Classification of Measuring Instruments
Classification of Measuring Instruments
Classification of Measuring Instruments
The instrument used for measuring the physical and electrical quantities is
known as the measuring instrument. The term measurement means the comparison
between the two quantities of the same unit. The magnitude of one of the quantity is
unknown, and it is compared with the predefined value. The result of the comparison
obtained regarding numerical value
The measuring instrument categorised into three types;
● Electrical Instrument
● Electronic Instrument
● Mechanical Instrument
The mechanical instrument is used for measuring the physical quantities. This
instrument is suitable for measuring the static and stable condition because the instrument is
unable to give the response to the dynamic condition.
The electronic instrument has quick response time. The instrument provides the
quick response as compared to the electrical and mechanical instrument.
The electrical instrument is used for measuring electrical quantities likes current,
voltage, power, etc. The ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter are the examples of the electrical
measuring instrument. The ammeter measures the current in amps; voltmeter measures
voltage and Wattmeter are used for measuring the power. The classification of the electric
instruments depends on the methods of representing the output reading.
Absolute Instrument
The absolute instrument gives the value of measured quantities regarding the physical
constant. The physical constant means the angle of deflection, degree and meter constant. The
mathematical calculation requires knowing the value of a physical constant.
The tangent galvanometer is an example of the absolute instruments. In a tangent
galvanometer, the magnitude of current passes through the coil determined by the tangent of
the angle of deflection of their coil, the horizontal component of the earth magnetic field,
radius and the number of turns of wire used. The most common applications of this type of
instrument are found in laboratories.
Secondary Instrument
In the secondary instrument, the deflection shows the magnitude of the measurable
quantities. The calibration of the instruments with the standard instrument is essential for the
measurement. The output of this type of device is directly obtained, and no mathematical
calculation requires for knowing their value.
Digital Instrument
The digital instrument gives the output in the numeric form. The instrument is more
accurate as compared to the analogue instrument because no human error occurs in the
reading.
Analog instrument
The instrument whose output varies continuously is known as the analogue
instrument. The analogue instrument has the pointer which shows the magnitude of the
measurable quantities. The analogue device is classified into two types.
Null Type Instrument
In this instrument, the zero or null deflection indicates the magnitude of the measured
quantity. The instrument has high accuracy and sensitivity. In null deflection instruments, the
one known and one unknown quantity used. When the value of the known and the unknown
measuring quantities are equal, the pointer shows the zero or null deflection. The null
deflection instrument is used in the potentiometer and in the galvanometer for obtaining the
null point.
Deflection Type Instrument
The instrument in which the value of measuring quantity is determined through the
deflection of the pointer is known as the deflection type instrument. The measuring quantity
deflects the pointer of the moving system of the instrument which is fixed on the calibrated
scale. Thus, the magnitude of the measured quantity is known.
The deflection type instrument is further sub-classified into three types.
1. Indicating Instrument – The instrument which indicates the magnitude of the
measured quantity is known as the indicating instrument. The indicating instrument
has the dial which moves on the graduated dial. The voltmeter, ammeter, power
factor meter are the examples of the indicating instrument.
2. Integrating Instrument – The instrument which measures the total energy supplied
at a particular interval of time is known as the integrating instrument. The total
energy measured by the instrument is the product of the time and the measures
electrical quantities. The energy meter, watt-hour meter and the energy meter are the
examples of integrating instrument.
3. Recording Instrument – The instrument records the circuit condition at a particular
interval of time is known as the recording instrument. The moving system of the
recording instrument carries a pen which lightly touches on the paper sheet. The
movement of the coil is traced on the paper sheet. The curve drawn on the paper
shows the variation in the measurement of the electrical quantities.
The response time of the electronic instrument is very high as compared to the electrical and
mechanical device.
Methods of Measurements
The measurement is the result of the comparison of standard and the unknown
quantity. The result of the measured quantity is generally expressed in numeric forms. In
other words, the measurement is the process through which the physical parameters like heat,
displacement, force etc. is converted into the easily readable numeric value.
Methods of Measurement
Instrumentation
Analog Instrument
Definition: The analogue instrument is defined as the instrument whose output is the
continuous function of time, and they have a constant relation to the input. The physical
quantities like voltage, current, power and energy are measured through the analogue
instruments. Most analogue instruments use a pointer or dial for indicating the magnitude of
the measured quantity.
Classification of Analog Instruments
The analogue instrument is classified by the type of current that can be measured. The
following are the types of an electrical instrument.
1. Direct Current Analog Instruments
2. Alternating Current Analog instrument
3. Both Direct and Alternating current Instruments.
The analogue instruments can also be classified by showing the output of measured quantity.
The different type of analogue instruments are shown below
● Indicating
● Recording
● Integrating Instruments
Indicating Instrument – The indicating instruments indicates the magnitude of the measured
quantity. This instrument uses the dial and pointer as an indicator. The ammeter and
voltmeter belong to this category. The integrating instruments are of two types. They are
● Electromechanical Instruments
● Electronic Instruments
Recording Instrument – Such type of instruments gives a continuous reading over a
specified period. The variations in quantities are recorded on the sheet of papers.
Integrating Instruments – The instrument which measures the summation of the electrical
quantity over a given period is known as the integrating instruments.
The classification of the analogue instruments can also be done by the methods used by the
instruments for comparing the measured quantity. The following are the classifications of the
instrument by the methods.
1. Direct measuring Instruments – The instruments directly converts the measurand into
energy which activates the instruments and the value of the unknown quantities measured
through it. Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wattmeter and the energy meter are the examples of the
direct measuring instruments.
2. Comparison Instruments – The comparison instruments measure the unknown quantity
by comparing it with the standard value. The example of the comparison instruments is the ac
and dc bridges.
Their accuracy may also classify the analogue instruments.
Principles of Operation
Magnetic effect means the current flows through the conductor induces the magnetic
field around it. For example, consider the conductor is converted into the coil. The
summation of the magnetic field of the coils will behave as an imaginary magnet.
Thermal Effect
The measurand current passes through the heating elements and increases their
temperature. The thermocouple attached to the element converts the temperature into an emf.
The conversion of current into an emf with the help of temperature is known as the thermal
effect.
Electrostatic Effect
The electrostatic force exerted between the two charged plates. This force is used for
displacing one of the plates. The instruments which work on this principle is known as the
electrostatic devices.
Induction Effect
Digital Instrument
Definition: The instrument which represents the measurand value in the form of the
digital number is known as the digital instruments. It works on the principle of
quantization. The quantization is the process of converting the continuous input signal into a
countable output signal.
The construction of the digital instrument is very complex, and their cost is also very
high. The digital instruments consume very less power as compared to analogue
instruments. The digital multimeter, digital voltmeter, digital frequency meter, etc. are the
examples of the digital instruments.
Important characteristic of Digital Instruments
The
transducer, signal modifier and the display devices are the important part of the digital
instrument.
● Transducer – The transducer is used for converting the non-electrical or physical
quantities (temperature, displacement etc.) into an electrical quantity like voltage,
current etc. which is easily measured by the meter. The transducer is not required for
the electrical input.
● Signal Modifier – It is used for modifying the input signal of very weak strength.
● Display Device – The display device is used for showing the measurand quantities in
the numeric form. Mostly, LED or LCD is used as a digital display.
The digital instruments display the reading in the numeric form which reduces the error.
1. The digital output is obtained by the instrument which acts as an input for the
memorable devices like floppy, recorder, printer etc.
2. The power consumption is less in the digital instruments.
Transducer
Definition: The device which converts the one form of energy into another is known
as the transducer. The process of conversion is known as transduction. The conversion is
done by sensing and transducing the physical quantities like temperature, pressure, sound,
etc.
The electrical transducer converts the mechanical energy into an electric signal. The
electrical signal may be voltage, current and frequency. The production of the signal depends
on the resistive inductive and capacitive effects of the physical input.
Needs of Transducer
It is quite difficult to determine the exact magnitude of the physical forces like
temperature, pressure, etc. But if the physical force is converted into an electrical signal, then
their value is easily measured with the help of the meter. The transducers convert the physical
forces into an electrical signal which can easily be handled and transmitted for measurement.
The following are the advantages of converting the physical quantity into an electrical signal.
1. The attenuation and amplification of the electrical signals are very easy.
2. The electrical signal produces less friction error.
3. The small power is required for controlling the electrical systems.
4. The electrical signals are easily transmitted and processed for measurement.
5. The component used for measuring the electrical signal is very compact and
accurate.
6. The electrical signals are used in telemetry.
Parts of Transducer
The choice of the transducers used for measuring the physical quantity depends on the
following factors.
1. Operating Principle – The transducers are selected by their operating principles. The
operating principle may be resistive, inductive, capacitive, optoelectronic,
piezoelectric, etc.
2. Sensitivity – The sensitivity of the transducer is enough for inducing the detectable
output.
3. Operating Range – The transducer must have wide operating ranges so that it does
not break during the working.
4. Accuracy – The transducers give accuracy after calibration. It has a small value for
repeatability which is essential for industrial applications.
5. Cross Sensitivity – The transducers give variable measured value for the different
planes because of the sensitivity. Hence, for accurate measurement, cross sensitivity
is essential.
6. Errors – The errors are avoided by taking the input output relations which is
obtained by the transfer function.
7. Loading Effect – The transducers have high input impedance and low output
impedance for avoiding the errors.
8. Environmental Compatibility – The transducers should be able to work in any
specified environments like in a corrosive environment. It should be able to work
under high pressure and shocks.
9. Insensitivity to Unwanted Signals – The transducer should be sensitive enough for
ignoring the unwanted and high sensitive signals.
10. Usage and Ruggedness – The durability, size and weight of the transducer
must be known before selecting it.
11. Stability and Reliability – The stability of the transducers should be high
enough for the operation. And their reliability should be good in case of failure of
the transducer.
12. Static characteristic – The transducer should have a high linearity and
resolution, but it has low hysteresis. The transducer is always free from the load and
temperature.
Applications of Transducer
The input quantity is the non-electrical quantity, and the output electrical signal is in
the form of the current, voltage or frequency.
1. Classification based on the Principle of Transduction
The Bourdon’s Tube is the primary transducer, and the L.V.D.T is called the
secondary transducer.
3. Passive and Active Transducer
The above mentioned transducer is known as the accelerometer which converts the
acceleration into an electric voltage. This transducer does not require any auxiliary power
source for the conversion of physical quantity into an electrical signal.
4. Analog and Digital Transducer
The transducer can also be classified by their output signals. The output signal of the
transducer may be continuous or discrete.
Analog Transducer – The Analog transducer changes the input quantity into a continuous
function. The strain gauge, L.V.D.T, thermocouple, thermistor are the examples of the
analogue transducer.
Digital Transducer – These transducers convert an input quantity into a digital signal or in
the form of the pulse. The digital signals work on high or low power.
5. Transducer and Inverse Transducer
Transducer – The device which converts the non-electrical quantity into an electric quantity
is known as the transducer.
Inverse Transducer – The transducer which converts the electric quantity into a physical
quantity, such type of transducers is known as the inverse transducer. The transducer has high
electrical input and low non-electrical output.
Performance Characteristics
The characteristics of measurement instruments which are helpful to know the
performance of instruments and help in measuring any quantity or parameter, are known as
Performance Characteristics.
Types of Performance Characteristics
Performance characteristics of instruments can be classified into the following two types.
● Static Characteristics
● Dynamic Characteristics
Static Characteristics
The characteristics of quantities or parameters measuring instruments that do not vary with
respect to time are called static characteristics. Sometimes, these quantities or parameters
may vary slowly with respect to time. Following are the list of static characteristics.
● Accuracy
● Precision
● Sensitivity
● Resolution
● Static Error
Accuracy
The algebraic difference between the indicated value of an instrument, Ai and the true value,
At
At is known as accuracy. Mathematically, it can be represented as −
The term, accuracy signifies how much the indicated value of an instrument, Ai is closer to
the true value, At
Static Error
The difference between the true value, At of the quantity that does not vary with respect to
time and the indicated value of an instrument, Ai is known as static error, es Mathematically,
it can be represented as −
The term, static error signifies the inaccuracy of the instrument. If the static error is
represented in terms of percentage, then it is called percentage of static error.
Mathematically, it can be represented as −
The term sensitivity signifies the smallest change in the measurable input that is
required for an instrument to respond.
● If the calibration curve is linear, then the sensitivity of the instrument will be a
constant and it is equal to slope of the calibration curve.
● If the calibration curve is non-linear, then the sensitivity of the instrument will not be
a constant and it will vary with respect to the input.
Resolution
If the output of an instrument will change only when there is a specific increment of
the input, then that increment of the input is called Resolution. That means, the instrument is
capable of measuring the input effectively, when there is a resolution of the input.
Dynamic Characteristics
The characteristics of the instruments, which are used to measure the quantities or
parameters that vary very quickly with respect to time are called dynamic characteristics.
Following are the list of dynamic characteristics.
● Speed of Response
● Dynamic Error
● Fidelity
● Lag
Speed of Response
The speed at which the instrument responds whenever there is any change in the quantity to
be measured is called speed of response. It indicates how fast the instrument is.
Lag
The amount of delay present in the response of an instrument whenever there is a change in
the quantity to be measured is called measuring lag. It is also simply called lag.
Dynamic Error
The difference between the true value, At of the quantity that varies with respect to time and
the indicated value of an instrument, Ai is known as dynamic error, ed
Fidelity
The degree to which an instrument indicates changes in the measured quantity without any
dynamic error is known as Fidelity
Measurement Error
Definition: The measurement error is defined as the difference between the true or actual
value and the measured value. The true value is the average of the infinite number of
measurements, and the measured value is the precise value.
Types of Errors in Measurement
The error may arise from a different source and are usually classified into the following
types. These types are
1. Gross Errors
2. Systematic Errors
3. Random Errors
The gross error occurs because of the human mistakes. For examples consider the person
using the instruments takes the wrong reading, or they can record the incorrect data. Such
type of error comes under the gross error. The gross error can only be avoided by taking the
reading carefully.
For example – The experimenter reads the 31.5ºC reading while the actual reading is 21.5Cº.
This happens because of the oversights. The experimenter takes the wrong reading and
because of which the error occurs in the measurement.
Such type of error is very common in the measurement. The complete elimination of such
type of error is not possible. Some of the gross error easily detected by the experimenter but
some of them are difficult to find. Two methods can remove the gross error.
Two methods can remove the gross error. These methods are
● The reading should be taken very carefully.
● Two or more readings should be taken of the measurement quantity. The readings are
taken by the different experimenter and at a different point for removing the error.
2. Systematic Errors
These errors are due to the external condition of the measuring devices. Such types of errors
mainly occur due to the effect of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibration or because
of the magnetic or electrostatic field. The corrective measures employed to eliminate or to
reduce these undesirable effects are
● The arrangement should be made to keep the conditions as constant as possible.
● Using the equipment which is free from these effects.
● By using the techniques which eliminate the effect of these disturbances.
● By applying the computed corrections.
2 (iii) Observational Errors
Such types of errors are due to the wrong observation of the reading. There are many sources
of observational error. For example, the pointer of a voltmeter resets slightly above the
surface of the scale. Thus an error occurs (because of parallax) unless the line of vision of the
observer is exactly above the pointer. To minimise the parallax error highly accurate meters
are provided with mirrored scales.
3. Random Errors
The error which is caused by the sudden change in the atmospheric condition, such type of
error is called random error. These types of error remain even after the removal of the
systematic error. Hence such type of error is also called residual error.
Calibration
The calibration is the process of checking the accuracy of the result by comparing it
with the standard value. In other words, calibration checks the correctness of the instrument
by comparing it with the reference standard. It helps us in determining the error occur in the
reading and adjusts the voltages for getting the ideal reading.
Calibration of Voltmeter
The circuit for the calibration of the voltmeter is shown in the figure below.
The circuit requires two rheostats, one for controlling the voltage and another for
adjustment. The voltage ratio box is used to step-down the voltage to a suitable value. The
accurate value of the voltmeter is determined by measuring the value of the voltage to the
maximum possible range of the potentiometer.
The potentiometer measures the maximum possible value of voltages. The negative
and positive error occurs in the readings of the voltmeter if the readings of the potentiometer
and the voltmeter are not equal.
Calibration of Ammeter
The figure below shows the circuit for the calibration of the ammeter.
The standard resistance is connected in series with the ammeter which is to be
calibrated. The potentiometer is used for measuring the voltage across the standard resistor.
The below mention formula determines the current through the standard resistance.
Where,
Vs – voltage across the standard resistor as indicated by the potentiometer.
S – resistance of standard resistor
This method of calibration of the ammeter is very accurate because in this method the
value of standard resistance and the voltage across the potentiometer is exactly known by the
instrument.
Calibration of Wattmeter
The figure below shows the circuit used for calibrating the Wattmeter.
The standard resistance is connected in series with the Wattmeter which is to be
calibrated. The low voltage supply is given to the current coil of the Wattmeter. The rheostat
is connected in series with the coil for adjusting the value of current.
The potential circuit is supplied from the supply. The volt-ratio box is used to step-
down the voltage so that the potentiometer can easily read the voltage. The actual value of the
actual value of voltage and current is measured by using a double pole double throw switch.
The accurate value VI and the value of Wattmeter are compared.
Standards
A standard is physical representation of a unit of measurement. A known accurate
measure of physical quantity is termed as a standard. These standards are used to determine
the values of other physical quantities by the comparison method.
In fact, a unit is realized by reference to a material standard or to natural phenomena,
including physical and atomic constants. For example, the fundamental unit of length in the
International system (SI) is the meter, defined as the distance between two fine lines
engraved on gold plugs near the ends of a platinum-iridium alloy at 0°C and mechanically
supported in a prescribed manner.
Similarly, different standards have been developed for other units of measurement
(including fundamental units as well as derived mechanical and electrical units). All these
standards are preserved at the International Bureau of Weight and Measures at Sevres, Paris.
Also, depending on the functions and applications, different types of “standards of
measurement” are classified in categories (i) international, (ii) primary, (iii) secondary, and
(iv) working standards.
International Standards
International standards are defined by International agreement. They are periodically
evaluated and checked by absolute measurements in terms of fundamental units of Physics.
They represent certain units of measurement to the closest possible accuracy attainable by the
science and technology of measurement. These International standards are not available to
ordinary users for measurements and calibrations.
International ohms
It is defined as the resistance offered by a column of mercury having a mass of
14.4521 gms, uniform cross-sectional area and length of 106.300 cm, to the flow of constant
current at the melting point of ice.
International amperes
It is an unvarying current, which when passed through a solution of silver nitrate in
water (prepared in accordance with stipulated specifications) deposits silver at the rate of
0.00111800 gm/s.
Absolute units
International units were replaced in 1948 by absolute units. These units are more
accurate than International units, and differ slightly from them. For example,
1 International ohm = 1.00049 Absolute ohm
1 International ampere = 0.99985 Absolute ampere
Primary Standards
The principle function of primary standards is the calibration and verification of
secondary standards. Primary standards are maintained at the National Standards
Laboratories in different countries.
The primary standards are not available for use outside the National Laboratory.
These primary standards are absolute standards of high accuracy that can be used as ultimate
reference standards.
Secondary Standards
Secondary standards are basic reference standards used by measurement and
calibration laboratories in industries. These secondary standards are maintained by the
particular industry to which they belong. Each industry has its own secondary standard.
Each laboratory periodically sends its secondary standard to the National standards
laboratory for calibration and comparison against the primary standard. After comparison and
calibration, the National Standards Laboratory returns the Secondary standards to the
particular industrial laboratory with a certification of measuring accuracy in terms of a
primary stan-dard.
Working Standards
Working standards are the principal tools of a measurement laboratory. These
standards are used to check and calibrate laboratory instruments for accuracy and
performance. For example, manufacturers of electronic components such as capacitors,
resistors, etc. use a standard called a working standard for checking the component values
being manufactured, e.g. a standard resistor for checking of resistance value manufactured.