ffl'i'·

II
l
,I
160

It should always be remembered to use lower tangent screw while

to use upper tangent screw while taking the foresight reading.
SURVEYING

taking a backsight and [?]]

(b) Errors in sighting and reading. They include :
(1) inaccurate bisection of points observed
The observed angles will be incorrect if the sration mark is not
always be taken 10 intersect
bisected accurately
the lowest point
Traverse Surveying
due 10 some obstacles etc. Care should be
at the station mark if the latter is no[ distinctly
of a ranging rod or an arrow placed
inversely as the length of the line of sight. ·
visible. The error varies
the error e is
.If the ranging rod pm at the station mark is nOt held vertical, 7.1. INTRODUCTION
lines form
given by
Traversing is that type of survey in which a number of connected survey
Error in verticality measured with the
tan e = the framework and the directions and lengths of the survey lines are
Length of sight (or chain) respectively.
help of an angle (or direction) measuring instrument and a tape
The error can known as a closed
(ir) Parallax : Due to parallax, accurate bisection is not possible. When the lines form a circuit which ends at the starting point, it is
The closed rraverse
be eliminated by focusing the eye-piec e and objective. craverse. If the circuit ends elsewhere, it is said to be an open traverse.
booking . of the for the survey of large
(ii1) Mistakes in setting the vernier, taking the reading and wrong is suitable for locating the boundaries of lakes, woods etc., aod
of land as required
readings. areas. The open t:raverse is suitable for surveying a long narrow strip
3. NATURAL ERROR S for a road or canal or the coast line.
depending on the
Sources of natural errors are Methods of Traversing. There are several methods of traversing,
lines. The following
(I) Unequal annospheric refraction due to high temperature. instruments used in determining the relative directions of the traverse
(il) Unequal expansion of parts of telescope and circles due to temperat
ure changes. are the principal methods :
(I) Chain rrave~sing.
(iii) Uneq•Jal settlement of tripod.
(ii) Chain and compass traversing (loose ·needle method).
(iv) Wind producing vibrations.
(iii) Transit tape traversing :
PROBL EMS (a) By fast needle method.
{b) By measurement of angles between the lines.
the lelescope : uansiring
I. Define the terms : face right and face left observations: swinging (iv) Plane-table traversing (see Chapter II).
the telescope ; telescope normal. of the survey
Traverse survey differs from chain surveying in that the arrangement
2. (a) What are 'face left' and 'face ri2ht' obsetvalions ? Whv
face observations ? (b) Why bolh verniers are read ?
is it necessarv to take bolh
t ,
unes lS nor nmued to any vauicular gcomeLiica.i figure a:; iu
system of connected triangles forms the fundamental basis of the
... ha.in :;w- ..·~yili.E,,
skeleton. Also. check
,i,cfa.:1;; ;.;.

so as to eliminate the lines may be arranged near the

i
I 3. Explain bow you would take field observations with a lheodolite :· lines ere. are not necessary in traversing as the traverse
either by offsening
following verniers. details. The details etc. are directly located with respect to the survey lines
I
I
(l) Error due ~o ecceDtricicy of verniers.
·
(as in chain survey) or by any other method.
I (il) Error due tb non-adjustment of line of sight
.1' (iii) Error due to non-uniform graduations. 7.2. CHAIN TRAVERSING
and tape. No angle
!' (iv) Index error of venical circle. In this method, the whole of the work is done with the chain
measuring instrument is used and the directions of the lines are fixed entirely by liner
(v) Error due to slip etc.
or tie measurem ems are known as chain angles.
4. Explain the temporary adjustments of a tranSit. measurements. Angles fixed by linear
At A, the direction s AB and AD are
5. Explain how you would measure with a theodolite Fig. 7.1 (a) shows a closed chain traverse.
bearing of line. and a d Howeve r. the direction may also bt:
(a) Horizontal angle by repetition. (b) Vertical angle. (c) Magnetic fixed by internal measurements Aal> Ad,, 1 1•

6. What are the different errors in theodolite work ? How are they eliminated ?
(161)
out a horizonlal.
7. State what errors are eliminated by reperiton method. How will you set
angle by" method of repetition 1
 163
SURVEYING TRAVERSE SURVEYING
162

(2) Loose the upper clamp and rotate

D
0
lhe telescope clockWise to sight Q. Bisect
'f, "", C ,,~ Q accurately by using upper tangent screw.

,. •
\ cr-,'
o: ! 1 /' :
Read vernier A which gives the magnetic
•:,--1/ B
', I
1o , • c., cL'.." bearing of the line PQ.
! I1 . ! (3) With both the clamps ci3Jllped.
,. I! ::-, :"' "•
,_.-
<:~~!R'-~· move the insmunent and set up ar Q.
,. ~
?., ..
!', \
Using lower clamp and tangt!ru screw, lp R
',.
'',~ .1 .. / take a back sight on P. See that the
reading on· rhe vernier A is still the same
A
"
u:
' D
I as the bearing of PQ.
HG. 7.2.
{a) {b) (4) Transit the telescope. The line
of sight will now he in the direction of
FIG. '!.1. PQ while the instrument reads the bearing of PQ. The instrument is, therefore, oriented.
fixed by external measurements such as at station 8 [Fig. 7.1 (a) and 7.1 (b)]. Fig. 1.1 (5) Using the upper clamp and tangent screw, take a foresight on R. Read vernier
CbJ shows an open t.:hain travers~. A which gives the magnetic hearing of QR.
The method io; unsuitable tbr accurate work and is gerierally not used if an angle (6) Continue the process at other stations.
measuring 1nsrrwnenr such as a_ compass. sex.tant, or theodolite is available. It is to he noted here that the telescope will he normal at one station and inverted·
-·~

7.3. CHAIN AND COMPASS TRAVERSING: FREE OR LOOSE NEEDLE METHOD "f at the next station. The method is, therefore, suitable only if the instrument is in adjusonem.
In .:ham and wmpass 1raversing. lhe magnc1ic bearings of tht:" survey lines art" measured (ii) Direct Method Without Transiting
by l1 compass and tbr.:: lengths of the lint's are· measured either with a chain or with a Procedure (Fig. 7 .2) :
rape. The direction of magnetic meridian is established at each traverse station independently. (I) Set the instrument at P and orient the line of sight in the magnetic meridian.
Tht: mC"Lhod is also known as free or loose needle method. A theodolite fitted with a 1,2) Using upper clamp and tangent screw rake a foresight 011 Q. The! reading on
L:ompass may :..tlso be us~.:d. for measuring the magnetic bearings of th!! traverse lim: {see ~Jerni~r A gives the magnetic bearing of PQ.
§ 6.7). However. the method is not so accurate as that of transit tape traversing. The (3) With both plates clamped, move the insmunent and set it a1 Q. Take a backsight
methods of taking tht: <lt::rails ar~ almost tht:: same as for chain surveying. on P. Check the reading on vernier A which should he the same as heforo. The line
7.4. TRAVERSING BY FAST NEEDLE METHOD of sight is out of orientation by 180 '.
In this method also, the magnetic bearings of traverse lines are measured by a (4) Loosen the upper clamp and rotate the instrument clockwise to take a foresight
~b.eodoll~c- th;.;d '.Vlih :.! .;(.;i1liJJ.::i::.. Iruw~v;;;l, i..h;,; jir;;;..:liuu ;.;f ~h~ Ho;.o_s~.::li ... til;.:i'iJi;.o;,~ :~ JWL on R. Read the vernier. Since the orientation .at Q is 180" out. a correction of 180" is
established at each station but instead, the magnetic bearings of the lines are measured · to be applied to the vernier reading to get ·the correct bearing of QR. Add 180' if the
with reference so the direction of magnetic meridian established at the firsr sralion. The reading on the vernier is less than 180° and ·subtract 180° if it is more than 180°.
method is, therefore. more accurate than the loose needle method. The lengths of the lines (5) Shift the instrument of R and take backsight on Q. The orientation at R will
are measured with a 20 m or 30 m steel tape. There are three methods of observing · be out by 180' with respect to that at Q and 360' with respect to that at P. Thus.
the hearings of lines by fast needle method. ·
·~·,
after taking a foresight o~ the next station; the vernier reading will directly give magnetic
(i) Direct melhod with transiting. bearing of the next line, without applying any correction of 180'.
(il) Direcl method without cransiting. The application of 180' correction is. therefore, necessary only ar 2nd. 4th. 6th station.
(iii) Back hearing method.
occupied. lnstead of applying correction at even station. opposite vernier may be read alternatively.
(i) Direct Method with Transiting i.e.. vernier A ar P, vernier B at Q, verniers A at R, etc. However, it is always convenient
Procedure : (Fig. 7.2) to read one vernier throughout and apply the correction at alternate stations.
(!) Set the theodolite at P and level it. Set the vernier A exac4y to zero reading. (iii) Back Bearing Method
Loose the clamp of the magnetic needle. Using lower clamp and tangent screw. point Procedure (Fig. 7.2) : .
·the telescope to magnetic meridian. (I) Set the instrument at P and measure the magnetic bearing of PQ as before.

·,~~
/ ,.,
I".
lb4 SURVEYlNG TRAVERSE SURVEYING
165
I!
(2) Shift the instrument and set at Q. Before taking backsight on P. set vernier This method of traversing is more suitable for survey of roads. railways, pipe-lines
A to read back beating of PQ, and fix the upper clamp. etc.. where the survey lines make small deflection angles. Great care must be taken in :!J
(3) Using lower clamp and tangent screw, take a backsight on P. The instrument
is reading the
recording and plotting whether it is right deflection angle or left deflection angle. However.
except for specialised work in which deflection angles are required. it is preferable to read
\.
i
is now oriented since the line of sight is along QP when the instrument
bearing of QP (or back bearing of PQ). the included angles by reading clockwise from the back station. The lengths of lines are r
a foresight on measured precisely using a steel ,(ape. Table 7 .I shows the general method of recording !
(4) Loose upper clamp and rmare the insmnnent clockwise to take 't'
the observation of transit tape traverse by observations of included angles.
R. The reading on · vermier A gives directly the· bearing on QR. :~!
(5) Tht:: process is repeated at other smtions. 7.6. LOCATING DETAILS WITH TRANSIT AND TAPE .(

Of the three methods of fast needle, the second method is the most satisfactory. Following are some of the methods of locating the details in theodolite traversing: 'I,.
li
(1) Locating by angle and distance from one transit station:
7.5. TRAVERSING BY DIRECT OBSERVATION OF ANGLES
A point can be located from a transit station by taking an angle to the point and i',,
In this method, the angles between the lines are direcrly measured by a theodolite.
measuring the corresponding distance from the station to the point. Any number of points L
The method is. therefore, most accurate in comparison ro lhe previous three methods.
can thus be located. The angles are usually taken from the same backsigbt. as shown
The magnetic bearing of any one line can also be measured (if required) and the magnetic
in Fig. 7 .4. The method is suitable specially when the details are near the transit station.
bearing of other lines can be calculated as described in § 5.2 . The angles measured
at different stations may be either (a) iocluded angles or. (~) deflection angles.
f
Traversing by Included Aogles. An iocluded angle at a station is either of the two
angles form~d by the two survey lines meeting . there. The method consists simply in
measuring each angle directly from a backsight on the preceding station. The angles may
~...
''
' ~/~
X
/~ ',,
...... ,,
i·'
l!i
~

also be measured by repetition, if so desired. Both face observations musr be taken and A / '
'' i'"
both the verniers should be read. Included angles can be measured either clockwise or
coumer-clockwise but it is better to measure all''· angles clockwise, since the graduations
of the theodolite circle increase in this direction. The angles measured clockWise from the
---- ....... /5' '"?·--, r,,
f~l!hl
back station may be interior or exterior depending upon the direction of progress round
the: survey. Thus. in Fig. 7.3. (a}. direction of progress ls counter-clockwise and hence ToC A ToJ n

the angles measured clockwise are directly the interior angles. In Fig. 7.3 (b). the direction
of progrtss around the survey is clockwise and hence the angles measured clockwise are FIG. 7.4. FIG. 7.5.
~.·.,~,
~
~ .
~xtt:rior angles.
(2) Locating by angles from two transit stations : If the point or points are away r,. ~

from the transit stations or if linear measurements cannm be made. the point can be located

~
by measuring angles to the point from at least two stations. This method is also known

l as method of intersection. For good intersection. the angle to the point should not be
less than 20' (Fig. 7. 5. ).
(3) Locating by distances from two stations: Fig. 7.6 illustrates the method of
locating a po1nt by measwing angle at one station and distance from the other. The method i
is suitable when the point is inaccessible from the station at which angle is measured. t
;.. ·1··

~
(a)
(b) (4) Location by distances from two points on traverse line : If the point is near
a transit line but is away from the transit station, it can located by measuring its distance
FIG. 7.3. from two points on the traverse line. The method is more suitable if such reference points
Traversing by Deflection Angles, A deflection angle is the angle which a survey
line makes with the prolongation of the preceding line. It is designated as right (R) or
(such as x and y in Fig. 7. 7) are full chain points so that they can be staked when
the traverse Jine is being chained.
'I
left (L) according as it is measured clockwise or anti-clockwise from the prolongatiOn of
the previous line. The procedure for measuring a deflection angle has been described in
§ 6.7.
(5) Locating by offsets from the traverse line : If the points to be detailed are
more and are near to traverse line. they can be located by taking offsets to the poinlS
as explained in chain surveying. The offsets may be oblique or may be perpendicular.
Ii
i
!
~
 TRAVERSE SURVEYING 16"
166 SURVEYING

~
~
..
I
i
l
I
.,_
~
~

.. -
~~
~

~
e:~
~

~
N
l!
.
u
'' '
.,, v't
~ -~
~~
'" '
.l
~
N N
~
8 ~~ ~' 1/
r~~
~-&~
I
'
ii1 -
~
N
~

'.
: '' "WI
Q•
''
;!!/ \~
\
•
''
~ .. '
;! ~
~
N
'
' ' .B /
X
~
y ToB
0 ~ A From A
0 0
8 FIG. 7.6 FIG. 7.7
l
!
~ ~

« '
l j
!
.f'r
0~
. li -
~ ~
N
~
7. 7. CHECKS IN CWSED TRAVERSE
:z: I The errors involved in traversing are Iwo kinds : linear and angular. For important
.,i ' '
SUD!IUMhl/ /II "ttN
;! ~
~
~
work the most satisfactory method of checking the linear measurements cons.ists in chaining
- - - each survey line a second time, preferably in the reverse direction on different dates and
0
0
~ 0
0
~ 0 8 by different parties. The following are the checks for the angular work:
! '
! J !
'
0 li 0 -
~
0
~
N
~
(I) Traverse by included angles
ial The sum of measured interior angles should be equal Io 12N - 4) right angles.
i ' I 0
~
~ 0
~
~ 0
~

! where N = number of sides of the traverse.

.
f,""

' I 0 ~
0
0
g 0 8
(b) If the exterior angles are measured. their sum should be equal to (2N + 4) right
! ! -
~ ~

.i
;1
...
«
"~
I
~
,.. 0

0
li
c~
0

0
0
~
0

0
N

8
angles.
(2) Traverse by deflection angles
The algebraic sum of the deflection angles should be equal to 360', taking the right-hand
~ I ~
i ii1 -
~ ~ •

j .::
0 0 0 N
I '
i i
~
deflection angles as positive and left-hand angles as negative.
I 0 0
~
~ 0
~
~ 0 -
N

I (3) Traverse by direct obse111ation of bearings

. . I 0 0
The fore bearing of the 1ast line should be equal ro its back bearing ± i soc. measured
"'
N ~
~--·-----~--

~-
~
. '
'
"
;!
::!
~
~
:il
-
N
at the initial station.
Check!; in Open Traverse : No direct check of angular measurement is available.
WDIJ!l~11fo 'fiN However. indirect checks can be made, as illustrated in Fig. 7.8.
- -
As illustrated in Fig. 7.8 (a). in addition· to the observation of bearing of AB at
~
----·-----· ~
0

.....
0
p ___N_ 0 li
t station A. bearing of AD can also be measured. if possible. Similarly. at D. bearing of
DA can be measured and check applied. If the two bearing' differ by 180'. the work
~

1----: --'--
r-'
0

"
~

;;
0

0
::!
~
~
0

0
"
~
N
D E E

.. o= o
o: o:l
o " 1 ,,//
/
...
' ~~----------0
' ' ',,
'. /
. ,\,F
,. ...... / / .
~ ~ 0 - 0 N
,-' ',,
3' 0
0
~ 0
0
N 0
/ /,
' '•
'-c 0 •.
.,,-
'./ , / II
..........
~
.::
~
L...! 0
0
... 0 -
~
0
~
N /
A- B
--·
B G
;; .;: N

Ol p:IJI{II$ . ..
-"--· 0

~
" .
0

" (a) (b)

Ill tu;JNITUJSilf FIG. 7.8.
~
" " ' :J:i
'.,
:\

~,·.
 i~
!69
SURVEYING TRAVERSE SURVEYING
168
ion should
can be adjusted be taken from the table of clwrds. If an angle is greater than 90', the construct
l,upto D) may be accepted as correct. If there is small discrepancy, it be done only for the part less than 90' because the intersections for greater
angles become
before proceeding further. unsatisfactory.
as shown
Another method, which furnishes a check when the work is plotted is by calculating
t point P from each (2) Co-ordinate Method : In this method, survey stations are plotted
in Fig. 7.8 (b), and consists in reading the bearings to any prominen tes. This method is by far the most practical and accurate one for plotting
consists in laying off the lines AP. their co-ordina
of the consecutive stations. The check in plotting The biggest advantage in
lines pass through one point. traverses or any other extensive .system of horizontal control.
BP. CP etc. and noting whether the this method of plotting is that the closing e"or can be eliminated by bakmcing , prior
d by
In the case of long and precise traverse, the angular errors can be determine to plotting. The methods of calculating the co-ordinates and of balancing
a traverse are
intervals during the progress of the traverse.
asrronomical observations for bearing at regular discussed in the next article.
7.8. PLOWIN G A TRAVERSE SURVEY
TRAVER SE COMPU TATION S
There are two principal methods of plotting a traverse survey:
(I) Angle and distance method, and (2) Co-ordinate method.
7.9. CONSECUTIVE CO-ORDINATES :LATITU DE AND DEPARTURE
(I) Angle and Distance Method : The latitude of a survey line may be defined
bearings) as its co-ordinate length measured parallel to an
In this method, distances between stations are laid off to scale and angles (or B
one of the methods outlined below. This method. is suitable for the small assumed meridian direction (i.e. true north or
are plotted by
accuracy of plotting. magoeric north or any other reference direction).
surveys. and is much inferior to the co-ordinate method in· respect of
(or bearing) The departure of survey line may be defined IV t
The more commonly used angle and distance methods of plotting an angle measured at right angles (+,-) (+,+)
as its co-ordinate leogth
are
to the meridian direction. The latitude (L) of
-Jii

(a) By Protractor. (b) By the tangent of the angle. ·'

of the angle. the line is positive when measured northward
(c) By the chord
(or upward) and is termed as northing ; the A
(a) The Protractor Metlwd. The use of the protractor in plotting direct angles, deflection
is seldom ,fj latitude is negative wben measured southward
angles, bearings and azimuths rt:quires no exPI3nation. The ordinary protractor (or downward) and is termed as southing. Similarly,
of compass traversing
divided more finely than 10' or 15' which accords with the accuracy the departure (D) of the line is positive when ill n
survey lines is
but not of theodolite traversing. A good form of protractor for plotting measured eastward and is termed as easting ; (-.-) (-.+)
the large circular cardboard type, 40 to 60 em in diameter. the departure is negative when measured westward
upon
(b) The Tangent Method. The tangent method is a trigonometric method based and is termed as westing.
base tan 8 Where 8 is the
thO fact that in right angled triangle, the perpendiCUlar = X

angle. From the end of the base, a perpendicular is set off, the length of the perpendic ular
: lhe
:; ,, Thus, in Fig. 7 .10, the latitude and departure
of the line AB of length I and reduced bearirig
being equal to base x tan 0. The station point is joined to the point so obtained
line so obtained includes 9 with the given side. 1be values ot tan 8 are
table of natural tangents. If the angle is little over 90'
perpendicular and the remainder by the tangent method,
, 90'
using
of
the
it is plotted
perpendic
taken from the
by erecting a
ular as a base. ~;~ :·
., e are givcm tty
L=+lc osa and D =+I
To calculate the latitudes and departure of the traverse lines,
sine
HG. i.l0.

therefore,
aod
it
... (7.11)
is first
departure s
essential to reduce the bearing in the quadrantal system. The sigo of latitudes
(c) The Chord Method. This is also a geometrical /o following table (Table 7.2) gives
will depeod upon the reduced bearing of a line. The
method of laying off an angle. Let it be required signs of latitudes and departures :
to draw line AD at an angle 8 to the line AB in E - - - - 7.2
TABLE -·

Fig. 7.9. With A as centre, draw an arc of any W.C.B. R.B. and 0uufrant Sign of
convenient radius (r) to cut line AB in b. With b d
~Ch ord r'"' 2r sin! [JJtitluk DeDIUtlUe
as centre draw an arc of radius_ r ' (equal to the
0° 10 90° NO E ; l + +
chord length) to cut the previous arc in d. the radius
SOE ; n· - +
r' being given r' = 2 r sin~-
B 90°10180°
"t......_. -------.Jb
180° 10 270° sew: m - -
FIG. 7.9.
Join Ad, thus getting the direction of AD at • .._____370° to 360° I NOW; IV + I -
to unit radius can ,\_;

an inclination a to AB. The lengths of chords of angles corresponding

-i
I
i 170 SURVEYING TRAVERSE SURVEYING 171

TABLE 7.4.
Thus. latirude and departure co-ordinates of any point wilh reference to !he preceding -

point are equal to !he latirude and departure of !he line joining !he preceding point to LDtitude DtptUture Total Co- ordinates
rhe point under consideration. Such co-ordinates are also known as consecutive co-ordi/Ulles line SIIJtion
.N s E w N E
or dependem co-ordinates.
A I 400 I 400
Table 7.3. illustrates systema1ic metlwd of calculating !he latirudes and departures of I i assumed i assumed
a traverse. AB I 196.32 123.63 '
I I
!
TABLE 7.3. CALCULATIONS OF LATITUDES Ali/D DEPARTURES I• I B 596.32 i 523.63
I

lillt
I• Length I w.c.B.
1
l
1 R.B.
!.Diiludt
I
I

I Departure
i
BC !
I
111.02 97.88
c 485.30
j
i . 621.51
1
I
(m) i
I
I
Log length and I LDJiludt Log length a11d ! Dtporture CD i 385.54 I 158.90 I i

I I Log cosine Log si11e ! [ ; ! D 99.76 462.61

' '
I I _l DE : 139.36 i I 329.39 i
! 32° )2'! ! J.36549 2.36549 ! I I I E i 239.12 .. 133.22
AB 232 I N 32., 12'E I .92747 + 196.32 1 1 .72663 I -~- 123.63
7.10. CLOSING ERROR
2.29296 2.09212
If a closed traverse is plotted according to !he field. measurements. "me end point
2.17026 J,.1702b of lhe traverse will not coincide exactly with the starting point. owing to the errors in
BC 148 138c 36' S•W24'E l .67513 I - 111.02 ! I .8204J ... 97.88 :
the field measurements of angles and distances. Such error is known as closing error (Fig.
!
2.04539 ! 1.990t\7 I ~ ,)'

7.11). In a closed traverse. !he algebraic sum of !he latirudes (i.e. r L) should be zero
I'
and the algebraic sum of !he departures (i.e. ~D) should be zero. The error of closure
CD I 417 [202'24' I S22'24'W
1
I
2.62o14
1.9<593 ··385.54
2.62014
I "101 -158.90 ! for such traverse may be ascertained by finding r.L and W. bolh of lhese being !he components
~ I

i
I .

!2.57054
2.58607

I
2.2011!:

2.57054 ~!
. of error e parallel and perpendicular to !he meridian.
Thus, in Fig. 7.11,
rc
-------.JD
.I

I+ e =AA' = ..J (r.L)2 + (W)2

II DE 372 I 292° 0'
!
N 68° 0' w I I .57358
2.14-I.IZ !
139.36 i .96717
:.53771
-329.39 Closing error
... (7.2 a)
The direction of closing error is given by
E
Independent Co-ordinates '~n"=W .(7 '2 !J'
B
l:.L
The co-ordinates of traverse stations can be calculated with respect to a common
origln. The total lalitude and depanure of any point with respect to a common origin The sign of W and r.L will lhus define !he
are known as independent co-ordinates or total co-ordinales of the point The two reference quadrant in which the closing error lies. The relative
axes in this case may be chosen to pass through any of the traverse station but generally error of closure, the term sometimes used, is Clo~ng~ ,_fA'
a most westerly station is chosen for this purpose. The independent co-ordinates of any Error of closure e 1 error ~',;, i+--tL
... (7.3)
point may be obtained by adding algebracially !he latirudes and !he deparrure of !he lines Perimeter of traverse - P= p / e ·-11.-·
between !hat point and !he origin. Adjustment of the Angular Error. Before cal- tD
FJG. 7.11
Thus. total loJiJude (or departure) of end point of a traverse =total laJiludes (or culating latitudes and deparrures, !he traverse angles
departures) of first poilU of traverse plus the algebraic sum of all the latitudes (or departures/. should be adju.'ted to satisfy geometric conditions.
Table 7.4. shows !he calculations of total co-ordinates of the traverse of Table 7.3. In a closed traverse. !he sum of interior angles should be equal to (2N- 4) right angl"-'
The axes are so chosen !hat !he whole of !he survey lines lie in !he north east quadrant (or !he algebraic sum of deflection angles should be 360•). If !he angles are measured
with respect to !he origin so !hat !he co-ordinates of all the poinL• are positive. To Wilh !he same degree of precision, the error in !he sum of angles may be distributed
achieve this. arbitrary values of co-ordinates are assigned to !he starting point and co-ordinates equally to each angle of !he traverse. If the angular error is small, it may be arbitrarily
of other points are calculated. distributed among two or three angles.
 ·19'

TRAVERSE SURVEYING 173

SURVEYING
m
the The transit rule is
Adjustment of BeariD~. In a closed traverse in which bearings are observed.
determine d by comparin g the two bearings of the last Correction to lotiJude (or departure) of any side
closing error in bearing may be
error h . Latitude (or depa11ure ) of that line
line as observed at the first and last stations of traverse. Let e be the closing = Total ~rror in lotiJude (or departure) x
bearing of last line of a closed traverse having N sides. We get Arilhmelic sum oflotiJudes (or departures )
e Thus, if L = latitude of any line
Correction fur first line =-
N D = departure of any line
Lr = arithmetic sum of latitudes
Correction for second line = ~
Dr= arithmetic smu of departure
3e D
Correction for third line =/i We have, CL = r. L .L-
and Co= r. D.-.
Dr
... (7.5)
Lr
Ne Bowditch
Correction for last line =N=e. (3) Graphical Method. For rough survey, such as a compass ·traverse, the
ly without doing theoretica l calculations. Thus, according to
rule may be applied graphical
7.11. BALANCING THE TRAVERSE method, it is not necessary to calculate latitudes and departures etc. However,
the graphical
s may be
The term 'balandng' is generally applied to the operation of applying correction before plotting the traverse directly from the field notes, the angles or bearings
to latitudes and departures so that :r.L = 0 and w
= 0. This applies only when the survey adjusted to satisfy the geometric conditions of the traverse.
forms a closed polygon. The following are common methods of adjusting a traverse : D'

(I} Bowditch's method (2) Transit method

(3} Graphical method (4} Axis method.
:..,-·
(1} Bowditch's Method. The basis of this method is on the assumptions that the E c
errors in linear measurements are proportional to -Jl and that the errors in angular measurements
's mle.
are inversely proportional to .fi where I is the length of a line. The Bowditch

~:e
where linear and
also rermed as the compass rule, is mostly used to balance a traverse
and in lhe departure
angular measwements are of equal precision. The total error in latitude. b c
I
I
I
\
I I

is distributed in proportion to the lengths of the sides. q.c.tci~·

A'
~-.j ~J A'
The Bowditich Rule is : A 8
Correction to lotiJude (or departure) of any side = (a) (b)

Total error in loJilude (or departure) x ::Le""::n,._gth=o:.c'.f:;tlwt::::_;s::::id:::.e

Perimeter oftra~~erse FIG. 7.12
having
Tnus, It CL = correcuon to laurude or any side Thus, in Fig. 7.12 (a), polygon AB'C'D'E'A' represents an unbalanced traverse
point ·A· are not coinciding .
Co = correction to departure of any side a closing error equal to A'A since the first point A and the last
the sides in proportio n to their
r.L = total error in latitude J The · total closing error AA' is distributed linearly to all
7.12 (b),
W = total error in departure length by a graphica l construc tion shown in Fig. 7.12 (b). In Fig.
of the sides of the traverse either to the same
A8' • 8'C • , C 'D ' etc. represent the length
'f.l = length of the perimeter scale. The ordinate aA! is made equal
scale as that of Fig. 7.12 (a) or to a reduced
I= length of any side (a)]. By constructi ng similar triangles, the correspon ding
to the closing error A' A [of Fig. 7.12
I I ... (7 .4) In Fig. 7.12 (a}, lines E!E, D'D, C'C, 8'8 are drawn
We have C,='f.L .i/ and Cv=W .i/ errors bB', cC', dD', eE • are found.
ly. The
parallel to the closing error A'A and made equal to eE', dD', cC ', b8' respective
ents
(2) Transit Method. The trattSit mle may be employed where angular measurem polygon ABCDE so obtained represents the adjusted traverse. It should be remembe red that
that the linear measurements. Accordin g to this rule, the total error in
eE', of Fig. 7.I2(b) represent the correspon ding errors in
are more precise the ordinates b8', cC', dD', aA',
and departures of
latitudes and in departureS is distributed in proportion to the latitudes magnirude only but not in direction.
by transit
the. sides. It is claimed that the angles are less affected by corrections applied
method than by those by Bowditch's method.
 SURVEYING TRAVERSE SURVEYING 175
174

(4) Th.e Axis Method. Tbis method is adopted when the angles are measured very
accurately, the corrections being applied to lengths only. Thus. only directions of the line
are unchanged and the general shape of the diagram is preserved. To adjust the closing
error aa, of a traverse abcdefa, (Fig. 7.13) following procedure is adopted: o-
8
(1) Join a,a and produce it ')i
to cut the side·rd in x. The line a1x r"ftb~.=;••~.:••==::::::::::::::::~C A /
is k..1.own as Ihe axis of adjusrment. ~~ ........ c

:,",~ ~i:~·~ ~::a~~;; :/wo ···········..... .1 ~

-
~/-

(2) Bisect a1a in A. .. ....:;~x ' / -

{\Xisol~~l~~~~~-----------~/f' '' / --
''' / --
(3) Join xb. xe and xf.
d
'' /--
• -------- ,.' I

(4) Through A, draw a lme / / ': •

ABparalleltoabcuttingx bproduced a, ,/ : •
in B. Through B. draw a line BC ,/ I ' ·····--...... • ____g,
parallel
.
m C.
to b c cutting x c produced
>"
/ _./
/
.I B\
b ·-.
I
c
(5) Similarly, through A, F/ ' . Ef
FIG. 7.t4.
draw AF parallel to a,f to cut x 1 0·
f in F. Through F, draw FE parallel ·' equal pans. The adjustment is made with reference to the axis d x. The figure ABCDE
to f e to cut x e in E. Through E. FIG. 7.13. AXIS METIIOD OF BALANCING TRAVERSE.
shown by thick lines represents [he adjusted figure.
draw ED parallel to e d to cut x d in D.
:r
GALES TRAVERSE TABLE
.J,f;CDEF (thick lines) is the adjusted traverse. Traverse compmations are usually done in a tabular form. a more common fonn
Ax being Gales Traverse Table (Table 7 .5). For complete traverse computations, the following
Now, AB=-.ab
ax steps are usually necessary :
Correction to ab =AB-ab = A_x. ab- ab =A a. ab (I) Adjust the interior angles to satisfy the geometrical conditions, i.e. sum of interior
ax "' angles to be equal to (2N- 4) right angles and exterior angles (2N + 4) right angles.
01
a i
closing error ... (ll ... (7 .6 a) In the case of a compass traverse, the bearings are adjusted for local attraction.
=- . - . ab. = ab
r
0

2 ax ax if :my.
· · . I a 1a i dosi.ug ~rrol

l
... (2) ... (7.6 b) (il) Starting with obsetved bearings of one line, calculate the bearings of all other
Similarly, correcnon to a,j=- -.a,f= .a,f
2 D1 X D1 X lines. Reduce all bearings to quadrantal system.
Taking ax~ a, x =length of axis, we get the general rule (iii) Calculate the consecutive co-<>rdinates (i.e. latirudes and departures).
,,
l closing error (iv) Calculate r.L and l:D .
... (7.6)
Comction to any length = thlll length x ' • . (v) Apply necessary corrections to the larirudes and departures of the lines so that
Length of 8XIS
The axis a, x should be so chosen that it divides the figure approximately into two r.L = 0 aod l:D = 0. The corrections may be applied either by transit rule or by compass
equal partS. However, in some cases the closing error aa 1 may not cut the traverse or rule depending upon the type of traverse.
may cut it in very unequal parts. In such cases, the closing error is transferred to some (vz) Using the corrected consecutive co-ordinates. calcu1ate the independent co-ordinates
other point. Thus. in Fig. 7.14, aa, when produced does not cut the traverse in two pans. to the poinrs so that they are all positive, the whole of the traverse thus lying in the
Through a. a line ae' is drawn parallel aod equal to a, e. Through e', a line e' d' is drawn North East quadrant.
parallel aod equal to ed. A new unadjusted traverse dcbae 'd' is thus obtained in which Table 7.5 illustrates completely the procedure.
the closing error dd' cuts the opposite side in x. thus dividing the traverse in two approximately Computation of Area of a Closed Traverse : (See Chapter 12) .

........
 w.~
11
177
SURVEYING TRAVERSE SURVEYING
176
i
7.12. DEGREE OF ACCURACY IN TRAVERSING
.. ::a ~ ~
l I'
~ jiI ~ g Since both linear and angular measurements are made
! N
~ I
N
~ ~
in traversing, the degree of accuracy depends upon the types D I
- >: ~ ~ 0: 0: of instruments used for linear and angular measurements
~o

" and also upon the purpose and extent of survey. The degree
~ I
M

of precision used in angular measur~ents must be consistent

~

~
-~ "' :<i
:10
.I
with the degree of precision used in linear measurements

~
~
..
"~ §
a:e
.. ~
~

"'
::i
~ 3 I
:a
! ;<!
:a
so that the effect of error in angular measurement will be .
the same as that of error in linear measurements. To get
a relation be£Ween precision of angular and linear measurements 8
- "l "' E! f:i
l"' >: I'!
5l
N
~
:<
0
:a
f:i
ol consider Fig. 7.15.
Let D be the correct position of point with respect
to a point A such that AD= I and LBAD = 9. In the field measurement, let
FIG. 7.15.

be the oe !
.g•
"'
.. ~
'

~ ~
~
+
10
~ I~
10
'i
l I
~ ·d
~ ~
~ error in the angular measurement and e be the error
D, is the faulty location of the point D as obtained
in the
from
linear
the
Now, displacement of D due to angular error (liS) =DD , = I tan liS .
measurement
field
so
measurements.
lhat
I!

~ - <l"
' ' '
Displacement of D due to linear error = D, D2 = e . ~
~
~ !
"'
l'i
0
I ~ ~
~ I. In order to have same degree of precision in the two measurements . -~
~

I . ~

>:
~
~ 0
+
~
0
+
I
'
+
; j
' ltanli9=e or 59=tan-'f· ... (7.7)
!
+ +

~ .
8 ~ ~
J! In the above expression, f is the linear error expressed as a ratio. If lhe precision .!Ilo
., "' 0

~
t .. ~
~

~ !:!
:<i
~
~ i
,+
~ ~

·~ ~
£e of linear measurements is 5rfoo. the allowable angular error = =tan_, 5;00 = 41". Thus. oa
.i~
.'!!

,.;
,.:
Ol
-
~~
~
"jj
"
"'
"' ~ "'
~
i!i
f:!
I
..
'<G
~

~ ; II
]• !!! the angle should be measured to the nearest 40". Similarly, if the allowable angular error
1
is 20", the correspor1ing precision of linear measurement will be = tan 20" = l 0• 300 (or
:!
i i
a
.d·
~
~ ;!(
' ~ ~ G i!
~ >:
M 0 about I metre in I kilometre).
§
-
"'
_...:..._ E! \!: .!!J _The aneuJar error of closure in theodolile traversing is generally expressed as equal
to CVN, where the value of C may vary from 15" to I' and N is the number of angles
-
"' I ... I Ii
').
~;;;
~
t
;z

~
~
,. I
8
I ii, "~ 1.
t
measured. The degree· of precision in angular and linear measurement in theodolile traverse
under different circumstanceS are given in Table 7.6 below
~ I '8:)'M. I ~
~

~
... "
·- 0
u
----·- 7.6. ERRORS OF CLOSURE
TABLE
"' ~ ~ ~
~
TOilll linear
~- !!::1 Anguhue"or
I~ ~
Type of Trarene
a I "'"" "'""'"' ~
-a of closure e"or of t:losure
6"fN 1 in 25,000
First order traverse for horizontal conD'OI
~ I ~ ~ ~ ~
~ (l)
' '
'
.' ..fii l in 10.000
UOfPWUJ
(2) Second order traverse for horizontal conaol and for impo112n! and accurate surveys lS"

~ ~
~
~ ~ JO"W I l in 5.000
l
~

~ ~JfUV ::1 !! {3) Third order traverse for surveys ·of impo_rtam lxlundaries etc.
ill
j
~

I (4) Minor theodolite ttavc:rse for ~ettiljng !'W J I in 300 f

'l
~ ! JII!OJ
~ ~
" (5) Compass traverse ts•fN llinJOOtol
.I
I in 600
5: I 'liJuTJ
(W)
pur1 ;,un ~1:! "I'!
~- Bill lils I ~
 ,J

m :i
. j
SURVEYING I
178
'
PROBLEMS

I. Dis1iDguish clearly beiWeen :

(a) Chain surveying and traverse surveying. il
(b) Closed traverse and open traverse. 'I
(c) Loose needle method and fait needle method Omitted Measurements >I
'I
2. Discuss various methods of theodolite aaversing.
~
3. Explllin clearly, with 1he help of illustrations, how a traverse is balanced.
1

~1·
4. What is error of closure ? How is it balanced graphically ?
8.1. CONSECUTIVE CQoORDINATES: LATITUDE AND DEPARTURE
5 (a) Explllin 1he principle of surveying (traversing) with the compass. ':•
There are two principal methods of plotting a traverse survey: (I) the aogle and .
.I
'
(b) Plot 1he following compass traverse and adjust it for closing error if any ·l,. .
distance method, aod (2) the co-ordinate method. If the length aod bearing of a survey
1JM
AB
BC
Length (m)
130
158
Be<uing
S 88" E
S 6° E
line are known, it cao be represented on plao by two rectangular co-ordinates. The axes
of the co-ordinates are the North aod South line, aod the East and West line. The /atirude
of survey line may be defined as irs co-ordinate length measured parallel to the meridian
direction. The depanure of the survey line may be defined as its co-ordinate length measured
,,
~
;~

:~
CD 145 s 40-0 - w
at right angles 10 the meridian direction. The latitude (L) of the line is positive when
DE
EA
308
337
N 81" W
N 48" E . ~:
~.,·
measured northward (or upward) aod is termed as nonhing. The latitude is negative when
measured southward (or downward) aod is termed as southing. Similarly, the deparrure (D)
·I
Scale of plotting I em = 20 m. of the line is positive when measured '.
6. Descn'be 'Fast needle method' of theodolite traversing. eastward and is termed as easting. The
departure is negative when measured N D,(+) ::~
. '
A
westward and is termed as westing. ·.·.···1·

Thus, in Fig. 8.1, the latitude

and departure of the line OA of length
·~
-~·
11 and reduced bearing e, is given 0
.;;
by
L1 = + 11 cos e1 L, (+) t, ~
~
and D, = + 1, sin 61 ... (8.1) w, E ~
To calculate the latitudes and
I
•
~ <->!
~~
~
departures of the traverse lines, there- t,
fore, it is first essential to reduce the !
bearing in the quadfaotal system. The c~·--···o;r;······ .•. :.·
sign of latitude and departures will ~;
r--
depend upon the .reduced bearing of
line. s •' i~
The following table gives the
t
i
signs of latitudes and departures.
FIG. 8.1. LATITUDE AND DEPARTURE I
'I;
(179)