Concrete Lining
Concrete Lining
Concrete Lining
Acknowledgements
Reclamation staff, operating entities, and others provided
their insights and experiences for this guidance, and we
would like to recognize their valuable help and input. In
particular, we wish to recognize Chris Vick, Chris Duke,
Kylie Fink, Shannon Harrell, Kurt von Fay, Westin Joy,
Chris Ellis, Ryan Woodruff, and Deena Larsen. The
assistance and diligent reviews of these and numerous
others is gratefully acknowledged.
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
Disclaimer
Reclamation developed this manual to provide basic guidance to help canal
operators promote effective maintenance and repair of concrete components of
canal systems. This information complements—and does not replace—existing
Reclamation manuals and standards related to the subject. As each canal system
has unique designs and features, these general guidelines cannot be substituted for
facility or operating-specific guidance and specifications. Every operating entity
is different, and this advice and strategies may not be suitable for all situations.
This is general information useful for typical canal systems for routine concrete
related maintenance and repair activities. For non-routine activities, other sources
of information should be pursued. Contact local Reclamation Area and Regional
office personnel. More in depth information on concrete repair can be found in
(von Fay 2015) Reclamation’s Guide to Concrete Repair, Second Edition,
www.usbr.gov/tsc/techreferences/mands/mands-pdfs/
Guide2ConcreteRepair2015_Final.pdf.
iii
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
iv
Canal Maintenance: Concrete
Table of Contents
Page
7. References........................................................................................................ 29
v
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
The old adage that all concrete cracks—implying that we just need to accept it—
is no longer an acceptable approach to managing concrete structures. We need to
do everything we can to minimize and control cracking. In the right exposure
conditions, quality concrete will last indefinitely and can continue to strengthen
over time. However, many exposure and performance conditions can lead to
deterioration and damage to the concrete. For concrete in these conditions, proper
inspection, routine maintenance, and appropriate repairs will ensure the concrete
will perform as intended for as long as possible.
1
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
and successful service life. In most cases, the operating entity maintains existing
canal linings and structures, and the original concrete design and construction
were probably out of their control. However, concrete design and construction
will be discussed later in Section 2.2. Construction Related Concerns and
Section 6. Design Considerations for New Concrete in this manual so operating
entities can become familiar with what might affect the concrete and why it is
crucial to maintain structures throughout the structure’s life.
2.1.1. Function
The structure’s function is critical for determining the concrete design
requirements of the structure. Knowing the function will help determine the
intended exposure, loading conditions, and possible damage mechanisms.
Typically, on large projects, different concrete mixes are used, depending on the
function of the concrete.
Using the appropriate concrete mix design for its function and exposure
conditions ensures the concrete will be durable and have a long service life. For
example, in a baffled outlet, the energy of the incoming water jet is dissipated by
striking the baffle. This function as an energy dissipater makes the baffle outlet
susceptible to abrasion-erosion (Aisenbrey et al. 1974). To counteract potential
abrasion-erosion damage, use a high strength concrete.
2
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
When using mass concrete, the mix design, placement, and curing conditions
become critical. Mass concrete mix designs usually have larger aggregate and
large replacement volumes of cement with a pozzolan. This will bring down the
cement content which will reduce the heat generated in the mix. Special attention
to lift heights and insulation of the concrete during the curing phase is also
critical. It is best to consult with a concrete engineer when mass concrete is
expected on the project.
3
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
4
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
5
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
6
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
7
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
8
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
9
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
10
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
Prevention. In general,
lowering the canal water
surface slowly will prevent
blowouts. Avoid lowering
the canal water surface by
more than 1 to 2 feet per
day. Follow the site-specific
Standing Operating
Procedures (SOP) for canal
drawdown procedures.
Figure 19. Hydrostatic pressure from ground
water cracking a concrete canal lining.
In some cases, ground water
from other sources can exert
similar pressures on canal linings and lead to cracking and possibly failure, as
shown in Figure 19. In these cases, special drainage features (such as scupper
drains near the canal invert) may be needed to relieve the pressure. This may be
common in northern climates where canals are un-watered in the winter.
11
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
Prevention. Where expansive soils are known to be causing uplift and damage,
take every effort to limit the amount of water seeping from the canal. This might
include regular crack and joint sealing and/or the addition of a geomembrane
liner. Sometimes the soil can be treated with cement or lime to limit the swell
potential. The type of treatment should be designed by a geotechnical engineer.
In-situ soil treatment can be very expensive. Other solutions may require over-
excavation and replacement with a more suitable backfill material.
12
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
13
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
Monitor after a repair. Periodically visit the repair site to check the
performance of the concrete repair. If the original source of the damage
was not removed, the damage or deterioration could come back or
propagate to areas that were previously unharmed. The same could happen
if an inappropriate repair material was used.
Failing to monitor and address problems promptly could result in more expensive
repairs or replacement later.
Table 1 indicates the type of damage that each structure in the canal system might
experience. Use this table when developing a maintenance and repair program to
pay special attention to each kind of deterioration or damage and where it might
occur.
While operating entity staff can handle routine and small repairs, it
is best to consult with Reclamation’s Area Office to determine the
best method to handle larger repairs. Contact local Reclamation
O&M engineers. They or Reclamation’s Technical Service Center
(TSC) can provide technical assistance with unique or tough repairs
and challenges as well as the latest recommendations on materials,
methods of mixing, application, curing, and precautions to be
exercised during placement.
14
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
Structure Sulfate ASR Corrosion Abrasion- Cavitation Freeze Structural Foundation Soil Subsi- Lining Canal Buckling
Types Attack of Reinf. Erosion Thaw Overload Voids Erosion dence Blowout Lining
Steel Uplift
Canal Linings x x x x x x x x x x x x
Inverted
x x x x x x x x
Siphons
Bench Flumes x x x x x x x x x
Conveyance Elevated 1
x x x x x x x x
Structures Flumes
Road
x x x x x x x x x x
Crossings
Drops x x x x x x x x x
Chutes x x x x x x x x x x
Checks x x x x x x x x
Check-drops x x x x x x x x x
Regulating x x x x x x x x
Turnouts
Structures
Diversion
x x x x x x x x x
Structures
Check and Pipe
x x x x x x x x x
Inlets
Wasteways x x x x x x x x x x
Protective Culverts x x x x x x x x x x
Structures x x x x x x x
Overchutes
Drain Inlets x x x x x x x x x
Parshall x x x x x x x x x
Flumes
Water Stilling Well x x x x x x x
Measure-
ment Weirs x x x x x x x x x
Structures
Weir Boxes x x x x x x x x
Open-flow
x x x
Meters
15
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
Structure Sulfate ASR Corrosion Abrasion- Cavitation Freeze Structural Foundation Soil Subsi- Lining Canal Buckling
Types Attack of Reinf. Erosion Thaw Overload Voids Erosion dence Blowout Lining
Steel Uplift
Baffled Apron
x x x x x x x x x x
Drops
Energy Baffled Outlets x x x x x x x x x x
Dissipators Vertical Sleeve
Valve Stilling x x x x x x x x x x
Wells
Transitions x x x x x x x x x x
and Erosion Transitions
Protection Erosion
x x x x
Protection
Pipe and x x x x x x x
Pipe Appurt- Pipe
enances Pipe
x x x x x x
Appurtenances
1
Will only occur if sulfates in the water because the structure is elevated from the soil.
16
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
5. Repairs
5.1. Prioritize Repairs
With the exception of erosion damage, cracking is the leading indicator of many
types of damage to concrete canal linings. The size, type, cause, and location of
cracking can have a big impact on deciding whether repairs are needed and when.
Many times, observation and careful consideration are needed to make that
determination. Other times, it can be pretty obvious that repairs are needed and
needed soon. In most cases, repairs on large cracks are required as soon as these
cracks are observed. For concrete canal linings, the decision to make repairs to
cracks or joint leaks depends on foundation material conditions or whether the
canal section is in “fill.” Environmental conditions can also make simple crack
repairs a much larger repair project.
For concrete structures other than canal linings, determining when to repair
cracked and deteriorated concrete can be more difficult and may require more
investigation, planning, and budgeting. The decision should be based on exposure
conditions, the cause of the cracks, and the potential for additional damage caused
by the cracking. For concrete structures undergoing some type of deterioration,
repairing cracks is usually futile. For example, repairing cracks caused by ASR
will not work if the concrete is still deteriorating because the concrete will just
crack again. When possible, remove concrete undergoing deterioration, and
replace it with concrete designed to handle the conditions. Sometimes, special
sealers and coatings may slow down the deterioration if time is needed before
repairs can be done. However, this solution is only a stop-gap measure—do not
rely on this solution to last more than a few years, if that. In addition, the sealers
can be expensive and properly applying them can be labor intensive.
After an inspection of the concrete structure has been performed and a repair plan
has been made, it’s time to think about what repairs the water district can perform
and what repairs require experts or expert advice. A quick reference guide for
possible short-term and long-term solutions is in Table 2 at the end of this section.
17
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
The Guide to Concrete Repair (von Fay 2015) details temporary fixes to slow the
deterioration from sulfate attack: applying a coating (per Section D.1.d) or a
concrete sealing compound (per Section D.1.a through D.1.c). The Guide also
explains that low viscosity epoxies (Section D.1.b of Guide to Concrete Repair)
and high molecular weight methacrylic (HMWM) sealing compounds (Section
D.1.a of Guide to Concrete Repair), when applied as “healer-sealers,” can
sometimes slow the rate of deterioration in concrete undergoing ASR. The
decision to use these materials should not be taken lightly. They can be expensive,
require special surface preparation, usually only work in specific exposure
conditions, and their service life could be relatively short.
5.3. Corrosion
If it is known that the concrete will be exposed to deicing salts, then some sealers
can slow down the intrusion of chlorides. In addition, special additives to the
concrete can help protect the rebar from corrosion.
When making repairs to concrete that is suffering from deterioration due to rebar
corrosion, take special care or the corrosion can accelerate or can start to occur at
a location very near the repairs. Many times, additional concrete will need to be
removed to eliminate all chloride contaminated concrete and additional corroded
steel may need to be removed. Refer to Reclamation’s Standard Protocol to
Evaluate the Performance of Corrosion Mitigation Technologies in Concrete
Repairs (M-82; Reclamation 2014) for determining the best repair material
options to mitigate corroded steel in concrete. A structural engineer should be
consulted to determine if the structure’s strength has been compromised.
18
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
For cracking that is not resulting from some form of deterioration (for example,
cracks from drying shrinkage, thermal, or plastic shrinkage), cracks as large as
0.004 inches wide can self-heal (plug) in certain conditions. In other cases, cracks
as small as 0.002 inches wide may need to be repaired. For example, if the crack
will allow water that contains various salts to come in contact with reinforcing
steel, then the crack may need to be repaired using a suitable chemical grout
(epoxy for example) to prevent corrosion of the reinforcing steel.
The general guidelines for repairing cracks or damaged joints to existing (not
new) canal linings are:
19
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
For linings with cracks or joints with offset or displaced edges, larger than
0.50-inches, replace the lining or part of a lining.
For linings with cracks or joints with offset or displaced edges smaller
than 0.50-inches that are leaking, repair using a chemical grout or suitable
spray applied polyurea. Not all chemical grouts or polyureas are
appropriate for repairing leaking cracks or joints in concrete canal linings.
Care is needed when selecting materials for leak repairs. In addition, using
these repair materials can be expensive, so it may be more economical to
simply replace the lining.
Cracks less than 0.04-inches wide and not full depth (not leaking):
Monitor crack.
then:
Thickness
T
o Use a non-sag
(Not to Scale)
polyurethane sealant
Figure 22. Cap seal for random cracks.
o Completely fill the routed
groove with sealant
Another option for smaller cracks and offset joints or edges less than 0.04
inches is the cap and seal method (Figure 22). However, surface
preparation is critical, and it may be difficult to monitor the crack once it
is capped. In addition, this type of repair may not last long.
These are general guidelines and may not be suitable for all cracks and joints.
Repairs to leaking joints and leaking cracks that show signs of movement (for
example, offset edges) require relatively flexible materials or the repair will likely
fail prematurely. A suitable chemical grout or spray-applied polyurea should be
considered. Again, care is needed when selecting materials for leaking crack or
joint repairs.
20
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
For cracks that extend full depth and do not appear to be moving, more rigid
repair materials can be used, including some epoxies and rigid polyurethanes.
Sealing joint leaks and cracks in canal linings has been a critical issue for
Reclamation because in the past, performing the repair required dewatering and
shutting off service for extended periods of time. However, some recent research
conducted by Reclamation’s TSC Concrete, Geotechnical, and Structural
Laboratory has found that some chemical grouts can be injected underwater with
the support of a commercial diver to seal seepage cracks. A field demonstration of
this repair was conducted on a crack on a Central Arizona Project (CAP) canal
lining outside of Casa Grande, Arizona (Harrell and Klein 2015 and 2016). and
Figure 24 show the final product of the chemical grouts after they were injected
underwater and cured for 24 hours. Further work is being considered to examine
methods to deliver these materials without the aid of divers.
21
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
Because shotcrete is concrete, it can suffer from all the damage mechanisms
described above. Repairs to shotcrete should be conducted according to the
guidelines presented here and other referenced sources. In addition, shotcrete can
be repaired with shotcrete, if that is the most appropriate method selected after
following the necessary steps to arrive at a sound decision.
22
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
23
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
Issue Type of Short-term Solution Long-term Solution Repair Repair can be Notes
Deterioration performed performed
or Damage in the dry underwater
Freeze- Physical Apply a coating or Replace or repair Likely Unlikely The repair must be thick enough to
Thaw sealer. concrete. reduce freezing and thawing of
underlying concrete.
Adjust operations of the
canal to limit exposure of
concrete to water during
freezing periods.
Overload of Structural Alter loadings. Alter loadings. Likely Unlikely Consult with a Structural Engineer.
the
Structure Repair cracks with epoxy Repair cracks with epoxy
injection. injection.
24
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
Issue Type of Short-term Solution Long-term Solution Repair Repair can be Notes
Deterioration performed performed
or Damage in the dry underwater
Uplift of Structural Seal cracks to minimize Replace damaged lining Likely Unlikely Over excavate foundation materials
Liners seepage loss. panels. and compact fill prior to lining
replacement.
Remove or fill lining Replace expansive soil
offsets that might affect with a non-expansive Consider lime or other chemical
canal hydraulics. foundation material. additives to limit future swelling soils.
Buckling Structural Sawcut additional Sawcut additional Likely Unlikely
expansion joints. expansion joints.
25
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
Is the concrete exposed to chemicals that may require the rebar to have
extra protection?
26
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
Use a minimum 4,000 psi 28-day strength mix if the concrete will be exposed to
freeze-thaw cycles with limited exposure to water, low sulfate exposure, and no
exposure to external sources of chlorides (such as deicing chemicals). If the
concrete will be in an area with freeze-thaw cycles and frequent exposure to
water, high sulfate exposure, or exposure to external sources of chlorides, the
minimum compressive strength should be 4,500 psi at 28-day strength. For more
severe exposure, the compressive strength may need to be 5,000 psi at 28 days’
age. In abrasive environments, strengths over 10,000 psi at 28 days’ age may be
needed. An air-entraining admixture should be used in all exterior concrete
exposed to cycles of freezing and thawing weather.
6.2.2. Consolidation
Poor consolidation (compaction) can create honeycombing as a result of using
improper or faulty vibrators, improper placement procedures, poor vibration
procedures, inappropriate concrete mixtures, or congested reinforcement.
6.2.3. Curing
Adequate curing will increase the strength, water tightness, abrasion resistance,
freeze-thaw resistance, and volume stability. There are several methods for
curing:
27
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
Sprinkling or fog spraying: entire surface is kept wet during the curing
period.
Wet burlap or mats: materials are kept wet during the entire curing period.
Membrane forming curing compounds: waxes and resins that seal the
moisture in.
One of these methods should be used on all new concrete placements. Curing
should last a minimum of 3 to 7 days—longer is almost always better. The
temperature of the concrete should be between 50° and 100° F, but may be higher.
If a curing compound is used, it should be applied as soon as the bleed water has
dissipated and finishing operations have ceased.
Hot weather. Placing concrete in hot weather conditions can lead to lower
28-day strengths, more thermal, plastic shrinkage, and drying shrinkage
cracking, and difficulty controlling air entrainment during placement. Hot
weather conditions occur with high ambient heat, high concrete
temperatures, low relative humidity, wind, and solar radiation exposure.
Plan for hot weather by monitoring weather reports and placing at cooler
times of the day. Use adequately sized crews so that the concrete can be
placed quickly. When possible, use enclosures to provide shade and shield
the concrete from wind exposure.
Cold weather. Placing concrete under cold weather conditions can lead to
slower setting times and slower strength gain, lower 28-day strengths and
permanent damage if the concrete freezes, and plastic shrinkage cracking.
When placing concrete under cold weather conditions, protect the concrete
from freezing until the concrete reaches 500 psi by providing insulating or
heating blankets. In some conditions, protection may be needed until the
concrete reaches a higher strength. Air-entrain concrete for exterior use.
Do not perform any finishing operations while water is present on the
surface. Do not use steel trowels, which will seal the surface, trap bleed
water, and create a weak layer below the surface. Do not place concrete on
frozen ground, snow, or ice.
ACI has several guides related to Hot (ACI 305R) and Cold (ACI
306R) Weather Concreting.
28
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
7. References
American Concrete Institute (ACI) Committee, 2010. 305R-10 Guide to Hot
Weather Concreting. Farmington Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute,
2014. https://www.concrete.org/store/productdetail.aspx?ItemID=31814
ACI Committee, 2014. ACI 318-14 Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete and Commentary. Farmington Hills, MI: American Concrete
Institute, 2014. https://www.concrete.org/store/
productdetail.aspx?ItemID=31814
ACI Committee, 2016. 506 Guide to Shotcrete, Farmington Hills, MI: American
Concrete Institute, 2016.
https://www.concrete.org/store/productdetail.aspx?ItemID=50616
ACI Committee 2016. 306R-16 Guide to Cold Weather Concreting. Farmington
Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute,
https://www.concrete.org/store/productdetail.aspx?ItemID=30616
Aisenbrey, A. J. Jr., R. B. Hayes, H. J. Warren, D. L. Winsett, and R. B. Young,
Design of Small Canal Structures, Denver, Colorado: United States
Government Printing Office, 1974.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) C94.Farmington Hills, MI:
American Concrete Institute, 2016
Harrell S. and M. Klein, 2016. "Underwater Cure Polymeric Repair Field
Demonstration," Casa Grande, Arizona. https://www.usbr.gov
/research/projects/detail.cfm?id=2398
Harrell S. and M. Klein, 2015. Underwater Cure Polymeric Repairs to Seal
Seepage Cracks. https://www.usbr.gov/research/
projects/detail.cfm?id=2398.
Reclamation, Design Standard No. 3 Canals and Related Structures, Denver,
Colorado: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, 1967.
Reclamation, Standard Protocol to Evaluate the Performance of Corrosion
Mitigation Technologies in Concrete Repairs, M-82, Denver: Bureau of
Reclamation, 2014. https://www.usbr.gov/tsc/techreferences/
mands/mands-pdfs/StandardCorrosionProtocol_07-2014rev08-
2016_508.pdf
von Fay, K. F. Guide to Concrete Repair, Second Ed., Denver, Colorado: U.S.
Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Technical Service
Center, 2015. https://www.usbr.gov/tsc/techreferences/mands/mands-
pdfs/Guide2ConcreteRepair2015_Final.pdf.
29
Canal Operation and Maintenance: Concrete
Appendix A: Maintenance
Checklist for Concrete Canal
Structures and Linings
This Maintenance Checklist for Concrete Canal Structures and Liningss
based on von Fay, K. F. Guide to Concrete Repair, Second Ed., Denver,
Colorado: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation,
Technical Service Center, 2015.
https://www.usbr.gov/tsc/techreferences/mands/mands-
pdfs/Guide2ConcreteRepair2015_Final.pdf
Bureau of Reclamation
Maintenance Checklist for Concrete Canal Structures and
Linings
Project Name:
Project Location:
Date of Inspection:
Name of Inspector:
Other Attendees:
Notes:
Refer to Canal Maintenance: Mechanical, Section 6, Safety for procedures prior to starting the inspection.
Bureau of Reclamation
Maintenance Checklist for Concrete Canal Structures and
Linings
Voids/Subsidence/Blowouts/Uplift/Buckling
8
Notes:
Cracks/Joints
Item Photo
# Structure Type Station/Location Width Length Location* A M IA
8
Notes:
Abrasion-erosion/Cavitaion/Freeze-thaw
8
Notes:
Corrosion
Item Photo
# Structure Type Station/Location Description Location* A M IA
2'-0" x 3'-0"
EX:1 Canal Lining Sta. 15.00 delamination in area X
8
Notes:
8
Notes: