M1a Units and Dimensions
M1a Units and Dimensions
M1a Units and Dimensions
CHAPTER 1
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
Structures
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Objective
1.3. Methods of Measurements and Measuring Instruments
1.3.1. Requirements of Instruments
1.3.2. Classification of Instruments
1.3.3. Accuracy and Precision
1.3.4. Resolution and Overshoot
1.7. Exercises
1.8. Outcome
1.9. Futher Reading
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Measurement of a quantity is the result of a comparison between the unknown quantity and
its predefined standard. A measuring system is required to quantify the parameters
involved and establish clear rules about their relative values. Early systems of
measurements were based on imprecise units, while the modern measurement systems are
based on accurately defined units. Many standard measuring units have been established at
different levels of measurements. The significance of electrical measurements and
measuring instruments is evident from the rapid developments in the field of electrical
engineering owing to the developments in their measuring devices.
The measurement is meaningful only if the standards are accurately defined, reliable and
commonly accepted, the methods used are well proven and the circuit conditions are little
affected by the introduction of the measuring systems. The parameter under measurement
is referred as measurand and it is always measured in terms of its numeric value. The
process of measurement through a meter is referred as Instrumentation. Electrical
measuring instruments are the most common devices used not only for the measurement of
electrical quantities, but also for all other quantities, which could be transformed into an
electrical signal. The usual quantities to be measured are current, voltage, power, energy,
frequency, power factor, etc. The various circuit parameters also need to be measured such
as resistance, inductance, capacitance, etc. An umpteen number and varieties of measuring
instruments have been developed for measurement purposes. In other words, measurement
and instrumentation are based on different methods depending upon the characteristic
features of the quantity being measured.
1.2. Objective
To understand the concept of units and dimensions.
The measurement methods can be analog or digital methods, deflection or null methods,
active or passive methods, direct or indirect methods and absolute or secondary methods.
Measurement generally involves an instrument as a physical means of determining an
unknown quantity or a variable called the parameter. The instrument is a means for
determining the value or magnitude of the measurand. The instruments can also be divided
into separate classes according to several criteria as, analog or digital instruments,
deflection or null type instruments, power operated (active) or self generating (passive)
instruments, contacting or non-contacting instruments, mechanical or electrical instruments
and monitoring or control instruments.
• Signals which vary continuously with the change in the measurand are analog signals
and the devices producing them are analog instruments. The deflection type
dynamometer type wattmeter is a good example of an analog instrument. As the input
value changes, the moving system or pointer exhibits a smooth continuous motion. The
signals which vary in discrete steps and have only finite number of values in any given range
are digital signals and the associated devices are digital instruments. A digital instrument
has an output varying in discrete steps. An electronic counter is an example of a digital
instrument.
• If the quantity is to be directly measured, then deflection methods are used. For e.g.,
ammeter, voltmeter, etc. acting as meters indicating the value of the measurand by the
deflection of a pointer over a graduated and calibrated scale. Alternatively, if the value
is measured based on the null balance conditions, then it is a null method. Null
methods are used only to detect the null condition of a measurand through a given path
or circuit. AC/DC Bridge measurements for measurement of resistance, inductance,
capacitance, frequency, etc. are null methods. They involve balance detection by using
null detectors, such as, Galvanometer, Vibration Galvanometers and Head Phones. Null
instruments are more accurate than the deflection instruments.
• If the output of the instrument is entirely produced by the measurand, then it is an
active instrument. These are the power operated instruments requiring some source of
auxiliary power for their operation such as compressed air, electricity and hydraulic
supply. On the other hand, if the measurand modulates the magnitude of some external
power source, then it is a passive instrument. Passive instruments are self generating
instruments where the energy requirements are met entirely from the input signal.
• The direct methods involve measuring the measurand by comparison against its own
standard. They are very common for measurement of physical quantities such as length,
mass and time. They are less sensitive and inaccurate since they involve human
operators. Thus direct methods are not usually preferred. On the other hand, indirect
methods use measuring systems, which are the systems having a transducer to convert
the measurand into its analogous form. This converted signal is processed, fed to the
end devices to obtain the results.
• Absolute methods give the magnitude of the quantity under measurement in terms of
the physical constants of the instrument. They do not require calibration. They are used
only for calibration of other instruments. For e.g., Tangent Galvanometer, Rayleigh's
current balance and potentiometers. Secondary methods are so constructed that the
desired quantity is measured only by observing the output of the instrument, which
needs to be calibrated. Thus, they measure the quantity in terms of their deflection, for
which they are already calibrated. These are the ones which are the most commonly
used. For e.g., Voltmeters, Thermometer, Pressure gauge, etc. Secondary methods work
on either Analog mode or Digital mode and hence lead to analog or digital methods.
• Contacting type instruments are those which are kept in the measuring medium itself.
For e.g., clinical thermometer. A non-contacting or proximity type instrument measures
the desired input even though it is not in close contact with the measuring medium. For
e.g., optical pyrometer measuring the temperature of a blast furnace, variable reluctance
tachometer measuring the speed of a rotating body, etc.
• Mechanical instruments are very reliable for static conditions. Their parts are very
bulky, rigid and have a heavy mass. Hence they cannot respond rapidly to
measurements of dynamic and transient conditions. Besides, many of them are the
potential sources of noise. On the other hand, electrical instruments are very rapid in
All the indicating instruments require three important torques for their operation: deflecting
torque-Td, controlling torque-Tc and damping torque-TD.
Y The deflecting torque is responsible for the movement of the pointer in proportion
to the value of the measurand. It is provided by the different effects of electric
current on which the operation of the given instrument depends.
Y The controlling torque is responsible for controlling the movements of the pointer.
It is very high at the null position of the pointer. When the pointer gets deflected
due to the deflecting torque exerted on it, the controlling torque provides the
retarding torque and the two torques are equal at the equilibrium position of the
pointer. The controlling torque is provided by spring or gravity control. This also
ensures the zero setting of the pointer when the deflecting torque is absent.
Y The damping torque provides the forces required to damp out the oscillatory
movements of the pointer, if any, due to the inertia of the system. The damping
torque is provided by eddy current, air friction or fluid friction methods.
• Since the instruments using magnetic effect, such as, ammeter, voltmeter and
wattmeter, are simpler, cheaper, and could be commonly adopted on both ac and dc
circuits, they are more common.
• The instruments using heating effect are not much used due to their cost and
comparable inaccuracies.
• The instruments using chemical effect, such as, energy meters, are also not very
common, due to their cost and complications involved.
• The electrostatic effect is made use of in voltmeters, both on ac and dc. Though
expensive, the electrostatic voltmeters are very useful for high voltage
measurements.
• Electromagnetic induction forms the basis for many instruments, though on only
AC. The common meters using the electromagnetic induction effect of current are:
ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter and energy meter. Of these, the wattmeter and
energy meter are more common, although they are costlier.
Precision is the measure of the reproducibility of the measurement. It means that the
measuring quantity is being clearly and sharply defined. The accuracy of an instrument can
be improved upon by calibration, but not the precision. The given set of readings show
precision if the results agree among themselves. This agreement may not ensure accuracy
as there may be some systematic disturbances causing an error in all the values. While
precision is a necessary prerequisite to accuracy, it does not guarantee the accuracy.
Accuracy is a matter of careful measurement in terms of an accurately known standard.
1 Measurand
Final Position
Over-
shoot
Time in seconds
To specify and perform calculations with physical quantities, they must be defined both in
kind and magnitude. The standard measure of each kind of physical quantity is unit. The
number of times a given unit occurs in any given quantity is its own measure. For e.g., 10
Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 6
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
seconds, 35 kilograms, 250 meters, etc. All the electrical units applied for measurements
have evolved from the crude initiation to the present high degree of refinement. The
product or quotient of any two unit quantities in the system is the unit of the resultant
quantity. The units are divided, in general, into two categories: fundamental or basic units
and derived units.
Force, F = m a (1.4)
where, m is the mass in kilograms and a is the acceleration in meters per second per
second. Thus we have
Unit of force = kilogram meters per second per second
= kg-m/sec2.
= newtons (1.5)
Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 7
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
Thus a Newton is defined as that force which when applied to a mass of one kg gives it an
acceleration of one m/sec2. Similarly, work done or energy is expressed as Joules, where
one Joule is the work done when a force of one Newton is exerted through a distance of
one meter in the direction of force. Likewise, the unit for any derived quantity can be
arrived at based on the associated formulae.
Length [L] ;
Mass [M];
Time [T] ;
Current [I] (1.6)
The dimensions for the derived units can be obtained based on the different physical laws
governing them. Since the constants, such as, number of turns, number of cycles and pi ( )
are dimensionless, it should be noted that the equality is in terms of its dimensions only
and it should not be mixed up with the numerical values. Here, the dimensional expression,
say, for example, of resistance: [ M L2 T-3 I-2 ], means that the derived quantity,
resistance, has dimensions of: one in mass, two in length, minus three in time and minus
two in current.
Thus, we see that the dimensions of resistance- R, impedance- Z and the reactances- XL
and XC are all the same, since they have a common unit, ohm. Similarly, the natural
frequency and the angular frequency have the same dimensions. Thus, any given set of
parameters having the same units will have the same dimensions.
Thus,
ε = electric charge per unit area / voltage per unit length
= (charge, Q) (length) / (area x voltage)
= (charge) (length) / (length x length x work done per unit charge)
= (charge)2 / (length x work done)
= [ T2 I2 ] / ( [L] x [ M L2 T-2 ])
= [ M-1 L-3 T4 I2 ] (1.7)
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Solution:
Consider the expression for resistance given by R = V / I. Since both the units of
voltage and current are increased by equal proportions, the value and hence the unit
of resistance, R remains the same.
Consider the expression for the self induced EMF, eL in an inductive coil given by
eL = L di/dt. Thus L = (EMF) (time) / current. Since both the units of voltage and
current are increased by equal proportions, the unit of inductance, L also remains
the same.
Consider the expression for charge stored in a parallel plate capacitor, Q given by
Q = C V. Since Q = (current) (time), we have C = (current) (time) / voltage. Again,
since both the units of voltage and current are increased by equal proportions, the
unit of capacitance, C remains the same.
Thus the magnifying values of voltage and current in equal proportions, do not
result in the alteration of the unit values of R, L and C.
Solution :
work done = force x distance
= (70 N) ( 25 m)
= ( 1750 Nm or Joules)
Thus,
power = work done / second
= 1750 / 5
= 350 watts.
3 A steady pull of 750 Nm is exerted by a motor vehicle on a trailer, when its speed is
80 Km per hour. Determine the unit and numerical value of the work done in 30
minutes and the power required.
Solution:
Distance moved = ( 80/ 60 ) ( 30 )
= 40000 meters
work done = force x distance
= 750 x 40,000
= 30000 KWs or Mega joules.
power = work done in KWH / Time in Hrs.
= (30,000 / 3600) / (30 / 60)
= 16.67 Kwatts.
Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 11
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
Solution:
Consider Coulomb’s inverse square law of charges stated as per the equation
F = Q1 Q2 / ( ε0 r2 )
where, F is the force between two poles separated by a distance of d units. Taking
dimensions on both sides we get
[ M L T-2 ] = [ charge ]2 / (ε L2 )
Solving, we get the dimensional expression for charge given by
[charge] = ( [ M L3 T-2 ε ] )1/2
= [ M1/2 L3/2 T-1 ε1/2]
and [current] = [charge] / [time] = [ M1/2 L3/2 T-2 ε1/2]
Solution:
Consider Coulomb’s inverse square law of magnetic poles stated as per the
equation F = q1 q2 / ( µ d2 )
where, F is the force between two poles separated by a distance of d units. Taking
dimensions on both sides we get
[ M L T-2 ] = [ pole strength ]2 / (µ L2 )
Solving, we get the dimensional expression for charge given by
[ q ] = ( [ µ M L3 T-2 ] )1/2
= [ µ1/2 M1/2 L3/2 T-1 ]
Since the magnetizing force, H = force per unit pole, we have
[ H ] = [ M L T-2 ] / [µ1/2 M1/2 L3/2 T-1 ]
= [ µ-1/2 M1/2 L-1/2 T-1 ]
Also, since the magnetizing force, H = 2 I / r, we have
[current] = [ H ] [ L ] [ I ] = [ µ-1/2 M1/2 L1/2 T-1 ]
Thus, [charge] = [ current ] [ time ]
[ Q ] = [ µ-1/2 M1/2 L1/2 ]
and [ p.d.] = work done per unit charge
[ V ] = [force x distance ] / [ charge ]
= [ M L2 T-2 ] / [ µ-1/2 M1/2 L1/2 ] = [ µ1/2 M1/2 L3/2 T-2 ]
6 With usual notations, EMF is given by e = Blv. Check for the dimensional validity
of this equation.
Solution:
Consider the dimensional expressions of the different parameters involved
Solution:
Consider the dimensional expressions of the different parameters involved
EMF = [ M L2 T-3 I-1 ]
resistance = [ M L2 T-3 I-2 ]
capacitance = [M-1 L-2 T4 I2 ]
The constant 0.4343 and the logarithmic function, which is taken for the ratio of
voltages, are dimensionless. Thus, the dimensional equations of the left and right
hand sides of the given equation are:
[ LHS ] = [ M L2 T-3 I-2 ]
[ RHS ] = [time] / [capacitance]
= [ T ] / [M-1 L-2 T4 I2 ]
= [M L2 T-3 I-2 ]
The given equation is thus found to be dimensionally correct.
8 During the course of iron loss measurements in a magnetic strip, the expression
used for the rms value of the induced voltage is: E = 4 kf Bm As f N2 where,
kf = form factor, Bm = maximum flux density, As = cross sectional area of the
secondary winding , f is the frequency in cycles per second and N2 = the secondary
number of turns. Determine whether the expression is dimensionally correct or not.
Solution:
Consider the dimensional expressions of the different parameters involved
EMF = [ M L2 T-3 I-1 ]
flux density, Bm = [ M T-2 I-1 ]
Frequency, f = [ T-1 ]
Area, As = [ L2 ]
The number of turns, N2, kf, and constant 4 are dimensionless. Thus, the
dimensional equations of the left and right hand sides of the given equation are:
[ LHS ] = [ M L2 T-3 I-1 ]
[ RHS ] = [ M T-2 I-1 ] [ L2 ] [ T-1 ]
= [ M L2 T-3 I-1 ]
Thus the given equation is found to be dimensionally correct.
Dept Of EEE, ATMECE Page 13
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
9 Show that the expression with usual notations: ( µ0 ε0 )-1/ 2 has the dimensions of
velocity.
Solution:
Consider the dimensions of permeability, µ0 and permittivity, ε0 derived using the
dimensional expressions of derived quantities listed in table 4 :
Permeability = flux density / Magnetizing force
= [ M T-2 I-1 ] / [ L-1 I ]
= [ M L T-2 I-2 ]
Permittivity = electric flux density / electric field strength
ε0 = (charge, Q) (length) / (area x voltage)
= (charge) (length) / (length x length x work done per unit charge)
= (charge)2 / (length x work done)
= [ T2 I2 ] / ( [L] x [ M L2 T-2 ])
= [ M-1 L-3 T4 I2 ]
Thus, the dimensions of the expression (µ0ε0)-1/ 2 are :
( [ M L T-2 I-2 ] [ M-1 L-3 T4 I2 ] ) -1/ 2
which after simplification yields [ L T-1 ], the dimensions of velocity.
Solution :
[ LHS ] = [ M L2 T-3 I-2 ]
[ RHS ] = [R (1 + f2 C2 R2) / f2 R2 C ]
= [ML2T-3I-2] (1+[T-2] [M-1L-2T4I2]2 [ML2T-3I-2]2) / [T-2] [ML2T-3I-2]2 [M-1L-2T4I2]
= [ M L2 T-3 I-2 ] ( 1+ 1) / [ M L2 T-4 I-2 ]
≠ [ LHS ]
of the expression, prove that there is an error in the expression. Point out the
correction to be made in the expression which renders it dimensionally correct.
Solution :
[ LHS ] = [ inductance ]
= [ M L2 T-2 I-2 ]
[ RHS ] = [C (R +R + R2) ]
= [ CR + CR + CR2 ]
= [M-1L-2T4I2] [ML2T-3I-2] + [M-1L-2T4I2] [ML2T-3I-2] + [M-1L-2T4I2] [M L2T-3I-2]2
= [T ] +[T ] + [ M L2 T-2 I-2 ]
≠ [ LHS ]
12 The expression for the electromagnetic pull is given by: f ∝ Ba Ab µ0c where, f
is the pull, B is flux density of air gap, µ0 is permeability of free space and A is the
cross sectional area of the gap. Determine the indices a, b and c, given that the
expression for f is dimensionally valid.
Solution :
[ LHS ] = [ FORCE ]
= [ M L T-2 ]
[ RHS ] = [ B ]a [ A ]b [ µ0 ]c
= [ M T-2 I-1 ]a [ L2 ]b [ M L T-2 I-2 ]c
[MLT-2] = [ Ma+c L2b+c T-2a-2c I-a-2c ]
Equating the indices on both sides we get
a+c = 1; 2b+c = 1; -2a-2c = -2; -a-2c = 0
Solving the above, we obtain: 2a = 2, b = 1 and c = -1. Hence the expression
given is of the form: f ∝ ( B A / µ0 ).
1.6 EXERCISES
1. A wattmeter reads 145.289 watts when the true value is 145.2 watts. Determine the
absolute static error and the corresponding correction needed.
(Ans.: 0.089 watts, -0.089 watts)
2. An ammeter reads 6.75 amps. The corresponding error as read from its error
calibration curve is: (i) + 0.23 amps, (ii) – 0.21 amps. Determine the true values
of the currents involved. (Ans.: 6.98 A, 6.54 A)
4. Indicate the number of significant figures to be used during calculations for the
following experimental figures: 199 volts, 12.853 ohms, 0.05 amperes and 0.004
Mega-ohms. (Ans.: 3, 5, 2 and 4)
6. A set of independent current measurements were taken and the readings recorded
are: 11.9, 12.2, 12.3, 12.2, 12.0 and 12.4 amperes. Calculate these: (i) Arithmetic
Mean, (ii)Average Deviation and (iii) Standard Deviation.
(Ans.: 12.17 A, 0.144 A, 0.1862 A)
7. In the expression for power given by, P = I2 R, the limiting errors in current, I
and resistance, R are: 0.5 % and 0.2 % respectively. Calculate the limiting error
in the computed value of power in percentage and watts.
(Ans.: ± 1.2 %, ±4.8 watts)
8. The resistance values of a wheatstone bridge are accurate within ± 0.1 %. Find the
accuracy with which the unknown resistance can be measured. (Ans.: 0.3 %)
f =
1 ; C = ε0 A / d ; L = µ0 A N2 / l ; E=Bldω
2 LC
where, f is frequency, ω is angular frequency, B is the flux density, N is number of
turns, l, d are length units, A is the area of cross section, L is inductance, C is
capacitance, ε0 is permittivity and µ0 is permeability.
10. The expression for the low resistance as measured by a Kelvin Double bridge
arrangement is given by: R = ( P S / Q ) + [ q r / ( p + q + r )] [ P / Q – p / q ]
where, P, Q, p and q are the ratio arm resistances, S is the low resistance standard
and r is the yoke resistance. Check whether the expression is dimensionally correct
or not.
12. Determine the indices of the equation below for the eddy current loss per meter of
wire of circular cross section, where, ω = loss per unit length (webers /meter),
f = frequency (c/s), Bm = maximum flux density, = resistivity (ohm-meter) and
d = diameter (meters): ω ∝ f w B mx dy z (Ans.: w = 2, x = 2, y = 4, z =
-1)
13. In deriving an expression with usual notations for the current through a given
network, the expression arrived at was: I = E [1/ Z1 + (j ω M / Z2 ) (1 / R + C / L )].
Show that there is an algebraic error and point out the correction to be made in the
expression so as to make it dimensionally valid.
(correction: the denominator term: C/L should be (RC/L)
1.7 Outcome
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