teele’s information mean? It means that if

elementary teachers want to use the best strategies, they
must present lessons that incorporate verbal/linguistic,
logical/mathematical, visual/spatial, and bodily/kines-
thetic activities. If middle school teachers want to use
the best strategies, they must present lessons that
incorporate visual/spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, musical/
rhythmic, and interpersonal activities. Sadly, in many
classrooms, the middle school teacher instructs with lec-
tures and mere readings of texts. This is exactly opposite
of how middle school students learn best. For a general
overview of Teele’s findings, see Figure 7.1 on page 111.
The lists on pages 112 and 113 provide ideas for products
for the multiple intelligences.
110

Picture Word Body Self People Music Number
Smart Smart Smart Smart Smart Smart Smart
Logical/
Visual/spatial Verbal/linguistic Bodily/kinesthetic Intrapersonal Interpersonal Musical/rhythmic
Mathematical
Kindergarten
8 8 8 8 8
First grade
8 8 8 8
Second grade
8 8 8 8
Third grade
8 8 8 8 8
Figure 7.1: Dominant Strengths by Grade Level
Fourth grade
8 8 8 8 8
Fifth grade
8 8 8 8
Sixth grade
8 8 8 8
Middle school
8 8 8 8
High school
8 8 8 8
111
Printed by permission from Sue Teele.
Products For Multiple Intelligences

A dance/a letter/a lesson Game Political cartoon
Advertisement Graph Pop-up book
Animated movie Hidden Picture Postage stamp.
Annotated bibliography Illustrated story (commemoratives)
Art gallery Interview Press conference
Block picture story Jingle Project cube
Bulletin board Joke book Prototype
Bumper sticker Journal Puppet
Chart Labeled diagram Puppet show
Choral reading Large scale drawing Puzzle
Clay sculpture Learning center Rap
Code Letter to the Editor Radio program
Collage Map with legend Rebus story
Collection Mazes Recipe
Comic strip Mobile Riddle
Computer program Model Role play
Costumes Mosaic Science fiction story
Crossword puzzle Mural Sculpture
Database Museum exhibit Skit
Debate Musical instruments Slide show
Demonstration Needlework Slogan
Detailed illustration Newspaper story Soliloquy
Diorama Non-fiction Song
Diary Oral defense Sound
Display Oral report Story telling—tall tales
Edibles Painting Survey
Editorial essay Pamphlet Tapes–Audio–Video
Etching Pantomime Television program
Experiment Papier mache Time line
Fact tile Petition Transparencies
Fairy tale Photo essay Travel brochure
Family tree Pictures Venn diagram
Fiction story Picture story for children Web homepage
Film Plaster of Paris model Working hypothesis
Filmstrip Play Write a new law
Flip book Poetry Video film
Reprinted by permission from Dr. T. Roger Taylor, Curriculum Design Online, http://www.rogertaylor.com/.
Copyright © 2002 by Dr. T. Roger Taylor.
112

Multiple Intelligences Product Grid
This product grid categorizes different products under separate headings according to research from Howard
Gardner’s multiple-intelligences theory. Many are listed in more than one column and would look differ-
ent according to which approach is taken by the student. These groupings appeal to student interests and
strengths. This increases the students’ involvement and the quality of the final product. Having a final prod-
uct makes it easier to determine that students have completed tasks that are measurable and demonstrable.
Verbal/Linguistic Logical/Mathematical Visual/Spatial Bodily/Kinesthetic Musical Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist
Advertisement Advertisement Animated movie Calligraphy Audio-video Advertisement Bulletin board Artifact collecting
Annotated bibliography Annotated Art gallery Charades tape Animated movie Chart Diorama
Bulletin board bibliography Bulletin board Collage Choral reading Bulletin board Collection Field study
Code Chart Bumper sticker Costumes Fairy tale Chart Comic strip Field trip
Comic strip Code Cartoon Dance Film Choral reading Diary Fossil collecting
Debate Collage Chart Demonstration Instrumental Comic strip Editorial essay Insect collecting
Demonstration Collection Clay sculpture Diorama Jukebox Debate Fairy tale Leaf collecting
Diary Computer program Collage Etching Musical Demonstration Family tree Original song
Editorial essay Crossword puzzle Costumes Experiment Poem Editorial essay Journal Photo essay
Fairy tale Database Demonstration Film Rap song Fairy tale Learning center Rock collection
Family tree Debate Diorama Flip book Riddle Film game Poem Scientific
Fiction story Demonstration Display Food Role playing Interview Riddle maze drawing
Interview Detailed illustration Etching Hidden picture Song Journal collage Spelunking trip
Jingle Edibles Film Mosaic Sound Lesson Time line Time line
Joke book Experiment Filmstrip Mural Mazes
Journal Fact tile Flipbook Musical Museum exhibit
Lesson Family tree Game Musical instruments Pamphlet
Letter Game Graph Needlework Petition
Letter to the editor Graph Hidden picture Painting Play
Newspaper story Hidden picture Illustrated story Pantomime Press conference
Non-fiction Labeled diagram Maze Papier mache Role playing
Oral defense Large scale drawing Mobile Plaster of Paris model TV program
Oral report Lesson Model Play
Pamphlet Map with legend Mosaic Poem
Petition Mazes Mural Press conference
Play Mobile Painting Puppet
Poem Model Papier mache Puppet show
Press conference Petition Photo essay Radio program
Radio program Play Picture story for children Role play
Riddle Prototype Pictures Transparencies
Science fiction story Puzzle Play TV program
Skit Recipe Political cartoon
Slogan Riddle Pop-up book
Soliloquy Survey Prototype
Story telling Time line Rebus story
TV program Transparencies Slide show
Write a new law Venn diagram Story cube
Working hypothesis Transparencies
Write a new law Travel brochure
TV program
Web home page
Reprinted by permission from Dr. T. Roger Taylor, Curriculum Design Online, http://www.rogertaylor.com/. Copyright © 2002 by Dr.
113
T. Roger Taylor.
Biology Lesson Ideas (Middle School Level)

Verbal/Linguistic—Any number of research projects like
oral presentations, written projects/research papers, or
poetry would fall under this domain. Students can select
a part of the body (particular organ bones or muscular
region) or a certain animal (microscopic, pets, or native),
conduct research, and create a multimedia presentation,
which is then shared with the class.
Visual/Spatial—Any biology-related art project would
meet the needs of those who prefer this intelligence.
This includes creating drawings, paintings, sculptures,
collages, etc. If your students decide to prepare a multi-
media presentation, they can use a drawing program on
their computer. Otherwise students may prepare an oral
presentation about the topic and draw a picture or com-
plete an art project.
Bodily/Kinesthetic—Coordinate an outdoor game called
“Survivor,” which shows the predator/prey relation-
ships among animals. Mark off an outdoor area. Assign
students to be different animals—some herbivores and
others carnivores. Students should know how the food
cycle works in the animal kingdom, i.e. which animals
eat other animals. The goal of the game is to collect the
necessities of food and water while staying alive. If a
player tags another player, that player “eats” them. The
prey’s food and water are passed on to its predator, and
the prey is taken from the game area.
Musical/Rhythmic—Musically-inclined students could
write a rap or song about one aspect of biology or create
a song that uses body movements.
Interpersonal—Have students work in groups to com-
plete one of these projects.
Naturalist—Assign students the task of classifying ani-
mals, learning the kingdom through species for an
animal, and showing the relationships among animals
(diagram).
114
Chapter 7 Review
1. People who learn best when they are outdoors
exploring the world around them are strong in
which of the following intelligences?
a. interpersonal
b. musical
c. naturalist
d. intrapersonal
2. Which of the following intelligences is most

closely related to the ability to solve problems
involving patterns?
a. visual/spatial
b. verbal/linguistic
c. bodily/kinesthetic
d. logical/mathematical
3. Which of the following intelligences is most

closely associated with the ability to empathize
with others?
a. interpersonal
b. musical
c. naturalist
d. intrapersonal
4. People whose abilities lie in visualizing and

interpreting graphic representations such as
maps and charts are said to be strong in this
intelligence:
a. musical/rhythmic
b. verbal/linguistic
c. visual/spatial
d. logical/mathematical
115
1. What benefit does movement have on learning?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
2. What is one way you could integrate movement

into a math lesson?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
3. How can movement be infused in everyday

activities?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
116
Chapter
Eight
Creative Dramatics
Have you ever led your students on an expedition to

explore the inside of a human body? After they have
washed their hands, have students imagine they are a
piece of food. They must shrink down as small as they
can, then step inside the mouth. Tell them to touch the
tiny bumps on the tongue. Explain that they are touch-
ing the taste buds. Different taste buds are used to taste
the sour, sweet, and salty foods we eat. Then have stu-
dents count the teeth that they see. Does anyone know
the names of these teeth? Move toward the throat and
learn about how food is swallowed. Where does food go
from there? This scenario can go on for a long time as the
topic of the human body is studied.
As you see from this example, students are guided by

their leader, who happens to be a teacher. The leader
guides the students to imagine, enact, and reflect on
this experience. This leader should have a great sense
117
of humor and lots of energy. After all, he/she will lead

students into the giant forest, through a snake-infested
pit, and finally to the edge of the world! Their leader is
facilitating language and communication skills, problem-
solving skills, and creativity. In the process, students are
developing a strong self concept, social awareness, and
empathy. Does this type of activity have a name? Yes, it
is called creative dramatics.
What Is Creative Dramatics?

To understand creative dramatics, it is first important
to know what it is not. Creative dramatics is not an aca-
demic topic. It is not theater, either. With a children’s
theater, we have a published script to go by, beautiful
scenery, and an audience. Creative dramatics needs none
of these things. Creative dramatics is for the learner (or
actor), not the audience. Creative dramatics is much
more creative than merely staging and performing a play.
There is no need for speaking, although speaking is not
prohibited. Costumes are not necessary either. Everyone
participates, not just the best actors and actresses. And it
is not just for children. People of all ages can experience
and benefit from creative dramatics. The goal is simply
movement and imagination.
While there are no achievement tests and no behavioral

objectives, it is also important to understand that cre-
ative dramatics does what traditional class work cannot
do. “Creative imagination is worth more than mere book
knowledge. Education and intelligence are merely the
means by which we facilitate the liberation of this cre-
ative energy” (Davis, 1998, p. 272).
Creative dramatics is an effective learning tool that

involves active learning experiences for students of all
ages. It is a way to engage students’ imagination. It is
designed to strengthen problem solving, imagination,
physical control, sensory awareness, self-confidence,
118
Creative Dramatics
humor, and awareness and understanding of others. It is

structured, goal-oriented play.
Why Use Creative Dramatics?

Creative dramatics is a form of kinesthetic learning.
Researcher James Hoetker says that drama accommo-
dates visual and kinesthetic learners. Movement gets the
blood flowing and, as a result, more oxygen is transported
to the brain. When this happens, attention is increased.
Students learn to control their physical bodies, their
emotions, and their senses.
Creative dramatics helps students reframe what they

already know into new perspectives and makes learning
personal as students enter the imaginary world and take
on imaginary roles. In addition, teachers report more
instances of higher level thinking in their classrooms.
Creative dramatics stimulates problem solving, think-

ing, and imagination. The emphasis is on creativity, not
performing. Drama also increases originality, fluency,
and flexibility (Hoetker, 1969).
Furthermore, concentration and awareness are increased,

as well as a sense of humor. Recent research says that
humor in the classroom is beneficial to the learning
process. It can increase retention anywhere from 15% to
50%. This happens because laughter causes more blood
to be pumped to the brain. The brain releases endor-
phins (the chemicals that make a person feel good) in the
bloodstream (Glenn, 2002).
Students develop a sense of pride and a strong self-con-

fidence in performing and speaking. Most importantly,
creative dramatics helps students to empathize with oth-
ers around them (Way, 1967; Davis, Helfert, & Shapiro,
1973).
119
Finally, research done on the primary level has found

that creative dramatics improves both reading com-
prehension and persuasive writing (Pellegrini & Galda,
1982; Gourgey, 1984; Wagner, 1987).
Creative Dramatics Stimulates:

Critical thinking
Creativity
Originality
Fluency
Flexibility
Imagination
Empathetic attitudes
Concentration
Physical control
Emotional control
Self-confidence
Sensory awareness
Problem solving
Elements of Language Learning While

Using Creative Dramatics:
Making predictions
Using descriptive language
Asking questions
Comparing and contrasting
Drawing conclusions
Making judgments
Assessing cause and effect
Developing generalizations
Formulating and testing hypotheses
120
Creative Dramatics
Ideas for Using Creative Dramatics

Vocal Exercises
Provide a sentence for students and then have them
say it using different emotions, qualities, or as differ-
ent characters, as shown in the box below. For example,
students will say the sentence using a different type of
voice inflection.
angry painful shaky a mouse a cow a king
nasal-like quiet scared mysterious happy bored
a monster large surprised jealous high voice an adult voice
low voice fast loud soft nervous a spoiled child’s voice
Example: Introduce the sentence, “Are you going to wear

that?” Have a student say it in a humorous voice. Then
have another student say it in a scared voice. Another
student can say it in a timid voice.
Other sentences to use:

1. There’s an elephant in my bathtub.
2. The red coats are coming.
3. This classroom is a mess.
4. To be or not to be, that is the question.
Take a line from a popular song, a famous quote, a TV

commercial, or a sentence with a new vocabulary word
and try the exercise above.
121
Physical Drama Exercises

These are exercises for the body much like pantomime.
1. Walk like a bowl of cooked macaroni, a tiger, a

bowl of gelatin, or a tree.
2. You see a lump under the rug that keeps moving.

Take care of that lump.
3. Fix a bowl of ice cream with a can of sardines on

top. Then eat it.
4. You are an ant under a picnic table. Find some

food and take it home.
5. Paint a picture in the air for your teacher.
Developing Characters
Students can act out famous scenes from history, epi-
sodes from a book, and other scenarios.
1. You are Benjamin Franklin flying a kite in

a lightning storm. Show how you discover
electricity.
2. You are Bilbo Baggins and have encountered

Gollum in the dark cave. Play both characters
and show the audience how Gollum might have
treated Bilbo if Gollum still had his magic ring.
3. The big-mouthed family is eating dinner. Show

the audience what this looks like.
4. You are in the cafeteria when an Orc from the
Lord of the Rings sees your ring. The Orc thinks
it is the Ring of Power and wants it. Show the
audience what happens.
122
Creative Dramatics
Chapter 8 Review
1. True or False? Creative dramatics should only be
used with young children.
2. Research says that humor in the classroom is

beneficial to the learning process because ________
_____.
a. kids like to have a good time
b. it can increase retention anywhere from 15%
to 50%
c. even teachers need to have a funny moment
3. Which of the following is true about creative

dramatics?
a. It is like children’s theater.
b. It uses props and costumes.
c. It performs for an audience.
4. True or False? Creative dramatics strengthens

problem solving, imagination, physical control,
sensory awareness, self-confidence, humor, and
awareness and understanding of others.
123
Chapter Reviews Answer Key

Chapter 1 Review (page 26) Chapter 5 Review (page 88)
1. d 1. a, b, c, d
2. e 2. b, c
3. d 3. a, b, c
4. false 4. false

1. d 1. false
2. b 2. d
3. b 3. c
4. d 4. false

1. e 1. c
2. a 2. d
3. d 3. a
4. c 4. c

1. false 1. false
2. true 2. b
3. e 3. d
4. a 4. true
124
Glossary
Glossary
active learning—occurs when students’ minds and bodies are engaged in the
learning process
Attribute Listing Method—a technique for generating new ideas that can be used
with a brainstorming session
authentic learning—real learning that can be measured
Bloom’s Taxonomy—a list developed by Benjamin Bloom that categorizes learning
skills— knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
brainstorming—a technique that uses spontaneous creativity to generate ideas
brainwriting—a technique that involves circulating sheets of paper from person to
person to generate ideas
cognitive domain—the area of the mind where thinking takes place
complexity—examining themes, issues, problems, and ideas; looking at issues using
different perspectives, connecting concepts, integrating in an interdisciplinary way
that connects and bridges the curriculum with the goal of enhancing and enriching
ideas
content—the processes and knowledge that students learn in school
creative dramatics—a learning tool that uses open-ended ideas and higher-level
thinking to synthesize story lines and create dialogue through movement
creativity—the process and ability to create
curiosity—a level of Williams’ Taxonomy of Creative Thought in which a learner
wants to know more about a topic or idea
differentiation—the strategies, lessons, and methods a teacher uses to meet the
needs of the diverse student population through content, process, and product
elaboration—a level of Williams’ Taxonomy of Creative Thought that provides
more information on a topic
electronic brainstorming—a brainstorming technique used without constraints of
time or place through voice messaging, email, and Internet chat rooms
flexibility—a level of Williams’ Taxonomy of Creative Thought that encourages
modification or the ability to adjust
125
fluency—a level of Williams’ Taxonomy of Creative Thought that encourages fluent

ideas
graphic organizer—visual representations of information, which help us gather and
sort pertinent information
imagination—a level of Williams’ Taxonomy of Creative Thought that encourages
imagination and visualization
intrapersonal—the ability to understand one’s own feelings and motivations
interpersonal—the ability to understand the feelings and intentions of others
kinesthetic—the ability to use movement for learning
lateral thinking—seeking solutions to problems through unconventional methods,
such as brainstorming
learning style—a method of learning that works best and is preferred by an
individual
logical/mathematical intelligence—involves reasoning deductively and thinking
logically
Morphological Synthesis—attribute listing in a matrix form
Multiple Intelligences Theory—a theory that states all people possess at least eight
different kinds of intelligences—verbal/linguistic, logical/mathematical, visual/
spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, musical/rhythmic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and
naturalistic
musical/rhythmic intelligence—the ability to recognize and compose musical tones,
rhythms, and pitches
naturalistic intelligence—the ability to classify natural phenomena and have an
ongoing curiosity and knowledge of the natural world
originality—a level of Williams’ Taxonomy of Creative Thought that encourages
novel ideas
passive learners—students who take in information through lectures or reading
primary sources—authentic documents, photographs, or items that tell about a time
period, person, or place
126
Glossary
problem-based learning—a curriculum development and instructional system

that simultaneously develops both problem-solving strategies and disciplinary
knowledge bases and skills by placing students in the active role of problem solvers
confronted with an ill-structured problem that mirrors real-world problems
problem statement—an identification of a problem that is investigated during a
problem-based learning activity
reverse brainstorming—brainstorming where new viewpoints are discovered by
turning around the basic problem
risk taking—a level of Williams’ Taxonomy of Creative Thought in which students
are encouraged to take risks in their thinking
SCAMPER—an acronym that is a short version of Alex Osborn’s 73 idea-spurring
questions—S is for substitute, C is for combine, A is for adapt, M is for modify, P is
for put to other uses, E is for eliminate or elaborate, and R is for reverse or rearrange
semantic memories—memories that have meaning or connection to prior
knowledge
simulations—an active-learning strategy that gets students’ minds engaged in the
learning at hand
Socratic Seminar—a questioning activity named for Socrates; it is teacher-led and
uses open-ended questions to help students analyze a document, photograph, idea,
or event
thinking skills—the categories of thinking as described by Bloom
Three Story Intellect Model—a model of questioning that categorizes thinking into
three levels—gathering, processing, and applying
vertical thinking—thinking that occurs when one solves a problem by going from
one logical step to another logical step
visual learners—those who learn best by seeing pictures, diagrams, or any other
visual medium
visual/spatial intelligence—the ability to create mental images and pictures in order
to solve problems
Williams’ Taxonomy—a list that has eight levels of questions that expand student
creativity through the cognitive and affective domains; all eight levels are an
extension of synthesizing
127
References
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Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals.
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Depression. Huntington Beach, CA: Teacher Created Materials.
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References
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child’s intelligence, creativity, and healthy emotions from birth through
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Problem-Based Learning.
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York: Basic Books.
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What are some instructional strategies discussed in the book?

What are some instructional strategies discussed in the book?

What are graphic organizers and why are they useful?

What are graphic organizers and why are they useful?

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Editor Cover Design

Table of Contents (cont.)

Chapter 5: Primary Sources

Within this book you will find:

• A vocabulary review and glossary of relevant

Each chapter in this book covers a different strategy

Term My First Definition My Final Definition

Attribute Listing Method

Term My First Definition My Final Definition

Multiple Intelligences Theory

Term My First Definition My Final Definition

Three Story Intellect Model

Chapter 1 Pre-Reading Reflection

1. What are some ways to get your students to be

2. Why should teachers have their students

3. What are some basic rules that teachers should

Businesses use it all the time to develop new products,

Getting students to generate new ideas can be a difficult

Brainstorming is a method of thinking up new con-

is affectionately named the father of brainstorming,

Brainstorming is a type of lateral thinking. Edward de

Figure 1.1: Lateral vs. Vertical Thinking

Lateral Thinking Vertical Thinking

Our brains function very differently than computers. It

Why Use Brainstorming?

To understand the benefits of brainstorming, it might

It is important to know that creative thinking is a skill

the more creatively we will think. It’s a skill that can be

Creatively thinking individuals can see the best ideas

How to Implement Brainstorming

To ensure a productive brainstorming session, here are

they should also build upon the ideas already presented.

Using criteria to evaluate the brainstorming results is

For example, suppose a school has a very high tardy rate.

Brainstorming can take on many variations. One varia-

Another variation is called reverse brainstorming. The

Brainwriting is a variation that helps students to hitch-

Some teachers who have a technology-savvy group might

More Brainstorming Methods

Robert Crawford, the designer of the Attribute Listing

attributes can then be modified (1954).

For example, if students want to create a new type of

If a toy store has an overabundance of scooters in its

An extension of the Attribute Listing Method is

Matrix Grid to Create New Flavors of Ice Cream

cake bubble rocky white

S Substitute—components, materials, people

C Combine—mix, combine with other assemblies or services, integrate

A Adapt—alter, change function, use part of another element

Modify, Minify, or Magnify—increase or reduce in scale, change shape,