UNIT I

Performance Characteristics of Instruments

Syllabus : Performance characteristics of instruments, Static characteristics,
Accuracy, Resolution, Precision, Expected value, Error, Sensitivity. Errors in
Measurement, Dynamic Characteristics-speed of response, Fidelity, Lag and
Dynamic error. DC Voltmeters- Multi-range, Range extension/Solid state and
differential voltmeters, AC voltmeters- multi range, range extension, shunt.
Thermocouple type RF ammeter, Ohmmeters series type, shunt type, Multi-
meter for Voltage, Current and resistance measurements.

Introduction to Electronics Instrumentation:

• Introduction to Electronics Instrumentation which serves not only science

but all branches of engineering, medicine, and almost every human
endeavour.

• The knowledge of any parameter largely depends on the measurement.

• The indepth knowledge of any parameter can be easily understood by the

use of measurement, and further modifications can also be obtained.

• Measuring is basically used to monitor a process or operation, or as well

as the controlling process.

Static Characteristics in Instrumentation:

• The Static Characteristics in Instrumentation are, in general, considered
for instruments which are used to measure an unvarying process
condition.

• All the static performance characteristics are obtained by one form or

another of a process called calibration.

• There are a number of related definitions (or characteristics), which are

described below, such as accuracy, precision, repeatability, resolution,
errors, sensitivity, etc.

1. Instrument:

• A device or mechanism used to determine the present value of the quantity

under measurement.
2. Measurement:

• The process of determining the amount, degree, or capacity by comparison

(direct or indirect) with the accepted standards of the system units being
used.

3. Accuracy:

• The degree of exactness (closeness) of a measurement compared to the

expected (desired) value.

4. Resolution:

• The smallest change in a measured variable to which an instrument will

respond.

5. Precision:

• A measure of the consistency or repeatability of measurements, i.e.

successive reading do not differ. (Precision is the consistency of
the instrument output for a given value of input).

6. Expected value:

• The design value, i.e. the most probable value that calculations indicate
one should expect to measure. .

7. Error:

• The deviation of the true value from the desired value.

8. Sensitivity:

• The ratio of the change in output (response) of the instrument to a change

of input or measured variable.

Error in Measurement:

• Error in Measurement is the process of comparing an unknown quantity

with an accepted standard quantity.

• It involves connecting a measuring instrument into the system under

consideration and observing the resulting response on the instrument.
 • The measurement thus obtained is a quantitative measure of the so called
“true value” (since it is very difficult to define the true value, the term
“expected value” is used).

• Any measurement is affected by many variables, therefore the results

rarely reflect the expected value.

• Error may be expressed either as absolute or as percentage of error.

• Absolute error may be defined as the difference between the expected value
of the variable and the measured value of the variable, or

• It is more frequently expressed as a accuracy rather than error.

Types of Errors:

• The static error of a measuring instrument is the numerical difference

between the true value of a quantity and its value as obtained by
measurement. Types of errors are categorized as

1. Gross errors or human errors.

2. Systematic errors.
3. Random errors.
1. Gross Errors or human errors :
• These errors are mainly due to human mistakes in reading or in using
instruments or errors in recording observations.

• Errors may also occur due to incorrect adjustment of instruments and

computational mistakes. These errors cannot be treated mathematically.

• The complete elimination of gross errors is not possible, but one can
minimize them.

• Some errors are easily detected while others may be elusive.

• One of the basic gross errors that occurs frequently is the improper use of
an instrument.

• The error can be minimized by taking proper care in reading and recording
the measurement parameter.

2. Systematic Error :

• If the instrument produces an error, which is of a constant uniform

deviation during its operation is known as systematic error.
• The systematic errors occur due to the characteristics of the materials used
in the instrument.
• There are basically three types of systematic errors

i. Instrumental Errors
ii. Environmental Errors

iii. Observational Errors

Types of Systematic Errors

The systematic errors can be classified into the following three types.
i. Instrumental Errors :
• This type of errors occur due to shortcomings of instruments and loading
effects.
Instrumental errors can be avoided by
(a) selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement
applications.
 (b) applying correction factors after determining the amount of
instrumental error.

(c) calibrating the instrument against a standard.

ii. Environmental Errors :
• This type of errors occur due to the changes in environment such as change
in temperature, pressure & etc.
These errors can also be avoided by
(a) air conditioning,

(b) using magnetic shields.

iii. observational Errors :

• This type of errors occur due to observer while taking the meter
readings. Parallax errors belong to this type of errors.
3. Random Errors :
• The errors, which occur due to unknown sources during measurement
time are known as Random Errors. (or ) Gross and Systematic errors
can be avoided by taking proper case, still some errors can also occur.they
are called Random Errors
Following are the parameters that are used in statistical analysis.
Statistical Analysis:

• Systematic errors should be small compared to random errors, because

statistical analysis of data cannot remove a fixed bias contained in all
measurements.

Arithmetic Mean :

• The most probable value of a measured variable is the arithmetic mean of

the number of readings taken.

• The arithmetic mean of n measurements at a specific count of the variable

x is given by the expression
Deviation from the Mean :

• If the deviation of the first reading, x1, is called d1 and that of the second
reading x2 is called d2, and so on,

• The deviations from the mean can be expressed as

• The deviation may be positive or negative. The algebraic sum of all the
deviations must be zero.

Average Deviations :

• Average deviation is defined as the sum of the absolute values of the

deviation divided by the number of readings.

• Average deviation may be expressed as

Standard Deviation :

• The standard deviation of an infinite number of data is the Square root of

the sum of all the individual deviations squared, divided by the number of
readings.

• It may be expressed as

• The standard deviation is also known as root mean square deviation, and is
the most important factor in the statistical analysis of measurement data.

Dynamic Characteristics:

• Instruments rarely respond instantaneously to changes in the measured

variables.

• Therefore, the Dynamic Characteristics and transient behavior of the

instrument is as important as the static behavior.

• The Dynamic Characteristics of an instrument is determined by subjecting

its primary element (sensing element) to some unknown and predetermined
variations in the measured quantity.

• The three most common variations in the measured quantity are as follows:

1. Step change, in which the primary.element is subjected to an instantaneous

and finite change in measured variable.

2. Linear change, in which the primary element is following a measured

variable, changing linearly with time.

3. Sinusoidal change, in which the primary element follows a measured

variable, the magnitude of which changes in accordance with a sinusoidal
function of constant amplitude.
The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are
(i) Speed of response.

ii) Fidelity.
(iii) Lag.

(iv) Dynamic error.

(i) Speed of Response :

• It is the rapidity with which an instrument responds to changes in the

measured quantity.

(ii) Fidelity :

• It is the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the

measured variable without dynamic error (faithful reproduction).

(iii) Lag :

• It is the retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to changes in

the measured variable.

(iv) Dynamic Error :

• It is the difference between the true value of a quantity changing with time
and the value indicated by the instrument, if no static error is assumed.

• When measurement problems are concerned with rapidly varying

quantities, the dynamic relations between the instruments input and output
are generally defined by the use of differential equations.

DC Voltmeter :

• A basic D’ Arsonval movement can be converted into a dc voltmeter by

adding a series resistor known as multiplier, as shown in Fig. 4.1.

• The function of the multiplier is to limit the current through the

movement so that the current does not exceed the full scale deflection
value.

• A dc voltmeter measures the potential difference between two points in a

dc circuit or a circuit component.
 Fig 4.1 DC Voltmeter

• To measure the potential difference between two points in a dc circuit or

a circuit component, a dc voltmeter is always connected across them with
the proper polarity.

• The value of the multiplier required is calculated as follows. Referring to

Fig. 4.1,

• Im = full scale deflection current of the movement (Ifsd)

• Rm = internal resistance of movement

• Rs = multiplier resistance

• V = full range voltage of the instrument

From the circuit of Fig. 4.1

• The multiplier limits the current through the movement, so as to not

exceed the value of the full scale deflection Ifsd.
 • The above equation is also used to further extend the range in DC
voltmeter.

Multirange Voltmeter

• To obtain a multirange ammeter, a number of shunts are connected across

the movement with a multi-position switch.

• Similarly, a dc voltmeter can be converted into a multirange voltmeter by

connecting a number of resistors (multipliers) along with a range switch
to provide a greater number of workable ranges.

• Figure 4.2 shows a multirange voltmeter using a three position switch and
three multipliers R1, R2, and R3 for voltage values V1, V2, and V3.

• Figure 4.2 can be further modified to Fig. 4.3, which is a more practical
arrangement of the multiplier resistors of a multirange voltmeter.

Extending Voltmeter Ranges :

• The range of a voltmeter can be extended to measure high voltages, by

using a high voltage probe or by using an external multiplier resistor, as
shown in Fig. 4.4.
 • In most meters the basic movement is used on the lowest current range.
Values for multipliers can be determined using the procedure of Section
4.4.

• The basic meter movement can be used to measure very low voltages.

• However, great care must be used not to exceed the voltage drop required
for full scale deflection of the basic movement.

Sensitivity :

• The sensitivity or Ohms per Volt rating of a voltmeter is the ratio of the
total circuit resistance Rt to the voltage range.

• Sensitivity is essentially the reciprocal of the full scale deflection

current of the basic movement. Therefore, S=1/Ifsd Ω/V

• The sensitivity ‘ S’ of the voltmeter has the advantage that it can be used
to calculate the value of multiplier resistors in a dc voltmeter. As,
Rt = total circuit resistance [Rt = Rs + Rm]

S = sensitivity of voltmeter in ohms per volt

V = voltage range as set by range switch

Rm = internal resistance of the movement

Since

Rs = Rt — Rm and Rt = S x V

Rs = (S x V) — Rm
Differential Voltmeter :

• The Differential Voltmeter technique, is one of the most common and

accurate methods of measuring unknown voltages.

• In this technique, the voltmeter is used to indicate the difference between

known and unknown voltages, i.e., an unknown voltage is compared to a
known voltage.

• Figure 4.14 (a) shows a basic circuit of a differential voltmeter based on

the potentiometric method; hence it is sometimes also called a
potentiometric voltmeter.

• In this method, the potentiometer is varied until the voltage across it

equals the unknown voltage, which is indicated by the null indicator
reading zero.

• Under null conditions, Voltage the meter draws current from neither the
reference source nor the un-known known voltage source, and hence the
differential voltmeter presents an infinite impedance to the unknown
source. (The null meter serves as an indicator only.)

• To detect small differences the meter movement must be sensitive, but it

need not be calibrated, since only zero has to be indicated.

• The input voltage divider has a relatively low input impedance, especially
for unknown voltages much higher than the reference standard.

• In order to measure ac voltages, the ac voltage must be converted into dc

by incorporating a precision rectifier circuit. A block diagram of an
ac differential voltmeter is shown in Fig. 4.14 (b).
AC voltmeters:
• The instrument, which is used to measure the AC voltage across any two
points of electric circuit is called AC voltmeter.

• If the AC voltmeter consists of rectifier, then it is said to be rectifier

based AC voltmeter.

• Types of Rectifier based AC Voltmeters

Following are the two types of rectifier based AC voltmeters.

• AC voltmeter using Half Wave Rectifier

• AC voltmeter using Full Wave Rectifier

AC Voltmeter using Half Wave Rectifier :

• If a Half wave rectifier is connected ahead of DC voltmeter, then that

entire combination together is called AC voltmeter using Half wave
rectifier.

• The block diagram of AC voltmeter using Half wave rectifier is shown

in below figure.

• The above block diagram consists of two blocks: half wave rectifier and
DC voltmeter.
 • The circuit diagram of AC voltmeter using Half wave rectifier will look
like as shown in below figure.

• The rms value of sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal is

Vrms = Vm /√2
Vm = √2Vrms
Vm = 1.414Vrms
Where,
• Vm is the maximum value of sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal.
• The DC or average value of the Half wave rectifier’s output signal is
Vdc = Vm / π
• Substitute, the value of Vm in above equation.

Vdc = 1.414Vrms / π

Vdc = 0.45Vrms
• Therefore, the AC voltmeter produces an output voltage, which is equal
to 0.45 times the rms value of the sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal

AC Voltmeter using Full Wave Rectifier :

• If a Full wave rectifier is connected ahead of DC voltmeter, then that entire

combination together is called AC voltmeter using Full wave rectifier.
• The block diagram of AC voltmeter using Full wave rectifier is shown in
below figure
• The above block diagram consists of two blocks: full wave rectifier and
DC voltmeter.
• The circuit diagram of AC voltmeter using Full wave rectifier will look
like as shown in below figure.

• The rms value of sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal is

Vrms = Vm / √2

Vm = √2Vrms
Vm = 1.414Vrms
Where,
• Vm is the maximum value of sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal.
• The DC or average value of the Full wave rectifier’s output signal is
Vdc = 2Vm / π
• Substitute, the value of Vm in above equation
Vdc = 2×1.414Vrms / π
Vdc = 0.9Vrms
• Therefore, the AC voltmeter produces an output voltage, which is equal
to 0.9 times the rms value of the sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal.
Thermocouple type RF Ammeter :

Definition :

• Thermocouple Definition consists of a junction of two dissimilar wires,

so chosen that a voltage is generated by heating the junction.

• The generation of dc voltage by heating the junction is called

thermoelectric action and the device is called a thermocouple.

Different Types of Thermocouples :

• The current to be measured is used to heat the junction of two metals.

• These two metals form a thermocouple and they have the property that
when the junction is heated it produces a voltage proportional to the
heating effect.

• This output voltage drives a sensitive dc microammeter, giving a reading

proportional to the magnitude of the ac input.
Mutual Type (Fig. 3.6 (a)) :

• In this type, the alternating current passes through the thermocouple itself
and not through a heater wire.

• It has the disadvantages that the meter shunts the thermocouple.

Contact Type (Fig. 3.6 (b)) :

• This is less sensitive than the mutual type. In the contact type there are
separate thermocouple leads which conduct away the heat from the heater
wire.

Separate Heater Type (Fig. 3.6 (c)) :

• In this arrangement, the thermocouple is held near the heater, bin

insulated from it by a glass bead.

• This makes the instrument sluggish and also less sensitive because of
temperature drop in the glass bead.

• The separate type is useful for certain applications, like RF

current measurements.

• To avoid loss of heat’ by radiation, the thermocouple arrangement is

placed in a vacuum in order to increase its sensitivity.

Bridge Type (Fig. 3.6 (d)) :

• This has the high sensitivity of the mutual type and yet avoids the
shunting effect of the microammeter.

• The sensitivity of a thermocouple is increased by placing it in a vacuum

since loss of heat by conduction is avoided, and the absence of oxygen
permits operation at a much higher temperature.

• A vacuum thermocouple can be designed to give .a full scale deflection

of approximately I mA.

• A similar bridge arrangement in air would require about 100 mA for full
scale deflection.
Ohmmeters :
• An ohmmeter can be defined as, it is one kind of electronic device mainly
used for calculating electrical resistance of a circuit, and the unit of
resistance is ohm.
• Electrical resistance is a calculation of how much an object resists
allowing the flow of current through it.
Types of Ohmmeter :
• The classification of this meter can be done based on the application in
three types namely

1. series type ohmmeter

2. shunt type ohmmeter

3. Multi-range type ohmmeter.

1. Series Type Ohmmeter:

• A D’ Arsonval movement is connected in series with a resistance R1 and

a battery which is connected to a pair of terminals A and B, across which
the unknown resistance is connected.

• This forms the basic type of series ohmmeter, as shown in Fig. 4.28 (a).

• The current flowing through the movement then depends on the

magnitude of the unknown resistance. Therefore, the meter deflection is
directly proportional to the value of the unknown resistance.

• Referring to Fig. 4.28 (a)

R1 = current limiting resistance

R2 = zero adjust resistance

V = battery

Rm = meter resistance
RX = unknown resistance
Calibration of the Series Type Ohmmeter :

• To mark the “0” reading on the scale, the terminals A and B are shorted,
i.e. the unknown resistance Rx= 0, maximum current flows in the circuit
and the shunt resistance R2 is adjusted until the movement indicates full
scale current (Ifsd).

• The position of the pointer on the scale is then marked “0” ohms.

• Similarly, to mark the “∞” reading on the scale, terminals A and B are
open, i.e. the unknown resistance Rx = ∞, no current flow in the circuit
and there is no deflection of the pointer.

• The position of the pointer on the scale, is then marked as “∞” ohms.

• By connecting different known values of the unknown resistance to

terminals A and B, intermediate markings can be done on the scale.

• The accuracy of the instrument can be checked by measuring different

values of standard resistance, i.e. the tolerance of the calibrated
resistance, and noting the readings.

• A major drawback in the series ohmmeter is the decrease in voltage of the

internal battery with time and age.

• Due to this, the full scale deflection current drops and the meter does not
read “0” when A and B are shorted.

• The variable shunt resistor R2 across the movement is adjusted to

counteract the drop in battery voltage, thereby bringing the pointer back
to “0” ohms on the scale.
 • It is also possible to adjust the full scale deflection current without the
shunt R2 in the circuit, by varying the value of R1 to compensate for the
voltage drop.

• Since this affects the calibration of the scale, varying by R2 is much

better solution.

• The internal resistance of the coil Rm is very low compared to R1.

• When R2 is varied, the current through the movement is increased and

the current through R2 is reduced, thereby bringing the pointer to the full
scale deflection position.

• Therefore, in a series ohmmeter the scale marking on the dial, has “0” on
the right side, corresponding to full scale deflection current, and “∞” on
the left side corresponding to no current flow, as given in Fig. 4.28 (b).

• Values of R1 and R2 can be determined from the value of Rx which gives

half the full scale deflection.

where

Rh = half of full scale deflection resistance.

• The total resistance presented to the battery then equals 2Rh and the
battery current needed to supply half scale deflection is Ih = V/2Rh..
• To produce full scale current, the battery current must be doubled.
• Therefore, the total current of the ckt, It = V/ Rh
• The shunt current through R2 is given by I2 = It - Ifsd
• The voltage across shunt, Vsh, is equal to the voltage across the meter.

Therefore

Therefore
But

Therefore

Therefore

As

Therefore

Hence

Therefore
Hence, R1 and R2 can be determined.

2. Shunt Type Ohmmeter :

• The shunt type ohmmeter given in Fig. 4.30 consists of a battery in series
with an adjustable resistor R1, and a D’Arsonval movement.

• The unknown resistance is connected in parallel with the meter, across

the terminals A and B, hence the name shunt type ohmmeter.

Calibration of the Shunt Type Ohmmeter :

• To mark the “0” ohms reading on the scale, terminals A and B are
shorted, i.e. the unknown resistance Rx = 0, and the current through the
meter movement is zero, since it is bypassed by the short-circuit.

• This pointer position is marked as “0” ohms.

• Similarly, to mark “∞” on the scale, the terminals A and B are opened,
i.e. Rx = ∞ and full current flows through the meter movement; by
appropriate selection of the value of R1, the pointer can be made to read
full scale deflection current.

• This position of the pointer is marked “∞” ohms. Intermediate marking

can be done by connecting known values of standard resistors to the
terminals A and B.
 • This ohmmeter therefore has a zero mark at the left side of the scale and
an ∞. mark at the right side of the scale, corresponding to full scale
deflection current as shown in Fig. 4.31.

• The shunt type ohmmeter is particularly suited to the measurement of low

values of resistance.

3. Multirange Ohmmeter:

• The Multirange Ohmmeter circuit shown in Fig. 4.28 (a) is only for a
single range of resistance measurement.

• To measure resistance over a wide range of values, we need to extend the

ohmmeter ranges.

• This type of ohmmeter is called a multirange ohmmeter, shown in Fig.

4.29.

Multimeter :

• A multimeter consists of an ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter combined,

with a function switch to connect the appropriate circuit to the
D’Arsonval movement.
• Figure 4.33 shows a Multimeter uses and Functions consisting of a dc
milliammeter, a dc voltmeter, an ac voltmeter, a microammeter, and an
ohmmeter.
Measurements by using Multimeter :
• Multimeter is an instrument used to measure DC & AC voltages, DC &
AC currents and resistances of several ranges.
• It is also called Electronic Multimeter or Voltage Ohm Meter (VOM).
• It has various ranges of voltage, resistance, and current.
Voltage Measurement by Multimeter :

• Generally, a galvanometer has a current sensitivity of the order of 0.1 mA

and a small internal resistance of about 500 ohms. As such, it cannot
measure high voltages.
• To measure high voltages, its range is extended by connecting a high
resistance in series with the galvanometer as shown in the figure.

• If the galvanometer resistance is denoted by G and Ig is the full-scale

deflection current and the voltage to be measured is V volts, then the value
of series resistance RS is determined as under,

V = IgRs + IgG
or Rs = (V – IgG)/Ig

• This series resistance is also called the multiplier.

• The voltage range can be increased by increasing the number or value of
multipliers.
• Either a selector switch is provided to select different ranges or some
sockets indicating the voltage range are provided in a multimeter.
• The multimeter can also measure AC.
• For this purpose, a full-wave rectifier is incorporated in the multimeter.
The rectifier converts AC into DC for application to the galvanometer.
 • The desired AC voltage range is selected by the selector switch or sockets.
• When AC voltage is to be measured, the switch should be thrown to AC
or test lead should be inserted in the AC socket.
• The range of multimeter should also be suitably selected.
Current Measurement by Multimeter :

• The same galvanometer can be used for measuring current when it is

converted into an ammeter by connecting a small resistance Rsh in parallel
with the meter, as shown in the figure.

• If G is the internal resistance of meter, Ig its full-scale deflection current

and I is the total current to be measured, then the value of shunt
resistance Rsh required can be found as under:

(I – Ig)Rsh = IgG
or Rsh = IgG/(I – Ig)

• The range of ammeter can be extended to any value within limits by

reducing the value of shunt resistance.
 • Some low resistances are connected in parallel with the meter through a
selector switch, as shown in the figure. The desired range can be selected
by moving the selector switch to a particular position.

• If the total current to be measured, I is very high, the value of shunt

resistance required Rsh becomes very low.

Resistance Measurement :
• The part of the circuit diagram of Multimeter, which can be used to
measure resistance is shown in below figure.

We have to do the following two tasks before taking any measurement.

• Short circuit the instrument

• Vary the zero adjust control until the meter shows full scale current. That
means, meter indicates zero resistance value.
• Now, the above circuit behaves as shunt ohmmeter and has the scale
multiplication of 1, i.e. 100. We can also consider higher order powers of
10 as the scale multiplications for measuring high resistances.
 UNIT 2
Signal Generator & Wave Analyzers
Syllabus : Signal Generator- fixed and variable, AF oscillators, Standard and
AF sine and square wave signal generators, Function Generators, Square pulse,
Random noise, sweep, Arbitrary waveform. Wave Analyzers, Harmonic
Distortion Analyzers, Spectrum Analyzers, Digital Fourier Analyzers.

Signal Generator:

• A signal generator is a vital component in a test setup, and in electronic

troubleshooting and development,whether on a service bench or in a
research laboratory.

• Signal generators have a variety of applications, such as checking the stage

gain, frequency response, and alignment in receivers and in a wide range
of other electronic equipment.

• They provide a variety of waveforms for testing electronic circuits, usually

at low powers.

Fixed Frequency AF Oscillator:

• Fixed frequency might be a 400 Hz signal used for audio testing or a 1000
Hz signal for exciting a bridge circuit.

• Oscillations at specified audio frequencies are easily generated by the use

of an iron core transformer to obtain positive feedback through inductive
coupling between the primary and secondary windings.

Variable AF Oscillator:

• A variable AF oscillator for general purpose use in a laboratory should

cover at least the full range of audibility (20 Hz to 20 kHz) and should have
a fairly constant pure sinusoidal wave output over the entire frequency
range.

• Hence, variable frequency AF generators for laboratory use are of the RC

feedback oscillator type or Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO) type.
Standard Signal Generator:

• A standard signal generator produces known and controllable voltages.

• It is used as power source for the measurement of gain, signal to noise

ratio (S/N), bandwidth, standing wave ratio and other properties.

• It is extensively used in the testing of radio receivers and transmitters.

• The instrument is provided with a means of modulating the carrier

frequency, which is indicated by the dial setting on the front panel. The
modulation is indicated by a meter.

• The output signal can be Amplitude Modulated (AM) or Frequency

Modulated (FM).

• Modulation may be done by a sine wave, square wave, triangular wave or

a pulse. The elements of a conventional signal generator are shown in
Fig. 8.2 (a).

• The carrier frequency is generated by a very stable RF oscillator using an

LC tank circuit, having a constant output over any frequency range.

• The frequency of oscillations is indicated by the frequency range control

and the vernier dial setting.

• AM is provided by an internal sine wave generator or from an external

source.(Modulation is done in the output amplifier circuit. This amplifier
delivers its output, that is, modulation carrier, to an attenuator. The output
voltage is read by an output meter and the attenuator output setting.)
AF Sine and Square Wave Generator:

• The block diagram of an AF Sine and Square Wave Generator audio

oscillator is illustrated in Fig. 8.4.

• The signal generator is called an oscillator. A Wien bridge oscillator is

used in this generator.

• The Wien bridge oscillator is the best for the audio frequency range.

• The frequency of oscillations can be changed by varying

the capacitance in the oscillator.

• The frequency can also be changed in steps by switching in resistors of

different values.

• The output of the Wien bridge oscillator goes to the function switch.

• The function switch directs the oscillator output either to the sine
wave amplifier or to the square wave shaper.

• At the output, we get either a square or sine wave. The output is varied
by means of an attenuator.

Function Generator:

• A Function Generator Block Diagram produces different waveforms of

adjustable frequency.
• The common output waveforms are the sine, square, triangular and
sawtooth waves.
• The frequency may be adjusted, from a fraction of a Hertz to several
hundred kHz.
 • The various outputs of the generator can be made available at the same
time.
• For example, the generator can provide a square wave to test the linearity
of an amplifier and simultaneously provide a sawtooth to drive the
horizontal deflection amplifier of the CRO to provide a visual display.

• The Function Generator Block Diagram is illustrated in Fig. 8.5.

• Usually the frequency is controlled by varying the capacitor in the LC or

RC circuit.

• In this instrument the frequency is controlled by varying the magnitude of

current which drives the integrator.

• The instrument produces sine, triangular and square waves with a

frequency range of 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz.

• The frequency controlled voltage regulates two current sources.

• The upper current source supplies constant current to the integrator

whose output voltage increases linearly with time, according to the
equation of the output signal voltage.

Random Noise Generator :

• A simplified Random Noise Generator Block Diagram used in the audio

frequency range is shown in Fig. 8.8.
• The spectrum of random noise covers all frequencies and is referred to as
White noise, i.e. noise having equal power density at all frequencies (an
analogy is white light).

• The power density spectrum tells us how the energy of a signal is

distributed in frequency, but it does not specify the signal uniquely, nor
does it tell us very much about how the amplitude of the signal varies
with time.

• The spectrum does not specify the signal uniquely because it contains no
phase informations.

• The method of generating noise is usually to use a semi conductor noise

diode, which delivers frequencies in a band roughly extending from 80 —
220 kHz.

• The output from the noise diode is amplified and heterodyned down to
the audio frequency band by means of a balanced symmetrical modulator.

• The filter arrangement controls the bandwidth and supplies an output

signal in three spectrum choices, white noise, pink noise and Usasi noise.

• From Fig. 8.9, it is seen that white noise is flat from 20 Hz to 25 kHz and
has an upper cutoff frequency of 50 kHz with a cutoff slope of —12 dbs/
octave.
• Pink noise is so called because the lower frequencies have a larger
amplitude, similar to red light.
• Pink noise has a voltage spectrum which is inversely proportional to the
square root of frequency and is used in bandwidth analysis.
 • Usasi noise ranging simulates the energy distribution of speech and music
frequencies and is used for testing audio amplifiers and loud speakers.

Sweep Generator:

• It provides a sinusoidal output voltage whose frequency varies smoothly

and continuously over an entire frequency band, usually at an audio rate.
• The process of frequency modulation may be accomplished electronically
or mechanically.
• It is done electronically by using the modulating voltage to vary the
reactance of the oscillator tank circuit component, and mechanically by
means of a motor driven capacitor, as provided for in a modern laboratory
type signal generator.
• Figure 8.10 shows a basic block diagram of a sweep generator.
• The frequency sweeper provides a variable modulating voltage which
causes the capacitance of the master oscillator to vary.
• A representative sweep rate could be of the order of 20 sweeps/second.
• A manual control allows independent adjustment of the oscillator
resonant frequency.

• The frequency sweeper provides a varying sweep voltage for

synchronisation to drive the horizontal deflection plates of the CRO.

• Thus the amplitude of the response of a test device will be locked and
displayed on the screen.
 • To identify a frequency interval, a marker generator provides half
sinusoidal waveforms at any frequency within the sweep range.

• The marker voltage can be added to the sweep voltage of the CRO during
alternate cycles of the sweep voltage, and appears superimposed on the
response curve.

• The automatic level control circuit is a closed loop feedback system

which monitors the RF level at some point in the measurement system.

• This circuit holds the power delivered to the load or test circuit constant
and independent of frequency and impedance changes.

• A constant power level prevents any source mismatch and also provides
a constant readout calibration with frequency.

Square and Pulse Generator

• Square and Pulse Generator Block Diagram are used as measuring

devices in combination with a CRO.

• They provide both quantitative and qualitative information of the system

under test.

• They are made use of in transient response testing of amplifiers. The

fundamental difference between a pulse generator and a square wave
generator is in the duty cycle.
• A square wave generator has a 50% duty cycle. 8.9.1

• The basic circuit for pulse generation is the asymmetrical multi-vibrator.

A laboratory type square wave and pulse generator is shown in Fig. 8.6.

• The frequency range of the instrument is covered in seven decade steps

from 1 Hz to 10 MHz, with a linearily calibrated dial for continuous
adjustment on all ranges.

• The duty cycle can be varied from 25 – 75%. Two independent outputs
are available, a 50 Q source that supplies pulses with a rise and fall time
of 5 ns at 5 V peak amplitude and a 600 Q source which supplies pulses
with a rise and fall time of 70 ns at 30 V peak amplitude.

• The instrument can be operated as a free-running generator, or it can be

synchronised with external signals.

• The basic generating loop consists of the current sources, the ramp
capacitor, the Schmitt trigger and the current switching circuit, as shown
in Fig. 8.7.
 • The upper current source supplies a constant current to the capacitor and
the capacitor voltage increases linearly.

• When the positive slope of the ramp voltage reaches the upper limit set
by the internal circuit components, the Schmitt trigger changes state.

• The trigger circuit output becomes negative and reverses the condition of
the current switch.

• The capacitor discharges linearly, controlled by the lower current source.

• When the negative ramp reaches a predetermined lower level, the Schmitt
trigger switches back to its original state.

• The entire process is then repeated. The ratio i1/i2 determines the duty
cycle, and is controlled by symmetry control.

• The sum of i1 and i2 determines the frequency. The size of the capacitor is
selected by the multiplier switch.

• The unit is powered by an internal supply that provides regulated voltages

for all stages of the instrument.

Arbitrary Waveform Generator :

• This circuit operates by storing the points of a waveform in digital

format, and then recalling them to generate the waveform.
• These points can be on any form of repetitive waveform that is required.
• The rate at which the DDS completes one waveform governs
the frequency.
 Address
RAM DAC LPF Amplifier
Counter

Clock

• The waveforms produced by arbitrary waveform generators, AWGs can be

either repetitive or sometimes just a single-shot.
• If the AWG waveform is only a single shot, then a triggering mechanism
is needed to trigger the AWG and possibly the measuring instrument.
• The AWG is able to generate an arbitrary waveform defined by a set of
values, i.e. "waypoints" entered to set the value of the waveform at specific
times.
• They can make up a digital or even an analogue waveform.
• As a result an arbitrary waveform generator is a form of test equipment that
is able to produce virtually any waveshape that is required.
• Arbitrary waveform generators are very similar to function generators,
but offer much greater levels of flexibility in terms of waveform
generation and they are generally more sophisticated and hence more
costly.

Wave Analyzers
• It is often desired to measure the amplitude of each harmonic or
fundamental individually.
• This can be performed by instruments called wave analyzers.
Block Diagram of Basic Wave Analyzer :

• A basic wave analyzer is shown in Fig. 9.1(a). It consists of a primary

detector, which is a simple LC circuit.

• This LC circuit is adjusted for resonance at the frequency of the

particular harmonic component to be measured.
 • The intermediate stage is a full wave rectifier, to obtain the average value
of the input signal.

• The indicating device is a simple dc voltmeter that is calibrated to read

the peak value of the sinusoidal input voltage.

• Since the LC circuit is tuned to a single frequency, it passes only the

frequency to which it is tuned and rejects all other frequencies.

• A number of tuned filters, connected to the indicating device through a

selector switch, would be required for a useful Wave analyzer.

i. Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer:

• The Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer consists of a very narrow pass-

band filter section which can be tuned to a particular frequency within the
audible frequency range (20 Hz — 20 kHz).

• The block diagram of a wave analyzer is as shown in Fig. 9.1(b).

• The complex wave to be analyzed is passed through an
adjustable attenuator which serves as a range multiplier and permits a
large range of signal amplitudes to be analyzed without loading the
amplifier.

• The output of the attenuator is then fed to a selective amplifier, which

amplifies the selected frequency.

• The driver amplifier applies the attenuated input signal to a high-Q active
filter.

• This high-Q filter is a low pass filter which allows the frequency which is
selected to pass and reject all others.

• The magnitude of this selected frequency is indicated by the meter and

the filter section identifies the frequency of the component.

• The filter circuit consists of a cascaded RC resonant circuit and

amplifiers.

• For selecting the frequency range, the capacitors generally used are of
the closed tolerance polystyrene type and the resistances used are
precision potentiometers.

• The capacitors are used for range changing and the potentiometer is used
to change the frequency within the selected pass-band,

• Hence this wave analyzer is also called a Frequency selective voltmeter.

• The entire AF range is covered in decade steps by switching capacitors in

the RC section.

• The selected signal output from the final amplifier stage is applied to the
meter circuit and to an untuned buffer amplifier.

• The main function of the buffer amplifier is to drive output devices, such
as recorders or electronics counters.

• The meter has several voltage ranges as well as decibel scales marked on
it. It is driven by an average reading rectifier type detector.
 • The wave analyzer must have extremely low input distortion,
undetectable by the analyzer itself.
• The bandwidth of the instrument is very narrow, typically about 1% of
the selective band given by the following response characteristics. (Fig.
9.2).

ii. Heterodyne Wave Analyzer:

• Wave analyzers are useful for measurement in the audio frequency range
only.

• For measurements in the RF range and above (MHz range), an ordinary

wave analyzer cannot be used.

• Hence, special types of wave analyzers working on the principle of

heterodyning (mixing) are used. These wave analyzers are known as
Heterodyne Wave Analyzer.

• In this wave analyzer, the input signal to be analyzed is heterodyned with

the signal from the internal tunable local oscillator in the mixer stage to
produce a higher IF frequency.

• By tuning the local oscillator frequency, various signal frequency compo-

nents can be shifted within the pass-band of the IF amplifier.

• The output of the IF amplifier is rectified and applied to the meter circuit.

• An instrument that involves the principle of heterodyning is the

Heterodyning tuned voltmeter, shown in Fig. 9.3.
• The input signal is heterodyned to the known IF by means of a tunable
local oscillator.

• The VTVM is calibrated by means of signals of known amplitude.

• A modified heterodyne wave analyzer is shown in Fig. 9.4.

• In this analyzer, the attenuator provides the required input signal for
heterodyning in the first mixer stage, with the signal from a local
oscillator having a frequency of 30 —48 MHz.

• The first mixer stage produces an output which is the difference of

the local oscillator frequency and the input signal, to produce an IF
signal of 30 MHz.

• This IF frequency is uniformly amplified by the IF amplifier.

 • This amplified IF signal is fed to the second mixer stage, where it
is again heterodyned to produce a difference frequency or IF of
zero frequency.

• The selected component is then passed to the meter amplifier and

detector circuit through an active filter having a controlled band-
width.

• The meter detector output can then be read off on a db-calibrated

scale, or may be applied to a secondary device such as a recorder.

• This wave analyzer is operated in the RF range of 10 kHz — 18

MHz, with 18 overlapping bands selected by the frequency range
control of the local oscillator. The bandwidth, which is controlled
by the active filter, can be selected at 200 Hz, 1 kHz and 3 kHz.

Harmonic Distortion Analyzer:

• A Harmonic Distortion Analyzer measures the total harmonic power
present in the test wave rather than the distortion caused by each
component.

• The simplest method is to suppress the fundamental frequency by means

of a high pass filter whose cut off frequency is a little above
the fundamental frequency.

• This high pass allows only the harmonics to pass and the total harmonic
distortion can then be measured.

• Other types of Harmonic Distortion Analyzer based on fundamental

suppression are as follows.

Wien’s Bridge Method :

• The bridge is balanced for the fundamental frequency. The fundamental

energy is dissipated in the bridge circuit elements.

• Only the harmonic components reach the output terminals. The harmonic
distortion output can then be measured with a meter.

• For balance at the fundamental frequency, C1,C2,C, R1=R2=R,R3=2R4.

Bridged T-Network Method :

• Fig. 9.7 the, L and C’s are tuned to the fundamental frequency, and R is
adjusted to bypass fundamental frequency.

• The tank circuit being tuned to the fundamental frequency, the

fundamental energy will circulate in the tank and is bypassed by the
resistance.

• Only harmonic components will reach the output terminals and the
distorted output can be measured by the meter.

• The Q of the resonant circuit must be at least 3-5.

• One way of using a bridge T-network is given in Fig. 9.8.

• The switch S is first connected to point A so that the attenuator is

excluded and the bridge T-network is adjusted for full suppression of the
fundamental frequency, i.e. minimum output.
 • Minimum output indicates that the bridged T-network is tuned to the
fundamental frequency and that the fundamental frequency is fully
suppressed.

• The switch is next connected to terminal B, i.e. the bridged T-network is

excluded.

• Attenuation is adjusted until the same reading is obtained on the meter.

• The attenuator reading indicates the total rms distortion.
• Distortion measurement can also be obtained by means of a wave
analyzer, knowing the amplitude and the frequency of each component,
the Harmonic Distortion Analyzer can be calculated.

• However, distortion meters based on fundamental suppression are simpler

to design and less expensive than wave analyzers.

• The disadvantage is that they give only the total distortion and not the
amplitude of individual distortion components.

Spectrum Analyzer:

• A spectrum analyzer measures the magnitude of an input signal versus

frequency within the full frequency range of the instrument.

• The primary use is to measure the power of the spectrum of known and
unknown signals.

• The most common way of observing signals is to display them on an

oscilloscope, with time as the X-axis (i.e. amplitude of the signal versus
time).
• This is the time domain. It is also useful to display signals in
the frequency domain.

• The instrument providing this frequency domain view is the spectrum

analyzer.

• A Spectrum Analyzer Block Diagram provides a calibrated graphical

display on its CRT, with frequency on the horizontal axis and amplitude
(voltage) on the vertical axis.

• Displayed as vertical lines against these coordinates are sinusoidal

components of which the input signal is composed.

• The height represents the absolute magnitude, and the horizontal location
represents the frequency.

• These instruments provide a display of the frequency spectrum over a

given frequency band.

• Spectrum analyzers use either a parallel filter bank or a swept

frequency technique.

• In a parallel filter bank analyzer, the frequency range is covered by a

series of filters whose central frequencies and bandwidth are so selected
that they overlap each other, as shown in Fig. 9.9(a).

• Typically, an audio analyzer will have 32 of these filters, each covering

one third of an octave.
 • For wide band narrow resolution analysis, particularly at RF
or microwave signals, the swept technique is preferred.

Basic Spectrum Analyzer Using Swept Receiver Design :

• The sawtooth generator provides the sawtooth voltage which drives the
horizontal axis element of the scope and this sawtooth voltage is
frequency controlled element of the voltage tuned oscillator.

• As the oscillator sweeps from fmin to fmax of its frequency band at a linear
recurring rate, it beats with the frequency component of the input signal
and produce an IF, whenever a frequency component is met during its
sweep.

• The frequency component and voltage tuned oscillator frequency beats

together to produce a difference frequency, i.e. IF.

• The IF corresponding to the component is amplified and detected if

necessary, and then applied to the vertical plates of the CRO, producing a
display of amplitude versus frequency.

• The spectrum produced if the input wave is a single toned A.M. is given
in Figs 9.10, 9.11, and 9.12.
• One of the principal applications of spectrum analyzers has been in the
study of the RF spectrum produced in microwave instruments.

• In a microwave instrument, the horizontal axis can display as a wide a

range as 2 — 3 GHz for a broad survey and as narrow as 30 kHz, for a
highly magnified view of any small portion of the spectrum.

• Signals at microwave frequency separated by only a few kHz can be seen

individually.

• The frequency range covered by this instrument is from 1 MHz to 40

GHz.

• The basic block diagram (Fig. 9.13) is of a spectrum analyzer covering

the range 500 kHz to 1 GHz, which is representative of a superheterodyne
type.

• The input signal is fed into a mixer which is driven by a local oscillator.

• This oscillator is linearly tunable electrically over the range 2 — 3 GHz.

• The mixer provides two signals at its output that are proportional in
amplitude to the input signal but of frequencies which are the sum and
difference of the input signal and local oscillator frequency.
 • The IF amplifier is tuned to a narrow band around 2 GHz, since the local
oscillator is tuned over the range of 2 — 3 GHz, only inputs that are
separated from the local oscillator frequency by 2 GHz will be converted
to IF frequency band, pass through the IF frequency amplifier, get
rectified and produce a vertical deflection on the CRT.

• From this, it is observed that as the sawtooth signal sweeps, the local
oscillator also sweeps linearly from 2 — 3 GHz.

• The tuning of the spectrum analyzer is a swept receiver, which sweeps

linearly from 0 to 1 GHz.

• The sawtooth scanning signal is also applied to the horizontal plates of

the CRT to form the frequency axis.

Digital Fourier Analyzer :

• The Digital Fourier Analyzer converts the analogue waveform over time
period T into N samples.
• The discrete spectral response Sx (k Δ f); k=1,2,…, N which is equivalent
to simultaneously obtaining the output from N filters having a bandwidth
given by Δf = 1/T, is obtained by applying a Discrete Fourier Transform
(DFT) to the sampled version of the signal.
• The spectral response is thus given by where k=1,2,3,…., N.
• Sx (k Δ f) is a complex quantity, which is obtained by operating on all the
sample x (n . Δt); n=1,2,3,…,N by the complex factor exp [-j[(2Πkn)/N]].

• The discrete inverse transform is given by

• The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), which is particularly suitable for

implementation in a digital computer, since N is constrained to the power
of 2, i.e. 210 = 1024.
• A digital signal analyzer block diagram is shown in Fig. 9.15.
• This digital signal analyzer employs an Fast Fourier Transform algorithm.
• The block diagram is divided into three sections, namely

The input section,

The control section and
The display section.
• The input section consists of two identical channels.

• The input signal is applied to the input amplifier, where it is conditioned

and passed through two or more anti-aliasing filters.

• The cut-off frequencies of these filters are selected with respect to the
sampling frequency being used.

• The 30 kHz filter is used with a sampling rate of 102.4 kHz and the 300
kHz filter with a sampling rate of 1.024 MHz.

• To convert the signal into digital form, a 12 bit ADC is used.

• The output from the ADC is connected to a multiplier and a digital filter.

• Depending on the mode of the analyzer to be used, either in Base-band

mode or in the band selectable mode the signal is multiplied either by a
sine or cosine function.

• The processing section of the analyzer provides FFT processing on the

input signal (linear or logarithm).

• For one channel this can provide the real (magnitude) and imaginary
(phase) of the linear spectrum Sx (f) of a time domain signal

Where, F(x (t)) is the Fourier transform of x(t).

• The autospectrum Gxx (f) which contains no phase information is obtained

from Sx (f) as

Where, Sx (f)* indicates the complex conjugate of Sx (f).

• The Power Spectral Density (PSD) is obtained by normalizing the function

Gxx (f) to a bandwidth of 1 Hz, which represents the power in
a bandwidth of 1 Hz centered around the frequency f.

• The Inverse Fourier Transform of Gxx (f) is given by

• writing the above equation in terms of the time domain characteristics of
the signal x(t), its autocorrelation function is defined as

• By the use of two channels, the combined properties of the two signals can
be obtained.

• The cross-power spectrum of the two signals x(t) and y(t) can be computed
as

Where, Sy (t) is the linear spectrum of y(t) and

Sx(t)* is the complex conjugate spectrum of x(t).

• If x (t) represents the input to a system and y(t) the output of the system,
then its transfer function H(f), which contains both amplitude and phase
information can be obtained by computing

Where, the bars indicate the time averaged values.

• The input signal used for such measurements is often the internal random
noise generator.
 UNIT 3
Oscilloscopes
Syllabus : Oscilloscopes CRT features, vertical amplifiers, horizontal
deflection system, sweep, trigger pulse, delay line, sync selector circuits, simple
CRO, triggered sweep CRO, Dual beam CRO, . Dual trace oscilloscope,
sampling oscilloscope, storage oscilloscope, digital readout oscilloscope,
digital storage oscilloscope, Lissajous method of frequency measurement,
standard specifications of CRO, probes for CRO- Active & Passive, attenuator
type.

Oscilloscope :
It is an electronic equipment, which displays a voltage waveform. Among the
oscilloscopes, Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is the basic one and it displays
a time varying signal or waveform.
In this chapter, let us discuss about the block diagram of CRO and measurements
of some parameters by using CRO.

Block Diagram of CRO :

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) consists a set of blocks. Those are vertical
amplifier, delay line, trigger circuit, time base generator, horizontal amplifier,
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) & power supply. The block diagram of CRO is
shown in below figure.
The function of each block of CRO is mentioned below.
• Vertical Amplifier − It amplifies the input signal, which is to be displayed
on the screen of CRT.
• Delay Line − It provides some amount of delay to the signal, which is
obtained at the output of vertical amplifier. This delayed signal is then
applied to vertical deflection plates of CRT.
• Trigger Circuit − It produces a triggering signal in order to synchronize
both horizontal and vertical deflections of electron beam.
• Time base Generator − It produces a sawtooth signal, which is useful for
horizontal deflection of electron beam.
• Horizontal Amplifier − It amplifies the sawtooth signal and then
connects it to the horizontal deflection plates of CRT.
• Power supply − It produces both high and low voltages. The negative high
voltage and positive low voltage are applied to CRT and other circuits
respectively.
• Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) − It is the major important block of CRO and
mainly consists of four parts. Those are electron gun, vertical deflection
plates, horizontal deflection plates and fluorescent screen.
• The electron beam, which is produced by an electron gun gets deflected in
both vertical and horizontal directions by a pair of vertical deflection plates
and a pair of horizontal deflection plates respectively.
• Finally, the deflected beam will appear as a spot on the fluorescent screen.
• In this way, CRO will display the applied input signal on the screen of
CRT. So, we can analyse the signals in time domain by using CRO

Measurements by using CRO :

We can do the following measurements by using CRO.

• Measurement of Amplitude
• Measurement of Time Period
• Measurement of Frequency
Vertical Amplifier:

• Vertical Amplifier – The sensitivity (gain) and frequency bandwidth

(B.W.) response characteristics of the oscilloscope are mainly determined
by the vertical amplifier.
• Since the gain B.W. product is constant, to obtain a greater sensitivity the
B.W. is narrowed, or vice-versa.

Block Diagram of a Vertical Amplifier :

• The block diagram of a vertical amplifier is shown in Fig. 7.7.

FET input Amplifier Main Amplifier

• The vertical amplifier consists of several stages, with fixed overall

sensitivity or gain expressed in V/divs.
• The advantage of fixed gain is that the amplifier can be more easily
designed to meet the requirements of stability and B.W.
• The vertical amplifier is kept within its signal handling capability by
proper selection of the input attenuator switch.
• The first element of the pre-amplifier is the input stage, often consisting
of a FET source follower whose high input impedance isolates the
amplifier from the attenuator.
• This FET input stage is followed by a BJT emitter follower, to match the
medium impedance of FET output with the low impedance input of the
phase inverter.
• This phase inverter provides two antiphase output signals which are
required to operate the push-pull output amplifier.
 • The push-pull output stage delivers equal signal voltages of opposite
polarity to the vertical plates of the CRT.

The advantages of push-pull operation in CRO

• Better hum voltage cancellation from the source or power supply
(i.e. dc),
• Even harmonic suppression,
• especially the large 2nd harmonic is cancelled out
• Greater power output per tube as a result of even harmonic
cancellation.

Horizontal Deflecting System:

• The Horizontal Deflecting System consist of a Time Base Generator and

an output amplifier.

Sweep or Time Base Generator :

• A continuous sweep CRO using a UJT as a time base generator is shown

in Fig. 7.8.
• The UJT is used to produce the sweep. When the power is first applied,
the UJT is off and the CT changes exponentially through RT
• The UJT emitter voltage VE rises towards VBB and when VE reaches the
peak voltage VP, as shown in Fig. 7.9.
 • The emitter to base ‘1’ (B1) diode becomes forward biased and the UJT
triggers ON. This provides a low resistance discharge path and the
capacitor discharges rapidly.
• The emitter voltage VE reaches the minimum value rapidly and the UJT
goes OFF. The capacitor recharges and the cycle repeats.
• To improve sweep linearity, two separate voltage supplies are used, a low
voltage supply for UJT and a high voltage supply for the RTCT circuit.
• RT is used for continuous control of frequency within a range and CT is
varied or changed in steps for range changing.
• They are sometimes called as timing resistor and timing capacitor
respectively.

Triggered Sweep CRO:

• Triggered Sweep CRO – The continuous sweep is of limited use in

displaying periodic signals of constant frequency and amplitude.
• When attempting to display voice or music signals, the pattern falls in
and out of sync as the frequency and amplitude of the music varies
resulting in an unstable display.
• A triggered sweep can display such signals, and those of short duration,
e.g. narrow pulses.
• In triggered mode, the input signal is used to generate substantial pulses
that trigger the sweep.
• Thus ensuring that the sweep is always in step with the signal that drives
it.
• As shown in Fig. 7.10, resistance R3 and R4 form a voltage divider such
that the voltage VD at the cathode of the diode is below the peak voltage
VP for UJT conduction.
• When the circuit is switched on, the UJT is in the non conducting stage,
and CT charges exponentially through RT towards VBB until the diode
becomes forward biased and conducts; the capacitor voltage never
reaches the peak voltage required for UJT conduction but is clamped at
VD.
• If now a –ve pulse of sufficient amplitude is applied to the base and the
peak voltage V/P is momentarily lowered, the UJT fires.
• As a result, the CT discharges rapidly through the UJT until the
maintaining voltage of the UJT is reached; at this point the UJT switches
off and the CT charges towards VBB, until it is clamped again at
VD. Figure 7.11 shows the output waveform.
Trigger Pulse Generator Circuit:
• The Trigger Pulse Generator Circuit is activated by signals of a variety of
shapes and amplitudes, which are converted to trigger pulses of uniform
amplitude for the precision sweep operation.
• If the trigger level is set too low, the trigger generator will not operate.
• On the other hand, if the level is too high, the UJT may conduct for too
long and part of the leading edge of the input signal may be lost.
• The trigger selection is a 3-position switch, Internal-External-Line, as
shown in Fig. 7.12.
• The trigger input signal is applied to a voltage comparator whose
reference level is set by the Trigger Level control on the CRO front panel.

• The comparator circuit C produces a change in the output whenever the

trigger input exceeds the present trigger levels.
• The pulse generator that follows the comparator produces —ve
trigger pulses each time the comparator output crosses its quiescent level,
which in turn triggers the sweep generator to start the next sweep.
• The trigger sweep generator contains the stability or sync control, which
prevents the display from uttering or running on the screen. Stability is
secured by proper adjustments of the sweep speed.
• Sweep speed is adjustable by means of a sweep rate control and its
multiplier, i.e. range control.
• The timing resistance RT is used for sweep rate control and
timing capacitor CT is changed in steps for sweep rate control.
Delay Line Circuit:

• Figure 7.13 shows a Delay Line Circuit in Triggered Sweep Circuit.

• Figure 7.14 indicates the amplitude of the signal wrt time and the relative
position of the sweep generator output signal.

• The diagram shows that when the delay line is not used, the initial part of
the signal is lost and only part of the signal is displayed.

• To counteract this disadvantage the signal is not applied directly to the

vertical plates but is passed through a delay line circuit, as shown in Fig.
7.13.

• This gives time for the sweep to start at the horizontal plates before the
signal has reached the vertical plates.
 • The trigger pulse is Picked off at a tune t0 after the signal has passed
through the main amplifier.

• The sweep generator delivers the sweep ti; the horizontal amplifier and the
sweep starts at the HDP at time t0 + 80 ns.

• Hence the sweep starts well in time, since the signal arrives at the VDP at
time t0 + 200 ns.

Sync Selector for Continuous Sweep CRO:

• The sync selector is a 3-position switch, Int-Ext-Line. Therefore

horizontal sweep can be synchronized with the signals coming from any
of the three sources, as shown in Fig. 7.15.

Dual Beam CRO:

• The Oscilloscope, which displays two voltage waveforms is called Dual

Beam Oscilloscope. Its block diagram is shown in below figure.

• The dual trace oscilloscope has one cathode ray gun, and an electronic
switch which switches two signals to a single vertical amplifier.

• The dual beam CRO uses two completely separate electron beams, two
sets of VDPs and a single set of HDPs.
 • Only one beam can be synchronised at one time, since the sweep is the
same for both signals, i.e. a common time base is used for both beams.
• Therefore, the signals must have the same frequency or must be
related harmonically, in order to obtain both beams locked on the CRT
screen, e.g. the input signal of an amplifier can be used as signal A and its
output signal as signal B.

Dual Trace Oscilloscope :

Definition:
• In dual trace oscilloscope, a single electron beam generates 2 traces, that
undergoes deflection by two independent sources.
• In order to produce two separate traces, basically, 2 methods are used,
known as alternate and chopped mode. These are also known as the two
operating modes of the switch.
Block diagram and Working of Dual Trace Oscilloscope :
The figure below shows the block diagram of a dual trace oscilloscope:
• This CRO has a single electron gun whose electron beam is split into two
by an electronic switch.
• There is one control for focus and another for intensity.
• Two signals are displayed simultaneously.
• The signals pass through identical vertical channels or vertical
amplifiers.
• Each channel has its own calibrated input attenuator and i positioning
control, so that the amplitude of each signal can be independently
adjusted.
• A mode control switch enables the electronic switch to operate in two
modes.
• When the switch is in ALTERNATE position, the electronic switch feeds
each signal alternately to the vertical amplifier.
• The electronic switch alternately connects the main vertical amplifier to
channels A and B and adds a different dc component to each signal; this
dc component directs the beam alternately to the upper or lower half of
the screen.
• The switching takes place at the start of each new sweep of the sweep
generator.
• The switching rate of the electronic switch is synchronised to the sweep
rate, so that the CRT spot traces the channel A signal on one sweep and
the channel B signal on the succeeding sweep
• When the switch is in the CHOP mode position, the electronic switch is
free running at the rate of 100-500 kHz, entirely independent of the
frequency of the sweep generator.
• The switch successively connects small segments of A and B waveforms
to the main vertical amplifier at a relatively fast chopping rate of 500 kHz
e.g. 1 i.ts segments of each waveform are fed to the CRT display (Fig.
7.19 (c)).
 • If the chopping rate is slow, the continuity of the display is lost and it is
better to use the alternate mode of operation.
• In the added mode of operation a single image can be displayed by the
addition of signal from channels A and B, i.e. (A + B), etc.
• In the X — Y mode of operation, the sweep generator is disconnected
and channel B is connected to the horizontal amplifier.
• Since both preamplifiers are identical and have the same delay time,
accurate X — Y measurements can be made.
Sampling Oscilloscope :

Sampling Oscilloscope Block Diagram:

• An ordinary Sampling Oscilloscope has a B.W. of 10 MHz.

• The HF performance can be improved by means of sampling the input

waveform and reconstructing its shape from the sample, i.e. the signal to
be observed is sampled and after a few cycles the sampling point is
advanced and another sample is taken.

• The shape of the waveform is reconstructed by joining the sample levels

together.

• The sampling frequency may be as low as 1/10th of the input signal

frequency (if the input signal frequency is 100 MHz, the bandwidth of the
CRO vertical amplifier can be as low as 10 MHz).

• As many as 1000 samples are used to reconstruct the original waveform.

Figure 7.24 shows a Sampling Oscilloscope Block Diagram.
 • At the beginning of each sampling cycle, the trigger pulse activates an
oscillator and a linear ramp voltage is generated.
• This ramp voltage is applied to a voltage comparator which compares the
ramp voltage to a staircase generator.
• When the two voltages are equal in amplitude, the staircase advances one
step and a sampling pulse is generated, which opens the sampling gate for
a sample of input voltage.
• The resolution of the final image depends upon the size of the steps of the
staircase generator.
• The smaller the size of the steps the larger the number of samples and
higher the resolution of the image.

Storage Oscilloscope:

• Storage Oscilloscope – Storage targets can be distinguished from

standard phosphor targets by their ability to retain a waveform pattern for
a long time, independent of phosphor peristence.

• Two storage techniques are used in oscilloscope CRTs

1. mesh storage

2. phosphor storage.
• A mesh-storage CRT uses a dielectric material deposited on a storage
mesh as the storage target.

• This mesh is placed between the deflection plates and the standard
phosphor target in the CRT.

• The writing beam, which is the focused electron beam of the standard
CRT, charges the dielectric material positively where hit.

• The storage target is then bombarded with low velocity electrons from
a flood gun and the positively charged areas of the storage target allow
these electrons to pass through to the standard phosphor target and
thereby reproduce the stored image on the screen.

• Thus the mesh storage has both a storage target and a phosphor display
target.

• The phosphor storage CRT uses a thin layer of phosphor to serve both
as the storage and the display element.

• It is used to display Very Low Frequencies (VLF) signals and finds

many applications in mechanical and biomedical fields.

• The conventional scope has a display with a phosphor persistence

ranging from a few micro-seconds to a few seconds.

• The persistence can be increased to a few hours from a few seconds.

• A mesh storage CRT, contains a dielectric material deposited on a
storage mesh, a collector mesh, flood guns and a collimator, in addition
to all the elements of a standard CRT.

• The storage target, a thin deposition of a dielectric material such as

Magnesium Fluoride on the storage mesh, makes use of a property
known as secondary emission.

• The writing gun etches a positively charged pattern on the storage mesh
or target by knocking off secondary emission electrons. Because of the
excellent insulating property of the Magnesium Fluoride coating, this
positively charged pattern remains exactly in the position where it is
deposited.
 • In order to make a pattern visible, a special electron gun, called the
flood gun, is switched on (even after many hours).

• The electron paths are adjusted by the collimator electrode, which

constitutes a low voltage electrostatic lens system (to focus the electron
beam) in above fig.

• Most of the electrons are stopped and collected by the collector mesh.
Only electrons near the stored positive charge are pulled to the storage
target with sufficient force to hit the phosphor screen.

• The CRT will now display the signal and it will remain visible as long
as the flood guns operate.

• To erase the pattern on the storage mesh, a negative voltage is applied

to neutralize the stored positive charge.

Digital Readout Oscilloscope:

• The Digital Readout Oscilloscope instrument has a CRT display

and a counter display. The diagram shown is of an instrument
where the counter measures the time (Fig. 7.29).
• The input waveform is sampled and the sampling circuit advances the
sampling position in fixed increments, a process called strobing.

• The equivalent time between each sample depends on the numbers of

sample taken per cm and on the sweep time/cm, e.g. a sweep rate of 1
nano-sec/cm and a sampling rate of 100 samples/cm gives a time of 10
pico-sec/sample.

• Figure 7.29 shows a block diagram of a digital read out oscilloscope

when measuring voltage.

• Two intensified portions of the CRT trace identify 0% and 100% zones
position. Each zone can be shifted to any part of the display.

• The voltage divider taps between the 0% and 100% memory voltage are
set for start and stop timing.

• The coincidence of any of the input Waveforms with the selected

percentage point is sensed by this voltage comparator.

• The numbers of the clock pulse which correspond to the actual sample
taken are read out digitally in a Nixie display tube in ns, lis, ms or
seconds.

• Figure 7.30 shows a block diagram of a digital readout CRO when used
for voltage to time conversion.

• The CRT display is obtained by sampling the 0% reference voltage as

chosen by the memory circuit.
 • A linear ramp generator produces a voltage; when the ramp voltage
equals the 0% reference the gate opens.
• When the ramp equals 100% reference the gate closes.
• The number of clock pulses that activate the counter is directly
proportional to the voltage between the selected reference and is read out
in mV or volts by the Nixie tube display.

Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO):

• The oscilloscope, which stores the waveform digitally is known as digital

storage oscilloscope.
• The block diagram of the digital storage oscilloscope consists of an
amplifier, digitizer, memory, analyzer circuitry. Waveform
reconstruction, vertical plates, horizontal plates, cathode ray tube (CRT),
horizontal amplifier, time base circuitry, trigger, and clock. The block
diagram of the digital storage oscilloscope is shown in the below figure.

• First digital storage oscilloscope digitizes the analog input signal, then the
analog input signal is amplified by amplifier if it has any weak signal.

• After amplification, the signal is digitized by the digitizer and that

digitized signal stores in memory.

• The analyzer circuit process the digital signal after that the waveform is
reconstructed (again the digital signal is converted into an analog form)
and then that signal is applied to vertical plates of the cathode ray tube
(CRT).

• The cathode ray tube has two inputs they are vertical input and horizontal
input. The vertical input signal is the ‘Y’ axis and the horizontal input
signal is the ‘X’ axis.
 • The time base circuit is triggered by the trigger and clock input signal, so
it is going to generate the time base signal which is a ramp signal.

• Then the ramp signal is amplified by the horizontal amplifier, and this
horizontal amplifier will provide input to the horizontal plate.

• On the CRT screen, we will get the waveform of the input signal versus
time.

• The digitizing occurs by taking a sample of the input waveform at periodic

intervals.
• At the periodic time interval means, when half of the time cycle is
completed then we are taking the samples of the signal.
• The process of digitizing or sampling should follow the sampling theorem.
• The sampling theorem says that the rate at which the samples are taken
should be greater than twice the highest frequency present in the input
signal.
• When the analog signal is not properly converted into digital then there
occurs an aliasing effect.
• When the analog signal is properly converted into digital then the
resolution of the A/D converter will be decreased.
• When the input signals stored in analog store registers can be read out at
a much slower rate by the A/D converter, then the digital output of the
A/D converter stored in the digital store, and it allows operation up to 100
mega samples per second. This is the working principle of a digital storage
oscilloscope.
Frequency Measurement by Lissajous Method:

• One of the quickest methods of determining frequency is by using

Lissajous patterns produced on a screen.

• This particular pattern results when sine waves are applied

simultaneously to both pairs of the deflection plates.

• If one frequency is an integral multiple (harmonic) of the other, the

pattern will be stationary, and is called a Lissajous figure.

• In this Frequency Measurement by Lissajous Method a standard

frequency is applied to one set of deflection plates of the CRT tube while
 the unknown frequency is simultaneously applied to the other set of
plates.

• However, the unknown frequency is presented to the vertical plates and

the known frequency (standard) to the horizontal plates.
• The resulting patterns depend on the integral and phase relationship
between the two frequencies. (The horizontal signal is designated as
fh and the vertical signal as fv)
• Typical Lissajous figures are shown in Figs 7.31 and 7.32 for sinusoidal
frequencies which are equal, integral and in ratio.

• Figure 7.33 illustrates the basic circuit for comparing two frequencies by
the Lissajous method.
• Set the horizontal and vertical gain control for the desired width and
height of the pattern.
• Keep frequency fv constant and vary frequency fh, noting that the pattern
spins in alternate directions and changes shape.
• The pattern stands still whenever fv and fh are in an integral ratio (either
even or odd). The fv = fh pattern stands still and is a single circle or
ellipse.
• When fv = 2 fh, a two loop horizontal pattern is obtained as shown in Fig.
7.31.
• To determine the frequency from any Lissajous figure, count the number
of horizontal loops in the pattern, divide it by the number of vertical loops
and multiply this quantity by fh (known or standard frequency).
• The fractional relationship between the two frequencies is determined by
counting the number of cycles in the vertical and horizontal.
Standard Specifications of a Single Beam CRO :
1. Vertical Amplifier:
• Sensitivity : 5 mV/Div. to 20 V/Div. in 12 calibrated steps in a 1, 2, 5
sequence. Continuous control (uncalibrated) between steps, reduces the
sensitivity by a minimum of 2.5 times.
• Accuracy : ± 3%
• Bandwidth : dc to 20 MHz (– 3 db), dc coupling, : 0.5 Hz to 20 MHz (– 3
db) ac coupling
• Rise time : Better than 18 ns
• Input Impedance : 1 MW/40 pf
• Maximum input voltage : 400 V (dc + ac peak)
• Signal delay : Built in delay line sufficient to display leading edge of the
waveform.
2. Time Base Generator :
• Sweep ranges : 0.1 ms/Div. to 0.5 s/Div. in 21 calibrated steps in a 1, 2, 5
sequence. Continuous uncalibrated control between steps extending
slowest speed to 1.5 s/Div.

• Accuracy : ± 5%

• Magnification : 5 times. Takes the highest speed to 20 ns/Div.

3. Triggering
• Auto mode : Free running in the absence of a trigger signal. Triggers to
the input signal automatically.

• Source : Internal-External-Line
• Polarity : Positive or negative

• Maximum trigger input : 250 V (dc + ac peak) short term

• Input impedance : 1 MW/30 pf

• Internal trigger level : 3 Div from 2 Hz to 20 MHz (1 Div, 30 Hz to 20
MHz in Auto mode)

• External trigger level : 3 V peak to peak, 2 Hz to 20 MHz (1 V, 30 Hz to

20 MHz in Auto mode)

4. Horizontal Amplifier
• Bandwidth : dc – 2 MHz (– 3 db)

• Sensitivity : 100 mV and 0.5 V/Div

• Input impedance : 1 MW/50 pf

• Maximum input voltage : 250 V (dc + ac peak)

• Calibration : 200 mV peak to peak square wave at 1 kHz

• Cathode ray tube : Flat faced medium persistance

• Accelerating Potential : 4.5 kV

• Graticule : 8 x 10 Div of 8 mm each

• Power requirements : 230 V ac, 50 Hz, 50 W

 • Dimensions : 220 x 275 x 430 mm

• Weight : 10kg approximately

Probes for CRO:

Probes for CRO-Direct Probes (1 : 1):

• The simplest types of probe (one can hardly call it a probe) is the test
lead.
• Test leads are simply convenient lengths of wire for connecting the CRO
input to the point of observation.
• At the CRO end, they usually terminate with lugs, banana tips or other
tips to fit the input jacks of the scope, and at the other end have a
crocodile clip or any other convenient means for connection to the
electronic circuit.
• Since a CRO has high input impedance and high sensitivity, the test leads
should be shielded to avoid hum pickup
• Although the input impedances of most CROs are relatively very high
compared to the circuits where they are connected

• A slight reduction in the amplitude of the waveform and a slight change

in the waveshape occurs with this probe.
• To avoid this possibility, a high impedance compensated probe, called a
low capacitance probe or a 10 : 1 probe, is used.

Passive Voltage (High Z) Probe :

• Figure 7.45 (a) shows a 10 : 1 probe. Figure 7.45 (b) shows the equivalent
circuit. Referring to Fig. 7.45 (b).
• The capacitor is adjusted so that the elements of the bridge are balanced.
Under conditions of balance we have
 • Therefore, X and Y are equipotential and the effect of the probe is
equivalent to placing a potential divider consisting of R1 and Rin across
the input circuit.
• The attenuation of the signal is 10 : 1,i.e. (R1 + Rin)/ R1 = 10 : 1 over a
wide frequency range. Therefore, it is called a compensated 10 x 1 probe.
• As far as dc voltage inputs are concerned, the coaxial capacitance equals
30 pf per foot. (Assuming a coaxial length of 3.5 ft, the total coaxial
length capacitance is 105 pf). Substituting this value in the balance bridge
equation, we have

Active Probes :

• Active probes are designed to provide an efficient method of coupling

high frequency, fast rise time signals to the CRO input.
 • Usually active probes have very high input impedance, with less
attenuation than passive probes. Active devices may be diodes, FETs,
BJTs, etc.
• Active probes are more expensive and bulky than passive probes, but they
are useful for small signal measurements, because their attenuation is
less.

Active Probes Using FETs :

Figure 7.46 shows a basic circuit of an active probe using a FET.

• The FET is used as the active element to amplify the input signal.
• Although the voltage gain of the FET follower circuit shown is unity, the
follower circuit provides a power gain so that the input impedance can be
increased.

• The capacitance of the interconnecting cable can be eliminated.

• This requires that the power for the FET be supplied from the
oscilloscope to the FET in the probe tip.

• The FET voltage follower drives a coaxial cable, but instead of the cable
connecting directly to the high input impedance of the oscilloscope, it is
terminated in its characteristic impedance.
Attenuators:

• Attenuators are designed to change the magnitude of the input signal seen
at the input stage, while presenting a constant impedance on all ranges at
the attenuator input.
• A compensated RC attenuator is required to attenuate all frequencies
equally.
• Without this compensation, HF signal measurements would always have
to take the input circuit RC time constant into account.
• The input attenuator must provide the correct 1-2-5 sequence while
maintaining a constant input impedance, as well as maintain both the
input impedance and attenuation over the frequency range for which the
oscilloscope is designed.

Uncompensated Attenuators :

• The circuit diagram shown in Fig. 7.47 gives a resistive divider attenuator
connected to an amplifier with a 10 pf input capacitance.
• If the input impedance of the amplifier is high, the input impedance of the
attenuator is relatively constant, immaterial of the switch setting of the
attenuator.
• The input impedance, as seen by the amplifier, changes greatly depending
on the setting of the attenuator.
• Because of this, the RC time constant and frequency response of the
amplifier are dependent on the setting of th- attenuator, which is an
undesirable feature.
Simple Compensated Attenuator :

• The diagram in Fig. 7.48 shows an attenuator with both resistive

and capacitive voltage dividers.
• The capacitive voltage dividers improve the HF response of the
attenuator.
• This combination of capacitive and resistive voltage dividers is
known as a compensated attenuator.

• For oscilloscopes where the frequency range extends to 100 MHz

and beyond, more complex dividers are used.
 UNIT 4
Bridges
Syllabus : AC Bridges Measurement of inductance- Maxwell’s bridge,
Anderson bridge. Measurement of capacitance - Schearing Bridge. Wheat stone
bridge. Wien Bridge, Errors and precautions in using bridges. Q-meter.

Introduction to Bridges :
• If the electrical components are arranged in the form a bridge or ring
structure, then that electrical circuit is called a bridge.
• In general, bridge forms a loop with a set of four arms or branches. Each
branch may contain one or two electrical components.

Types of Bridges :
• We can classify the bridge circuits or bridges into the following two
categories based on the voltage signal with which those can be operated.

1. DC Bridges

2. AC Bridges

1. DC Bridges :
• If the bridge circuit can be operated with only DC voltage signal, then it
is a DC bridge circuit or simply DC bridge.
• DC bridges are used to measure the value of unknown resistance.
• DC bridges can be operated with only DC voltage signal.

• DC bridges are useful for measuring the value of unknown resistance,

which is present in the bridge. Wheatstone’s Bridge is an example of DC
bridge.

• Wheatstone’s Bridge in order to find the unknown resistance’s value.

• The two types of D.C bridges

1. Wheatstone Bridge
2. Kelvin Bridge
2. AC Bridges :
• If the bridge circuit can be operated with only AC voltage signal, then it
is said to be AC bridge circuit or simply AC bridge.
• AC bridges are used to measure the value of unknown inductance,
capacitance and frequency.

The various types of A.C Bridges are,

• Capacitance Comparison Bridge

• Inductance Comparison Bridge
• Maxwell’s Bridge
• Hay’s Bridge
• Anderson Bridge
• Schering Bridge
• Wien Bridge

Measurement of Inductance :
1. Maxwell’s Bridge.

2. Anderson’s Bridge.

1. Maxwell Bridge :

• Maxwell Bridge Theory, shown in Fig. 11.21, measures an unknown

inductance in terms of a known capacitor.

• One arm has a resistance R1 in parallel with C1, and hence it is easier to
write the balance equation using the admittance of arm 1 instead of the
impedance.
 • The general equation for bridge balance is

From Eq. (11.14) we have

Equating real terms and imaginary terms we have

Maxwell Bridge Advantages and Disadvantages :

• The Maxwell bridge using a fixed capacitor has the disadvantage that there
is an interaction between the resistance and reactance balances.

• This can be avoided by varying the capacitances, instead of R 2 and R3, to

obtain a reactance balance.
2. Anderson Bridge :
Definition:
• The Anderson’s bridge gives the accurate measurement of self-
inductance of the circuit.

• The bridge is the advanced form of Maxwell’s inductance capacitance

bridge.

• In Anderson bridge, the unknown inductance is compared with

the standard fixed capacitance which is connected between the two
arms of the bridge.
Advantages of Anderson Bridge :

The following are the advantages of the Anderson’s Bridge.

1. The balance point is easily obtained on the Anderson bridge as compared to

Maxwell’s inductance capacitance bridge.
2. The bridge uses fixed capacitor because of which accurate reading is
obtained.
3. The bridge measures the accurate capacitances in terms of inductances.
Disadvantages of Anderson Bridge :

The main disadvantages of Anderson’s bridge are as follow.

1. The circuit has more arms which make it more complex as compared to
Maxwell’s bridge. The equation of the bridge is also more complex.
2. The bridge has an additional junction which arises the difficulty in shielding
the bridge.
Measurement of Capacitance :
1. Schearing Bridge.

2. Wien Bridge.

1. Schearing Bridge :

Definition:
• The Schering bridge is one type of AC bridge, which is used to measure
the unknown capacitance, relative permeability, dissipation factor.
• Its basic circuit arrangement is given in Fig. 11.25.

• For balance, the general equation is

• Equating the real and imaginary terms, we get

 • The dissipation factor D of a series RC circuit is defined as the
contangent of the phase angle.

• Also, D is the reciprocal of the quality factor Q, i.e. D = 1/Q. D indicates

the quality of the capacitor.

Advantages of Schearing Bridge :

• Balance equations are free from frequency.
• The arrangement of the bridge is less costly as compared to the other
bridges.

2. Wien Bridge :

• The Wien Bridge Circuit Diagram shown in Fig. 11.27 has a series RC
combination in one arm and a parallel combination in the adjoining arm.

• Wien’s bridge in its basic form, is designed to measure frequency.

• It can also be used for the measurement of an unknown capacitor with

great accuracy.
• The impedance of one arm is

• The admittance of the parallel arm is

• Using the bridge balance equation,

we have

• Therefore,

• Equating the real and imaginary terms we have

 • The two conditions for bridge balance, (11.21) and (11.23), result in an
expression determining the required resistance ratio R2/R4 and another
expression determining the frequency of the applied voltage.

• Eq. (11.21) and also excite the bridge with the frequency of Eq. (11.23),
the bridge will be balanced.
• In most Wien Bridge Circuit Diagram, the components are chosen such
that R1 = R3 = R and C1 = C3 = C.

Wheatstone Bridge :
• The Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection, i.e. the
ratio of their resistances are equal and no current flows through the
circuit.
• A Wheatstone Bridge Circuit in its simplest form consists of a network of
four resistance arms forming a closed circuit, with a dc source of
current applied to two opposite junctions and a current detector connected
to the other two junctions, as shown in Fig. 11.1.

Wheatstone Bridge Circuit(Measurement of Resistance):

• The circuit diagram of a typical Wheatstone Bridge Circuit is given in

Fig. 11.1.

• The source of emf and switch is connected to points A and B, while a

sensitive current indicating meter, the galvanometer, is connected to
points C and D.

• The galvanometer is a sensitive microammeter, with a zero centre scale.

• When there is no current through the meter, the galvanometer pointer
rests at 0, i.e. mid scale.

• Current in one direction causes the pointer to deflect on one side and
current in the opposite direction to the other side.

• When SW1 is closed, current flows and divides into the two arms at
point A, i.e. I1 and I2.

• The bridge is balanced when there is no current through

the galvanometer, or when the potential difference at points C and D is
equal, i.e. the potential across the galvanometer is zero.

• To obtain the bridge balance equation, we have from the Fig. 11.1.

• For the galvanometer current to be zero, the following conditions

should be satisfied.

• Substituting in Eq. (11.1)

• This is the equation for the bridge to be balanced.

• Hence
Sensitivity of a Wheatstone Bridge :

• When the bridge is in an unbalanced condition, current flows through the

galvanometer, causing a deflection of its pointer.

• The amount of deflection is a function of the sensitivity of the

galvanometer.

• Sensitivity can be thought of as deflection per unit current.

• A more sensitive galvanometer deflects by a greater amount for the same
current.

• Deflection may be expressed in linear or angular units of measure, and

sensitivity can be expressed in units of S = mm/μA or degree/µA or
radians/μA.

• Therefore it follows that the total deflection D is

D=SxI

Where,

S is Sensitivity

I is the current in microamperes.

Application of Wheatstone’s Bridge :

• A Wheatstone bridge may be used to measure the dc resistance of various

types of wire, either for the purpose of quality control of the wire itself, or
of some assembly in which it is used.

• Wheatstone Bridge Circuit is also used extensively by telephone

companies and others to locate cable faults.

• The fault may be two lines shorted together, or a single line shorted to
ground.

Limitations of Wheatstone’s Bridge :

• For low resistance measurement, the resistance of the leads and contacts
becomes significant and introduces an error. This can be eliminated by
Kelvin’s Double bridge.
 • For high resistance measurements, the resistance presented by the bridge
becomes so large that the galvanometer is insensitive to imbalance.
Therefore, a power supply has to replace the battery and a dc VTVM
replaces the galvanometer.

• In the case of high resistance measurements in mega ohms, the

Wheatstones bridge cannot be used.

• Another difficulty in Wheatstone Bridge Circuit is the change in resistance

of the bridge arms due to the heating effect of current through the
resistance.

• The rise in temperature causes a change in the value of the resistance, and
excessive current may cause a permanent change in value.

Q Meter :
Definition:
• The instrument which measures the storage factor or quality factor of
the electrical circuit at radio frequencies, such type of device is known
as the Q-meter.

• The quality factor is one of the parameters of the oscillatory system,

which shows the relation between the storage and dissipated energy.

Working Principle of Q meter :

• The Q meter works on series resonant. The resonance is the condition
exists in the circuit when their inductance and capacitance reactance are
of equal magnitude.

• They induce energy which is oscillating between the electric and

magnetic field of the capacitor and inductor respectively.

• The Q-meter is based on the characteristic of

the resistance, inductance and capacitance of the resonant series circuit.

• The figure below shows a coil of resistance, inductance and capacitance

connected in series with the circuit.

• At resonant frequency f0,

 • The value of capacitance reactance is

• At inductive reactance,

• At the resonant frequency,

• and current at resonance becomes

Applications of the Q-meter :

• The following are the applications of the Q-meter.

1. Measurement of Q :
• The circuit used for measurement of Q is shown in the figure.
 • The oscillator and tuning capacitor adjust to the desired frequency for
obtaining the maximum value of E0. Under this condition, the value of the
• Quality factor is expressed as

• True value is given as

2. Measurement of Inductance :
• The inductance is measured by the equation shown below.

• The value of f0 & C is required for calculating the value of inductance.

3. Measurement of Effective resistance :

• The equation computes the value of effective resistance

4. Measurement of Self-Capacitance :
• The self-capacitance is determined by measuring the two capacitance at
different frequencies.
• The capacitor is adjusted to the high value, and the circuit is resonated by
adjusting the oscillator frequency.
• The resonance of the circuit is determined by the Q meter.

5. Measurement of Bandwidth :
• The equation below calculates the bandwidth
Errors and Precautions in Using Bridge Circuits :

ERRORS IN BRIDGES:
The following are the factors causing errors in bridges:

1. Stray conductance effects, due to imperfect insulation.

2. Mutual inductance effects due to magnetic coupling between various

components of the bridge.

3. Stray capacitance effects, due to electrostatic fields between conductors at

different potentials.

4. Residuals in components for example the presence of small magnitudes of

series inductance or shunt capacitance in non-reactive resistors.

PRECAUTIONS FOR REDUCING ERRORS:

The following precautions may be taken to avoid errors :

1. High quality components must be used for the elements of the bridge.

2. The layout of the bridge must be made to avoid interaction of the bridge
arms.

3. The sensitivity of the bridge must be more.

4. The bridge components and other pieces must be mounted on insulation

stands to prevent stray conductance effects.

5. Presence of large conducting masses near the bridge arms must be avoided to
prevent eddy current effects.

6. Residual error can be avoided by identifying the nature, evaluating them and
compensating them.

7. Wave filters that eliminate the unwanted harmonics from the source or tuned
detectors in place of headphones may be used to avoid the difficulty of
frequency and wave form errors.
 Unit 5
Transducers
Syllabus : Transducers- active & passive transducers : Resistance,
Capacitance, inductance; Strain gauges, LVDT, Piezo Electric transducers,
Resistance Thermometers, Thermocouples, Thermistors, Sensistors.

Transducer :

Basically, Transducer converts one form of energy into another form of energy.
The transducer, which converts non-electrical form of energy into electrical form
of energy is known as electrical transducer. The block diagram of electrical
transducer is shown in below figure.

As shown in the figure, electrical transducer will produce an output, which has
electrical energy. The output of electrical transducer is equivalent to the input,
which has non-electrical energy.
Types of Electrical Transducers :
Mainly, the electrical transducers can be classified into the following two types.

• Active Transducers
• Passive Transducers
Now, let us discuss about these two types of transducers briefly.

Active Transducers :
• The transducer, which can produce one of the electrical quantities such as
voltage and current is known as active transducer.
• It is also called self-generating transducer, since it doesn’t require any
external power supply.
The block diagram of active transducer is shown in below figure.

As shown in the figure, active transducer will produce an electrical quantity (or
signal), which is equivalent to the non-electrical input quantity (or signal).
Examples
Following are the examples of active transducers.

• Piezo Electric Transducer

• Photo Electric Transducer
• Thermo Electric Transducer
We will discuss about these active transducers in next chapter.

Passive Transducers :
The transducer, which can’t produce the electrical quantities such as voltage and
current is known as passive transducer. But, it produces the variation in one of
passive elements like resistor (R), inductor (L) and capacitor (C). Passive
transducer requires external power supply.
The block diagram of passive transducer is shown in below figure.

As shown in the figure, electrical transducer will produce an output, which has
electrical energy. The output of electrical transducer is equivalent to the input,
which has non-electrical energy.
Examples
Following are the examples of passive transducers.
 • Resistive Transducer
• Inductive Transducer
• Capacitive Transducer
passive transducer is a transducer, which produces the variation in passive
element. We will consider the passive elements like resistor, inductor and
capacitor. Hence, we will get the following three passive transducers depending
on the passive element that we choose.

• Resistive Transducer
• Inductive Transducer
• Capacitive Transducer
Now, let us discuss about these three passive transducers one by one.
Resistive Transducer :
A passive transducer is said to be a resistive transducer, when it produces the
variation (change) in resistance value. the following formula for resistance, R
of a metal conductor.
R= ρl / A
Where,
ρ is the resistivity of conductor
l is the length of conductor
A is the cross sectional area of the conductor

Resistive Position Transducer:

• The principle of the Resistive Position Transducer is that the physical

variable under measurement causes a resistance change in the sensing
element.
• One type of displacement transducer uses a resistive element with a sliding
contact or wiper linked to the object being monitored or measured.
• Thus the resistance between the slider and one end of the resistance
element depends on the position of the object. Figure 13.2(a) gives the
construction of this type of transducer.
• Figure 13.2(b) shows a typical method of use. The output voltage depends
on the wiper position and is therefore a function of the shaft position.
• This voltage may be applied to a voltmeter calibrated in cms for visual
display.
 • Considering Fig. 13.2(b), if the circuit is unloaded, the output voltage Vo is
a certain fraction of Vt, depending upon the position of the wiper.

Therefore,

• When applied to resistive position sensors, this equation shows that output
voltage is proportional to R2, i.e. the position of the wiper of
the potentiometer.
• If the resistance of the transducer is distributed uniformly along the length
of travel of the wiper, the resistance is perfectly linear.

Advantages of Resistive Transducer :

• Quick response
• Low cost
• Suitable for both AC and DC
• Available in different sizes
• Easy operation
Disadvantages of Resistive Transducer :
• sliding contact can exhaust and may create noise in the output
• Huge power is necessary for many sliders.
Inductive Transducer :

Definition:

• Inductive Transducer Definition may be either of the self generating or the

passive type.

• The self generating type utilises the basic electrical generator principle, i.e.
a motion between a conductor and magnetic field induces a voltage in the
conductor (generator action).

• This relative motion between the field and the conductor is supplied by
changes in the measured.

• An inductive electromechanical transducer is a device that converts

physical motion (position change) into a change in inductance.

• Transducers of the variable inductance type work upon one of the

following principles.

1. Variation of self inductance

2. Variation of mutual inductance

• Inductive Transducer Definition are mainly used for the measurement of

displacement.

• The displacement to be measured is arranged to cause variation in any of

three variables

1. Number of turns
2. Geometric configuration
3. Permeability of the magnetic material or magnetic circuits

For example, let us consider the case of a general inductive transducer. The
Inductive Transducer Definition has N turns and a reluctance R. When a current
i is passed through it, the flux is

If the current varies very rapidly

But emf induced in the coil is given by

Also the self inductance is given by

Therefore, the output from an inductive transducer can be in the form of either a
change in voltage or a change in inductance.

Change in Self Inductance with Numbers of Turns :

The output may be caused by a change in the number of turns. Figures 13.14(a)
and (b) are transducers used for, the measurement of displacement of linear and
angular movement respectively.

Figure 13.14(a) is an air cored transducer for measurement of linear displacement.

Figure 13.14(b) is an iron cored coil used for the measurement of angular
displacement.
In both cases, as the number of turns are changed, the self inductance and the
output also changes.
Variable Reluctance Type Transducer

• A transducer of the variable type consists of a coil wound on a

ferromagnetic core.

• The displacement which is to be measured is applied to a ferromagnetic

target.

• The target does not have any physical contact with the core on which it is
mounted. The core and the target are separated by an air gap, as shown in
Fig. 13.16(a)

• The reluctance of the magnetic path is determined by the size of the air
gap.

• The inductance of the coil depends upon the reluctance of the magnetic
circuits. The self inductance of the coil is given by

The reluctance of the iron part is negligible compared to that of the air gap.

Therefore
But reluctance of the air gap is given by

where

lg = length of the air gap

Ag = area of the flux path through air

μo = permeability

Rg is proportional to lg, as μo and Ag are constants.

Differential Output Transducer:

• The Differential Output Transducer consists of a coil which is divided into

two parts, as shown in Figs. 13.17(a) and (b).

• Normally the change in self inductance, ΔL, for inductive transducers,

(working on the principle of change of self inductance) is not sufficient for
detection of subsequent stages of the instrumentation system.

• However, if successive stages of the instrument respond to ΔL or ΔM,

rather than L + ΔL, or M + ΔM, the sensitivity and accuracy will be much
higher.

• The transducers can be designed to provide two outputs, one of which

represents inductance (self or mutual) and the other the decrease in
inductance (self or mutual).

• The succeeding stages of the instrumentation system measure the

difference between these outputs. This is known as differential output.

Advantages of Differential Output Transducer :

1. Sensitivity and accuracy are increased.
2. Output is less affected by external magnetic fields.
3. Effective variations due to temperature changes are reduced.
4. Effects of change in supply voltages and frequency are reduced.

• In response to a physical signal (which is normally displacement), the

inductance of one part increases from L to L + ΔL, while that of the other
 part decreases from L to L — ΔL. The change is measured as the difference
of the two, resulting in an output of 2 ΔL instead of ΔL, when one winding
is used.

• This increases the sensitivity and also eliminates error.

• Inductive transducers using the change in the number of turns to cause a

change in the self inductance are shown in Fig. 13.17.

• Figure 13.17(a) is used for measurement of linear displacement using an

air cored coil.

• Figure 13.17(b) is used for the measurement of angular displacement using

an iron cored coil.

Inductive Transducer Advantages and Disadvantages :

The advantages of inductive transducer include the following.

• The responsivity of this transducer is high

• Load effects will be reduced.

The disadvantages of inductive transducer include the following.

• The operating range will be reduced due to side effects.

• The working temperature should be under the Curie temperature.
• Sensitive to the magnetic field

Capacitive Transducer :

• Definition: The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the

displacement, pressure and other physical quantities.
 • It is a passive transducer that means it requires external power for
operation.
• The capacitive transducer works on the principle of
variable capacitances.

• The capacitive transducer contains two parallel metal plates.

• These plates are separated by the dielectric medium which is either

air, material, gas or liquid.

• In the normal capacitor the distance between the plates are fixed, but
in capacitive transducer the distance between them are varied.

• The capacitive transducer uses the electrical quantity of capacitance

for converting the mechanical movement into an electrical signal.

• The input quantity causes the change of the capacitance which is

directly measured by the capacitive transducer.

• The capacitance of the variable capacitor can be measured by this

formula.

In this formula:
 C indicates the capacitance of the variable capacitance
εo indicates the permittivity of free space
εr indicates the relative permittivity
A indicates the area of the plates
d indicates the distance between the plates

The capacitance increases

• (i) if the effective area of the plate is increased, and

• (ii) if the material has a high dielectric constant.

Capacitive Transducer (Pressure) :

• The capacitance is reduced if the spacing between the plates is

increased.
 • With proper calibration, each type yields a high degree of
accuracy.
• Stray magnetic and capacitive effects may cause errors in the
measurement produced, which can be avoided by proper
shielding.
• Some capacitive dielectrics are temperature sensitive, so
temperature variations should be minimised for accurate
measurements.
• A variable plate area transducer is made up of a fixed plate
called Stator and a movable plate called the Rotor.
• The rotor is mechanically coupled to the member under test.
As the member moves, the rotor changes its position relative
to the stator, thereby changing the effective area between the
plates.
• Changes in pressure may be easily detected by the variation of
capacity between a fixed plate and another plate free to move
as the pressure changes.
• The resulting variation follows the basic capacity formula

𝑪= (𝑲 (𝒏−𝟏)𝑨)/𝒕 units in 𝒑𝒇

Where, A = area of one side of one plate in cm2

n = number of plates

t = thickness of dielectric in cm

K = dielectric constant

Advantages of Capacitive Transducer :

• Frequency Response is extremely high
• Highly sensitive
• Consume low power

Disadvantage of Capacitive Transducer :

• Complicated circuit is needed to measure the output

Strain gauge:
• The strain gauge is a passive transducer that converts the mechanical
displacement and compression into the change of resistance strain.
• The strain gauge is a passive transducer used for the measurement of
strain and stress, displacement, force, and pressure. It operates on
the “Piezoresistive Effect” principle.
The following types of Strain Gauge Factor Derivation are the most
important.
1. Wire Strain Gauge
2. Foil Strain Gauge
3. Semiconductor Strain Gauge

Resistance Wire Gauge:

• Resistance wire gauges are used in two basic forms, the unbonded type,
and the bonded type.

Unbonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge:

• An unbonded strain gauge consists of a wire streched between two points

in an insulating medium, such as air.

• The diameter of the wire used is about 25 μm.

• The wires are kept under tension so that there is no sag and no free
vibration.

• Unbonded Strain Gauge Factor Derivation Derivation are usually

connected in a bridge circuit. The bridge is balanced with no load applied
as shown in Fig. 13.3.

• When an external load is applied, the resistance of the Strain Gauge Factor
Derivation changes, causing an unbalance of the bridge circuit resulting in
an output voltage.

• This voltage is proportional to the strain. A displacement of the order of

50μm can be detected with these strain gauges.
Bonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge:

• A metallic bonded Strain Gauge Derivation is shown in Fig. 13.4.

 • A fine wire element about 25 μm (0.025 in.) or less in diameter is looped
back and forth on a carrier (base) or mounting plate, which is usually
cemented to the member undergoing stress.

• The grid of fine wire is cemented on a carrier which may be a thin sheet
of paper, bakelite, or teflon.

• The wire is covered on the top with a thin material, so that it is not
damaged mechanically.

• The spreading of the wire permits uniform distribution of stress.

• The carrier is then bonded or cemented to the member being studied. This
permits a good transfer of strain from carrier to wire.

• A tensile stress tends to elongate the wire and thereby increase its length
and decrease its cross-sectional area. The combined effect is an increase in
resistance, as seen from the following equation

where

ρ = the specific resistance of the material in Ωm.

l = the length of the conductor in m

A = the area of the conductor in m2
As a result of strain, two physical parameters are of particular interest.

1. The change in gauge resistance.

2. The change in length.
• The measurement of the sensitivity of a material to strain is called the
gauge factor (GF).
• It is the ratio of the change in resistance ΔR/R to the change in the length
Δl/l

where
K = gauge factor
 Δ R = the change in the initial resistance in Ω’s
R = the initial resistance in Ω (without strain)

Δ l = the change in the length in m

l = the initial length in m (without strain)

Since strain is defined as the change in length divided by the original length,

Eq
(13.1) can be written as

where σ is the strain in the lateral direction.

The resistance of a conductor of uniform cross-section is

Where

ρ = specific resistance of the conductor

l = length of conductor

d = diameter of conductor

• When the conductor is stressed, due to the strain, the length of the
conductor increases by Δl and the simultaneously decreases by Δd in its
diameter. Hence the resistance of the conductor can now be written as
Since Δd is small, Δd2 can be neglected

Now, Poisson’s ratio μ is defined as the ratio of strain in the lateral

direction to strain in the axial direction, that is,

Substituting for Δd/d from Eq. (13.6) in Eq. (13.4), we have

Rationalising, we get

Since Δl is small, we can neglect higher powers of Δl.

 Since from Eq. (13.3),

The gauge factor will now be

Linear Variable Differential Transducer:

• The differential transformer is a passive inductive transformer. It is also

known as a Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT). The basic
construction is as shown in Fig. 13.19.
• The transformer consists of a single primary winding P1 and two secondary
windings S1 and S2 wound on a hollow cylindrical former.

• The secondary windings have an equal number of turns and are identically
placed on either side of the primary windings.

• The primary winding is connected to an ac source.

• An movable soft iron core slides within the hollow former and therefore
affects the magnetic coupling between the primary and the two
secondaries.
• The displacement to be measured is applied to an arm attached to the soft
iron core.

• When the core is in its normal (null) position, equal voltages are induced
in the two secondary windings.
• The output voltage of the secondary windings S1 is Es1 and that of
secondary winding S2 is Es2.

• In order to convert the output from S1 to S2 into a single voltage signal, the
two secondaries S1 and S2 are connected in series opposition, as shown in
Fig. 13.20.
• Hence the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two
voltages. Therefore the differential output voltage Eo=Es1~Es2.

• When the core is at its normal position, the flux linking with both
secondary windings is equal, and hence equal emfs are induced in them.
Hence, at null position Es1 = Es2.

• Since the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two
voltages, the output voltage Eo is zero at null position.

• Now, if the core is moved to the left of the null position, more flux links
with winding S1 and less with winding S2. Hence, output voltage Es1 of
the secondary winding S1 is greater than Es2 .

• The magnitude of the output voltage of the secondary is then Es1 — Es2,
in phase with Es1 (the output voltage of secondary winding S1).

• Similarly, if the core is moved to the right of the null position, the flux
linking with winding S2 becomes greater than that linked with winding
S1. This results in Es2 becoming larger than Es1.

• The output voltage in this case is Eo = Es2 — Es1 and is in phase with Es2.

• The amount of voltage change in either secondary winding is proportional

to the amount of movement of the core.

• As the core is moved in one direction from the null position, the difference
voltage, i.e. the difference of the two secondary voltages increases, while
maintaining an in-phase relation with the voltage from the input source.

• In the other direction from the null position, the difference voltage
increases but is 180° out of phase with the voltage from the source.

• By comparing the magnitude and phase of the difference output voltage

with that of the source, the amount and direction of the movement of the
core and hence of the displacement may be determined.

• The amount of output voltage may be measured to determine the

displacement.

• The diagram in Figs 13.21(a), (b) and (c) shows the core of an Linear
Variable Differential Transducer at three different positions.
 • In Fig. 13.21(b), the core is at 0, which is the central zero or null position.
Therefore, Es1 = Es2, and Eo = 0.

• When the core is moved to the left, as in Fig. 13.21(a) and is at A, E s1 is

more than Es2 and Eo is positive.

• This movement represents a positive value and therefore the phase angle,
is Φ = 0°.

• When the core is moved to the right towards B, Es2 is greater than Es1 and
hence Eo is negative.

• Therefore, S2 the output voltage is 180° out of phase with the voltage which
is obtained when the core is moved to the left.

• The characteristics are linear from 0 — A and 0 — B, but after that they
become non-linear.

Advantages of LVDT :
• Low Hysteresis – LVDTs show a low hysteresis and hence repeatability
is excellent under all conditions
• Low Power Consumption – The power is about 1W which is very as
compared to other transducers.
• No Frictional Losses – As the core moves inside a hollow former so
there is no loss of displacement input as frictional loss so it makes LVDT
as very accurate device.
 • Linearity: The output voltage of this transducer is practically linear for
displacements upto 5 mm (a linearity of 0.05% is available in commercial
LVDTs).
Disadvantages of LVDT :
• LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so it always requires a setup to
protect them from stray magnetic fields.
• LVDT gets affected by vibrations and temperature.
• Temperature also affects the transducer.

Piezoelectric Transducer :
• Piezoelectric crystal is a device that converts pressure energy to an
electrical energy.
• A piezoelectric transducer (also known as a piezoelectric sensor) is a
device that uses the piezoelectric effect to measure changes in
acceleration, pressure, strain, temperature or force.

Working Principle of Piezoelectric Transducer :

• A symmetrical crystalline materials such as Quartz, Rochelle salt and

Barium titanate produce an emf when they are placed under stress.

• This property is used in the Working Principle of Piezoelectric

Transducer, where a crystal is placed between a solid base and the force-
summing member, as shown in Fig. 13.31.

• An externally applied force, entering the transducer through its pressure

port, applies pressure to the top of a crystal.
 • This produces an emf across the crystal proportional to the magnitude of
applied pressure.

• Since the transducer has a very good HF response, its principal use is in
HF accelerometers.

• The device needs no external power source and is therefore self generating.
The disadvantage is that it cannot measure static conditions.

• The output voltage is also affected by temperature variation of the crystal.

The basic expression for output voltage E is given by

Where, Q = generated charge

Cp = shunt capacitances

• For a Piezoelectrical Transducer element under pressure, part of the

energy is, converted to an electric potential that appears on opposite faces
of the element, analogous to a charge on the plates of a capacitor.

• The rest of the applied energy is converted to mechanical energy,

analogous to a compressed spring. When the pressure is removed, it
returns to its original shape and loses its electric charge.

• From these relationships, the following formulas have been derived for
the coupling coefficient K.

Advantages of Piezoelectric Transducer :

• High frequency Response
• High Transient Response
• Ruggedness
Disadvantages of Piezoelectric Transducer :
• Output is low

• High impedence

• Design

Resistance Thermometer (or) Resistance Temperature Detector

(RTD) :
• The Resistance Thermometer Transducer is an instrument

• It is used to measure electrical resistance in terms of temperature, i.e. it

uses the change in the electrical resistance of the conductor to determine
the temperature.

• The main part of a resistance thermometer is its sensing element.

• Platinum, Nickel and Copper are the metals most commonly used to
measure temperature.
• The resistivity of platinum tends to increase less rapidly at higher
temperatures than for other materials, hence it is a commonly used material
for resistance thermometers.

• The temperature range over which Platinum has stability is 260 °C-1100
°C. An industrial Platinum resistance thermometer is as shown in Fig.13.40
(a).
 • The changes in resistance caused by changes in temperature as detected by
a Wheatstone’s Bridge is shown in Fig.13.40(b).

• Hence, the temperature sensing element, which may be Nickel, Copper or

Platinum contained in a bulb or well, along with the balancing bridge,
forms the basic important components of a temperature measuring system
based on this principle.

• The sensing element Rs is made of a material having a high temperature

coefficient, R1, R2 and R5 are made of resistance that are practically
constant under normal temperature changes.

• When the sensing element is very near the bridge, and under balance
conditions, the following relationship holds good.

• In normal practice, the sensing element is away from the indicator and the
bridge, and its leads have a resistance, say R3, R4.

• When resistance Rs changes, the bridge balance is upset and

the galvanometer shows a deflection, which can be calibrated to give a
suitable temperature scale.
Advantages of Resistance Thermometer :

• The measurement is very accurate.

• The size of the resistive element may be about 6-12 mm in diameter.
• No necessity of temperature compensation.
 • Extremely accurate temperature sensing.
• Performance stability over longer periods of time

Disadvantages of Resistance Thermometer :

1. High cost
2. Need for bridge and power source
3. Possibility of self heating.

Thermocouples :
• The thermocouple can be defined as a kind of temperature sensor that is
used to measure the temperature at one specific point in the form of the
EMF or an electric current.
• One of the most commonly used methods of measurement of moderately
high temperature is the thermocouple effect.
• When a pair of wires made up of different metals is joined together at
one end, a temperature difference between the two ends of the wire
produces a voltage between the two wires as illustrated in Fig.13.41
• Temperature measurement with Thermocouple Circuit is based on the
Seebeck effect. A current will circulate around a loop made up of two
dissimilar metal when the two junctions are at different temperatures as
shown in Fig.13.42.

• When this circuit is opened, a voltage appears that is proportional

to the observed seebeck current.
• A Thermocouple Circuit, therefore consists of a pair of dissimilar
metal wires joined together at one end (sensing or hot junction) and
terminated at the other end (reference or cold junction), which is
maintained at a known constant temperature (reference
temperature).
• When a temperature difference exists between the sensing junction
and the reference junction, an emf is produced, which causes current
in the circuit.

• When the reference end is terminated by a meter or a recording

device, the meter indication will be proportional to the temperature
difference between the hot junction and the reference junction.

• A Thermocouple Circuit may be regarded as a thermometer based

on thermo-emf and works on the principle that the potential between
two dissimilar metals or metal alloys is a function of temperature.

• Type ‘E’ Thermocouple units use Chromel alloy as the positive

electrode and constantan alloy as the negative electrode.

• Type ‘S’ Thermocouple produces the least output voltage but can be
used over greatest temperature range.

• Type ‘T’ shown in Fig. 13.44, uses copper and constantan.

• Copper used, is an element and constantan used is an alloy of
nickel and copper. The copper side is positive and constantan side
is negative.
• It is subjected to an error caused by the voltage produced by the
reference junction.

• This can be overcome by placing the reference junction in an ice

bath to keep it at a known temperature. This process is called
as cold junction compensation as shown in Fig.13.45(a).

• The reference voltage is maintained at 0 °C. The reference voltage

is now predictable from the calibration curve of the type ‘T’
thermocouple.
• The ice-baths method is not the most convenient method, to
compensate the reference junction.

• The isothermal block contains two reference junctions and a

thermistor.

• The resistance of the thermistor is a function of temperature. A

circuit is used to sense this resistance and to compensate for the
voltage introduced by the two reference junctions.

• For accurate measurement of hot junction temperature, the cold

junction or the reference junction should be kept at 0 °C.
 • If the reference junction is kept at the ambient temperature, then a
voltage corresponding to this temperature must be added to the
measurement to obtain accurate reading.

Advantages of Thermocouple :
• It has a temperature range from —270 °C-2700 °C.
• Accuracy is high
• The thermal reaction is fast
• The operating range of the temperature is wide.
• Cost is low

Disadvantages of Thermocouple :
• Nonlinearity
• Least stability
• Low voltage
• Reference is required
• least sensitivity
• The thermocouple recalibration is hard

Thermistor :
• The word is a combination of thermal and resistor.
• A thermistor (or thermal resistor) is defined as a type of
resistor whose electrical resistance varies with changes in temperature.
• The working principle of a thermistor is that its resistance is dependent on
its temperature.
• The resistance changes depends on the type of material used in the
thermistor.
• Thermistors are available that perform temperature measurement from -73
to 316°C (-100 to 600°F). It should be noted that many have limited ranges
and cannot be used above 120°C (250°F).

Thermistor Types :
There are two types of thermistors:
• Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Thermistor
• Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) Thermistor
NTC Thermistor :

• In an NTC thermistor, when the temperature increases, resistance

decreases. And when temperature decreases, resistance increases.
• Hence in an NTC thermistor temperature and resistance are inversely
proportional. These are the most common type of themistor.

PTC Thermistor :

• A PTC thermistor has the reverse relationship between temperature and

resistance. When temperature increases, the resistance increases.

• And when temperature decreases, resistance decreases. Hence in a PTC

thermistor temperature and resistance are inversely proportional.

• The relationship between a thermistor’s temperature and resistance is non-

linear. A typical thermistor graph is shown below:

• The typical size of a thermistor is 0.125mm to 1.5 mm. Commercially

available thermistors have nominal values of 1K, 2K, 10K, 20K, 100K,
etc. This value indicates the resistance value at a temperature of 25oC.
• The resistance at room temperature (25°C) for typical commercial units
ranges from 100 Ω to 10 MΩ.
• The major advantages of thermistors are their small size and relatively
low cost.

• Thermistors are available in different models: bead type, rod type,

disctype, etc
 • The smallest thermistors are made in the form of beads. Some are as
small as 0.15 mm (0.006 in.) in diameter.
• These may come in a glass coating or sealed in the tip of solid glass
probes.
• Disc thermistors about 10 mm in diameter, either self supporting or
mounted on a small plate, are mainly used for temperature control.
• The advantage of rod thermistors over other configurations is the ability
to produce high resistance units with moderately high power handling
capability.
• Thermistors are non-linear devices over a temperature range, although
now units with better than 0.2% linearity over the 0–100°C temperature
range are available.
• The typical sensitivity of a thermistor is approximately 3 mV/°C at
200°C.

Advantages of Thermistors :
• They are more sensitive than other temperature sensors
• High sensitivity allows them to work well over a small temperature range
• They’re low cost and therefore cheap to replace.
• They provide a fast response
• Easy to use
• Small in size so they can fit into the smallest of spaces.
Disadvantages of Thermistors :
• Not easily interchangeable
• High resistance, noise problems
• Non linear
• Narrow span

Sensistor :

• A sensistor is a non-linear variable resistance device whose resistance is

changing with the change in temperature.

• The resistance increases exponentially with temperature, that is

the temperature coefficient is positive

• Sensistor or Thermistor are temperature dependent resistor.

• Sensistors are similar to a thermistors, where thermistors are NTC

(negative temperature coefficient) type devices and sensistors are PTC
(positive temperature coefficient) type devices.
• Thermistors and sensistors both are non-linearly variable resistors with
temperature.
• PTC (positive temperature coefficient) type devices resistance is
increases exponentially with temperature, that is the temperature
coefficient is positive, where NTC devices has its temperature coefficient
is negative.
• Sensistor are formed by highly dopped semiconductor (adding external
impurities), most heavily dopped semiconductor behaves like a conductor
or metals.
• The materials used are oxides of Manganese and Cobalt

• The relationship between a thermistor’s (NTC) and sensistor’s (PTC)

temperature and resistance is non-linear. A typical thermistor and
Sensistor graph is shown below:
Applications of sensistors :

• These are used in time delay circuits

• PTC thermistors are used in motor starting circuits
• These are used in degaussing circuitry
• These are used as ‘liquid level’ and ‘flow sensors’
 UNIT-6
MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL PARAMETERS
Syllabus : Measurement of physical parameters force, pressure, velocity,
humidity, moisture, speed, proximity and displacement. Data acquisition
systems.

Physical parameters :
• Force : According to Newton’s second law,force is given as the
product of mass and acceleration.
• Pressure : It is defined as the force per unit area applied in a direction
perpendicular to the surface of an object.
• It is given by
(P) = F / A
• Velocity: It is defined as the rate of change of displacement.
• It is given by
(V) = Δx / Δ t
• Humidity : It is defined as the amount of water vapour present in the
air.
• Speed : It is defined as the distance covered to the unit time.
• It is given by
(S) = d/t.
• Displacement : It is defined as the shortest path distance between the
initial point and final point of a body
Measurement of FORCE :
• Force : According to Newton’s second law,force is given as the
product of mass and acceleration.
• Measurement of important parameters that are concerned with prime
mover are force, work, torque and shaft power
• According to Newton’s second law, force is proportional to the product
of mass and acceleration.
 • It is given as Force = Mass x Acceleration
F = ma
• It is measure in the SI unit of Newton
• A force is a vector quantity, i.e., it has both magnitude and direction
From the above equation it is clear that unknown force applied to body of
mass ‘m’ can be measured by measuring acceleration of that body
• The unknown force can be measured by using force measuring sensors,
i.e., load cells
Force Measurement Using Accelerometer :

• The acceleration of a body of known mass due to the applied force can be
measured by using accelerometer of any type
• By using Newton’s law of mass-acceleration, the applied unknown force
can be calculated.
• But practically, use of accelerometers for force measurement is limited
because the forces are not free.
• It is very difficult to decouple these forces from the system.
• But still this technique is useful in measuring some transient forces.
• The advanced application of this technique is used in calibration of forces
produced by thrust motors in the space vehicles.
Force Measurement using Force Sensing Resistor :
• Their construction is quite simple.
• There are three layers: the top and bottom layers are conductive and the
middle layer provides a “thin air gap” that separates the two.
• When the two conductive layers are pressed together, electrical pathways
are made.
• The harder you press, the more connections. And the more connections,
the less resistance.
• Force-sensing (or force-sensitive) resistors (FSRs) are two-legged
variable resistors that decrease in resistance with an increase in applied
force.
• FSRs can differ in size, shape, and force sensing sensitivity. There are a
variety form factors, including square and circular (which host the active
sensor area).
• There are a variety form factors, including square and circular (which
host the active sensor area).
Measurement of Pressure :
• Pressure is defined as force per unit area that a fluid exerts on its
surroundings.
• Pressure, P, is a function of force, F, and area, A
P = F/A
• The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (N/m2)
• A pressure transducer, often called a pressure transmitter, is a transducer
that converts pressure into an analog electrical signal.
• Although there are various types of pressure transducers. Pressure is
defined as force per unit area that a fluid exerts on its surroundings.
• Pressure is defined as , P is a function of force, F, per unit area, A
P = F/A
• The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (N/m2), but other common units of
pressure include pounds per square inch (psi), atmospheres (atm), bars,
inches of mercury (in. Hg), millimeters of mercury (mm Hg), and torr.
• A pressure measurement can further be described by the type of
measurement being performed.
• Pressure measurement methods

1. Absolute Pressure
2. Gauge Pressure
3. Differential Pressure
1. Absolute Pressure :
• Absolute Pressure The absolute measurement method is relative to 0 Pa,
the static pressure in a vacuum.

• The pressure being measured is acted upon by atmospheric pressure in

addition to the pressure of interest. Therefore, absolute pressure
measurement includes the effects of atmospheric pressure.
 • This type of measurement is well-suited for atmospheric pressures such
as those used in altimeters or vacuum pressures.
• Often, the abbreviations Paa (Pascal’s absolute) or psia (pounds per
square inch absolute) are used to describe absolute pressure.
2.Gauge Pressure :
• Gauge pressure is measured relative to ambient atmospheric pressure.
• This means that both the reference and the pressure of interest are acted
upon by atmospheric pressures.

• Therefore, gauge pressure measurement excludes the effects of

atmospheric pressure.
• These types of measurements include tire pressure and blood pressure
measurements.
• Similar to absolute pressure, the abbreviations Pag (Pascal’s gauge) or
psig (pounds per square inch gauge) are used to describe gauge pressure.
3. Differential Pressure :
• The difference between two pressures, p1 and p2, is known as the pressure
differential, Δp = p1 - p2.
 • In cases where the difference between two pressures itself represents the
measured variable, one refers to the differential pressure, p1,2.
• Differential pressure is similar to gauge pressure; however, the reference
is another pressure point in the system rather than the ambient
atmospheric pressure.
• Also, the abbreviations Pad (Pascal’s differential) or PSID (pounds per
square inch differential) are used to describe differential pressure.
Bellow sensing element:

• The below is another type of stacked diaphragm. The stacked

diaphragm is made of several sheets, while the bellow is made of
single sheet.
• The applied pressure makes the bellows expand. The expansion
causes the bellows to get longer. When pressure is removed, the
bellows get shorter.
• The movement of the bellows will be transmitted by a link
connected to a pointer. The pointer indicates the pressure applied to
the bellows.

Strain Gauge Load Cell Working:

• The Strain Gauge Load Cell Working is used to weigh extremely heavy
loads. A length of bar, usually steel, is used as the active element.

• The weight of the load applies a particular stress to the bar.

 • The amount of strain which results in the bar for different values of applied
stress is determined, so that the strain may be used as a direct measure of
the stress causing it.

• The load cell shown in Fig. 13.30 is a good example of the use of strain
gauges in weighing operations.

• As the stress is applied along the direction of S (shown by the arrow in

Fig. 13.30), the steel bar experiences a compression along that axis and
an expansion along the X and Y axes.

• As a result, gauge A experiences a decrease in resistance, while gauge B

undergoes an increase in resistance.

• When these two gauges and the gauges on the two remaining sides of the
steel are connected to form a bridge circuit, four times the sensitivity of a
simple gauge bridge is obtained.

• This makes the load cell sensitive to very small values of applied stress,
as well as to extremely heavy loads.

Measurement of Humidity :
• Definition: Hygrometer uses for measuring the humidity present in the
surrounding environment.
• The term humidity means the amount of water vapour present in the gas.
 • The physical properties of the material changes by the effect of the
humidity and this principle use in hygrometer for measurement.
• The humidity is classified into two types.

1. Absolute Humidity

2. Relative Humidity

1. Absolute Humidity :
• The absolute humidity shows the amount of water vapour presents per
unit volume.

2. Relative Humidity :
• The relative humidity is the ratio of the actual water vapour pressure to
the maximum water vapour pressure reaches in the substance at the
particular temperature.
• The relative humidity depends on the temperature.

The following are the classification of hygrometer by the material used for
measuring the humidity.

1. Resistive Hygrometer

2. Capacitive Hygrometer

3. Aluminium Oxide Hygrometer

4.Crystal Hygrometer

1. Resistive Hygrometer :
• The conducting film of the resistive hygrometer is made by the lithium
chloride and the carbon.
• The conducting film places between the metal electrodes.
• The resistance of the conducting film varies with the change in the value
of humidity present in the surrounding air.
• The moisture absorbs by the lithium chloride will depend on the relative
humidity. If the relative humidity is high, the lithium chloride will absorb
more moisture and their resistance decreases.
 • The change in the value of resistance is measured by applying the
alternating current to the bridge.
• The direct current is not used in the bridge as they breakdowns the layer
of lithium chloride.
• The obstructions occur in the flows of current shows the value of
resistance or the value of relative humidity.

2. Capacitive Hygrometer :
• The change in capacitance of the capacitor shows the surrounding
humidity.
• The capacitive hygrometer gives the very accurate result.
• It is made by placing the hygroscopic material between the metal
electrodes.

• The hygroscopic material can quickly absorb the water.

• The material absorbs water because of which the capacitance of the
capacitor decreases.
• The electronic circuit measures the change in capacitance.
3. Aluminium Oxide Hygrometer :
• In this hygrometer, the aluminium oxide is coated with the anodised
aluminium.
• The dielectric constant and the resistance of the aluminium changes by
the effects of the humidity.

• The aluminium oxide hygrometer uses the aluminium as their one

electrode and the gold layer as the second electrode.
• The second electrode is porous for absorbing the air vapour mixture.
• The changes occur in the capacitance and resistance of the material
because of the humidity.
• The change in properties changes the impedances of the material.
• The impedance measures with the help of the bridge. This hygrometer is
the essential component of the electronic system.

4.Crystal Hygrometer :
• The figure below shows the crystal hygrometer using quartz.
 • In crystal hygrometer, the hygroscopic crystal or the crystal having the
coating of hygroscopic material is used.
• When the crystal absorbs the drops of the water, the mass of the crystal
changes.
• The change in mass is proportional to the total water absorbed by the
crystals.

Measurement of MOISTURE :
• Moisture content (MC) measurement is easy.
• Simply determine the amount of water in a product and compare that to
the weight of everything else in the product.
• In fact, it is actually a difficult and complex process to obtain an accurate
percentage of water in a product.

Methods to Moisture content :

• Weight Loss on Drying (LOD)
• Correlate Electrical or Dielectric Changes to Moisture Levels
• Optical and Electro-Magnetic Energy

1. Weight Loss on Drying (LOD) :

• The earliest and still most widely used method is weight loss on drying.
• In this technique, the sample weight at the start is recorded.
• After drying the sample weight is recorded. The difference in these
weights represent the moisture lost.
• People use many combinations of equipment to get at this widely
performed test. Some testers use a balance and a hot plate, others a
balance and an oven.
• Today technology has made it easy to use an integrated balance and
drying method to automate the procedure.
• The technique is often referred to as Loss-on Drying or LOD.

2. Electrical Moisture Levels :

• Another system for moisture detection is based on the fact that many
materials change electrical or dielectric characteristics depending the
moisture level in the material.
• Most of these instruments measure changes in resistance, conductivity or
capacitance.Because these techniques are measuring an indirect affect of
moisture, calibration is necessary.
 • The calibration is a ccomplished by comparing the dielectric reading to a
known moisture for the sample.
• A graph is prepared and used to provide the translation of the electrical
characteristic to the amount of moisture in the material sample.
• In automated instruments these tables are processed by a computer to
give readings in % moisture.

3. Optical and Electro-Magnetic Energy :

• Application of the concepts of reflection and absorption of
electromagnetic energy is becoming widely used, particularly for in-line
or on-line measurement.
• These techniques based on the finding that water (as well as other
chemicals) has very specific absorption wavelengths.
• Near Infrared (NIR) and Microwave technology are the most commonly
used. Although the techniques of NIR and microwave are different, they
are both based on the concept of absorption of electromagnetic energy.
• In these tests the absorption of the wave lengths associated with water
are compared to a reference wave length, When the moisture of a
calibration sample is known the absorption results can be referenced to
moisture.
• The use of lasers for this purpose is a newer related technique.

Measurement of VELOCITY :
• Velocity is the rate of change of distance in a specific direction.
• Velocity is a vector quantity having both magnitude and direction.
• The average velocity of an object having a displacement (Δx) during a
time interval (Δt) is given by

ν = Δx/Δt

• Velocity transducers are used to measure Linear Velocity well as Angular

Velocity.

Measurement of Linear Velocity :

• Linear velocity is defined as the rate of change of the position vector with
time at an instant in time.
• Velocity is the first derivative of displacement.
 • The methods used for measurement of linear velocity utilize the
following type of transducer

Electro-magnetic Transducer

i. Moving magnet type Transducer

ii. Moving coil type Transducer

Electromagnetic Transducer :
• The most commonly used transducer for measurement of linear
velocities.
• The magnetic flow meter requires a conducting fluid, for example, water
that contains ions, and an electrical insulating pipe surface.
• The instrument are electro-magnets used to generate a magnetic field.
• When a fluid flows through the magnetic field, the two electrodes pick up
the voltage and it is proportional to fluid flow rate.
• When there is no fluid flow then the induced voltage between electrodes
is Zero.
• They are two types

i. Moving magnet type transducer

ii. Moving coil type transducer

i. Moving magnet type Velocity transducer :

• The sensing element is a rod type permanent magnet that is rigidly
coupled to the device whose velocity is being measured .
 • There is a coil surrounding the permanent magnet.

• The motion of the magnet induces a voltage in the coil and the amplitude
of the voltage is directly proportional to the velocity.

• The polarity of the output voltage determines the direction of motion

Advantages of Moving Magnet type Velocity Transducer :

• The maintenance requirements of these transducers are negligible ,

because there are no mechanical surfaces or contacts.
• The output voltage is linearly proportional to velocity.

Disadvantages of Moving Magnet type Velocity Transducer :

• The performance of these transducers is adversely affected by stray

magnetic fields. These fields can cause noise.
• The frequency response is usually limited and is stated.
• These transducers are not very useful for measurement of vibrations
because their calibration deteriorates as contact with steel tools etc.

ii. Moving Coil Type Velocity Transducer :

Principle of Moving coil Type Velocity Transducer

1. A coil moves in a magnetic field according to the velocity applied.

2. The voltage in the coil becomes a measure of the velocity when
calibrated.

Description of Moving coil Type Velocity Transducer :

 • The instrument has permanent pole pieces which generate the magnetic
field.
• There is a pivoted arm on which a coil is mounted.
• There is a mass attached to the end of the coil.
• The whole device is contained in an antimagnetic case.

Operation of Moving coil Type Velocity Transducer :

1. The velocity to be measured is applied to the arm.

2. Due to this coil moves in the magnetic field.
3. A voltage is generated on account of motion of the coil in the magnetic
field.
4. The output voltage is proportional to the velocity.

Advantages of Moving coil Type Velocity Transducer :

1. The antimagnetic case reduces the effects of stray magnetic field.

2. Damping is obtained electrically.
3. There is high stability under varying temperature conditions.

Applications of Moving coil Type Velocity Transducer :

• These transducers are used for measuring velocities in linear, sinusoidal

or random manner.

Measurement of speed:

• Speed : It is defined as the distance covered to the unit time.

• It is given by
(S) = d/t.
Definition of Tachometer :

• Tachometer generators (or tachogenerators) are electromechanical

devices which output a voltage proportional to their shaft speed.

• They are used to power tachometers and to measure the speed of

motors, engines, and other rotational devices.
 • The tachometer use for measuring the rotational speed or angular velocity
of the machine which is coupled to it.
• It works on the principle of relative motion between the magnetic field
and shaft of the coupled device.
• The relative motion induces the EMF in the coil which is placed between
the constant magnetic field of the permanent magnet.
• The develops EMF is directly proportional to the speed of the shaft.
• The electrical tachometer converts the angular velocity into an electrical
voltage.
• The electrical tachometer has more advantages over the mechanical
tachometer.
• Thus it is mostly used for measuring the rotational speed of the shaft.
Depends on the induced voltage the electrical tachometer is categorized
into two types.
1. AC Tachometer Generator
2. DC Tachometer Generator

1. AC Tachometer Generator :
• The DC tachometer generator uses the commutator and brushes which
have many disadvantages.
• The AC tachometer generator designs for reducing the problems.
• The AC tachometer has stationary armature and rotating magnetic field.
Thus, the commutator and brushes are absent in AC tachometer
generator.
• The rotating magnetic field induces the EMF in the stationary coil of
the stator.
• The amplitude and frequency of the induced emf are equivalent to the
speed of the shaft. Thus, either amplitude or frequency is used for
measuring the angular velocity.
• The below mention circuit is used for measuring the speed of the rotor by
considering the amplitude of the induced voltage.
• The induces voltages are rectified and then passes to the capacitor filter
for smoothening the ripples of rectified voltages.
Advantages of AC Tachometer Generator :
• The drag cup Tachogenerator generates the ripple free output voltage.
• The cost of the generator is also very less.

Disadvantage of AC Tachometer Generator :

• The nonlinear relationship obtains between the output voltage and input
speed when the rotor rotates at high speed.

DC Tachometer Generator :

• Permanent magnet, armature, commutator, brushes, variable resistor, and

the moving coil voltmeter are the main parts of the DC tachometer
generator.
• The machine whose speed is to be measured is coupled with the shaft of
the DC tachometer generator.
• The DC tachometer works on the principle that when the closed
conductor moves in the magnetic field, EMF induces in the conductor.
• The magnitude of the induces emf depends on the flux link with the
conductor and the speed of the shaft.
 • The armature of the DC generator revolves between the constant field of
the permanent magnet.

• The rotation induces the emf in the coil. The magnitude of the induced
emf is proportional to the shaft speed.

• The commutator converts the alternating current of the armature coil to

the direct current with the help of the brushes.

• The moving coil voltmeter measures the induced emf. The polarity of the
induces voltage determines the direction of motion of the shaft.

• The resistance is connected in series with the voltmeter for controlling the
heavy current of the armature.

Advantages of the DC Generator :

• The polarity of the induces voltages indicates the direction of rotation of the
shaft.
• The conventional DC type voltmeter is used for measuring the induces
voltage.

Disadvantages of DC Generator :

• The commutator and brushes require the periodic maintenance.

• The output resistance of the DC tachometer is kept high as compared to the
input resistance. If the large current is induced in the armature conductor,
the constant field of the permanent magnet will be distorted.
Measurement of Displacement :

• It is defined as the motion of a body in a straight line between two points

Displacement transducers are used to measure the translational motion
and used as a secondary component in measurement systems.
• Measurement of Displacement using
1. Resistive Transducer.
2. Capacitive Transducer.
3. Inductive Transducer
4. LVDT

Resistive Transducer :
A passive transducer is said to be a resistive transducer, when it produces the
variation (change) in resistance value. the following formula for resistance, R
of a metal conductor.
R= ρl / A
Where,
ρ is the resistivity of conductor
l is the length of conductor
A is the cross sectional area of the conductor

Resistive Position Transducer:

• The principle of the Resistive Position Transducer is that the physical
variable under measurement causes a resistance change in the sensing
element.
• One type of displacement transducer uses a resistive element with a sliding
contact or wiper linked to the object being monitored or measured.
• Thus the resistance between the slider and one end of the resistance
element depends on the position of the object. Figure 13.2(a) gives the
construction of this type of transducer.
• Figure 13.2(b) shows a typical method of use. The output voltage depends
on the wiper position and is therefore a function of the shaft position.
• This voltage may be applied to a voltmeter calibrated in cms for visual
display.
 • Considering Fig. 13.2(b), if the circuit is unloaded, the output voltage Vo is
a certain fraction of Vt, depending upon the position of the wiper.

Therefore,

• When applied to resistive position sensors, this equation shows that output
voltage is proportional to R2, i.e. the position of the wiper of
the potentiometer.
• If the resistance of the transducer is distributed uniformly along the length
of travel of the wiper, the resistance is perfectly linear.

Measurement of Proximity :
• The word proximity means nearness or closeness.

• The property of being close together

• A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects

without any physical contact.

• Most likely a plate of glass or plastic separates the two. Although you are
likely to touch the separating element, there is no physical contact with the
sensor.

• Proximity Sensors are mostly used as displacement sensors.

• It makes use of Infrared Light Emitting Diode (ILED) as Energy Source

and Photo Transistor as Detector
 • This system is efficient and requires less space

Types of Proximity Sensors :

• Capacitive displacement sensor
• Doppler effect (sensor based on effect)
• Inductive
• Laser range finder
• Passive optical (such as charge-coupled devices)
• Passive thermal infrared

Proximity Sensors in smartphones :

• The proximity sensor is common on most smart- phones, the ones that have
a touch screen.
• This is because the primary function of a proximity sensor is to disable
accidental touch events.
• The most common scenario being- The ear coming in contact with the
screen and generating touch events, while on a call.
• If a proximity sensor close to the speaker, then it will detect any object in
the vicinity of the speaker.
• If any object is present (ex. user's ear), then the touch events can be
assumed to be accidental & ignored.

Applications of Proximity :
• Parking sensors, systems mounted on car bumpers that sense distance to
nearby cars for parking
• Ground proximity warning system for aviation safety
• Vibration measurements of rotating shafts in machinery
• Conveyor systems
• Beverage and food can making lines
• Automatic Door Openers

Data Acquisition Systems :

• The systems, used for data acquisition are known as data acquisition
systems.
• These data acquisition systems will perform the tasks such as conversion
of data, storage of data, transmission of data and processing of data.
Types of Data Acquisition Systems :
Data acquisition systems can be classified into the following two types.

i. Analog Data Acquisition Systems

ii. Digital Data Acquisition Systems

Block Diagram of Data Acquisition Systems :

i. Analog Data Acquisition Systems :

• The data acquisition systems, which can be operated with analog signals
are known as analog data acquisition systems.
Following are the blocks of analog data acquisition systems.
• Transducer : It converts physical quantities into electrical signals.
• Signal conditioner : It performs the functions like amplification
andselection of desired portion of the signal.
• Display device : It displays the input signals for monitoring purpose.
• Graphic recording instruments : These can be used to make the
record of input data permanently.
• Magnetic tape instrumentation : It is used for acquiring, storing &
reproducing of input data.
ii. Digital Data Acquisition Systems :

• The data acquisition systems, which can be operated with digital signals
are known as digital data acquisition systems. So, they use digital
components for storing or displaying the information.
Mainly, the following operations take place in digital data acquistion.

• Acquisition of analog signals

• Conversion of analog signals into digital signals or digital data
• Processing of digital signals or digital data
Following are the blocks of Digital data acquisition systems.
• Transducer : It converts physical quantities into electrical signals.
• Signal conditioner : It performs the functions like amplification and
selection of desired portion of the signal.
• Multiplexer : connects one of the multiple inputs to output. So, it acts
as parallel to serial converter.
• Analog to Digital Converter : It converts the analog input into its
equivalent digital output.
• Display device : It displays the data in digital format.
• Digital Recorder : It is used to record the data in digital format.
• Data acquisition systems are being used in various applications such as
biomedical and aerospace. So, we can choose either analog data acquisition
systems or digital data acquisition systems based on the requirement.