AC Motor: From Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia
AC Motor: From Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia
AC Motor: From Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia
AC motor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
An AC motor is an electric motor driven by an alternating current
(AC). The AC motor commonly consists of two basic parts, an outside
stationary stator having coils supplied with alternating current to
produce a rotating magnetic field, and an inside rotor attached to the
output shaft producing a second rotating magnetic field. The rotor
magnetic field may be produced by permanent magnets, reluctance
saliency, or DC or AC electrical windings.
Less commonly, linear AC motors operate on similar principles as
rotating motors but have their stationary and moving parts arranged in a
straight line configuration, producing linear motion instead of rotation. An industrial type of AC motor with
electrical terminal box at the top and
output rotating shaft on the left. Such
motors are widely used for pumps,
Contents blowers, conveyors and other
industrial machinery.
1 Operating principles
2 History
3 Induction motor
3.1 Slip
3.2 Polyphase cage rotor
3.3 Polyphase wound rotor
3.4 Twophase servo motor
3.5 Singlephase induction motor
3.5.1 Shadedpole motor
3.5.2 Splitphase motor
3.5.2.1 Capacitor start motor
3.5.2.2 Resistance start motor
3.5.2.3 Permanentsplit capacitor motor
4 Synchronous motor
4.1 Polyphase synchronous motor
4.2 Singlephase synchronous motor
4.3 Hysteresis synchronous motor
5 Other AC motor types
5.1 Universal motor and series wound motor
5.2 Repulsion motor
5.3 Exterior rotor
5.4 Sliding rotor motor
5.5 Electronically commutated motor
5.6 Watthourmeter motor
5.7 Slowspeed synchronous timing motor
6 References
7 External links
Operating principles
When an AC motor is in steadystate rotation (motion), the magnetic fields of the rotor and stator rotate (move)
with little or no slippage (near synchrony). The magnetic forces (repulsive and attractive) between the rotor and
stator poles create average torque, capable of driving a load at rated speed. The speed of the stator rotating
magnetic field ( ) and the speed of the rotor rotating magnetic field ( ), relative to the speed of the
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mechanical shaft ( ), must maintain synchronism for average torque production by satisfying the
synchronous speed relation (i.e., ).[1] Otherwise, asynchronously rotating magnetic fields
would produce pulsating or nonaverage torque.
The two main types of AC motors are classified as induction and synchronous. The induction motor (or
asynchronous motor) always relies on a small difference in speed between the stator rotating magnetic field and
the rotor shaft speed called slip to induce rotor current in the rotor AC winding. As a result, the induction motor
cannot produce torque near synchronous speed where induction (or slip) is irrelevant or ceases to exist. In
contrast, the synchronous motor does not rely on slipinduction for operation and uses either permanent
magnets, salient poles (having projecting magnetic poles), or an independently excited rotor winding. The
synchronous motor produces its rated torque at exactly synchronous speed. The brushless woundrotor doubly
fed synchronous motor system has an independently excited rotor winding that does not rely on the principles
of slipinduction of current. The brushless woundrotor doubly fed motor is a synchronous motor that can
function exactly at the supply frequency or sub to super multiple of the supply frequency.
Other types of motors include eddy current motors, and also AC/DC mechanically commutated machines in
which speed is dependent on voltage and winding connection.
History
Alternating current technology was rooted in Michael Faraday’s and Joseph
Henry’s 183031 discovery that a changing magnetic field can induce an
electric current in a circuit. Faraday is usually given credit for this discovery
since he published his findings first.[2]
In 1832, French instrument maker Hippolyte Pixii generated a crude form of
alternating current when he designed and built the first alternator. It consisted
of a revolving horseshoe magnet passing over two wound wire coils.[3]
Because of AC's advantages in long distance high voltage transmission, there
were many inventors in the United States and Europe during the late 19th
century trying to develop workable AC motors.[4] The first person to conceive
of a rotating magnetic field was Walter Baily, who gave a workable
demonstration of his batteryoperated polyphase motor aided by a commutator
on June 28, 1879 to the Physical Society of London.[5] Describing an
apparatus nearly identical to Baily’s, French electrical engineer Marcel Deprez
published a paper in 1880 that identified the rotating magnetic field principle
and that of a twophase AC system of currents to produce it.[6] Never
practically demonstrated, the design was flawed, as one of the two currents
was “furnished by the machine itself.”[5] In 1886, English engineer Elihu
Thomson built an AC motor by expanding upon the inductionrepulsion Drawing from U.S. Patent
principle and his wattmeter.[7] In 1887, American inventor Charles Schenk 381968, illustrating principle
Bradley was the first to patent a twophase AC power transmission with four of Tesla's alternating current
wires. motor.
"Commutatorless" alternating current induction motors seem to have been independently invented by Galileo
Ferraris and Nikola Tesla. Ferraris demonstrated a working model of his singlephase induction motor in 1885,
and Tesla built his working twophase induction motor in 1887 and demonstrated it at the American Institute of
Electrical Engineers in 1888[8][9][10] (although Tesla claimed that he conceived the rotating magnetic field in
1882).[11] In 1888, Ferraris published his research to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin, where he
detailed the foundations of motor operation;[12] Tesla, in the same year, was granted a United States patent for
his own motor.[13] Working from Ferraris's experiments, Mikhail DolivoDobrovolsky introduced the first
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threephase induction motor in 1890, a much more capable design that became the prototype used in Europe
and the U.S.[14][15][16] He also invented the first threephase generator and transformer and combined them into
the first complete AC threephase system in 1891.[17] The threephase motor design was also worked on by the
Swiss engineer Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown,[14] and other threephase AC systems were developed by
German technician Friedrich August Haselwander and Swedish engineer Jonas Wenström.[18]
Induction motor
Slip
If the rotor of a squirrel cage motor were to run at the true synchronous speed, the flux in the rotor at any given
place on the rotor would not change, and no current would be created in the squirrel cage. For this reason,
ordinary squirrelcage motors run at some tens of RPM slower than synchronous speed. Because the rotating
field (or equivalent pulsating field) effectively rotates faster than the rotor, it could be said to slip past the
surface of the rotor. The difference between synchronous speed and actual speed is called slip, and loading the
motor increases the amount of slip as the motor slows down slightly. Even with no load, internal mechanical
losses prevent the slip from being zero.
The speed of the AC motor is determined primarily by the frequency of the AC supply and the number of poles
in the stator winding, according to the relation:
where
Ns = Synchronous speed, in revolutions per minute
F = AC power frequency
p = Number of poles per phase winding
Actual RPM for an induction motor will be less than this calculated synchronous speed by an amount known as
slip, that increases with the torque produced. With no load, the speed will be very close to synchronous. When
loaded, standard motors have between 23% slip, special motors may have up to 7% slip, and a class of motors
known as torque motors are rated to operate at 100% slip (0 RPM/full stall).
The slip of the AC motor is calculated by:
where
Nr = Rotational speed, in revolutions per minute.
S = Normalised Slip, 0 to 1.
As an example, a typical fourpole motor running on 60 Hz might have a nameplate rating of 1725 RPM at full
load, while its calculated speed is 1800 RPM.
The speed in this type of motor has traditionally been altered by having additional sets of coils or poles in the
motor that can be switched on and off to change the speed of magnetic field rotation. However, developments
in power electronics mean that the frequency of the power supply can also now be varied to provide a smoother
control of the motor speed.
This kind of rotor is the basic hardware for induction regulators, which is an exception of the use of rotating
magnetic field as pure electrical (not electromechanical) application.
Polyphase cage rotor
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Most common AC motors use the squirrelcage rotor, which will be found in virtually all domestic and light
industrial alternating current motors. The squirrelcage refers to the rotating exercise cage for pet animals. The
motor takes its name from the shape of its rotor "windings" a ring at either end of the rotor, with bars
connecting the rings running the length of the rotor. It is typically cast aluminum or copper poured between the
iron laminates of the rotor, and usually only the end rings will be visible. The vast majority of the rotor currents
will flow through the bars rather than the higherresistance and usually varnished laminates. Very low voltages
at very high currents are typical in the bars and end rings; high efficiency motors will often use cast copper to
reduce the resistance in the rotor.
In operation, the squirrelcage motor may be viewed as a transformer with a rotating secondary. When the rotor
is not rotating in sync with the magnetic field, large rotor currents are induced; the large rotor currents
magnetize the rotor and interact with the stator's magnetic fields to bring the rotor almost into synchronization
with the stator's field. An unloaded squirrelcage motor at rated noload speed will consume electrical power
only to maintain rotor speed against friction and resistance losses. As the mechanical load increases, so will the
electrical load the electrical load is inherently related to the mechanical load. This is similar to a transformer,
where the primary's electrical load is related to the secondary's electrical load.
This is why a squirrelcage blower motor may cause household lights to dim upon starting, but does not dim the
lights on startup when its fan belt (and therefore mechanical load) is removed. Furthermore, a stalled squirrel
cage motor (overloaded or with a jammed shaft) will consume current limited only by circuit resistance as it
attempts to start. Unless something else limits the current (or cuts it off completely) overheating and destruction
of the winding insulation is the likely outcome.
Virtually every washing machine, dishwasher, standalone fan, record player, etc. uses some variant of a
squirrelcage motor.
Polyphase wound rotor
An alternate design, called the wound rotor, is used when variable speed is required. In this case, the rotor has
the same number of poles as the stator and the windings are made of wire, connected to slip rings on the shaft.
Carbon brushes connect the slip rings to a controller such as a variable resistor that allows changing the motor's
slip rate. In certain highpower variablespeed wound rotor drives, the slipfrequency energy is captured,
rectified, and returned to the power supply through an inverter. With bidirectionally controlled power, the
wound rotor becomes an active participant in the energy conversion process, with the wound rotor doubly fed
configuration showing twice the power density.
Compared to squirrel cage rotors, wound rotor motors are expensive and require maintenance of the slip rings
and brushes, but they were the standard form for variable speed control before the advent of compact power
electronic devices. Transistorized inverters with variablefrequency drive can now be used for speed control,
and wound rotor motors are becoming less common.
Several methods of starting a polyphase motor are used. Where a large inrush current and high starting torque
can be permitted, the motor can be started across the line, by applying full line voltage to the terminals (direct
online, DOL). Where it is necessary to limit the starting inrush current (where the motor is large compared
with the shortcircuit capacity of the supply), the motor is started at reduced voltage using either series
inductors, an autotransformer, thyristors, or other devices. A technique sometimes used is stardelta (YΔ)
starting, where the motor coils are initially connected in star configuration for acceleration of the load, then
switched to delta configuration when the load is up to speed. This technique is more common in Europe than in
North America. Transistorized drives can directly vary the applied voltage as required by the starting
characteristics of the motor and load.
This type of motor is becoming more common in traction applications such as locomotives, where it is known
as the asynchronous traction motor.
Twophase servo motor
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A typical twophase AC servomotor has a squirrel cage rotor and a field consisting of two windings:
1. a constantvoltage (AC) main winding.
2. a controlvoltage (AC) winding in quadrature (i.e., 90 degrees phase shifted) with the main winding so as
to produce a rotating magnetic field. Reversing phase makes the motor reverse.
An AC servo amplifier, a linear power amplifier, feeds the control winding. The electrical resistance of the
rotor is made high intentionally so that the speed/torque curve is fairly linear. Twophase servo motors are
inherently highspeed, lowtorque devices, heavily geared down to drive the load.
Singlephase induction motor
Singlephase motors do not have a unique rotating magnetic field like multiphase motors. The field alternates
(reverses polarity) between pole pairs and can be viewed as two fields rotating in opposite directions. They
require a secondary magnetic field that causes the rotor to move in a specific direction. After starting, the
alternating stator field is in relative rotation with the rotor. Several methods are commonly used:
Shadedpole motor
A common singlephase motor is the shadedpole motor and is used in devices requiring low starting torque,
such as electric fans, small pumps, or small household appliances. In this motor, small singleturn copper
"shading coils" create the moving magnetic field. Part of each pole is encircled by a copper coil or strap; the
induced current in the strap opposes the change of flux through the coil. This causes a time lag in the flux
passing through the shading coil, so that the maximum field intensity moves higher across the pole face on each
cycle. This produces a low level rotating magnetic field which is large enough to turn both the rotor and its
attached load. As the rotor picks up speed the torque builds up to its full level as the principal magnetic field is
rotating relative to the rotating rotor.
A reversible shadedpole motor was made by BarberColman several decades ago. It had a single field coil,
and two principal poles, each split halfway to create two pairs of poles. Each of these four "halfpoles" carried a
coil, and the coils of diagonally opposite halfpoles were connected to a pair of terminals. One terminal of each
pair was common, so only three terminals were needed in all.
The motor would not start with the terminals open; connecting the common to one other made the motor run
one way, and connecting common to the other made it run the other way. These motors were used in industrial
and scientific devices.
An unusual, adjustablespeed, lowtorque shadedpole motor could be found in trafficlight and advertising
lighting controllers. The pole faces were parallel and relatively close to each other, with the disc centred
between them, something like the disc in a watthour meter. Each pole face was split, and had a shading coil on
one part; the shading coils were on the parts that faced each other. Both shading coils were probably closer to
the main coil; they could have both been farther away, without affecting the operating principle, just the
direction of rotation.
Applying AC to the coil created a field that progressed in the gap between the poles. The plane of the stator
core was approximately tangential to an imaginary circle on the disc, so the travelling magnetic field dragged
the disc and made it rotate.
The stator was mounted on a pivot so it could be positioned for the desired speed and then clamped in position.
Keeping in mind that the effective speed of the travelling magnetic field in the gap was constant, placing the
poles nearer to the centre of the disc made it run relatively faster, and toward the edge, slower.
It is possible that these motors are still in use in some older installations.
Splitphase motor
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Another common singlephase AC motor is the splitphase induction motor,[19] commonly used in major
appliances such as air conditioners and clothes dryers. Compared to the shaded pole motor, these motors
provide much greater starting torque.
A splitphase motor has a secondary startup winding that is 90 electrical degrees to the main winding, always
centered directly between the poles of the main winding, and connected to the main winding by a set of
electrical contacts. The coils of this winding are wound with fewer turns of smaller wire than the main winding,
so it has a lower inductance and higher resistance. The position of the winding creates a small phase shift
between the flux of the main winding and the flux of the starting winding, causing the rotor to rotate. When the
speed of the motor is sufficient to overcome the inertia of the load, the contacts are opened automatically by a
centrifugal switch or electric relay. The direction of rotation is determined by the connection between the main
winding and the start circuit. In applications where the motor requires a fixed rotation, one end of the start
circuit is permanently connected to the main winding, with the contacts making the connection at the other end.
Capacitor start motor
A capacitor start motor is a splitphase induction motor with a starting
capacitor inserted in series with the startup winding, creating an LC circuit
which produces a greater phase shift (and so, a much greater starting
torque) than both splitphase and shaded pole motors.
Resistance start motor
A resistance start motor is a splitphase induction motor with a starter
inserted in series with the startup winding, creating reactance. This added
Schematic of a capacitor start starter provides assistance in the starting and initial direction of rotation.
motor.
Permanentsplit capacitor motor
Another variation is the permanentsplit capacitor (or PSC) motor.[20] Also known as a capacitorrun motor,
this type of motor uses a nonpolarized capacitor with a high voltage rating to generate an electrical phase shift
between the run and start windings. PSC motors are the dominant type of splitphase motor in Europe and
much of the world, but in North America, they are most frequently used in variable torque applications (like
blowers, fans, and pumps) and other cases where variable speeds are desired.
A capacitor with a relatively low capacitance, and relatively high voltage rating, is connected in series with the
start winding and remains in the circuit during the entire run cycle.[20] Like other splitphase motors, the main
winding is used with a smaller start winding, and rotation is changed by reversing the connection between the
main winding and the start circuit. There are significant differences, however; the use of a speed sensitive
centrifugal switch requires that other splitphase motors must operate at, or very close to, full speed. PSC
motors may operate within a wide range of speeds, much lower than the motor's electrical speed. Also, for
applications like automatic door openers that require the motor to reverse rotation often, the use of a
mechanism requires that a motor must slow to a near stop before contact with the start winding is re
established. The 'permanent' connection to the capacitor in a PSC motor means that changing rotation is
instantaneous.
Threephase motors can be converted to PSC motors by making common two windings and connecting the
third via a capacitor to act as a start winding. However, the power rating needs to be at least 50% larger than for
a comparable singlephase motor due to an unused winding.[21]
Synchronous motor
Polyphase synchronous motor
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If connections to the rotor coils of a threephase motor are taken out on
sliprings and fed a separate field current to create a continuous
magnetic field (or if the rotor consists of a permanent magnet), the
result is called a synchronous motor because the rotor will rotate
synchronously with the rotating magnetic field produced by the
polyphase electrical supply. Another synchronous motor system is the
brushless woundrotor doubly fed synchronous motor system with an
independently excited rotor multiphase AC winding set that may
experience slipinduction beyond synchronous speeds but like all
synchronous motors, does not rely on slipinduction for torque
Threephase system with rotating
production.
magnetic fields.
The synchronous motor can also be used as an alternator.
Nowadays, synchronous motors are frequently driven by transistorized variablefrequency drives. This greatly
eases the problem of starting the massive rotor of a large synchronous motor. They may also be started as
induction motors using a squirrelcage winding that shares the common rotor: once the motor reaches
synchronous speed, no current is induced in the squirrelcage winding so it has little effect on the synchronous
operation of the motor, aside from stabilizing the motor speed on load changes.
Synchronous motors are occasionally used as traction motors; the TGV may be the bestknown example of
such use.
Huge numbers of three phase synchronous motors are now fitted to electric cars. They have a Nd or other rare
earth permanent magnet.
One use for this type of motor is its use in a power factor correction scheme. They are referred to as
synchronous condensers. This exploits a feature of the machine where it consumes power at a leading power
factor when its rotor is over excited. It thus appears to the supply to be a capacitor, and could thus be used to
correct the lagging power factor that is usually presented to the electric supply by inductive loads. The
excitation is adjusted until a near unity power factor is obtained (often automatically). Machines used for this
purpose are easily identified as they have no shaft extensions. Synchronous motors are valued in any case
because their power factor is much better than that of induction motors, making them preferred for very high
power applications.
Some of the largest AC motors are pumpedstorage hydroelectricity generators that are operated as
synchronous motors to pump water to a reservoir at a higher elevation for later use to generate electricity using
the same machinery. Six 500megawatt generators are installed in the Bath County Pumped Storage Station in
Virginia, USA. When pumping, each unit can produce 642,800 horsepower (479.3 megawatts).[22].
Singlephase synchronous motor
Small singlephase AC motors can also be designed with magnetized rotors (or several variations on that idea;
see "Hysteresis synchronous motors" below).
If a conventional squirrelcage rotor has flats ground on it to create salient poles and increase reluctance, it will
start conventionally, but will run synchronously, although it can provide only a modest torque at synchronous
speed. This is known as a reluctance motor.
Because inertia makes it difficult to instantly accelerate the rotor from stopped to synchronous speed, these
motors normally require some sort of special feature to get started. Some include a squirrelcage structure to
bring the rotor close to synchronous speed. Various other designs use a small induction motor (which may share
the same field coils and rotor as the synchronous motor) or a very light rotor with a oneway mechanism (to
ensure that the rotor starts in the "forward" direction). In the latter instance, applying AC power creates chaotic
(or seemingly chaotic) jumping movement back and forth; such a motor will always start, but lacking the anti
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reversal mechanism, the direction it runs is unpredictable. The Hammond organ tone generator used a nonself
starting synchronous motor (until comparatively recently), and had an auxiliary conventional shadedpole
starting motor. A springloaded auxiliary manual starting switch connected power to this second motor for a
few seconds.
Hysteresis synchronous motor
These motors are relatively costly, and are used where exact speed (assuming an exactfrequency AC source) as
well as rotation with a very small amount of fast variations in speed (called 'flutter" in audio recordings) is
essential. Applications included tape recorder capstan drives (the motor shaft could be the capstan), and, before
the advent of crystal control, motion picture cameras and recorders. Their distinguishing feature is their rotor,
which is a smooth cylinder of a magnetic alloy that stays magnetized, but can be demagnetized fairly easily as
well as remagnetized with poles in a new location. Hysteresis refers to how the magnetic flux in the metal lags
behind the external magnetizing force; for instance, to demagnetize such a material, one could apply a
magnetizing field of opposite polarity to that which originally magnetized the material. These motors have a
stator like those of capacitorrun squirrelcage induction motors. On startup, when slip decreases sufficiently,
the rotor becomes magnetized by the stator's field, and the poles stay in place. The motor then runs at
synchronous speed as if the rotor were a permanent magnet. When stopped and restarted, the poles are likely to
form at different locations. For a given design, torque at synchronous speed is only relatively modest, and the
motor can run at below synchronous speed. In simple words, it is lagging magnetic field behind magnetic flux.
Other AC motor types
Universal motor and series wound motor
A universal motor is a design that can operate on either AC or DC power. In universal motors the stator and
rotor of a brushed DC motor are both wound and supplied from an external source, with the torque being a
function of the rotor current times the stator current so reversing the current in both rotor and stator does not
reverse the rotation. Universal motors can run on AC as well as DC provided the frequency is not so high that
the inductive reactance of the stator winding and/or eddy current losses become problems. Nearly all universal
motors are serieswound because their stators have relatively few turns, minimizing inductance. Universal
motors are compact, have high starting torque and can be varied in speed over a wide range with relatively
simple controls such as rheostats and PWM choppers. Compared with induction motors, universal motors do
have some drawbacks inherent to their brushes and commutators: relatively high levels of electrical and
acoustic noise, low reliability and more frequent required maintenance.
Universal motors are widely used in small home appliances and hand power tools. Until the 1970s they
dominated electric traction (electric, including dieselelectric railway and road vehicles); many traction power
networks still use special low frequencies such as 16.7 and 25 Hz to overcome the aforementioned problems
with losses and reactance. Still widely used, universal traction motors have been increasingly displaced by
polyphase AC induction and permanent magnet motors with variablefrequency drives made possible by
modern power semiconductor devices.
Repulsion motor
Repulsion motors are woundrotor singlephase AC motors that are a type of induction motor. In a repulsion
motor, the armature brushes are shorted together rather than connected in series with the field, as is done with
universal motors. By transformer action, the stator induces currents in the rotor, which create torque by
repulsion instead of attraction as in other motors. Several types of repulsion motors have been manufactured,
but the repulsionstart inductionrun (RSIR) motor has been used most frequently. The RSIR motor has a
centrifugal switch that shorts all segments of the commutator so that the motor operates as an induction motor
once it is close to full speed. Some of these motors also lift the brushes out of contact with source voltage
regulation. Repulsion motors were developed before suitable motor starting capacitors were available, and few
repulsion motors are sold as of 2005.
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Exterior rotor
Where speed stability is important, some AC motors (such as some Papst motors) have the stator on the inside
and the rotor on the outside to optimize inertia and cooling.
Sliding rotor motor
A conical rotor brake motor incorporates the brake as an integral part of
the conical sliding rotor. When the motor is at rest, a spring acts on the
sliding rotor and forces the brake ring against the brake cap in the
motor, holding the rotor stationary. When the motor is energized, its
magnetic field generates both an axial and a radial component. The
axial component overcomes the spring force, releasing the brake; while
the radial component causes the rotor to turn. There is no additional
brake control required.
The high starting torque and low inertia of the conical rotor brake motor
has proven to be ideal for the demands of high cycle dynamic drives in AC Motor with sliding rotors
applications since the motor was invented, designed and introduced
over 50 years ago. This type of motor configuration was first introduced in the USA in 1963.
Singlespeed or two speed motors are designed for coupling to gear motor system gearboxes. Conical rotor
brake motors are also used to power micro speed drives.
Motors of this type can also be found on overhead cranes and hoists. The micro speed unit combines two
motors and an intermediate gear reducer. These are used for applications where extreme mechanical positioning
accuracy and high cycling capability are needed. The micro speed unit combines a “main” conical rotor brake
motor for rapid speed and a “micro” conical rotor brake motor for slow or positioning speed. The intermediate
gearbox allows a range of ratios, and motors of different speeds can be combined to produce high ratios
between high and low speed.
Electronically commutated motor
Electronically commutated (EC) motors are electric motors powered by directcurrent (DC) electricity and
having electronic commutation systems, rather than mechanical commutators and brushes. The currentto
torque and frequencytospeed relationships of BLDC motors are linear. While the motor coils are powered by
DC, power may be rectified from AC within the casing.
Watthourmeter motor
These are twophase induction motors with permanent magnets to retard the rotor so its speed is accurately
proportional to the power passing through the meter. The rotor is an aluminiumalloy disc, and currents induced
into it react with the field from the stator.
A splitphase watthour meter has a stator with three coils facing the disc. The magnetic circuit is completed by
a Cshaped core of permeable iron. The "voltage" coil above the disc is in parallel with the supply; its many
turns have a high inductance/resistance ratio (Q) so its current and magnetic field are the time integral of the
applied voltage, lagging it by 90 degrees. This magnetic field passes down perpendicularly through the disc,
inducing circular eddy currents in the plane of the disc centered on the field. These induced currents are
proportional to the time derivative of the magnetic field, leading it by 90 degrees. This puts the eddy currents in
phase with the voltage applied to the voltage coil, just as the current induced in the secondary of a transformer
with a resistive load is in phase with the voltage applied to its primary.
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The eddy currents pass directly above the pole pieces of two "current" coils under the disc, each wound with a
few turns of heavygauge wire whose inductive reactance is small compared to the load impedance. These coils
connect the supply to the load, producing a magnetic field in phase with the load current. This field passes from
the pole of one current coil up perpendicularly through the disc and back down through the disc to the pole of
the other current coil, with a completed magnetic circuit back to the first current coil. As these fields cross the
disc, they pass through the eddy currents induced in it by the voltage coil producing a Lorentz force on the disc
mutually perpendicular to both. Assuming power is flowing to the load, the flux from the left current coil
crosses the disc upwards where the eddy current flows radially toward the center of the disc producing (by the
right hand rule) a torque driving the front of the disc to the right. Similarly, the flux crosses down through the
disc to the right current coil where the eddy current flows radially away from the disc center, again producing a
torque driving the front of the disc to the right. When the AC polarity reverses, the eddy currents in the disc and
the direction of the magnetic flux from the current coils both change, leaving the direction of the torque
unchanged.
The torque is thus proportional to the instantaneous line voltage times the instantaneous load current,
automatically correcting for power factor. The disc is braked by a permanent magnet so that speed is
proportional to torque and the disc mechanically integrates real power. The mechanical dial on the meter reads
disc rotations and the total net energy delivered to the load. (If the load supplies power to the grid, the disc
rotates backwards unless prevented by a ratchet, thus making net metering possible.)
In a splitphase watthour meter the voltage coil is connected between the two "hot" (line) terminals (240V in
North America) and two separate current coils are connected between the corresponding line and load
terminals. No connection to the system neutral is needed to correctly handle combined linetoneutral and line
toline loads. Linetoline loads draw the same current through both current coils and spin the meter twice as
fast as a linetoneutral load drawing the same current through only a single current coil, correctly registering
the power drawn by the linetoline load as twice that of the linetoneutral load.
Other variations of the same design are used for polyphase (e.g., threephase) power.
Slowspeed synchronous timing motor
Representative are lowtorque synchronous motors with a multipole hollow cylindrical magnet (internal poles)
surrounding the stator structure. An aluminum cup supports the magnet. The stator has one coil, coaxial with
the shaft. At each end of the coil are a pair of circular plates with rectangular teeth on their edges, formed so
they are parallel with the shaft. They are the stator poles. One of the pair of discs distributes the coil's flux
directly, while the other receives flux that has passed through a common shading coil. The poles are rather
narrow, and between the poles leading from one end of the coil are an identical set leading from the other end.
In all, this creates a repeating sequence of four poles, unshaded alternating with shaded, that creates a
circumferential traveling field to which the rotor's magnetic poles rapidly synchronize. Some stepping motors
have a similar structure.
References
1. Electromechanical Dynamics, Part 1 (http://www.rle.mit.edu/cehv/documents/emd_part1.pdf) (PDF). John Wiley and
Sons, Inc. 1968. p. 155. ISBN 9780894644597.
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Tesla, The Franklin Institute.
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content/neets/14177/css/14177_96.htm) Archived (http://www.webcitation.org/5v7pkMXXx?url=http://www.tpub.co
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External links
The short film AC MOTORS AND GENERATORS (1961) (https://
archive.org/details/gov.dod.dimoc.29943) is available for free Wikimedia Commons has
media related to AC motors.
download at the Internet Archive
The short film AC MOTORS (1969) (https://archive.org/details/go
v.dod.dimoc.39947) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
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Categories: AC motors
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