Emi Total Material
Emi Total Material
Emi Total Material
1. Instrument:
3. Accuracy:
4. Resolution:
5. Precision:
6. Expected value:
• The design value, i.e. the most probable value that calculations indicate
one should expect to measure. .
7. Error:
8. Sensitivity:
Error in Measurement:
• Absolute error may be defined as the difference between the expected value
of the variable and the measured value of the variable, or
Types of Errors:
• The complete elimination of gross errors is not possible, but one can
minimize them.
• One of the basic gross errors that occurs frequently is the improper use of
an instrument.
• The error can be minimized by taking proper care in reading and recording
the measurement parameter.
2. Systematic Error :
i. Instrumental Errors
ii. Environmental Errors
Arithmetic Mean :
• If the deviation of the first reading, x1, is called d1 and that of the second
reading x2 is called d2, and so on,
• The deviation may be positive or negative. The algebraic sum of all the
deviations must be zero.
Average Deviations :
• It may be expressed as
• The standard deviation is also known as root mean square deviation, and is
the most important factor in the statistical analysis of measurement data.
Dynamic Characteristics:
• The three most common variations in the measured quantity are as follows:
ii) Fidelity.
(iii) Lag.
(ii) Fidelity :
(iii) Lag :
• It is the difference between the true value of a quantity changing with time
and the value indicated by the instrument, if no static error is assumed.
DC Voltmeter :
• Rs = multiplier resistance
Multirange Voltmeter
• Figure 4.2 shows a multirange voltmeter using a three position switch and
three multipliers R1, R2, and R3 for voltage values V1, V2, and V3.
• Figure 4.2 can be further modified to Fig. 4.3, which is a more practical
arrangement of the multiplier resistors of a multirange voltmeter.
• The basic meter movement can be used to measure very low voltages.
• However, great care must be used not to exceed the voltage drop required
for full scale deflection of the basic movement.
Sensitivity :
• The sensitivity or Ohms per Volt rating of a voltmeter is the ratio of the
total circuit resistance Rt to the voltage range.
• The sensitivity ‘ S’ of the voltmeter has the advantage that it can be used
to calculate the value of multiplier resistors in a dc voltmeter. As,
Rt = total circuit resistance [Rt = Rs + Rm]
Since
Rs = Rt — Rm and Rt = S x V
Rs = (S x V) — Rm
Differential Voltmeter :
• Under null conditions, Voltage the meter draws current from neither the
reference source nor the un-known known voltage source, and hence the
differential voltmeter presents an infinite impedance to the unknown
source. (The null meter serves as an indicator only.)
• The input voltage divider has a relatively low input impedance, especially
for unknown voltages much higher than the reference standard.
• The above block diagram consists of two blocks: half wave rectifier and
DC voltmeter.
• The circuit diagram of AC voltmeter using Half wave rectifier will look
like as shown in below figure.
Vdc = 1.414Vrms / π
Vdc = 0.45Vrms
• Therefore, the AC voltmeter produces an output voltage, which is equal
to 0.45 times the rms value of the sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal
Vrms = Vm / √2
Vm = √2Vrms
Vm = 1.414Vrms
Where,
• Vm is the maximum value of sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal.
• The DC or average value of the Full wave rectifier’s output signal is
Vdc = 2Vm / π
• Substitute, the value of Vm in above equation
Vdc = 2×1.414Vrms / π
Vdc = 0.9Vrms
• Therefore, the AC voltmeter produces an output voltage, which is equal
to 0.9 times the rms value of the sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal.
Thermocouple type RF Ammeter :
Definition :
• These two metals form a thermocouple and they have the property that
when the junction is heated it produces a voltage proportional to the
heating effect.
• In this type, the alternating current passes through the thermocouple itself
and not through a heater wire.
• This is less sensitive than the mutual type. In the contact type there are
separate thermocouple leads which conduct away the heat from the heater
wire.
• This makes the instrument sluggish and also less sensitive because of
temperature drop in the glass bead.
• This has the high sensitivity of the mutual type and yet avoids the
shunting effect of the microammeter.
• A similar bridge arrangement in air would require about 100 mA for full
scale deflection.
Ohmmeters :
• An ohmmeter can be defined as, it is one kind of electronic device mainly
used for calculating electrical resistance of a circuit, and the unit of
resistance is ohm.
• Electrical resistance is a calculation of how much an object resists
allowing the flow of current through it.
Types of Ohmmeter :
• The classification of this meter can be done based on the application in
three types namely
• This forms the basic type of series ohmmeter, as shown in Fig. 4.28 (a).
V = battery
Rm = meter resistance
RX = unknown resistance
Calibration of the Series Type Ohmmeter :
• To mark the “0” reading on the scale, the terminals A and B are shorted,
i.e. the unknown resistance Rx= 0, maximum current flows in the circuit
and the shunt resistance R2 is adjusted until the movement indicates full
scale current (Ifsd).
• The position of the pointer on the scale is then marked “0” ohms.
• Similarly, to mark the “∞” reading on the scale, terminals A and B are
open, i.e. the unknown resistance Rx = ∞, no current flow in the circuit
and there is no deflection of the pointer.
• The position of the pointer on the scale, is then marked as “∞” ohms.
• Due to this, the full scale deflection current drops and the meter does not
read “0” when A and B are shorted.
• Therefore, in a series ohmmeter the scale marking on the dial, has “0” on
the right side, corresponding to full scale deflection current, and “∞” on
the left side corresponding to no current flow, as given in Fig. 4.28 (b).
where
• The total resistance presented to the battery then equals 2Rh and the
battery current needed to supply half scale deflection is Ih = V/2Rh..
• To produce full scale current, the battery current must be doubled.
• Therefore, the total current of the ckt, It = V/ Rh
• The shunt current through R2 is given by I2 = It - Ifsd
• The voltage across shunt, Vsh, is equal to the voltage across the meter.
Therefore
Therefore
But
Therefore
Therefore
As
Therefore
Hence
Therefore
Hence, R1 and R2 can be determined.
• The shunt type ohmmeter given in Fig. 4.30 consists of a battery in series
with an adjustable resistor R1, and a D’Arsonval movement.
• To mark the “0” ohms reading on the scale, terminals A and B are
shorted, i.e. the unknown resistance Rx = 0, and the current through the
meter movement is zero, since it is bypassed by the short-circuit.
• Similarly, to mark “∞” on the scale, the terminals A and B are opened,
i.e. Rx = ∞ and full current flows through the meter movement; by
appropriate selection of the value of R1, the pointer can be made to read
full scale deflection current.
3. Multirange Ohmmeter:
• The Multirange Ohmmeter circuit shown in Fig. 4.28 (a) is only for a
single range of resistance measurement.
Multimeter :
V = IgRs + IgG
or Rs = (V – IgG)/Ig
(I – Ig)Rsh = IgG
or Rsh = IgG/(I – Ig)
Resistance Measurement :
• The part of the circuit diagram of Multimeter, which can be used to
measure resistance is shown in below figure.
Signal Generator:
• Fixed frequency might be a 400 Hz signal used for audio testing or a 1000
Hz signal for exciting a bridge circuit.
Variable AF Oscillator:
• The Wien bridge oscillator is the best for the audio frequency range.
• The output of the Wien bridge oscillator goes to the function switch.
• The function switch directs the oscillator output either to the sine
wave amplifier or to the square wave shaper.
• At the output, we get either a square or sine wave. The output is varied
by means of an attenuator.
Function Generator:
• The spectrum does not specify the signal uniquely because it contains no
phase informations.
• The output from the noise diode is amplified and heterodyned down to
the audio frequency band by means of a balanced symmetrical modulator.
• From Fig. 8.9, it is seen that white noise is flat from 20 Hz to 25 kHz and
has an upper cutoff frequency of 50 kHz with a cutoff slope of —12 dbs/
octave.
• Pink noise is so called because the lower frequencies have a larger
amplitude, similar to red light.
• Pink noise has a voltage spectrum which is inversely proportional to the
square root of frequency and is used in bandwidth analysis.
• Usasi noise ranging simulates the energy distribution of speech and music
frequencies and is used for testing audio amplifiers and loud speakers.
Sweep Generator:
• Thus the amplitude of the response of a test device will be locked and
displayed on the screen.
• To identify a frequency interval, a marker generator provides half
sinusoidal waveforms at any frequency within the sweep range.
• The marker voltage can be added to the sweep voltage of the CRO during
alternate cycles of the sweep voltage, and appears superimposed on the
response curve.
• This circuit holds the power delivered to the load or test circuit constant
and independent of frequency and impedance changes.
• A constant power level prevents any source mismatch and also provides
a constant readout calibration with frequency.
• The duty cycle can be varied from 25 – 75%. Two independent outputs
are available, a 50 Q source that supplies pulses with a rise and fall time
of 5 ns at 5 V peak amplitude and a 600 Q source which supplies pulses
with a rise and fall time of 70 ns at 30 V peak amplitude.
• The basic generating loop consists of the current sources, the ramp
capacitor, the Schmitt trigger and the current switching circuit, as shown
in Fig. 8.7.
• The upper current source supplies a constant current to the capacitor and
the capacitor voltage increases linearly.
• When the positive slope of the ramp voltage reaches the upper limit set
by the internal circuit components, the Schmitt trigger changes state.
• The trigger circuit output becomes negative and reverses the condition of
the current switch.
• When the negative ramp reaches a predetermined lower level, the Schmitt
trigger switches back to its original state.
• The entire process is then repeated. The ratio i1/i2 determines the duty
cycle, and is controlled by symmetry control.
• The sum of i1 and i2 determines the frequency. The size of the capacitor is
selected by the multiplier switch.
Clock
Wave Analyzers
• It is often desired to measure the amplitude of each harmonic or
fundamental individually.
• This can be performed by instruments called wave analyzers.
Block Diagram of Basic Wave Analyzer :
• The driver amplifier applies the attenuated input signal to a high-Q active
filter.
• This high-Q filter is a low pass filter which allows the frequency which is
selected to pass and reject all others.
• For selecting the frequency range, the capacitors generally used are of
the closed tolerance polystyrene type and the resistances used are
precision potentiometers.
• The capacitors are used for range changing and the potentiometer is used
to change the frequency within the selected pass-band,
• The selected signal output from the final amplifier stage is applied to the
meter circuit and to an untuned buffer amplifier.
• The main function of the buffer amplifier is to drive output devices, such
as recorders or electronics counters.
• The meter has several voltage ranges as well as decibel scales marked on
it. It is driven by an average reading rectifier type detector.
• The wave analyzer must have extremely low input distortion,
undetectable by the analyzer itself.
• The bandwidth of the instrument is very narrow, typically about 1% of
the selective band given by the following response characteristics. (Fig.
9.2).
• Wave analyzers are useful for measurement in the audio frequency range
only.
• The output of the IF amplifier is rectified and applied to the meter circuit.
• In this analyzer, the attenuator provides the required input signal for
heterodyning in the first mixer stage, with the signal from a local
oscillator having a frequency of 30 —48 MHz.
• This high pass allows only the harmonics to pass and the total harmonic
distortion can then be measured.
• Only the harmonic components reach the output terminals. The harmonic
distortion output can then be measured with a meter.
• Fig. 9.7 the, L and C’s are tuned to the fundamental frequency, and R is
adjusted to bypass fundamental frequency.
• Only harmonic components will reach the output terminals and the
distorted output can be measured by the meter.
• The disadvantage is that they give only the total distortion and not the
amplitude of individual distortion components.
Spectrum Analyzer:
• The primary use is to measure the power of the spectrum of known and
unknown signals.
• The height represents the absolute magnitude, and the horizontal location
represents the frequency.
• The sawtooth generator provides the sawtooth voltage which drives the
horizontal axis element of the scope and this sawtooth voltage is
frequency controlled element of the voltage tuned oscillator.
• As the oscillator sweeps from fmin to fmax of its frequency band at a linear
recurring rate, it beats with the frequency component of the input signal
and produce an IF, whenever a frequency component is met during its
sweep.
• The spectrum produced if the input wave is a single toned A.M. is given
in Figs 9.10, 9.11, and 9.12.
• One of the principal applications of spectrum analyzers has been in the
study of the RF spectrum produced in microwave instruments.
• The input signal is fed into a mixer which is driven by a local oscillator.
• The mixer provides two signals at its output that are proportional in
amplitude to the input signal but of frequencies which are the sum and
difference of the input signal and local oscillator frequency.
• The IF amplifier is tuned to a narrow band around 2 GHz, since the local
oscillator is tuned over the range of 2 — 3 GHz, only inputs that are
separated from the local oscillator frequency by 2 GHz will be converted
to IF frequency band, pass through the IF frequency amplifier, get
rectified and produce a vertical deflection on the CRT.
• From this, it is observed that as the sawtooth signal sweeps, the local
oscillator also sweeps linearly from 2 — 3 GHz.
• The Digital Fourier Analyzer converts the analogue waveform over time
period T into N samples.
• The discrete spectral response Sx (k Δ f); k=1,2,…, N which is equivalent
to simultaneously obtaining the output from N filters having a bandwidth
given by Δf = 1/T, is obtained by applying a Discrete Fourier Transform
(DFT) to the sampled version of the signal.
• The spectral response is thus given by where k=1,2,3,…., N.
• Sx (k Δ f) is a complex quantity, which is obtained by operating on all the
sample x (n . Δt); n=1,2,3,…,N by the complex factor exp [-j[(2Πkn)/N]].
• The cut-off frequencies of these filters are selected with respect to the
sampling frequency being used.
• The 30 kHz filter is used with a sampling rate of 102.4 kHz and the 300
kHz filter with a sampling rate of 1.024 MHz.
• The output from the ADC is connected to a multiplier and a digital filter.
• For one channel this can provide the real (magnitude) and imaginary
(phase) of the linear spectrum Sx (f) of a time domain signal
• By the use of two channels, the combined properties of the two signals can
be obtained.
• The cross-power spectrum of the two signals x(t) and y(t) can be computed
as
• If x (t) represents the input to a system and y(t) the output of the system,
then its transfer function H(f), which contains both amplitude and phase
information can be obtained by computing
• The input signal used for such measurements is often the internal random
noise generator.
UNIT 3
Oscilloscopes
Syllabus : Oscilloscopes CRT features, vertical amplifiers, horizontal
deflection system, sweep, trigger pulse, delay line, sync selector circuits, simple
CRO, triggered sweep CRO, Dual beam CRO, . Dual trace oscilloscope,
sampling oscilloscope, storage oscilloscope, digital readout oscilloscope,
digital storage oscilloscope, Lissajous method of frequency measurement,
standard specifications of CRO, probes for CRO- Active & Passive, attenuator
type.
Oscilloscope :
It is an electronic equipment, which displays a voltage waveform. Among the
oscilloscopes, Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is the basic one and it displays
a time varying signal or waveform.
In this chapter, let us discuss about the block diagram of CRO and measurements
of some parameters by using CRO.
• Measurement of Amplitude
• Measurement of Time Period
• Measurement of Frequency
Vertical Amplifier:
• Figure 7.14 indicates the amplitude of the signal wrt time and the relative
position of the sweep generator output signal.
• The diagram shows that when the delay line is not used, the initial part of
the signal is lost and only part of the signal is displayed.
• This gives time for the sweep to start at the horizontal plates before the
signal has reached the vertical plates.
• The trigger pulse is Picked off at a tune t0 after the signal has passed
through the main amplifier.
• The sweep generator delivers the sweep ti; the horizontal amplifier and the
sweep starts at the HDP at time t0 + 80 ns.
• Hence the sweep starts well in time, since the signal arrives at the VDP at
time t0 + 200 ns.
• The dual trace oscilloscope has one cathode ray gun, and an electronic
switch which switches two signals to a single vertical amplifier.
• The dual beam CRO uses two completely separate electron beams, two
sets of VDPs and a single set of HDPs.
• Only one beam can be synchronised at one time, since the sweep is the
same for both signals, i.e. a common time base is used for both beams.
• Therefore, the signals must have the same frequency or must be
related harmonically, in order to obtain both beams locked on the CRT
screen, e.g. the input signal of an amplifier can be used as signal A and its
output signal as signal B.
Storage Oscilloscope:
1. mesh storage
2. phosphor storage.
• A mesh-storage CRT uses a dielectric material deposited on a storage
mesh as the storage target.
• This mesh is placed between the deflection plates and the standard
phosphor target in the CRT.
• The writing beam, which is the focused electron beam of the standard
CRT, charges the dielectric material positively where hit.
• The storage target is then bombarded with low velocity electrons from
a flood gun and the positively charged areas of the storage target allow
these electrons to pass through to the standard phosphor target and
thereby reproduce the stored image on the screen.
• Thus the mesh storage has both a storage target and a phosphor display
target.
• The phosphor storage CRT uses a thin layer of phosphor to serve both
as the storage and the display element.
• The writing gun etches a positively charged pattern on the storage mesh
or target by knocking off secondary emission electrons. Because of the
excellent insulating property of the Magnesium Fluoride coating, this
positively charged pattern remains exactly in the position where it is
deposited.
• In order to make a pattern visible, a special electron gun, called the
flood gun, is switched on (even after many hours).
• Most of the electrons are stopped and collected by the collector mesh.
Only electrons near the stored positive charge are pulled to the storage
target with sufficient force to hit the phosphor screen.
• The CRT will now display the signal and it will remain visible as long
as the flood guns operate.
• Two intensified portions of the CRT trace identify 0% and 100% zones
position. Each zone can be shifted to any part of the display.
• The voltage divider taps between the 0% and 100% memory voltage are
set for start and stop timing.
• The numbers of the clock pulse which correspond to the actual sample
taken are read out digitally in a Nixie display tube in ns, lis, ms or
seconds.
• Figure 7.30 shows a block diagram of a digital readout CRO when used
for voltage to time conversion.
• First digital storage oscilloscope digitizes the analog input signal, then the
analog input signal is amplified by amplifier if it has any weak signal.
• The analyzer circuit process the digital signal after that the waveform is
reconstructed (again the digital signal is converted into an analog form)
and then that signal is applied to vertical plates of the cathode ray tube
(CRT).
• The cathode ray tube has two inputs they are vertical input and horizontal
input. The vertical input signal is the ‘Y’ axis and the horizontal input
signal is the ‘X’ axis.
• The time base circuit is triggered by the trigger and clock input signal, so
it is going to generate the time base signal which is a ramp signal.
• Then the ramp signal is amplified by the horizontal amplifier, and this
horizontal amplifier will provide input to the horizontal plate.
• On the CRT screen, we will get the waveform of the input signal versus
time.
• Figure 7.33 illustrates the basic circuit for comparing two frequencies by
the Lissajous method.
• Set the horizontal and vertical gain control for the desired width and
height of the pattern.
• Keep frequency fv constant and vary frequency fh, noting that the pattern
spins in alternate directions and changes shape.
• The pattern stands still whenever fv and fh are in an integral ratio (either
even or odd). The fv = fh pattern stands still and is a single circle or
ellipse.
• When fv = 2 fh, a two loop horizontal pattern is obtained as shown in Fig.
7.31.
• To determine the frequency from any Lissajous figure, count the number
of horizontal loops in the pattern, divide it by the number of vertical loops
and multiply this quantity by fh (known or standard frequency).
• The fractional relationship between the two frequencies is determined by
counting the number of cycles in the vertical and horizontal.
Standard Specifications of a Single Beam CRO :
1. Vertical Amplifier:
• Sensitivity : 5 mV/Div. to 20 V/Div. in 12 calibrated steps in a 1, 2, 5
sequence. Continuous control (uncalibrated) between steps, reduces the
sensitivity by a minimum of 2.5 times.
• Accuracy : ± 3%
• Bandwidth : dc to 20 MHz (– 3 db), dc coupling, : 0.5 Hz to 20 MHz (– 3
db) ac coupling
• Rise time : Better than 18 ns
• Input Impedance : 1 MW/40 pf
• Maximum input voltage : 400 V (dc + ac peak)
• Signal delay : Built in delay line sufficient to display leading edge of the
waveform.
2. Time Base Generator :
• Sweep ranges : 0.1 ms/Div. to 0.5 s/Div. in 21 calibrated steps in a 1, 2, 5
sequence. Continuous uncalibrated control between steps extending
slowest speed to 1.5 s/Div.
• Accuracy : ± 5%
3. Triggering
• Auto mode : Free running in the absence of a trigger signal. Triggers to
the input signal automatically.
• Source : Internal-External-Line
• Polarity : Positive or negative
4. Horizontal Amplifier
• Bandwidth : dc – 2 MHz (– 3 db)
• The simplest types of probe (one can hardly call it a probe) is the test
lead.
• Test leads are simply convenient lengths of wire for connecting the CRO
input to the point of observation.
• At the CRO end, they usually terminate with lugs, banana tips or other
tips to fit the input jacks of the scope, and at the other end have a
crocodile clip or any other convenient means for connection to the
electronic circuit.
• Since a CRO has high input impedance and high sensitivity, the test leads
should be shielded to avoid hum pickup
• Although the input impedances of most CROs are relatively very high
compared to the circuits where they are connected
• Figure 7.45 (a) shows a 10 : 1 probe. Figure 7.45 (b) shows the equivalent
circuit. Referring to Fig. 7.45 (b).
• The capacitor is adjusted so that the elements of the bridge are balanced.
Under conditions of balance we have
• Therefore, X and Y are equipotential and the effect of the probe is
equivalent to placing a potential divider consisting of R1 and Rin across
the input circuit.
• The attenuation of the signal is 10 : 1,i.e. (R1 + Rin)/ R1 = 10 : 1 over a
wide frequency range. Therefore, it is called a compensated 10 x 1 probe.
• As far as dc voltage inputs are concerned, the coaxial capacitance equals
30 pf per foot. (Assuming a coaxial length of 3.5 ft, the total coaxial
length capacitance is 105 pf). Substituting this value in the balance bridge
equation, we have
Active Probes :
• The FET is used as the active element to amplify the input signal.
• Although the voltage gain of the FET follower circuit shown is unity, the
follower circuit provides a power gain so that the input impedance can be
increased.
• The FET voltage follower drives a coaxial cable, but instead of the cable
connecting directly to the high input impedance of the oscilloscope, it is
terminated in its characteristic impedance.
Attenuators:
• Attenuators are designed to change the magnitude of the input signal seen
at the input stage, while presenting a constant impedance on all ranges at
the attenuator input.
• A compensated RC attenuator is required to attenuate all frequencies
equally.
• Without this compensation, HF signal measurements would always have
to take the input circuit RC time constant into account.
• The input attenuator must provide the correct 1-2-5 sequence while
maintaining a constant input impedance, as well as maintain both the
input impedance and attenuation over the frequency range for which the
oscilloscope is designed.
Uncompensated Attenuators :
• The circuit diagram shown in Fig. 7.47 gives a resistive divider attenuator
connected to an amplifier with a 10 pf input capacitance.
• If the input impedance of the amplifier is high, the input impedance of the
attenuator is relatively constant, immaterial of the switch setting of the
attenuator.
• The input impedance, as seen by the amplifier, changes greatly depending
on the setting of the attenuator.
• Because of this, the RC time constant and frequency response of the
amplifier are dependent on the setting of th- attenuator, which is an
undesirable feature.
Simple Compensated Attenuator :
Introduction to Bridges :
• If the electrical components are arranged in the form a bridge or ring
structure, then that electrical circuit is called a bridge.
• In general, bridge forms a loop with a set of four arms or branches. Each
branch may contain one or two electrical components.
Types of Bridges :
• We can classify the bridge circuits or bridges into the following two
categories based on the voltage signal with which those can be operated.
1. DC Bridges
2. AC Bridges
1. DC Bridges :
• If the bridge circuit can be operated with only DC voltage signal, then it
is a DC bridge circuit or simply DC bridge.
• DC bridges are used to measure the value of unknown resistance.
• DC bridges can be operated with only DC voltage signal.
Measurement of Inductance :
1. Maxwell’s Bridge.
2. Anderson’s Bridge.
1. Maxwell Bridge :
• One arm has a resistance R1 in parallel with C1, and hence it is easier to
write the balance equation using the admittance of arm 1 instead of the
impedance.
• The general equation for bridge balance is
• The Maxwell bridge using a fixed capacitor has the disadvantage that there
is an interaction between the resistance and reactance balances.
1. The circuit has more arms which make it more complex as compared to
Maxwell’s bridge. The equation of the bridge is also more complex.
2. The bridge has an additional junction which arises the difficulty in shielding
the bridge.
Measurement of Capacitance :
1. Schearing Bridge.
2. Wien Bridge.
1. Schearing Bridge :
Definition:
• The Schering bridge is one type of AC bridge, which is used to measure
the unknown capacitance, relative permeability, dissipation factor.
• Its basic circuit arrangement is given in Fig. 11.25.
2. Wien Bridge :
• The Wien Bridge Circuit Diagram shown in Fig. 11.27 has a series RC
combination in one arm and a parallel combination in the adjoining arm.
we have
• Therefore,
• Eq. (11.21) and also excite the bridge with the frequency of Eq. (11.23),
the bridge will be balanced.
• In most Wien Bridge Circuit Diagram, the components are chosen such
that R1 = R3 = R and C1 = C3 = C.
Wheatstone Bridge :
• The Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection, i.e. the
ratio of their resistances are equal and no current flows through the
circuit.
• A Wheatstone Bridge Circuit in its simplest form consists of a network of
four resistance arms forming a closed circuit, with a dc source of
current applied to two opposite junctions and a current detector connected
to the other two junctions, as shown in Fig. 11.1.
• Current in one direction causes the pointer to deflect on one side and
current in the opposite direction to the other side.
• When SW1 is closed, current flows and divides into the two arms at
point A, i.e. I1 and I2.
• To obtain the bridge balance equation, we have from the Fig. 11.1.
• Hence
Sensitivity of a Wheatstone Bridge :
Where,
S is Sensitivity
• The fault may be two lines shorted together, or a single line shorted to
ground.
• For low resistance measurement, the resistance of the leads and contacts
becomes significant and introduces an error. This can be eliminated by
Kelvin’s Double bridge.
• For high resistance measurements, the resistance presented by the bridge
becomes so large that the galvanometer is insensitive to imbalance.
Therefore, a power supply has to replace the battery and a dc VTVM
replaces the galvanometer.
• The rise in temperature causes a change in the value of the resistance, and
excessive current may cause a permanent change in value.
Q Meter :
Definition:
• The instrument which measures the storage factor or quality factor of
the electrical circuit at radio frequencies, such type of device is known
as the Q-meter.
• At inductive reactance,
1. Measurement of Q :
• The circuit used for measurement of Q is shown in the figure.
• The oscillator and tuning capacitor adjust to the desired frequency for
obtaining the maximum value of E0. Under this condition, the value of the
• Quality factor is expressed as
2. Measurement of Inductance :
• The inductance is measured by the equation shown below.
4. Measurement of Self-Capacitance :
• The self-capacitance is determined by measuring the two capacitance at
different frequencies.
• The capacitor is adjusted to the high value, and the circuit is resonated by
adjusting the oscillator frequency.
• The resonance of the circuit is determined by the Q meter.
5. Measurement of Bandwidth :
• The equation below calculates the bandwidth
Errors and Precautions in Using Bridge Circuits :
ERRORS IN BRIDGES:
The following are the factors causing errors in bridges:
1. High quality components must be used for the elements of the bridge.
2. The layout of the bridge must be made to avoid interaction of the bridge
arms.
5. Presence of large conducting masses near the bridge arms must be avoided to
prevent eddy current effects.
6. Residual error can be avoided by identifying the nature, evaluating them and
compensating them.
7. Wave filters that eliminate the unwanted harmonics from the source or tuned
detectors in place of headphones may be used to avoid the difficulty of
frequency and wave form errors.
Unit 5
Transducers
Syllabus : Transducers- active & passive transducers : Resistance,
Capacitance, inductance; Strain gauges, LVDT, Piezo Electric transducers,
Resistance Thermometers, Thermocouples, Thermistors, Sensistors.
Transducer :
Basically, Transducer converts one form of energy into another form of energy.
The transducer, which converts non-electrical form of energy into electrical form
of energy is known as electrical transducer. The block diagram of electrical
transducer is shown in below figure.
As shown in the figure, electrical transducer will produce an output, which has
electrical energy. The output of electrical transducer is equivalent to the input,
which has non-electrical energy.
Types of Electrical Transducers :
Mainly, the electrical transducers can be classified into the following two types.
• Active Transducers
• Passive Transducers
Now, let us discuss about these two types of transducers briefly.
Active Transducers :
• The transducer, which can produce one of the electrical quantities such as
voltage and current is known as active transducer.
• It is also called self-generating transducer, since it doesn’t require any
external power supply.
The block diagram of active transducer is shown in below figure.
As shown in the figure, active transducer will produce an electrical quantity (or
signal), which is equivalent to the non-electrical input quantity (or signal).
Examples
Following are the examples of active transducers.
Passive Transducers :
The transducer, which can’t produce the electrical quantities such as voltage and
current is known as passive transducer. But, it produces the variation in one of
passive elements like resistor (R), inductor (L) and capacitor (C). Passive
transducer requires external power supply.
The block diagram of passive transducer is shown in below figure.
As shown in the figure, electrical transducer will produce an output, which has
electrical energy. The output of electrical transducer is equivalent to the input,
which has non-electrical energy.
Examples
Following are the examples of passive transducers.
• Resistive Transducer
• Inductive Transducer
• Capacitive Transducer
passive transducer is a transducer, which produces the variation in passive
element. We will consider the passive elements like resistor, inductor and
capacitor. Hence, we will get the following three passive transducers depending
on the passive element that we choose.
• Resistive Transducer
• Inductive Transducer
• Capacitive Transducer
Now, let us discuss about these three passive transducers one by one.
Resistive Transducer :
A passive transducer is said to be a resistive transducer, when it produces the
variation (change) in resistance value. the following formula for resistance, R
of a metal conductor.
R= ρl / A
Where,
ρ is the resistivity of conductor
l is the length of conductor
A is the cross sectional area of the conductor
Therefore,
• When applied to resistive position sensors, this equation shows that output
voltage is proportional to R2, i.e. the position of the wiper of
the potentiometer.
• If the resistance of the transducer is distributed uniformly along the length
of travel of the wiper, the resistance is perfectly linear.
Definition:
• The self generating type utilises the basic electrical generator principle, i.e.
a motion between a conductor and magnetic field induces a voltage in the
conductor (generator action).
• This relative motion between the field and the conductor is supplied by
changes in the measured.
1. Number of turns
2. Geometric configuration
3. Permeability of the magnetic material or magnetic circuits
For example, let us consider the case of a general inductive transducer. The
Inductive Transducer Definition has N turns and a reluctance R. When a current
i is passed through it, the flux is
Therefore, the output from an inductive transducer can be in the form of either a
change in voltage or a change in inductance.
Figure 13.14(b) is an iron cored coil used for the measurement of angular
displacement.
In both cases, as the number of turns are changed, the self inductance and the
output also changes.
Variable Reluctance Type Transducer
• The target does not have any physical contact with the core on which it is
mounted. The core and the target are separated by an air gap, as shown in
Fig. 13.16(a)
• The reluctance of the magnetic path is determined by the size of the air
gap.
• The inductance of the coil depends upon the reluctance of the magnetic
circuits. The self inductance of the coil is given by
The reluctance of the iron part is negligible compared to that of the air gap.
Therefore
But reluctance of the air gap is given by
where
μo = permeability
Capacitive Transducer :
• In the normal capacitor the distance between the plates are fixed, but
in capacitive transducer the distance between them are varied.
In this formula:
C indicates the capacitance of the variable capacitance
εo indicates the permittivity of free space
εr indicates the relative permittivity
A indicates the area of the plates
d indicates the distance between the plates
𝑪= (𝑲 (𝒏−𝟏)𝑨)/𝒕 units in 𝒑𝒇
n = number of plates
t = thickness of dielectric in cm
K = dielectric constant
• Resistance wire gauges are used in two basic forms, the unbonded type,
and the bonded type.
• The wires are kept under tension so that there is no sag and no free
vibration.
• When an external load is applied, the resistance of the Strain Gauge Factor
Derivation changes, causing an unbalance of the bridge circuit resulting in
an output voltage.
• The grid of fine wire is cemented on a carrier which may be a thin sheet
of paper, bakelite, or teflon.
• The wire is covered on the top with a thin material, so that it is not
damaged mechanically.
• The carrier is then bonded or cemented to the member being studied. This
permits a good transfer of strain from carrier to wire.
• A tensile stress tends to elongate the wire and thereby increase its length
and decrease its cross-sectional area. The combined effect is an increase in
resistance, as seen from the following equation
where
where
K = gauge factor
Δ R = the change in the initial resistance in Ω’s
R = the initial resistance in Ω (without strain)
Since strain is defined as the change in length divided by the original length,
Eq
(13.1) can be written as
Where
d = diameter of conductor
• When the conductor is stressed, due to the strain, the length of the
conductor increases by Δl and the simultaneously decreases by Δd in its
diameter. Hence the resistance of the conductor can now be written as
Since Δd is small, Δd2 can be neglected
Rationalising, we get
• The secondary windings have an equal number of turns and are identically
placed on either side of the primary windings.
• An movable soft iron core slides within the hollow former and therefore
affects the magnetic coupling between the primary and the two
secondaries.
• The displacement to be measured is applied to an arm attached to the soft
iron core.
• When the core is in its normal (null) position, equal voltages are induced
in the two secondary windings.
• The output voltage of the secondary windings S1 is Es1 and that of
secondary winding S2 is Es2.
• In order to convert the output from S1 to S2 into a single voltage signal, the
two secondaries S1 and S2 are connected in series opposition, as shown in
Fig. 13.20.
• Hence the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two
voltages. Therefore the differential output voltage Eo=Es1~Es2.
• When the core is at its normal position, the flux linking with both
secondary windings is equal, and hence equal emfs are induced in them.
Hence, at null position Es1 = Es2.
• Since the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two
voltages, the output voltage Eo is zero at null position.
• Now, if the core is moved to the left of the null position, more flux links
with winding S1 and less with winding S2. Hence, output voltage Es1 of
the secondary winding S1 is greater than Es2 .
• The magnitude of the output voltage of the secondary is then Es1 — Es2,
in phase with Es1 (the output voltage of secondary winding S1).
• Similarly, if the core is moved to the right of the null position, the flux
linking with winding S2 becomes greater than that linked with winding
S1. This results in Es2 becoming larger than Es1.
• The output voltage in this case is Eo = Es2 — Es1 and is in phase with Es2.
• As the core is moved in one direction from the null position, the difference
voltage, i.e. the difference of the two secondary voltages increases, while
maintaining an in-phase relation with the voltage from the input source.
• In the other direction from the null position, the difference voltage
increases but is 180° out of phase with the voltage from the source.
• The diagram in Figs 13.21(a), (b) and (c) shows the core of an Linear
Variable Differential Transducer at three different positions.
• In Fig. 13.21(b), the core is at 0, which is the central zero or null position.
Therefore, Es1 = Es2, and Eo = 0.
• This movement represents a positive value and therefore the phase angle,
is Φ = 0°.
• When the core is moved to the right towards B, Es2 is greater than Es1 and
hence Eo is negative.
• Therefore, S2 the output voltage is 180° out of phase with the voltage which
is obtained when the core is moved to the left.
• The characteristics are linear from 0 — A and 0 — B, but after that they
become non-linear.
Advantages of LVDT :
• Low Hysteresis – LVDTs show a low hysteresis and hence repeatability
is excellent under all conditions
• Low Power Consumption – The power is about 1W which is very as
compared to other transducers.
• No Frictional Losses – As the core moves inside a hollow former so
there is no loss of displacement input as frictional loss so it makes LVDT
as very accurate device.
• Linearity: The output voltage of this transducer is practically linear for
displacements upto 5 mm (a linearity of 0.05% is available in commercial
LVDTs).
Disadvantages of LVDT :
• LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so it always requires a setup to
protect them from stray magnetic fields.
• LVDT gets affected by vibrations and temperature.
• Temperature also affects the transducer.
Piezoelectric Transducer :
• Piezoelectric crystal is a device that converts pressure energy to an
electrical energy.
• A piezoelectric transducer (also known as a piezoelectric sensor) is a
device that uses the piezoelectric effect to measure changes in
acceleration, pressure, strain, temperature or force.
• Since the transducer has a very good HF response, its principal use is in
HF accelerometers.
• The device needs no external power source and is therefore self generating.
The disadvantage is that it cannot measure static conditions.
• From these relationships, the following formulas have been derived for
the coupling coefficient K.
• High impedence
• Design
• Platinum, Nickel and Copper are the metals most commonly used to
measure temperature.
• The resistivity of platinum tends to increase less rapidly at higher
temperatures than for other materials, hence it is a commonly used material
for resistance thermometers.
• The temperature range over which Platinum has stability is 260 °C-1100
°C. An industrial Platinum resistance thermometer is as shown in Fig.13.40
(a).
• The changes in resistance caused by changes in temperature as detected by
a Wheatstone’s Bridge is shown in Fig.13.40(b).
• When the sensing element is very near the bridge, and under balance
conditions, the following relationship holds good.
• In normal practice, the sensing element is away from the indicator and the
bridge, and its leads have a resistance, say R3, R4.
Thermocouples :
• The thermocouple can be defined as a kind of temperature sensor that is
used to measure the temperature at one specific point in the form of the
EMF or an electric current.
• One of the most commonly used methods of measurement of moderately
high temperature is the thermocouple effect.
• When a pair of wires made up of different metals is joined together at
one end, a temperature difference between the two ends of the wire
produces a voltage between the two wires as illustrated in Fig.13.41
• Temperature measurement with Thermocouple Circuit is based on the
Seebeck effect. A current will circulate around a loop made up of two
dissimilar metal when the two junctions are at different temperatures as
shown in Fig.13.42.
• Type ‘S’ Thermocouple produces the least output voltage but can be
used over greatest temperature range.
Advantages of Thermocouple :
• It has a temperature range from —270 °C-2700 °C.
• Accuracy is high
• The thermal reaction is fast
• The operating range of the temperature is wide.
• Cost is low
Disadvantages of Thermocouple :
• Nonlinearity
• Least stability
• Low voltage
• Reference is required
• least sensitivity
• The thermocouple recalibration is hard
Thermistor :
• The word is a combination of thermal and resistor.
• A thermistor (or thermal resistor) is defined as a type of
resistor whose electrical resistance varies with changes in temperature.
• The working principle of a thermistor is that its resistance is dependent on
its temperature.
• The resistance changes depends on the type of material used in the
thermistor.
• Thermistors are available that perform temperature measurement from -73
to 316°C (-100 to 600°F). It should be noted that many have limited ranges
and cannot be used above 120°C (250°F).
Thermistor Types :
There are two types of thermistors:
• Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Thermistor
• Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) Thermistor
NTC Thermistor :
PTC Thermistor :
Advantages of Thermistors :
• They are more sensitive than other temperature sensors
• High sensitivity allows them to work well over a small temperature range
• They’re low cost and therefore cheap to replace.
• They provide a fast response
• Easy to use
• Small in size so they can fit into the smallest of spaces.
Disadvantages of Thermistors :
• Not easily interchangeable
• High resistance, noise problems
• Non linear
• Narrow span
Sensistor :
Physical parameters :
• Force : According to Newton’s second law,force is given as the
product of mass and acceleration.
• Pressure : It is defined as the force per unit area applied in a direction
perpendicular to the surface of an object.
• It is given by
(P) = F / A
• Velocity: It is defined as the rate of change of displacement.
• It is given by
(V) = Δx / Δ t
• Humidity : It is defined as the amount of water vapour present in the
air.
• Speed : It is defined as the distance covered to the unit time.
• It is given by
(S) = d/t.
• Displacement : It is defined as the shortest path distance between the
initial point and final point of a body
Measurement of FORCE :
• Force : According to Newton’s second law,force is given as the
product of mass and acceleration.
• Measurement of important parameters that are concerned with prime
mover are force, work, torque and shaft power
• According to Newton’s second law, force is proportional to the product
of mass and acceleration.
• It is given as Force = Mass x Acceleration
F = ma
• It is measure in the SI unit of Newton
• A force is a vector quantity, i.e., it has both magnitude and direction
From the above equation it is clear that unknown force applied to body of
mass ‘m’ can be measured by measuring acceleration of that body
• The unknown force can be measured by using force measuring sensors,
i.e., load cells
Force Measurement Using Accelerometer :
• The acceleration of a body of known mass due to the applied force can be
measured by using accelerometer of any type
• By using Newton’s law of mass-acceleration, the applied unknown force
can be calculated.
• But practically, use of accelerometers for force measurement is limited
because the forces are not free.
• It is very difficult to decouple these forces from the system.
• But still this technique is useful in measuring some transient forces.
• The advanced application of this technique is used in calibration of forces
produced by thrust motors in the space vehicles.
Force Measurement using Force Sensing Resistor :
• Their construction is quite simple.
• There are three layers: the top and bottom layers are conductive and the
middle layer provides a “thin air gap” that separates the two.
• When the two conductive layers are pressed together, electrical pathways
are made.
• The harder you press, the more connections. And the more connections,
the less resistance.
• Force-sensing (or force-sensitive) resistors (FSRs) are two-legged
variable resistors that decrease in resistance with an increase in applied
force.
• FSRs can differ in size, shape, and force sensing sensitivity. There are a
variety form factors, including square and circular (which host the active
sensor area).
• There are a variety form factors, including square and circular (which
host the active sensor area).
Measurement of Pressure :
• Pressure is defined as force per unit area that a fluid exerts on its
surroundings.
• Pressure, P, is a function of force, F, and area, A
P = F/A
• The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (N/m2)
• A pressure transducer, often called a pressure transmitter, is a transducer
that converts pressure into an analog electrical signal.
• Although there are various types of pressure transducers. Pressure is
defined as force per unit area that a fluid exerts on its surroundings.
• Pressure is defined as , P is a function of force, F, per unit area, A
P = F/A
• The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (N/m2), but other common units of
pressure include pounds per square inch (psi), atmospheres (atm), bars,
inches of mercury (in. Hg), millimeters of mercury (mm Hg), and torr.
• A pressure measurement can further be described by the type of
measurement being performed.
• Pressure measurement methods
1. Absolute Pressure
2. Gauge Pressure
3. Differential Pressure
1. Absolute Pressure :
• Absolute Pressure The absolute measurement method is relative to 0 Pa,
the static pressure in a vacuum.
• The Strain Gauge Load Cell Working is used to weigh extremely heavy
loads. A length of bar, usually steel, is used as the active element.
• The load cell shown in Fig. 13.30 is a good example of the use of strain
gauges in weighing operations.
• When these two gauges and the gauges on the two remaining sides of the
steel are connected to form a bridge circuit, four times the sensitivity of a
simple gauge bridge is obtained.
• This makes the load cell sensitive to very small values of applied stress,
as well as to extremely heavy loads.
Measurement of Humidity :
• Definition: Hygrometer uses for measuring the humidity present in the
surrounding environment.
• The term humidity means the amount of water vapour present in the gas.
• The physical properties of the material changes by the effect of the
humidity and this principle use in hygrometer for measurement.
• The humidity is classified into two types.
1. Absolute Humidity
2. Relative Humidity
1. Absolute Humidity :
• The absolute humidity shows the amount of water vapour presents per
unit volume.
2. Relative Humidity :
• The relative humidity is the ratio of the actual water vapour pressure to
the maximum water vapour pressure reaches in the substance at the
particular temperature.
• The relative humidity depends on the temperature.
The following are the classification of hygrometer by the material used for
measuring the humidity.
1. Resistive Hygrometer
2. Capacitive Hygrometer
4.Crystal Hygrometer
1. Resistive Hygrometer :
• The conducting film of the resistive hygrometer is made by the lithium
chloride and the carbon.
• The conducting film places between the metal electrodes.
• The resistance of the conducting film varies with the change in the value
of humidity present in the surrounding air.
• The moisture absorbs by the lithium chloride will depend on the relative
humidity. If the relative humidity is high, the lithium chloride will absorb
more moisture and their resistance decreases.
• The change in the value of resistance is measured by applying the
alternating current to the bridge.
• The direct current is not used in the bridge as they breakdowns the layer
of lithium chloride.
• The obstructions occur in the flows of current shows the value of
resistance or the value of relative humidity.
2. Capacitive Hygrometer :
• The change in capacitance of the capacitor shows the surrounding
humidity.
• The capacitive hygrometer gives the very accurate result.
• It is made by placing the hygroscopic material between the metal
electrodes.
4.Crystal Hygrometer :
• The figure below shows the crystal hygrometer using quartz.
• In crystal hygrometer, the hygroscopic crystal or the crystal having the
coating of hygroscopic material is used.
• When the crystal absorbs the drops of the water, the mass of the crystal
changes.
• The change in mass is proportional to the total water absorbed by the
crystals.
Measurement of MOISTURE :
• Moisture content (MC) measurement is easy.
• Simply determine the amount of water in a product and compare that to
the weight of everything else in the product.
• In fact, it is actually a difficult and complex process to obtain an accurate
percentage of water in a product.
Measurement of VELOCITY :
• Velocity is the rate of change of distance in a specific direction.
• Velocity is a vector quantity having both magnitude and direction.
• The average velocity of an object having a displacement (Δx) during a
time interval (Δt) is given by
ν = Δx/Δt
Electro-magnetic Transducer
Electromagnetic Transducer :
• The most commonly used transducer for measurement of linear
velocities.
• The magnetic flow meter requires a conducting fluid, for example, water
that contains ions, and an electrical insulating pipe surface.
• The instrument are electro-magnets used to generate a magnetic field.
• When a fluid flows through the magnetic field, the two electrodes pick up
the voltage and it is proportional to fluid flow rate.
• When there is no fluid flow then the induced voltage between electrodes
is Zero.
• They are two types
• The motion of the magnet induces a voltage in the coil and the amplitude
of the voltage is directly proportional to the velocity.
Measurement of speed:
1. AC Tachometer Generator :
• The DC tachometer generator uses the commutator and brushes which
have many disadvantages.
• The AC tachometer generator designs for reducing the problems.
• The AC tachometer has stationary armature and rotating magnetic field.
Thus, the commutator and brushes are absent in AC tachometer
generator.
• The rotating magnetic field induces the EMF in the stationary coil of
the stator.
• The amplitude and frequency of the induced emf are equivalent to the
speed of the shaft. Thus, either amplitude or frequency is used for
measuring the angular velocity.
• The below mention circuit is used for measuring the speed of the rotor by
considering the amplitude of the induced voltage.
• The induces voltages are rectified and then passes to the capacitor filter
for smoothening the ripples of rectified voltages.
Advantages of AC Tachometer Generator :
• The drag cup Tachogenerator generates the ripple free output voltage.
• The cost of the generator is also very less.
DC Tachometer Generator :
• The rotation induces the emf in the coil. The magnitude of the induced
emf is proportional to the shaft speed.
• The moving coil voltmeter measures the induced emf. The polarity of the
induces voltage determines the direction of motion of the shaft.
• The resistance is connected in series with the voltmeter for controlling the
heavy current of the armature.
• The polarity of the induces voltages indicates the direction of rotation of the
shaft.
• The conventional DC type voltmeter is used for measuring the induces
voltage.
Disadvantages of DC Generator :
Resistive Transducer :
A passive transducer is said to be a resistive transducer, when it produces the
variation (change) in resistance value. the following formula for resistance, R
of a metal conductor.
R= ρl / A
Where,
ρ is the resistivity of conductor
l is the length of conductor
A is the cross sectional area of the conductor
Therefore,
• When applied to resistive position sensors, this equation shows that output
voltage is proportional to R2, i.e. the position of the wiper of
the potentiometer.
• If the resistance of the transducer is distributed uniformly along the length
of travel of the wiper, the resistance is perfectly linear.
Measurement of Proximity :
• The word proximity means nearness or closeness.
• Most likely a plate of glass or plastic separates the two. Although you are
likely to touch the separating element, there is no physical contact with the
sensor.
Applications of Proximity :
• Parking sensors, systems mounted on car bumpers that sense distance to
nearby cars for parking
• Ground proximity warning system for aviation safety
• Vibration measurements of rotating shafts in machinery
• Conveyor systems
• Beverage and food can making lines
• Automatic Door Openers
• The data acquisition systems, which can be operated with analog signals
are known as analog data acquisition systems.
Following are the blocks of analog data acquisition systems.
• Transducer : It converts physical quantities into electrical signals.
• Signal conditioner : It performs the functions like amplification
andselection of desired portion of the signal.
• Display device : It displays the input signals for monitoring purpose.
• Graphic recording instruments : These can be used to make the
record of input data permanently.
• Magnetic tape instrumentation : It is used for acquiring, storing &
reproducing of input data.
ii. Digital Data Acquisition Systems :
• The data acquisition systems, which can be operated with digital signals
are known as digital data acquisition systems. So, they use digital
components for storing or displaying the information.
Mainly, the following operations take place in digital data acquistion.