Lec 9
Lec 9
Lec 9
Course Title
Manufacturing Process Technology – Part- 1
Module- 09
by
Prof. Shantanu Bhattacharya
Hello and welcome to this manufacturing process technology part 1, Module 09.
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We learned about crystal imperfections we also talked about point defects for example the you
know the different kind of crystal imperfections like point defects line defects, surface defects
etc… we also discuss about the elastic and plastic deformation from an atomistic point view
point of view by understanding at two atoms system we further considered the model for
understanding shear yield stress and found that really it depends on the dislocation what is going
to be the ultimate shear yield streets then talked about hardness ductility and toughness some of
these parameters and also discussed in details about.
How do you do the tensile testing for mild steel and some other metals were we did models of if
we try to just understand models where the behavior of the metal could be an idealized rigid
plastic behavior or idealized elastic plastic behavior or as a matter of fact elastic linear strain
hardened behavior so on so forth. today we are looking to going to look at another very
important property which is related to all the machining.
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Which is called friction and wear okay so it is well know that whenever a solid surface slides
over another resistance force commonly referred to as a friction force develops the friction
phenomena was studied for the first time by Amonton and Coulomb let us consider these two
surface for example A and B in contact as in the figure below so though a surface may appear
smooth in plane really it is not so it is a you know there is no surface which can be recorded as
being perfectly smooth.
There are going to be as asperities in the surface and when asperities are touch each other there
are going to be some shear deformation because obviously the area of contact which happens
because of an asperity touching an asperity of two surfaces which are mating each other I want to
be very small and so therefore the overall you know plastics state of stress is attained very fast
because of the small area, stress level goes very high and you can think of it that as the plastic
stress happens the there is a some kind of a cold weld which develops between both materials
and in the process of it the area increases the area of contact increases.
So these small asperities would have a smaller area but as the plastic flow starts really the you
know interfacial area between two asperities which have mated they would start to increase
because of the plastic deformation so these kind of build up the cold welds and these cold welds
you know when you want to remove or might I mean sort of move one material over the other
would have to be broken down in order for the material to have relative movement with each
other on that interface and that is what really is friction.
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(Refer Slide Time: 03:30)
So in a nut shell if we assume a rigid plastic materials and if σ is the ultimate yield stress in
compression of I can say the weaker material because obviously if the materials are same then
there is no problem because they are going to be the same yield stress but supposing there is a
generic model of two different materials sliding over each other then obviously the weaker
material would be the one which would be talking about in terms of the yield stress of the
compression which would be achieved so of the weaker materials so obviously the stronger
material will try to sort of you know affect more by deforming more the weaker material.
Okay so then the real area of contact all over the mating surfaces, and can be expressed as A real
which is equal to the normal force N by the σ of the weaker material so that is how you can
calculate or back calculate the real area had a certain is since of time and you can assume that
this particular σi is e already reached ultimate yield strength of the weaker material assuming that
the weaker starts the forming faster obviously because the harder material would deform the
weaker material.
And already this critical limit Y has been reached beyond which the weaker material goes into
the plastic flow state so that is how the real area can be calculated so large stresses and plastic
deformation or the upper contamination layers to appear of and the real material comes in
contact, so there is local welding so in order to move one surface with respect to the other these
local valves have to be sheared which is really what the friction force would be.
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(Refer Slide Time: 07:17)
So here if we consider that τ is the yield shear stress of the weaker material then the force
required top shear of a junction with a total area and let us called interfacial area because this is
what the post welded situation is A real let us suppose is F = τ times of A real so this shearing
force is the force of friction as we have already illustrate and obviously we defined this
coefficient which is the ratio between F and N which is nothing but the τ times of A real divided
by σ times of A real. So it is basically the ratio between the ultimate shear stress to the ultimate
and sail stress of the weaker material.
So that is how you understand friction so the model is valid only when the real area of contact is
much smaller than the apparent area of contact and if the normal load N is gradually increased.
The areal increases and approaches the apparent area of contact and areal once reaching a value
equal to A the shear force does not increase any further even if the normal forces and it increase
and such a situation there would be many other mechanisms which will come in to play like inter
locking of the asperities is and you know may be the local welds among those inter-locking
which would actually result in a lot more different condition and lot more unpredictable behavior
in comparison to till and untill this phenomena of a asperity welding or this physics of us
asperity welding is obeyed.
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So if I really look at the variation of the normal force for a normal force corresponding you know
to the force beyond which the apparent area would go higher than A real the frictional behavior
is completely bizarre. And till and till you can have a situation of a asperity welding and shear
deformation of the welding this kind of limit the friction obeys the normal Coulombs law of F =
µ times of normal reaction N. So that is how friction can be studied, let us look at where so
where is something which is when a solid slides over another.
Obviously the surfaces would be subjected to a gradual loss of the material so where it suppose
friction a phenomena where when we want to dislocate the or when we want to shear the local
welds in the process of doing that obviously there would be a breakage of the weaker material
for the flowing of the top portion or the stronger material over the weaker material.
So if there is a breakage And if there is a chunking action on the top of the weaker material
because of the continuous shear force automatically the material loss would be there from the
surface of the weaker material which we also known as wear. So a fraction of the material loosed
from one surface may be transfer to the other body for example as we saw in the case of friction
or it may just be dislodged in to the medium because there is a sort of a brittle fracture and a
chipping action which happens.
So if the process is a gradual loss you know then you can call it frictional wear. So there are
many mechanisms and which wear can take place abrasion is one of the mechanisms and which
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one of the surfaces contain very hard particles and it dislodge the materials from the surfaces in
contact during sliding by ploughing action for example you can look at what happens when you
use emery paper or sand paper you know different graders so there are many, many abrasive
particles which are adhering to this paper.
And once you ploughing these adhesive particles or abrasive particles into this softer material it
is going to break and damage and embedded material and you know take away a lot of the
material this way so you dislodged some of the material from the softer materials surfaces and so
we called that the softer materials is being wear because of that so that is abrasion okay.
Because of hard particles being adhesively bonded to one surface dislodging the other softer
surfaces over which this surface is being rubbed the other mechanism is adhesion when the
bodies come in contact are of similar nature the asperities on the contacting surface tend to get
welded and sliding in such a situation would cause fracture of this welded junctions and
materials is lost in both the surfaces.
So you can call it frictional wear or additional wear and there is a third type of wear which would
happen because of a presence of diffusion gradient say for example if there is let us say atoms
and metallic crystals always you know which represent in some concentration distribution so
always there will be a movement from a region of high concentration to that of the lower
concentration.
So there is going to be dC by dX set up between both the surfaces because of the higher
concentrating or higher concentration metals would move to it or higher concentration of the
metals would kind of balance by moving into a lower concentration region but that is actually
mass transfer or mass transport and would be recorded as wear.
So when two dissimilar bodies slide over each of the other the atoms of various constituent
elements diffuse across the junction just a by dC by dx concentration gradient so this can be to
the wear so basically you have three different mechanisms which we have discussed one is
abrasion where there is a set of abrasive particles hard enough bonded to a surface time to
dislodge physically and another is adhesion where there is a let us say weaker and harder
materials in contact whether is a asperities locking or asperities welding.
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And then you have a forced shear so that material from the softer surface comes off and third is
diffusion where there are two different kind of you know concentration of a single material
which is allowing dC by dx to promote the mass transport of the material from the softer surface
to the harder surface and so on so forth.
So that is wear let us know look at the metals and alloys because we want to do casting etc in a
later modules and we need to understand some of these two phase or multi phase materials how
there are made. So you know that various materials used in engineering today they include
metals, they include alloys ceramics and polymers so on so forth.
Alloys are a major component of the engineering material because of the increased or enhance
property because of the various properties brought in by two or more participating metal atoms.
so in engineering applications metals are hardly used in the pure form and is always you know
show about using suitably alloyed materials so that increase engineering properties can happen.
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(Refer Slide Time: 15:45)
How do we formulate the alloys is a big question for that we need to decipher something called
solid solutions which is basically something like you know it is the same model as liquid in a
solution a liquid solution you have something which is dissolver and then there is solid right so
the dissolver is also known as solvent which is in larger in bulk quantity and the solute is in
probably in smaller quantity and you put the solute inside the solvent and dissolve the solvent,
along with in the same manner an alloy can be defined as mixture of two or more materials of
which at least one must be a metal.
So in case of for example, steel as you know the other face which is the solute in that case is the
carbon okay and it is less than 2% carbon which makes a qualifier to be steel. The other part is of
course the liquid metal which is the iron okay. So the material having the largest percentage
composition is typically know as the solvent and remaining are solutes, so in iron carbon case the
carbon is solute, iron is the solvent and such a mixture is often know as a solid solutions.
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Only difference here is the room temperature is no longer would remain liquid and they would
freeze up and they would formulate, organize you know poly crystal lines structure, which is the
difference in this particular case. In the case of solution you have the luxury of having them in
the liquid state, in the room temperature itself okay. So you can predict their behavior much more
easily but once if it is solidified and complete stoppage of all the moments, over and above the
dislocations carry forward.
It becomes very difficult and it becomes you know, you have to treated as one, sort of fixed
structure and static structure, unless there are some associated process which come up. So when
the insight of the solute atom is small enough, so that they can occupy the interstitial space to the
solvent matrix, the solute solution is over the interstitial type. So you can see the interstitial
occupying spaces and if supposing the solute atoms are large, so that they have does displace
actually the atoms from the crystal and occupy the position, substitution type.
So in this case there are smaller, let us say carbon is much smaller, so they have a tendency to get
into the interstate or the voids between the metal atom and crystal structure and in case the metal
is to big it has to substitute, the parent metal in order to get into the crystal structure. So you can
categorize industrial and substitution. So for the normal metals the only useful material which
can be accommodated in industry is carbon, as we see in the steel and I am going to do a lot of
detailing in this area.
And some other types of solid solutions is formed when the solute solution occupies regular
matrix position, so such a solution is known as substitution solid solution. I would like to now
sort of go and close on this particular module, but in the next module we will learn the details
about these solute solutions and how they behave on temperature scale, as a function of
temperature and transformation in time thank you so much.
Acknowledgement
NPTEL Team
Sanjay Pal
Ashish Singh
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Badal Pradhan
Tapobrata Das
Ram Chandra
Dilip Tripathi
Manoj Shrivastava
Padam Shukla
Sanjay Mishra
Shubham Rawat
Shikha Gupta
K.K Mishra
Aradhana Singh
Sweta
Ashutosh Gairola
Dilip Katiyar
Sharwan
Hari Ram
Bhadra Rao
Puneet Kumar Bajpai
Lalty Dutta
Ajay Kanaujia
Shivendra Kumar Tiwari
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