UNIT I

Classification of Measuring Instruments

The instrument used for measuring the physical and electrical quantities is
known as the measuring instrument. The term measurement means the comparison
between the two quantities of the same unit. The magnitude of one of the quantity is
unknown, and it is compared with the predefined value. The result of the comparison
obtained regarding numerical value
The measuring instrument categorised into three types;
● Electrical Instrument
● Electronic Instrument
● Mechanical Instrument
The mechanical instrument is used for measuring the physical quantities. This
instrument is suitable for measuring the static and stable condition because the instrument is
unable to give the response to the dynamic condition.
The electronic instrument has quick response time. The instrument provides the
quick response as compared to the electrical and mechanical instrument.
The electrical instrument is used for measuring electrical quantities likes current,
voltage, power, etc. The ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter are the examples of the electrical
measuring instrument. The ammeter measures the current in amps; voltmeter measures
voltage and Wattmeter are used for measuring the power. The classification of the electric
instruments depends on the methods of representing the output reading.

Absolute Instrument
The absolute instrument gives the value of measured quantities regarding the physical
constant. The physical constant means the angle of deflection, degree and meter constant. The
mathematical calculation requires knowing the value of a physical constant.
 The tangent galvanometer is an example of the absolute instruments. In a tangent
galvanometer, the magnitude of current passes through the coil determined by the tangent of
the angle of deflection of their coil, the horizontal component of the earth magnetic field,
radius and the number of turns of wire used. The most common applications of this type of
instrument are found in laboratories.
Secondary Instrument
In the secondary instrument, the deflection shows the magnitude of the measurable
quantities. The calibration of the instruments with the standard instrument is essential for the
measurement. The output of this type of device is directly obtained, and no mathematical
calculation requires for knowing their value.
Digital Instrument
The digital instrument gives the output in the numeric form. The instrument is more
accurate as compared to the analogue instrument because no human error occurs in the
reading.
Analog instrument
The instrument whose output varies continuously is known as the analogue
instrument. The analogue instrument has the pointer which shows the magnitude of the
measurable quantities. The analogue device is classified into two types.
Null Type Instrument
In this instrument, the zero or null deflection indicates the magnitude of the measured
quantity. The instrument has high accuracy and sensitivity. In null deflection instruments, the
one known and one unknown quantity used. When the value of the known and the unknown
measuring quantities are equal, the pointer shows the zero or null deflection. The null
deflection instrument is used in the potentiometer and in the galvanometer for obtaining the
null point.
Deflection Type Instrument
The instrument in which the value of measuring quantity is determined through the
deflection of the pointer is known as the deflection type instrument. The measuring quantity
deflects the pointer of the moving system of the instrument which is fixed on the calibrated
scale. Thus, the magnitude of the measured quantity is known.
The deflection type instrument is further sub-classified into three types.
1. Indicating Instrument – The instrument which indicates the magnitude of the
measured quantity is known as the indicating instrument. The indicating instrument
has the dial which moves on the graduated dial. The voltmeter, ammeter, power
factor meter are the examples of the indicating instrument.
2. Integrating Instrument – The instrument which measures the total energy supplied
at a particular interval of time is known as the integrating instrument. The total
energy measured by the instrument is the product of the time and the measures
electrical quantities. The energy meter, watt-hour meter and the energy meter are the
examples of integrating instrument.
3. Recording Instrument – The instrument records the circuit condition at a particular
interval of time is known as the recording instrument. The moving system of the
recording instrument carries a pen which lightly touches on the paper sheet. The
movement of the coil is traced on the paper sheet. The curve drawn on the paper
shows the variation in the measurement of the electrical quantities.
The response time of the electronic instrument is very high as compared to the electrical and
mechanical device.

Methods of Measurements
The measurement is the result of the comparison of standard and the unknown
quantity. The result of the measured quantity is generally expressed in numeric forms. In
other words, the measurement is the process through which the physical parameters like heat,
displacement, force etc. is converted into the easily readable numeric value.
Methods of Measurement

The different methods of measurement are explained below in detail.

Direct Method of Measurement – In this method of measurement, the unknown quantity is
directly compared with the standard quantity. The result of the quantity is expressed in
numbers. It is the most common method of measuring the physical quantities like length,
temperature, pressure, etc.
Example: The physical balance directly measures the weight of the matter.
Indirect Method of Measurement – The direct measurement gives the inaccurate results in
most of the cases. Hence, the direct method is rarely preferred for measurement. In indirect
methods of measurement, the physical parameters of the quantity are measured by the direct
method, and then the numerical value of the quantity is determined by the mathematical
relationship.
Example: The length, breadth and height of the substance is measured by the direct method
and then by the help of the given relation the weight of the substance is known.
Weight = Length X Breadth X Height X Density
Method of Measurement without Contact – The sensor remains untouched with the object
whose characters need to be measured.
Method of Combination measurement closed series – The result of the direct or indirect
method of measurement is used for solving the equations.

Instrumentation
Analog Instrument
Definition: The analogue instrument is defined as the instrument whose output is the
continuous function of time, and they have a constant relation to the input. The physical
quantities like voltage, current, power and energy are measured through the analogue
instruments. Most analogue instruments use a pointer or dial for indicating the magnitude of
the measured quantity.
Classification of Analog Instruments

The classification of the analogue quantity depends on the number of physical

quantities they measure. For example, the instrument used for measuring the current is known
as the ammeter and the voltmeter is used for measuring the voltages. The wattmeter and the
frequency meter measure the power and frequency respectively.

The analogue instrument is classified by the type of current that can be measured. The
following are the types of an electrical instrument.
1. Direct Current Analog Instruments
2. Alternating Current Analog instrument
3. Both Direct and Alternating current Instruments.
The analogue instruments can also be classified by showing the output of measured quantity.
The different type of analogue instruments are shown below
● Indicating
● Recording
● Integrating Instruments
Indicating Instrument – The indicating instruments indicates the magnitude of the measured
quantity. This instrument uses the dial and pointer as an indicator. The ammeter and
voltmeter belong to this category. The integrating instruments are of two types. They are
● Electromechanical Instruments
● Electronic Instruments
Recording Instrument – Such type of instruments gives a continuous reading over a
specified period. The variations in quantities are recorded on the sheet of papers.
Integrating Instruments – The instrument which measures the summation of the electrical
quantity over a given period is known as the integrating instruments.
The classification of the analogue instruments can also be done by the methods used by the
instruments for comparing the measured quantity. The following are the classifications of the
instrument by the methods.
1. Direct measuring Instruments – The instruments directly converts the measurand into
energy which activates the instruments and the value of the unknown quantities measured
through it. Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wattmeter and the energy meter are the examples of the
direct measuring instruments.
2. Comparison Instruments – The comparison instruments measure the unknown quantity
by comparing it with the standard value. The example of the comparison instruments is the ac
and dc bridges.
Their accuracy may also classify the analogue instruments.
Principles of Operation

The analogue instruments can be categorised according to the principle of operation.

The following are the effect uses the analogue instrument for their operation.
Magnetic Effect

Magnetic effect means the current flows through the conductor induces the magnetic
field around it. For example, consider the conductor is converted into the coil. The
summation of the magnetic field of the coils will behave as an imaginary magnet.

Thermal Effect

The measurand current passes through the heating elements and increases their
temperature. The thermocouple attached to the element converts the temperature into an emf.
The conversion of current into an emf with the help of temperature is known as the thermal
effect.
Electrostatic Effect

The electrostatic force exerted between the two charged plates. This force is used for
displacing one of the plates. The instruments which work on this principle is known as the
electrostatic devices.
Induction Effect

The non-magnetic conducting disc placed in a magnetic field induces an

electromotive force. This magnetic field is induced by the electromagnet which is excited by
the alternating current.
The electromotive force induces the electric current insides the drums. The interaction
produced by the induced current and the emf moves the disc. This effect is mostly used in the
induction effects.
Hall Effect

The material produces an electric current in the presence of a transverse magnetic

field. The voltage is produced between the two edges of conductors. The magnitude of
voltages depends on the current, flux density and property of the conductor.

Digital Instrument
Definition: The instrument which represents the measurand value in the form of the
digital number is known as the digital instruments. It works on the principle of
quantization. The quantization is the process of converting the continuous input signal into a
countable output signal.
The construction of the digital instrument is very complex, and their cost is also very
high. The digital instruments consume very less power as compared to analogue
instruments. The digital multimeter, digital voltmeter, digital frequency meter, etc. are the
examples of the digital instruments.
Important characteristic of Digital Instruments

The digital devices have following important features.

1. The accuracy of the digital electronic instrument is very much high.
2. The digital instrument consists sensitive elements which are easily reacted with the
surrounding temperature and humidity.
 3. The input impedance of the digital instrument is very high because of which it can
draw very less power.
4. The digital instrument is less portable.
5. The cost of the instrument is high.
6. The instrument is free from the parallax error.
In analogue instruments, the pointer is used for indicating the measuring voltage
because of which the parallax error occurs. While in digital instruments the output is display
on the screen. Thus, the chances of errors are less on it.
Construction of Digital Instrument

The construction of the digital instrument is shown in the figure below.

The
transducer, signal modifier and the display devices are the important part of the digital
instrument.
● Transducer – The transducer is used for converting the non-electrical or physical
quantities (temperature, displacement etc.) into an electrical quantity like voltage,
current etc. which is easily measured by the meter. The transducer is not required for
the electrical input.
● Signal Modifier – It is used for modifying the input signal of very weak strength.
● Display Device – The display device is used for showing the measurand quantities in
the numeric form. Mostly, LED or LCD is used as a digital display.

Advantages of Digital Instrument

The digital instruments display the reading in the numeric form which reduces the error.

1. The digital output is obtained by the instrument which acts as an input for the
memorable devices like floppy, recorder, printer etc.
2. The power consumption is less in the digital instruments.

Disadvantages of Digital Instruments

The following are the disadvantages of the digital electronics.

1. The overloading capacity of the instrument is low.
 2. It is a temperature sensitive device.The digital instrument is made by the very
delicate element which is easily affected by the atmospheric condition.
3. The effect of noise is more on digital electronics as compared to the analogue
instruments.
In spite of the above mention disadvantages, the digital instrument is very commonly used for
the measurement.

Transducer
Definition: The device which converts the one form of energy into another is known
as the transducer. The process of conversion is known as transduction. The conversion is
done by sensing and transducing the physical quantities like temperature, pressure, sound,
etc.
The electrical transducer converts the mechanical energy into an electric signal. The
electrical signal may be voltage, current and frequency. The production of the signal depends
on the resistive inductive and capacitive effects of the physical input.
Needs of Transducer

It is quite difficult to determine the exact magnitude of the physical forces like
temperature, pressure, etc. But if the physical force is converted into an electrical signal, then
their value is easily measured with the help of the meter. The transducers convert the physical
forces into an electrical signal which can easily be handled and transmitted for measurement.

The following are the advantages of converting the physical quantity into an electrical signal.
1. The attenuation and amplification of the electrical signals are very easy.
2. The electrical signal produces less friction error.
3. The small power is required for controlling the electrical systems.
4. The electrical signals are easily transmitted and processed for measurement.
5. The component used for measuring the electrical signal is very compact and
accurate.
6. The electrical signals are used in telemetry.

Parts of Transducer

The transducer consists of two important parts.

1. Sensing Element
2. Transduction Element
The transducer has many other parts like amplifiers, signal processing equipment, power
supplies calibrating and reference sources, etc.
1. Sensing or Detector Element – It is the part of the transducers which give the
response to the physical sensation. The response of the sensing element depends on
the physical phenomenon.
 2. Transduction Element – The transduction element converts the output of the
sensing element into an electrical signal. This element is also called the secondary
transducer.

Factors Influencing the Choice of Transducer

The choice of the transducers used for measuring the physical quantity depends on the
following factors.
1. Operating Principle – The transducers are selected by their operating principles. The
operating principle may be resistive, inductive, capacitive, optoelectronic,
piezoelectric, etc.
2. Sensitivity – The sensitivity of the transducer is enough for inducing the detectable
output.
3. Operating Range – The transducer must have wide operating ranges so that it does
not break during the working.
4. Accuracy – The transducers give accuracy after calibration. It has a small value for
repeatability which is essential for industrial applications.
5. Cross Sensitivity – The transducers give variable measured value for the different
planes because of the sensitivity. Hence, for accurate measurement, cross sensitivity
is essential.
6. Errors – The errors are avoided by taking the input output relations which is
obtained by the transfer function.
7. Loading Effect – The transducers have high input impedance and low output
impedance for avoiding the errors.
8. Environmental Compatibility – The transducers should be able to work in any
specified environments like in a corrosive environment. It should be able to work
under high pressure and shocks.
9. Insensitivity to Unwanted Signals – The transducer should be sensitive enough for
ignoring the unwanted and high sensitive signals.
10. Usage and Ruggedness – The durability, size and weight of the transducer
must be known before selecting it.
11. Stability and Reliability – The stability of the transducers should be high
enough for the operation. And their reliability should be good in case of failure of
the transducer.
12. Static characteristic – The transducer should have a high linearity and
resolution, but it has low hysteresis. The transducer is always free from the load and
temperature.

Applications of Transducer

The following are the applications of the transducers.

1. It is used for detecting the movement of muscles which is called
acceleromyography.
2. The transducer measures the load on the engines.
3. It is used as a sensor for knowing the engine knock.
4. The transducers measure the pressure of the gas and liquid by converting it into an
electrical signal.
5. It converts the temperature of the devices into an electrical signal or mechanical
work.
 6. The transducer is used in the ultrasound machine. It receives the sound waves of the
patient by emitting their sound waves and pass the signal to the CPU.
7. The transducer is used in the speaker for converting the electrical signal into
acoustic sound.
8. It is used in the antenna for converting the electromagnetic waves into an electrical
signal.
The classifications of the transducers depend on the various factor like by transduction, the
converting electrical signal from AC or DC, etc.
Types of Transducer
The transducer changes the physical quantity into an electrical signal. It is an
electronic device which has two main functions, i.e., sensing and transduction. It senses the
physical quantity and then converts it into mechanical works or electrical signals.
The transducer is of many types, and they can be classified by the following criteria.
1. By transduction used.
2. as a primary and secondary transducer
3. as a passive and active transducer
4. as analogue and digital transducer
5. as the transducer and inverse transducer
The transducer receives the measurement and gives a proportional amount of output
signal. The output signal is sent to the conditioning device where the signal is attenuated,
filtered, and modulated.

The input quantity is the non-electrical quantity, and the output electrical signal is in
the form of the current, voltage or frequency.
1. Classification based on the Principle of Transduction

The transducer is classified by the transduction medium. The transduction medium

may be resistive, inductive or capacitive depending on the conversion process that how the
input transducer converts the input signal into resistance, inductance and capacitance
respectively.
2. Primary and Secondary Transducer

Primary Transducer – The transducer consists of mechanical as well as the electrical

devices. The mechanical devices of the transducer change the physical input quantities into a
mechanical signal. This mechanical device is known as the primary transducers.
Secondary Transducer – The secondary transducer converts the mechanical signal into an
electrical signal. The magnitude of the output signal depends on the input mechanical signal.
Example of Primary and Secondary Transducer
Consider the Bourdon’s Tube shown in the figure below. The tube act as a primary
transducer. It detects the pressure and converts it into a displacement from its free end. The
displacement of the free ends moves the core of the linear variable displacement transformer.
The movement of the core induces the output voltage which is directly proportional to the
displacement of the tube free end.
Thus, the two types of transduction occur in the Bourdon’s tube. First, the pressure is
converted into a displacement and then it is converted into the voltage by the help of the
L.V.D.T.

The Bourdon’s Tube is the primary transducer, and the L.V.D.T is called the
secondary transducer.
3. Passive and Active Transducer

The transducer is classified as the active and passive transducer.

Passive Transducer – The transducer which requires the power from an external supply
source is known as the passive transducer. They are also known as the external power
transducer. The capacitive, resistive and inductive transducers are the example of the passive
transducer.
Active Transducer – The transducer which does not require the external power source is
known as the active transducer. Such type of transducer develops theirs owns voltage or
current, hence known as a self-generating transducer. The output signal is obtained from the
physical input quantity.
The physical quantity like velocity, temperature, force and the intensity of light is
induced with the help of the transducer. The piezoelectric crystal, photo-voltaic cell, tacho
generator, thermocouples, photovoltaic cell are the examples of the active transducers.
Examples – Consider the examples of a piezoelectric crystal. The crystal is sandwiched
between the two metallic electrodes, and the entire sandwiched is fastened to the base. The
mass is placed on the top of the sandwiched.
The piezo crystal has the special property because of which when the force is applied to the
crystal, they induce the voltage. The base provides the acceleration due to which the voltage
is generated. The mass applies on the crystals induces an output voltage. The output voltage
is proportional to the acceleration.

The above mentioned transducer is known as the accelerometer which converts the
acceleration into an electric voltage. This transducer does not require any auxiliary power
source for the conversion of physical quantity into an electrical signal.
4. Analog and Digital Transducer

The transducer can also be classified by their output signals. The output signal of the
transducer may be continuous or discrete.
Analog Transducer – The Analog transducer changes the input quantity into a continuous
function. The strain gauge, L.V.D.T, thermocouple, thermistor are the examples of the
analogue transducer.
Digital Transducer – These transducers convert an input quantity into a digital signal or in
the form of the pulse. The digital signals work on high or low power.
5. Transducer and Inverse Transducer

Transducer – The device which converts the non-electrical quantity into an electric quantity
is known as the transducer.
Inverse Transducer – The transducer which converts the electric quantity into a physical
quantity, such type of transducers is known as the inverse transducer. The transducer has high
electrical input and low non-electrical output.

Performance Characteristics
 The characteristics of measurement instruments which are helpful to know the
performance of instruments and help in measuring any quantity or parameter, are known as
Performance Characteristics.
Types of Performance Characteristics
Performance characteristics of instruments can be classified into the following two types.
● Static Characteristics
● Dynamic Characteristics
Static Characteristics
The characteristics of quantities or parameters measuring instruments that do not vary with
respect to time are called static characteristics. Sometimes, these quantities or parameters
may vary slowly with respect to time. Following are the list of static characteristics.
● Accuracy
● Precision
● Sensitivity
● Resolution
● Static Error
Accuracy
The algebraic difference between the indicated value of an instrument, Ai and the true value,
At
At is known as accuracy. Mathematically, it can be represented as −

The term, accuracy signifies how much the indicated value of an instrument, Ai is closer to
the true value, At
Static Error
The difference between the true value, At of the quantity that does not vary with respect to
time and the indicated value of an instrument, Ai is known as static error, es Mathematically,
it can be represented as −

The term, static error signifies the inaccuracy of the instrument. If the static error is
represented in terms of percentage, then it is called percentage of static error.
Mathematically, it can be represented as −

Substitute, the value of es in the right hand side of above equation −

Where, %es is the percentage of static error.

Precision
 If an instrument indicates the same value repeatedly when it is used to measure the
same quantity under same circumstances for any number of times, then we can say that the
instrument has high precision.
Sensitivity
The ratio of change in output, ΔAout of an instrument for a given change in the
input, ΔAin that is to be measured is called sensitivity, S. Mathematically it can be
represented as −

The term sensitivity signifies the smallest change in the measurable input that is
required for an instrument to respond.
● If the calibration curve is linear, then the sensitivity of the instrument will be a
constant and it is equal to slope of the calibration curve.
● If the calibration curve is non-linear, then the sensitivity of the instrument will not be
a constant and it will vary with respect to the input.
Resolution
If the output of an instrument will change only when there is a specific increment of
the input, then that increment of the input is called Resolution. That means, the instrument is
capable of measuring the input effectively, when there is a resolution of the input.
Dynamic Characteristics
The characteristics of the instruments, which are used to measure the quantities or
parameters that vary very quickly with respect to time are called dynamic characteristics.
Following are the list of dynamic characteristics.
● Speed of Response
● Dynamic Error
● Fidelity
● Lag
Speed of Response
The speed at which the instrument responds whenever there is any change in the quantity to
be measured is called speed of response. It indicates how fast the instrument is.
Lag
The amount of delay present in the response of an instrument whenever there is a change in
the quantity to be measured is called measuring lag. It is also simply called lag.
Dynamic Error
The difference between the true value, At of the quantity that varies with respect to time and
the indicated value of an instrument, Ai is known as dynamic error, ed
Fidelity
The degree to which an instrument indicates changes in the measured quantity without any
dynamic error is known as Fidelity

Measurement Error
Definition: The measurement error is defined as the difference between the true or actual
value and the measured value. The true value is the average of the infinite number of
measurements, and the measured value is the precise value.
Types of Errors in Measurement

The error may arise from a different source and are usually classified into the following
types. These types are
1. Gross Errors
2. Systematic Errors
3. Random Errors

Their types are explained below in details.

1. Gross Errors

The gross error occurs because of the human mistakes. For examples consider the person
using the instruments takes the wrong reading, or they can record the incorrect data. Such
type of error comes under the gross error. The gross error can only be avoided by taking the
reading carefully.
For example – The experimenter reads the 31.5ºC reading while the actual reading is 21.5Cº.
This happens because of the oversights. The experimenter takes the wrong reading and
because of which the error occurs in the measurement.
Such type of error is very common in the measurement. The complete elimination of such
type of error is not possible. Some of the gross error easily detected by the experimenter but
some of them are difficult to find. Two methods can remove the gross error.
Two methods can remove the gross error. These methods are
 ● The reading should be taken very carefully.
● Two or more readings should be taken of the measurement quantity. The readings are
taken by the different experimenter and at a different point for removing the error.

2. Systematic Errors

The systematic errors are mainly classified into three categories.

1. Instrumental Errors
2. Environmental Errors
3. Observational Errors

2 (i) Instrumental Errors

These errors mainly arise due to the three main reasons.

(a) Inherent Shortcomings of Instruments – Such types of errors are inbuilt in instruments
because of their mechanical structure. They may be due to manufacturing, calibration or
operation of the device. These errors may cause the error to read too low or too high.
For example – If the instrument uses the weak spring then it gives the high value of
measuring quantity. The error occurs in the instrument because of the friction or hysteresis
loss.
(b) Misuse of Instrument – The error occurs in the instrument because of the fault of the
operator. A good instrument used in an unintelligent way may give an enormous result.
For example – the misuse of the instrument may cause the failure to adjust the zero of
instruments, poor initial adjustment, using lead to too high resistance. These improper
practices may not cause permanent damage to the instrument, but all the same, they cause
errors.
(c) Loading Effect – It is the most common type of error which is caused by the instrument
in measurement work. For example, when the voltmeter is connected to the high resistance
circuit it gives a misleading reading, and when it is connected to the low resistance circuit, it
gives the dependable reading. This means the voltmeter has a loading effect on the circuit.
The error caused by the loading effect can be overcome by using the meters intelligently. For
example, when measuring a low resistance by the ammeter-voltmeter method, a voltmeter
having a very high value of resistance should be used.
2 (ii) Environmental Errors

These errors are due to the external condition of the measuring devices. Such types of errors
mainly occur due to the effect of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibration or because
of the magnetic or electrostatic field. The corrective measures employed to eliminate or to
reduce these undesirable effects are
● The arrangement should be made to keep the conditions as constant as possible.
● Using the equipment which is free from these effects.
● By using the techniques which eliminate the effect of these disturbances.
● By applying the computed corrections.
2 (iii) Observational Errors

Such types of errors are due to the wrong observation of the reading. There are many sources
of observational error. For example, the pointer of a voltmeter resets slightly above the
surface of the scale. Thus an error occurs (because of parallax) unless the line of vision of the
observer is exactly above the pointer. To minimise the parallax error highly accurate meters
are provided with mirrored scales.
3. Random Errors

The error which is caused by the sudden change in the atmospheric condition, such type of
error is called random error. These types of error remain even after the removal of the
systematic error. Hence such type of error is also called residual error.

Calibration
The calibration is the process of checking the accuracy of the result by comparing it
with the standard value. In other words, calibration checks the correctness of the instrument
by comparing it with the reference standard. It helps us in determining the error occur in the
reading and adjusts the voltages for getting the ideal reading.
Calibration of Voltmeter

The circuit for the calibration of the voltmeter is shown in the figure below.

The circuit requires two rheostats, one for controlling the voltage and another for
adjustment. The voltage ratio box is used to step-down the voltage to a suitable value. The
accurate value of the voltmeter is determined by measuring the value of the voltage to the
maximum possible range of the potentiometer.
The potentiometer measures the maximum possible value of voltages. The negative
and positive error occurs in the readings of the voltmeter if the readings of the potentiometer
and the voltmeter are not equal.
Calibration of Ammeter

The figure below shows the circuit for the calibration of the ammeter.
 The standard resistance is connected in series with the ammeter which is to be
calibrated. The potentiometer is used for measuring the voltage across the standard resistor.
The below mention formula determines the current through the standard resistance.

Where,
Vs – voltage across the standard resistor as indicated by the potentiometer.
S – resistance of standard resistor
This method of calibration of the ammeter is very accurate because in this method the
value of standard resistance and the voltage across the potentiometer is exactly known by the
instrument.
Calibration of Wattmeter

The figure below shows the circuit used for calibrating the Wattmeter.
 The standard resistance is connected in series with the Wattmeter which is to be
calibrated. The low voltage supply is given to the current coil of the Wattmeter. The rheostat
is connected in series with the coil for adjusting the value of current.
The potential circuit is supplied from the supply. The volt-ratio box is used to step-
down the voltage so that the potentiometer can easily read the voltage. The actual value of the
actual value of voltage and current is measured by using a double pole double throw switch.
The accurate value VI and the value of Wattmeter are compared.

Standards
A standard is physical representation of a unit of measurement. A known accurate
measure of physical quantity is termed as a standard. These standards are used to determine
the values of other physical quantities by the comparison method.
In fact, a unit is realized by reference to a material standard or to natural phenomena,
including physical and atomic constants. For example, the fundamental unit of length in the
International system (SI) is the meter, defined as the distance between two fine lines
engraved on gold plugs near the ends of a platinum-iridium alloy at 0°C and mechanically
supported in a prescribed manner.
Similarly, different standards have been developed for other units of measurement
(including fundamental units as well as derived mechanical and electrical units). All these
standards are preserved at the International Bureau of Weight and Measures at Sevres, Paris.
Also, depending on the functions and applications, different types of “standards of
measurement” are classified in categories (i) international, (ii) primary, (iii) secondary, and
(iv) working standards.
International Standards
International standards are defined by International agreement. They are periodically
evaluated and checked by absolute measurements in terms of fundamental units of Physics.
They represent certain units of measurement to the closest possible accuracy attainable by the
science and technology of measurement. These International standards are not available to
ordinary users for measurements and calibrations.
International ohms
It is defined as the resistance offered by a column of mercury having a mass of
14.4521 gms, uniform cross-sectional area and length of 106.300 cm, to the flow of constant
current at the melting point of ice.
International amperes
It is an unvarying current, which when passed through a solution of silver nitrate in
water (prepared in accordance with stipulated specifications) deposits silver at the rate of
0.00111800 gm/s.
Absolute units
International units were replaced in 1948 by absolute units. These units are more
accurate than International units, and differ slightly from them. For example,
1 International ohm = 1.00049 Absolute ohm
1 International ampere = 0.99985 Absolute ampere
Primary Standards
The principle function of primary standards is the calibration and verification of
secondary standards. Primary standards are maintained at the National Standards
Laboratories in different countries.
The primary standards are not available for use outside the National Laboratory.
These primary standards are absolute standards of high accuracy that can be used as ultimate
reference standards.
Secondary Standards
Secondary standards are basic reference standards used by measurement and
calibration laboratories in industries. These secondary standards are maintained by the
particular industry to which they belong. Each industry has its own secondary standard.
Each laboratory periodically sends its secondary standard to the National standards
laboratory for calibration and comparison against the primary standard. After comparison and
calibration, the National Standards Laboratory returns the Secondary standards to the
particular industrial laboratory with a certification of measuring accuracy in terms of a
primary stan-dard.
Working Standards
Working standards are the principal tools of a measurement laboratory. These
standards are used to check and calibrate laboratory instruments for accuracy and
performance. For example, manufacturers of electronic components such as capacitors,
resistors, etc. use a standard called a working standard for checking the component values
being manufactured, e.g. a standard resistor for checking of resistance value manufactured.