Chapter 2

This chapter presents the review of related literatures and studies after a thorough

search done by the researchers, and the synthesis. Due to the uniqueness of the topic, the

researchers were not able to find much related studies.

Review of Related Literature and Studies

Men are viewed to be destined as the strong, the protectors, and are dominant over

women. The society has set the standard of what “masculine men” should be.

The Society’s Standard of Masculine Men

A journal of Robert A. Nye (2005) “Locating Masculinity: Some Recent Work

on Men” - for a concise chronicled minute, between the most recent couple of many years of the

eighth-century and the initial couple of many years of the twentieth, sexed bodies were viewed as

steady stages that communicated the sex and sexuality regular to them. For the greater part of

this time, both of these terms were subsumed under the widely inclusive class of sex, which set

up the material proof for the social personality of people and the regenerative telos of sexual

want. One knew about people who adored their own sex, “effeminate” men and “virile” ladies

who opposed the jobs thought about fitting to them, and even the “bisexuals” who consolidated

the highlights of both genders, yet these wee bizarre varieties affirming the general guideline that

God and additionally nature had planned men and women on various keeps going.

Preceding the finish of the 18th century, the prevailing Hippocratic therapeutic

model did not so obviously recognize male and female but rather supported the rule that

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manliness and gentility. The twentieth-century body, with its qualities, sex, chromosomes,

hormones, and ungrounded sexuality, has divided sex considerably more totally, partitioning the

sexual body into framework of interrelated capacities.

The study of Eugene Lee Yang (2015) called “Men’s Standards of Beauty around

the World” indicates how popular culture and media shaped people’s views on ideal male beauty

or simply what standards do people have when it comes to the physical attributes of a man or to

justify what is an “ideal man” for them. As included in the article, a research was conducted in

various countries namely: the United States, Mexico, Brazil, South Africa, Nigeria, Turkey,

Italy, the U.K., India, South Korea, the Philippines, and Australia, the percentage of men who

use beauty products increased by more than 70% worldwide between 2012 and 2014. This

concludes that men become more conscious with their physical appearance especially with their

masculinity to meet the standards of the society of an “ideal man”. Although some study states

that more women are involved in cases like having negative body image than men, the

percentage of men who is not contented with their body is increasing faster than the numbers of

females that has body dissatisfaction. This article shows the male beauty ideals in different

countries, for instance, in America, the ideal male body type has a broad upper body, including

shoulders, biceps, and pectoral muscles, while in Mexico, being “macho” of a male is a must to

meet their standard of masculinity. In conclusion, men are starting to care on their physical

appearance regarding to their relationship with their bodies, ethnicity, and masculinity to meet

the standard or the ideal of the society of what men should have.

An article time, gender is not that important at all whether if they are a man or a

woman. But an investigation occurred and concluded that women are more productive than men

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especially when it comes to hairdressing. People’s culture seems to be losing its place in the

negotiation of gender spaces. This change not only affects the economic power of men but also

their decision-making authority at home.

From an article “Men, Masculinity and the Persistent Nature of Gender

Inequality” by Alison Dahl Crossley (2016), when it comes to sexual assault, men are most

likely to be the perpetrators, this is because of the mindset resulting from the society's focus on

women. That’s why they started "Breaking the Culture of Sexual Assault" series focused on

masculinity. Men are expected to be leaders, tough, physically strong, dominant, assertive,

unemotional and whatnot. Those are just some of the traits that limit men to change. Even at an

early age, they are already aware that acting feminine or girlish is not for them, that mentality

was caused by their environment. Women are also raised with standards but men are punished

more when it comes to sexual violations. According to Katz (as cited in Crossley, 2016), those

traits are related to sexual assaults, they are taught that dominance and aggressiveness are highly

valued and it is unremarkable for them to commit sexual assault for they are expected to be

"dominant" over female.

Seeing a man as hairdresser is unusual, ladies who are frequently visiting a salon

may doubt the capabilities of a male employee, so the tendency is to visit other salon with

feminine hairstylists. With this, owners prefer ladies or gays to work for their business in order to

attract more customers.

According to David M. Mayer (2018) with his article “How Men Get Penalized

for Straying from Masculine Norms”, men discourages from their behavior and how they viewed

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as less competent and hirable person base on how they behave in ways that are not suitable for

their gender stereotype, such as when they show vulnerability, when they act nicer, display

empathy, express sadness, exhibit modesty, and proclaim to be feminists. These men are said to

be less productive compared to men that are not sympathetic and agreeable.

Preferences on Men Hairstylists

“The Influence of Sexual Orientation on the Perceived Fit of Male Applicants for

Both Male- and Female- Typed Jobs” by H.M. Clarke and K.A. Arnold (2018) demonstrates

the bias faced by individuals engaged in occupations that are perceived as inconsistent with their

gender. Men employed in jobs traditionally done by women are viewed to be wimpy and

undeserving of respect. They are rated as less effectual, and less-hirable in the female-typed jobs.

According to Duehr and Bono (as cited in Clarke & Arnold, 2018), gender

stereotypes are “categorical beliefs regarding the traits and behavioral characteristics ascribed to

individuals on the basis of their gender”. Gender stereotypes lead us to attribute certain physical

characteristics, personally traits, and behaviors to women and others to men (Heilman, 1983;

Eagly, 1987).Men are stereotyped as strong, competent, and decisive, as engaging in normally

male behaviors.

Not all works are gender-typed, but jobs that have traditionally been held

exclusively or almost exclusively by one gender come to be viewed as better suited for that

gender. The assumption is that to be successful in that job, one must possess the traits attributed

to its gender-type.

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 One theory developed to explain the bias experienced by individuals working in

gender-inconsistent occupations is the lack of fit model (Heilman, 1983). The lack of fit model

explains how gender stereotypes interact with beliefs about the gender-type of work to produce

judgments or evaluations about performance (Heilaman, 1983).

A journal article of Kristen Barber (2016) titled ‘“Men Wanted”: Heterosexual

Aesthetic Labor in the Masculinization of the Hair Salon” focuses on how company depends on

race, class, gender on choosing workers. Representatives of shading may end up working in the

stockrooms of particularly top of the line retail outlets while white ladies clerks go about as the

face of stores (Williams 2006). In design retail, companies anticipate deals partners to display

their garments, in this manner benefiting from existing "cultural types of feminization" whereby

ladies are compensated for keeping up in standardizing womanliness (Pettinger, 2005). While

this idea features the decent variety of femininities, she contend that sexual orientation habitus

all the more completely captures the socially educated, instilled, and constant character of

reasoning, talking, and acting in manly and ladylike ways, making hegemonically gendered

laborers broadly accessible to help standard corporate brands. Recognizing such "transposable

sexual orientation practices" can enable researchers to all the more likely comprehend the "sex

coding" and sex disparities.

Women's activist researchers battle that the investigation of sexuality is essential

to understanding basic, authoritative, and small scale level procedures that backing and once in a

while challenge the sexual orientation request. Heterosexuality, for model, is a key part of

domineering masculinities, whereby young men also, men gain sexual orientation benefit

through the projection of hetero ability (Connell 1995; Kimmel 1994).

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 Men are having a hard time to find a job and respect than women, because the

society look them as “gendered personas” instead of disembodied workers (Forseth, 2005).

Kristen Barber (2016) with her article titled “What is a men’s salon? And what

do Women have to do with it”. Since salons are generally connected with ladies and appear a far-

fetched place in which men can surmised socially valorized structures manliness. According to

her, stylish work features the significance of laborers’ appearances and utilization of their body

in the forefront administration work, where representatives connect up close and personal with

clients.

Men stylists face and are bombarded with negative judgment on aspects like their

sexuality, capabilities, and their masculinity.

Another journal article of Barber (2008), “The Well-coiffed Man: Class, Race,

and Heterosexual Masculinity in the Hair Salon” argues the discrimination of black to white men

in the working class. The concept of doing differences support to understand how the men in

shear styles are associated in naturalizing the social order of this type of class and race.

Robinson, Elmfield, and Sheffield (2011) in their study “Masculinities,

Sexualities, and the Limits of Subversion: Being a Man in Hairdressing” men are responding in

negative and destructive ways to insecurity about their work or role in salon. This also explains

the hardships of being a man, because according to this view, men behaviors are more

questionable than women because some of the men are related to crime, parenting, and sexuality.

Their careers may find their masculinity and sexuality coming under scrutiny.

This case study is becoming more interesting because the parallels with the male hairdressers in

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our study are very unique. Hairdressing is an overwhelmingly feminized profession in which it is

rare to have a straight men working on salon. For many of the men in their study, being a man in

a woman’s world was a positive experience. Many reported that they felt they were different

because they are men. Many men felt they had to push themselves harder to make it.

David, a hairdresser in his fifties was interviewed, compared women and men’s

reasons for choosing hairdressing, and their level of ambition once in the profession. When asked

whether he thought that women made better hairdressers than men, he replied. One of the main

problems for heterosexual men working in a feminized industry is the constant possibility of

being mistaken for being gay. They thought that man is gay because of his work but we need to

know that we must focus on their skills and not judge them.

Toxic Masculinity

Collins (2016) in his journal called “A Man’s Job: Struggling with Identity and

Masculinity in the Workplace” shows the struggle of being masculine in a workplace. They

experience constant exposure to hostile language and there was often friction between their

sexual identity and the archetypal masculinity that permeated the cultures of their respective

departments.

Three Filipino millennial were interviewed about their thoughts on toxic

masculinity and also discussed about misogyny which is belittling of women, and sexism that

having unfair treatment of people because of their sex. It tackles more on the root or cause of

toxic masculinity and how “hypermasculinity” comes in. A lot of people focus on physical

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attributes of a man, being macho, and its strength, aggression - that has to do with the quality that

is appropriate to or usually associated with a man (Ramos, 2018).

According to Connell, (as cited in Salter, 2019), ” Multiple masculinities shaped

by class, race, culture, sexuality, and other factors, often in competition with one another as to

which can claim to be more authentic. In this view, which is now the prevailing social-scientific

understanding of masculinity, the standards by which a “real man” is defined can vary

dramatically across time and place.”

Connell and others theorized that when they set unattainable norms, prevalent male

ideals such as social regard, physical strength, and sexual potency would become difficult. Failure to

fall short can render kids and men insecure and anxious, leading them to use force to feel and be seen

as dominant and in command. Male violence does not emanate from something good or bad in this

situation

According to a new sociology researcher “The popular discussion of masculinity

has often presumed there are fixed character types among men,” Connell told me. “I’m skeptical

of the idea of character types. I think it’s more important to understand the situations in which

groups of men act, the patterns in their actions, and the consequences of what they do.”

The idea today provides an appealingly easy diagnosis of sexual violence and male

failure: these are the "poisonous" components of masculinity, separate from the "healthy"

components. New advocates of the notion, sometimes unaware of its roots, tend to agree that males

and children are influenced by a social "illness" and that cure is cultural renewal.

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 “Prisoners Unlearn the Toxic Masculinity That Led To Their Incarceration” by

Anna Luna, (2019). As seen in this article that revolves around the interview of a prisoner that has

changed his life with his newly found self, toxic masculinity can be life changing in either positive or

negative way. This is why it is important for us to understand it and learn how to diagnose it in other

people and from ourselves, learning to get rid of toxic masculinity from ourselves however is just as

important if not more important than diagnosing it. George Luna was an inmate for ten whole years

but he comes back to his correctional facilities regularly. He spent most of his life in and out of the

cell, but now in a change of wind, he finally says he’s changed for good and is looking to help other

prisoners to be better too. In that prison they have a facilitator that teaches them about male toxic

masculinity and how it led them to commit such crimes that led them to their situation. “First and

foremost, we can cry,” Luna stated talking with the other inmates in training at Avenal State

Prison, “We can show emotion, and I’ll be honest with you that are a courageous motherfucker

who’s willing to stand up and show his emotions and, through tears and all, be courageous and

tell his story.” Luna added. “When I leave, I probably cry maybe two, three times, thinking about

the day, about things that happened,” Luna told Huff Post after arriving at his motel near the

prison. “It’s just — I got to compartmentalize while I’m there. But when I get out, some things

hit me hard when I hear some of these guys’ stories.” Luna added. Inmates open up about their

traumatic experiences during the training, such as sexual assault, family abandonment, and

domestic violence caused by loved ones. An essential aspect of their job is revisiting what they

call this "initial trauma." It is their experiences as young children that formed the foundation of

their mechanisms of coping and strategies of survival. “I’ve been a vicious person most of my

life, my young and adult life, and in and out of prison,” stated Harold “Happy” Miller member

9
of GRIP and a former member of the Hells Angels Motorcycle Club. “And in sentencing, the

judge deemed me an extreme menace to society and a cyst growing on the spine of life. I made

my mother scared of me.” He then added. The conversation between Luna and the other inmates

continued and we can only conclude a common denominator among their statements. The

inmates all were affected by the standards that society has made up for men and if they have not

come to meet these standards it’s where the problem starts, these creates insecurities among them

and thus can transform into aggression and violence unfortunately.

Men are belittled due to their feminine work without recognizing the positive

phase of the unique thing they do.

An article from Charlene V. Mina (2014) “I Feel Pretty: Queerness of the

Filipino Masculinity as Portrayed by Metrosexuality in Selected” shows that barbershop is not

the only thing that man can do; they can also go to cosmetic products. The author also stated that

male vanity is being exposed in the Philippine society, some advertisement in the Philippines

involves fulfillment of the aesthetics of Filipino men like skin care products endorsed by

Filipino.

Employment

An article of David S. Pedulla (2018) “Discrimination” shows that gender

continues to shape opportunities in the world of work. Gender affects employment in many

ways, an important mechanism through which gender inequalities emerge is discrimination. Due

to the central role of employment in shaping economic security and financial well-being, this

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article presents evidence on gender discrimination in employment and specifically on

discrimination at the point of hire.

R.W. Connell and J.W. Messerschmidt (2005) “Hegemonic Masculinity:

Rethinking the Concept” states that the influence of hegemonic masculinity as an ideal affects a

huge amount of field of academics, particularly regarding gender studies. The concept of

hegemonic masculinity actually does refer to men’s engaging in toxic practices – including

physical violence that stabilize gender dominance in a particular setting.

Bathamm (2016), on his journal “Encouraging Gender Balance in the Salon”

addressed a salon owner’s insight regarding gender equilibrium in the workplace. According to

the owner having more male stylists enables him to offer diversity to a diverse clientele.

Achieving gender equality is important not just because it is the right thing to do, but also

because it improves workplace productivity as well as the economy’s productivity.

According to Torre, (2019) in her article “Is Social Pressure Making Men Leave

Typically ‘Female’ Jobs?” the existence of males in female-dominated occupations continues small

compared to the growing involvement of females in male-dominated occupations. While a great deal

of academic attention has been given to explaining the reluctance of males to work in female-

dominated areas, little is understood about the occupational trajectories of males who follow a fresh

route and enter female-dominated occupations. Based on a recent research, wherein the National

Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLYS79) is used to study the work histories of men employed in

the United States between 1979 and 2006. There are two significant takeaways from the study.

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 First, there is a disproportionate risk of attrition among male newcomers to

female-dominated occupations, not only when compared to women but also to other men already

employed in the female field. In the sample, around 8 out of every 10 men working in female-

dominated occupations previously worked in a non-female occupation. When these men changed

jobs, only a quarter remained in the female-dominated field. The rest moved back to a typically

male or gender-neutral job.

The second take away is the second main takeaway is that the prevalence of

stopgappers — again, men who leave female occupations shortly after entry — is higher among

men employed in low-status occupations (blue-collar and service jobs). Several factors account

for these findings. On the one hand, gender-egalitarian attitudes have taken root more firmly in

managerial and professional occupations than in service, clerical, and blue-collar sectors. Though

the gender revolution has significantly reduced vertical gender inequality over the past thirty

years, many occupational ghettoes persist in low-status, female-dominated fields (e.g.,

secretaries, nursery school teachers).

Synthesis

A study specifically focusing on the salon owners’ preference on employees

indicates that women attract more customers than men. This also includes the struggles of men in

this field of profession; their careers may find their masculinity and sexuality under scrutiny.

Hairdressing is an overwhelmingly feminized profession in which it is rare to have a straight

men working on salon, so men who engage their service on a parlor are being labeled as “gay”.

Another study indicates the society’s view and standards. Macho and hunks are the society’s

definition of men, ideal men.

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 Most men are facing hardships on their occupations because of the society’s

criteria of being a man. Another research which focuses on gender inequality regarding parlor

employees indicates how being a man affects their job. A research demonstrates the biased faced

by individuals engaged in occupations that are perceived inconsistent with their gender. Men

employed in jobs traditionally done by women are perceived as wimpy and undeserving of

respect.

Gender inequality and toxic masculinity is dominant in the Philippines. A

research states that a man who is conscious about their personal appearance does not mean he is

a metro sexual- a new term for gay. He is just loving himself like love object and pleasure as his

sexual preference. Another study discusses the experiences and thoughts of Filipino men about

toxic masculinity. It also discussed about misogyny which is belittling of women, and sexism

that having unfair treatment of people because of their sex.

Finally, it may be concluded that, the society has become a huge factor on how

men move and think. Since the community has set the standard of how men should look, do, and

manifest, men whose works’ are originally done by a woman usually face hardships and

struggles. Men are starting to be conscious about their selves, specifically jobs, and their

relationship with their bodies in able for them to meet the ideal type and the standard of the

society.

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